An assessment of household food consumption patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic in Bali Province

Kha isma, Bayu; Hasanah, Al iah; Remi, Su yas ie Soemi o; Sanjaya, I. Gus i Gede
Gusna Yoga
A icle
An assessmen o household ood consump ion pa e ns
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Bali P o ince
Cogen Economics & Finance
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Kha isma, Bayu; Hasanah, Al iah; Remi, Su yas ie Soemi o; Sanjaya, I. Gus i
Gede Gusna Yoga (2024) : An assessmen o household ood consump ion pa e ns du ing he
COVID-19 pandemic in Bali P o ince, Cogen Economics & Finance, ISSN 2332-2039, Taylo &
F ancis, Abingdon, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 1-20,
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An assessmen o household ood consump ion
pa e ns du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Bali
P o ince
Bayu Kha isma, Alfiah Hasanah, Su yas ie Soemi o Remi & I. Gus i Gede
Gusna Yoga Sanjaya
To ci e his a icle: Bayu Kha isma, Alfiah Hasanah, Su yas ie Soemi o Remi & I. Gus i Gede
Gusna Yoga Sanjaya (2024) An assessmen o household ood consump ion pa e ns du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic in Bali P o ince, Cogen Economics & Finance, 12:1, 2409419, DOI:
10.1080/23322039.2024.2409419
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DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS | RESEARCH ARTICLE
An assessmen o household ood consump ion pa e ns du ing he
COVID-19 pandemic in Bali P o ince
Bayu Kha isma
a
, Al iah Hasanah
a
, Su yas ie Soemi o Remi
a
and I. Gus i Gede Gusna
Yoga Sanjaya
b
a
Depa men o Economics, Uni e si as Padjadja an, Bandung, Indonesia;
b
Cen al Bu eau o S a is ics, Jemb ana Regency,
Bali, Indonesia
ABSTRACT
This s udy analyzes changes in household ood consump ion pa e ns and socio-eco-
nomic demog aphic cha ac e is ics du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Bali P o ince.
This s udy uses seconda y da a collec ed by S a is ics Indonesia, namely he Na ional
Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas) da a wi h he Quad a ic Almos Ideal Demand
Sys em (QUAIDS) demand model. The esul s showed changes in household ood con-
sump ion pa e ns du ing he pandemic. The a e age ood expendi u e pe capi a o
he popula ion dec eased, while he a e age non- ood expendi u e pe capi a
inc eased sligh ly. The a e age pe capi a ood expendi u e o esiden s in u ban a eas
expe ienced a mo e signi ican decline compa ed o u al a eas. The highes a e age
pe capi a ood expendi u e inc ease occu ed in he consump ion o ube s, ege a-
bles, and beans. In con as , he highes decline occu ed in he a e age pe capi a
ood expendi u e on ui , p ocessed ood, and mea commodi ies. Socio-demog aphic
cha ac e is ics ha signi ican ly in luence he sha e o household ood expendi u e a e
educa ion o he household head, occupa ion o he household head, and household
pe cep ion o ood access. The p ice o own goods has a posi i e in luence on he
sha e o ood consump ion expendi u e bu will ha e a nega i e impac on he quan-
i y o ood consump ion. The go e nmen can implemen policies o achie e ood
sel -su iciency, pa icula ly o g ains and mea , by o e seeing he a ailabili y o s aple
oods and he dis ibu ion o ui s and mea s. Policies ha assis low-income house-
hold g oups in u al a eas should also be p io i ized.
IMPACT STATEMENT
This a icle discusses he impac o changes in household ood consump ion pa e ns
and socioeconomic demog aphic cha ac e is ics du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Bali
P o ince. Since he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic, Bali P o ince has been con-
side ed one o he mos a ec ed a eas by he COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia as i s
economy elies hea ily on ou ism. The esul s showed a shi in household ood con-
sump ion pa e ns du ing he pandemic in Bali P o ince. A e age pe capi a ood
expendi u e dec eased, while a e age pe capi a non- ood spending inc eased sligh ly.
Fu he mo e, pe capi a ood expendi u e in u ban a eas dec eased compa ed o u al
a eas. Meanwhile, he mos signi ican inc ease in pe capi a ood expendi u e
occu ed in he consump ion o ube s, ege ables, and nu s. In con as , he mos sig-
ni ican dec ease occu ed in ui s, p ocessed oods, and mea commodi ies. Socio-
demog aphic ac o s ha in luence he sha e o household ood expendi u e a e he
educa ion le el o he household head, he occupa ion o he household head, and
he household's pe cep ion o ood access. The p ice o goods posi i ely a ec s he
sha e o ood consump ion expendi u e bu has a nega i e e ec on he quan i y
consumed.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 3 Oc obe 2023
Re ised 12 Augus 2024
Accep ed 20 Sep embe 2024
KEYWORDS
Food consump ion pa e ns;
socio-economic demo-
g aphic; COVID-19
pandemic; Bali P o ince;
QUAIDS
SUBJECTS
Mic oeconomics;
De elopmen Economics;
Econome ics; Haza ds &
Disas e s; Cul u al S udies
CONTACT Bayu Kha isma [email p o ec ed] Depa men o Economics, Uni e si as Padjadja an, Jl. I . Soeka no Km.21
Ja inango , Kabupa en Sumedang 45363, Jawa Ba a , Indonesia
ß2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE
2024, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 2409419
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2409419
In oduc ion
COVID-19 is a wo ldwide epidemic ha has caused signi ican dis up ions in se e al sec o s o li e ac oss
many coun ies, including Indonesia (Suma ni, 2020). As o Decembe 26, 2021, Indonesia epo ed
4,261,739 posi i e COVID-19 cases, making i he coun y wi h he highes numbe o cases in Sou heas
Asia. In o e coming and p e en ing COVID-19, he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) p o ides p o ec i e
measu es o a ec ed coun ies o conside (WHO Media B ie ing, 2020). Some implemen ed measu es
nea ly wo ldwide a e lockdowns and qua an ines (E imo e al., 2020). To minimize he COVID-19
sp ead, he Indonesian go e nmen has en o ced a el es ic ions, social dis ancing, sel -isola ion, and
La ge-Scale Social Res ic ions (PSBB) (Pu i, 2020).
These policies ha e indi ec ly dis up ed economic ac i i y, esul ing in a decline in economic g ow h.
This is e idenced by BPS da a, which shows ha he Indonesian economy expe ienced con ac ions in
he second, hi d, and ou h qua e s o 2020 consecu i ely (compa ed o he same qua e in he p e i-
ous yea (yea -o e -yea /y-o-y)), whe ein he second qua e slowed down by 5.32 pe cen , he hi d
qua e slowed down 3.49 pe cen and he ou h qua e slowed down 2.19 pe cen . On an annual
basis, Indonesia expe ienced a 2.2 pe cen economic slowdown in 2020 (BPS, 2022c). Nasu ion e al.
(2020) explained ha he es ic ions du ing COVID-19 nega i ely impac ed he economy in a ious sec-
o s, including expo -impo , ade, indus y, ou ism, ho els, and es au an s. Addi ionally, he global
economic slowdown signi ican ly a ec ed Indonesia’s economic g ow h.
Simila ly, smalle a eas ha e also el he e ec s on hei economy, albei wi h a ying impac s. Wu
e al. (2021) examined COVID-19’s egional e ec on China’s economy. The esul s indica e a dis inc
impac on each p o ince in China, wi h Hubei being he mos a ec ed. In Indonesia, Bali is one o he
p o inces ha has had a signi ican economic impac . Bali expe ienced an economic slowdown o -9.31
pe cen in 2020 and -2.47 pe cen in 2021, ep esen ing he highes slowdown a e compa ed o o he
p o inces (Badan Pusa S a is ik (BPS), 2022).
The economic slowdown and inc eased layo s du ing COVID-19 esul ed in he household economy
s agna ing and e en dec easing income (Sina, 2020). This is consis en wi h he s udy by Shah eza and
Lindiawa ie (2021) on he economic esilience o amilies in Depok amid he COVID-19 pandemic. The
s udy esul s indica e ha he economic esilience o amilies in Depok has declined, pa icula ly in e ms
o income and ul illing amily needs such as ood consump ion du ing he pandemic.
Da a om BPS indica es ha he p opo ion o ood consump ion o Balinese people dec eased du -
ing he pandemic compa ed o be o e. Du ing he pandemic, he a e age mon hly pe capi a ood con-
sump ion o Bali P o ince was 42.79%. This is lowe han he a e age household consump ion pe
capi a be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, which was 43.92% in 2019 and 44.72% in ea ly 2020, jus be o e
he pandemic hi Indonesia (Badan Pusa S a is ik P o insi Bali, 2022).
Table 1 e eals ha ood consump ion expendi u e dec eased among esiden s in bo h u al and
u ban a eas o Bali P o ince. U ban esiden s saw an a e age pe capi a dec ease o 7.91 pe cen in ood
consump ion expendi u e, while u al esiden s expe ienced a decline o 5.28 pe cen . Rega ding non-
ood expendi u e, u ban esiden s’a e age pe capi a expendi u e also sligh ly declined by 1.00 pe cen .
In con as , u al esiden s exhibi ed a di e en end, wi h hei a e age pe capi a expendi u e o non-
ood consump ion inc easing by 3.43 pe cen (Badan Pusa S a is ik P o insi Bali, 2022). This indica es
ha household consump ion pa e ns du ing he pandemic in u ban a eas we e mo e a ec ed han in
u al a eas. In hei esea ch, Kuma and Abdin (2021) explained ha his was a ibu ed o he closu e
Table 1. A e age pe capi a mon hly expendi u e by esidence and ype o expendi u e in Bali P o ince in 2020–2021.
A ea o Residence
Type o expendi u e
Food Non-Food
2020 2021 2020 2021
U ban 724,978 667,606 973,021 963,314
Changes (%) 11.56 −7.91 9.62 −1.00
Ru al 565,445 534,662 526,846.00 544,917.00
Changes (%) 8.67 −5.28 −1.69 3.43
Sou ce: Badan Pusa S a is ik P o insi Bali (2022).
2 B. KHARISMA ET AL.
o dining es ablishmen s, es au an s, shopping cen e s, cinemas, and o he s in u ban a eas, which
o ced changes in he consump ion habi s o u ban consume s.
Se e al o he s udies ha e also demons a ed a shi in consump ion pa e ns du ing he pandemic.
E imo e al. (2020) esea ched using a i icial in elligence on people’s consump ion pa e ns be o e and
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and concluded ha he e had been al e a ions in ood consump ion pa -
e ns be o e and du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. A signi ican inc ease in consump ion occu ed in
oods such as beans, pancakes/ o illas/oa cakes, and soups/ hick soups, which inc eased by 300%,
280%, and 100%, espec i ely. In e es ingly, he mos signi ican dec ease occu ed in he consump ion
o oods such as O de Pe ci o mes (a ype o ish), co n/ce eals/seeds, and wine, wi h a decline o 50%,
40%, and 30%. Wi h a di e en me hod, Sca mozzino and Visioli (2020) in es iga ed he in luence o
COVID-19 on he ood consump ion habi s o he I alian popula ion using a su ey and indica ed a shi
in he ood consump ion pa e ns among he I alian popula ion. O e 50% o esponden s admi ed ha
ui s and ege ables we e una ac i e du ing he lockdown. Fu he mo e, he e was a signi ican
dec ease in p epa ed ood pu chases, eaching 50%. Amma e al. (2020) esea ched he impac o social
dis ancing, isola ion, and home con inemen du ing COVID-19 on heal hy li ing beha io s and habi s
h ough online su eys and p esen ed consis en esul s. The esul s showed ha ood consump ion pa -
e ns and consumed ood we e mo e unheal hy du ing isola ion, wi h only a signi ican educ ion in
alcohol consump ion.
Ka a i e al. (2021) explo ed he impac o he pandemic on po en ial shi s in ood consump ion and
die a y habi s in China, Po ugal, and Tu key, demons a ing ha he co ona i us pandemic led o an
inc ease in he consump ion o esh ui s and ege ables and mo e home-cooked meals. Speci ically,
Po ugal expe ienced highe consump ion o sea ood, b ead, and bu e ; China saw an inc eased in ake
o ice and mea ; and Tu key obse ed a ise in mea and egg consump ion. Con e sely, P o e a e al.
(2021) ound ha he pandemic signi ican ly al e ed ea ing beha io s in Denma k, wi h inc eased con-
sump ion o con enience oods, canned goods, alcohol, and swee s bu dec eased esh p oduce in ake.
Hajipoo e al. (2023) no ed a ied impac s o COVID-19 on a ious ood g oups and mac onu ien con-
sump ion, indica ing shi s in die a y pa e ns. These di e se ou comes highligh inconsis en ood con-
sump ion ends du ing he pandemic, wi h some s udies showing an inc ease in ood consump ion
while o he s show a dec ease. Consequen ly, his esea ch examines changes in household ood con-
sump ion pa e ns and socio-economic demog aphic cha ac e is ics du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in
Bali P o ince.
This s udy aims o p o ide signi ican empi ical insigh in o he ood consump ion pa e ns du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic in Bali P o ince. Bali is conside ed one o Indonesia’s mos ad e sely a ec ed
egions by he pandemic, p ima ily because i s economy elies hea ily on ou ism. P e en i e measu es
o cu b he sp ead o COVID-19 signi ican ly hinde ed economic ac i i ies in Bali, leading o a down u n
ha impac ed household ood consump ion. Speci ically, hese policies caused a dec ease in he a e age
pe capi a expendi u e o ood consump ion in Balinese households. Thus, his esea ch in ends o shed
ligh on how hese unique ci cums ances ha e in luenced die a y beha io s in Bali du ing he pandemic.
Li e a u e e iew
COVID-19, a wo ldwide pandemic ha eme ged in 2020, p o oundly impac ed global ac i i ies, eaching
nea ly e e y pa o he wo ld. Measu es such as ac i i y es ic ions, isola ion p o ocols, and lockdowns
o cu b he i us’s sp ead g ea ly in luenced economic condi ions a bo h mac o and mic o le els. Public
consump ion was one o he mos no ably a ec ed a eas. Va ious empi ical s udies ha e epo ed shi s
in indi iduals’beha io and consump ion pa e ns due o he limi a ions imposed du ing he COVID-19
c isis. These changes e lec he pandemic’s b oad and p o ound e ec on e e yday li e, al e ing how
people shop, ea , and consume goods and se ices.
Sido and Rzymski (2020) conduc ed a s udy on he e ec s o a na ional qua an ine policy in Poland
on adul s’nu i ion and consump ion beha io s, e ealing ha o e 43% epo ed inc eased ood and
snack consump ion, and nea ly 52% indulged mo e equen ly in hese i ems. Abou 30% o he pa ici-
pan s no iced weigh gain, co ela ing wi h a educed in ake o ege ables, ui s, and nu s, alongside a
heigh ened consump ion o mea and dai y p oduc s du ing he qua an ine pe iod. Simila ly,
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 3

Sca mozzino and Visioli (2020) explo ed he die a y impac s o COVID-19 con ainmen measu es in I aly,
inding ha 46.1% o indi iduals a e mo e du ing isola ion, wi h 19.5% epo ing weigh gain. No ably,
56.2% o he esponden s ound ui s and ege ables less appealing du ing isola ions, indica ing a com-
mon end o al e ed die a y p e e ences and po en ial nu i ional e ec s du ing pandemic- ela ed
es ic ions in di e en coun ies.
In Spain, esea ch by Rod 
ıguez-P
e ez e al. (2020) aimed o analyze shi s in adul consump ion and
die a y beha io s du ing he COVID-19 con inemen and isola ion policies. Thei indings indica ed a shi
owa ds heal hie ea ing pa e ns among he s udy popula ion du ing he pandemic isola ion compa ed
o hei p e ious habi s, showcasing imp o ed die a y choices unde isola ion. Con e sely, Amma e al.
(2020) p esen ed con as ing indings, obse ing ha ood consump ion and ea ing habi s—including
he ypes o ood consumed, uncon olled ea ing, snacking be ween meals, and he equency o main
meals— ended o de e io a e and become less heal hy du ing pe iods o social es ic ions, isola ion, o
sel -isola ion. These s udies highligh he a ied impac s o COVID-19- ela ed con inemen on die a y
beha io s ac oss di e en popula ions and se ings.
E imo e al. (2020) u ilized a i icial in elligence o analyze changes in wo ldwide consump ion pa -
e ns be o e and du ing he COVID-19 pandemic h ough ood p epa a ion ecipes om he AllRecipes
websi e, which agg ega ed da a ac oss 24 coun ies. Thei indings con i med signi ican shi s in die a y
habi s co ela ing wi h he pandemic’s onse . Speci ically, he e was a no able inc ease in he consump-
ion o i ems like nu s, pancakes/ o illas/ la b eads, and soups/b o hs, while he mos subs an ial
declines we e obse ed in he consump ion o O de Pe ci o mes (a ca ego y o ish), co n/ce eals/g ains,
and wine. As no ed in o he s udies, hese esul s and he a ied ou comes om di e en egions unde -
sco e he di e se e ec s o he COVID-19 pandemic on consump ion beha io s globally.
Beyond he unique con ex o COVID-19, a ious gene al ac o s d i e changes in consump ion pa -
e ns ac oss popula ions, such as income le els, p ice luc ua ions, and socio-demog aphic a ibu es
(Jaya i e al., 2014). This is suppo ed by Sa i (2016), which in es iga ed he ela ionship be ween socio-
economic cha ac e is ics and ood consump ion ends in Eas Kaliman an P o ince. The indings om
his s udy unde sco ed ha income, as gauged h ough household expendi u e, plays a c ucial ole in
dic a ing ood consump ion olumes wi hin amilies. Simila ly, Faha uddin e al. (2015), in hei analysis
o ood consump ion dynamics in Sou h Suma a, ound ha income o expendi u e elas ici y o a ious
ood ca ego ies is in a iably posi i e, sugges ing ha highe income le els boos ood consump ion.
These conclusions align wi h he indings o Gi ik Allo e al. (2019), who de e mined ha income posi-
i ely and signi ican ly impac s pu chasing and consuming ood commodi ies ac oss households a a
b oade na ional scale in Indonesia.
P ice luc ua ions a e a c i ical ac o o households when deciding hei consump ion. Kha isma
e al. (2020) ound ha p ice signi ican ly a ec s he po ion o expendi u e alloca ed o he animal ood
commodi y g oup, esul ing in a posi i e alue. None heless, when examining p ice elas ici y, hey no ed
ha a p ice inc ease o commodi ies ypically educes he household demand o hese i ems, assuming
ce e is pa ibus. This is suppo ed by Faha uddin e al. (2015), who epo ed ha p ice elas ici y, whe he
compensa ed o uncompensa ed, has a nega i e alue ac oss 14 ood commodi y g oups. This aligns
wi h he gene al economic heo y ha a ise in he p ices o goods ad e sely a ec s consump ion le els
as households adjus hei spending in esponse o p ice changes.
Se e al s udies ha e highligh ed ha household consump ion is no solely in luenced by income and
p ices bu also by a ange o in e nal ac o s, pa icula ly he socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he
household. Resea ch by Bangun e al. (2013), Kaha (2010), and Sa i (2016) consis en ly shows ha social
a ibu es signi ican ly a ec consump ion pa e ns o demand o a ious goods. These a ibu es
include he household size, he educa ion and age o he household head, and he p opo ions o young
and school-aged child en wi hin he amily. Fu he suppo ing hese indings, Abdulai (2002) iden i ied
ha household size is c ucial in de e mining ood consump ion pa e ns in Swiss households. Simila ly,
Nug oho and Supa yono (2015) no ed a speci ic ela ionship be ween household size and mea expend-
i u e in Indonesia, aligning wi h he Dea on-Paxson Pa adox, al hough po k was an excep ion in hei
indings.
Addi ionally, Mi al (2010) highligh ed he posi i e impac s o u baniza ion and empo al ends on
ood expendi u e, obse ing ha u ban households alloca e la ge budge s o ood han u al
4 B. KHARISMA ET AL.
households. In a ela ed s udy, Vi gan a i e al. (2017) disco e ed ha u ban households p e e ed con-
suming esh sh imp and ish mo e han hose in u al se ings, emphasizing he in luence o he li ing
en i onmen on consump ion p e e ences. These s udies illus a e how income, p ices, and di e se
socio-demog aphic ac o s shape household consump ion beha io s and pa e ns.
The explo a ion o commodi y consump ion models inco po a ing socio-economic demog aphic cha ac e -
is ics has gained conside able a en ion in schola ly esea ch o e he yea s. The seminal wo k in his ield
began wi h E ns Engel in 1857. Engel (1821-1896) pionee ed he analysis o he ela ionship be ween
income le els and consump ion pa e ns. He disco e ed a key economic p inciple: as income inc eases, he
pe cen age o income spen on ood dec eases, wi h consume s alloca ing mo e o non- ood i ems. This
obse a ion laid he ounda ion o wha is now known as Engel’sLaw(Wal e &Snyde ,2007). Building on
Engel’s ounda ional wo k, Dea on and Muellbaue (1980) u he ad anced he discou se by in eg a ing he
impac o p ices in o he consump ion analysis, leading o he de elopmen o he Almos Ideal Demand
Sys em (AIDS). This model is p edica ed on a cos unc ion delinea ing how consume s s i e o op imize
hei u ili y, achie ing maximum sa is ac ion a minimum cos s o gi en p ice le els.
The AIDS model is a co ne s one analy ical amewo k in examining consump ion pa e ns, and i s
adap abili y has allowed o a ious modi ica ions o sui speci ic esea ch needs. Kaha (2010) applied
he AIDS model, ailo ing i o di e en ia e be ween household consump ion pa e ns based on educa-
ion le els and whe he he households we e in u al o u ban se ings. This s udy e ealed no able dis-
pa i ies in expendi u e le els be ween u al and u ban a eas and a i med he signi ican impac o
commodi y p ices and household income o expendi u e on ood and non- ood commodi ies consump-
ion. Building on his amewo k, Faha uddin e al. (2015) modi ied he Quad a ic Almos Ideal Demand
Sys em (QUAIDS) amewo k o examine consump ion ac oss 14 ood commodi y g oups. Thei indings
sugges ed ha he quad a ic model p o ided a be e i han he linea al e na i e, e ealing posi i e
income and nega i e p ice elas ici y ac oss all ood g oups, aligning wi h economic heo y. Fu he mo e,
hey obse ed ha income elas ici y was mo e p onounced han p ice elas ici y, indica ing a mo e igo -
ous esponse in consump ion pa e ns o income changes han p ice elas ici y. Simila ly, Gi ik Allo e al.
(2019) u ilized QUAIDS o explo e how p ice inc eases a ec consump ion beha io s and he wel a e le -
els o a me s in Indonesia.
This esea ch uses he QUAIDS model, in eg a ing he In e se Mills Ra io (IMR) as an independen a iable
o add ess a common challenge in household su ey da a: he occu ence o ze o consump ion expendi u e
on ce ain commodi ies. The s udy’s indings endo se he QUAIDS model as an e ec i e ool o o ecas ing
ood demand unc ions in Indonesia. Expanding on his amewo k a a mo e localized le el, Kha isma e al.
(2020) applied a simila me hodology in Wes Ja a P o ince, ocusing hei analysis on animal ood commod-
i ies. Thei esea ch alida es he u ili y o he QUAIDS model, augmen ed by a iables such as p ice, income
( ia he expendi u e app oach), demog aphic and socio-economic ac o s, and he IMR in accu a ely es ima -
ing household expendi u e sha es on animal oods. Pa allel conclusions we e d awn by Bopape and Mye s
(2007), who examined household ood demand in Sou h A ica employing h ee dis inc demand sys em
models: he Linea App oxima e Almos Ideal Demand Sys em (LA-AIDS), QUAIDS, and a log-linea model.
Thei compa a i e analysis iden i ied he QUAIDS model as he mos sui able o cap u ing consump ion and
expendi u e pa e ns, pa icula ly i s capaci y o inco po a e demog aphic de ails, accoun o s uc u al shi s,
and ecognize seasonal a ia ions.
D awing om a ious esea ch indings, i is deduced ha he QUAIDS model, when augmen ed wi h
socio-demog aphic a ibu es and he IMR a iable, is be e used o desc ibe consump ion pa e ns
han o he models. This esea ch in ends o apply he QUAIDS model o changes in household con-
sump ion pa e ns be o e and du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and de e mine he ela ionship be ween
income, p ices, and socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics.
Da a and me hod
Da a
The objec o his esea ch is he sha e o expendi u e o 14 household ood commodi y g oups, house-
hold income/expendi u e. Commodi y g ouping e e s o he COICOP used by BPS (2022b). The uni o
analysis is households sp ead ac oss nine egencies and one ci y in he P o ince o Bali. The da a u ilized
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 5
comes om Susenas in Ma ch 2019, ep esen ing he pe iod be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, and Ma ch
2021, illus a ing he si ua ion du ing he pandemic. The esea ch did no include Susenas da a om
2020 because he COVID-19 ou b eak in Bali P o ince had no ye sp ead signi ican ly, a ec ing only a
limi ed numbe o people hen. This esea ch uses seconda y da a om he Cen al S a is ics Agency,
namely The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey da a (Susenas) wi h household sample uni s. The da a
comes om VSEN-KOR da a (In o ma ion on Basic Household Membe s) and VSEN-KP Da a (Household
Expendi u e Consump ion). KOR da a is used o collec explana o y a iables in he o m o household
social in o ma ion, including he age and gende o he household head, he numbe o household
membe s, he educa ion le el o he household head, he egion o he household’s esidence, he occu-
pa ion o he household head, and he household’s pe cep ions o ood access. Then, he KP da a is
used o ob ain in o ma ion on household ood expendi u e’s quan i y and consump ion alue, bo h
om pu chases and gi s du ing he pas week.
Me hod
This s udy employs a quan i a i e app oach, u ilizing he QUAIDS model o analysis. This model is
chosen because i e ains consis ency wi h he Engel cu e and accoun s o he e ec o ela i e p ices
in he u ili y maximiza ion p ocess. Addi ionally, i allows o es ima ing mo e pa ame e s han ea lie
models, such as LA/AIDS (Aepli, 2014). The QUAIDS model necessi a es ha all sample households con-
sume all he commodi ies unde s udy. To an icipa e households wi h ze o commodi y consump ion, i
is necessa y o me ge ood commodi y g oups in o la ge g oups so ha mo e sample households mee
he equi emen s. G ouping commodi ies assumes ha ood commodi y p ices in one commodi y g oup
ha e he same mo emen .
Acco ding o Zheng and Hennebe y (2010), i he esea ch is conduc ed o e la ge a eas wi h di e se
demog aphic ac o s, he uni alue app oach may in oduce e o s, such as biased esul s when making
measu emen s. These p oblems can be o e come using a uni alue, which is co ec ed by a p ice di e -
en ial app oach. P ice jus i ica ion in his s udy uses he me hod p oposed by Cox and Wohlgenan
(1986), modi ied by Hoang.
Fu he mo e, o ackle he issue o p ice a iabili y, his esea ch adop s he me hodology used by
Majumde e al. (2012), which employs uni alues co ec ed h ough he p ice di e en ial me hod. This
app oach adjus s he uni alue by inco po a ing he median alue o each dis ic o ci y and he es i-
ma ed esidual om he eg ession ha accoun s o di e ences ac oss dis ic s/ci ies in luenced by
socio-demog aphic ac o s. This echnique helps o s anda dize he p ice a iable, minimizing biases ha
may a ise om using unadjus ed uni alues and p o iding a mo e accu a e ep esen a ion o p ice
e ec s on consump ion pa e ns ac oss di e en egions. This app oach p esumes ha households in
he same dis ic o ci y expe ience iden ical commodi y p ices. The equa ion used o o e come he
p oblems ha a ise due o he use o he alue pe uni is as ollows:
i¼aiþuixþhDþei(1)
pi¼ iþ^
ei(2)
He e, iindica es he alue pe uni o ood commodi y g oup i (i¼1,2,3, ….,14), iis heagg ega ep ice
o he i h ood commodi y g oup, xis he o al household expendi u e o ood consump ion, Dis he ec-
o o demog aphic cha ac e is ics ( egional classi ica ion, a e age leng h o schooling o he head o he
amily, household size, sex o he head o he household and income g oup) and ekis he e o e m.
Apa om p icing p oblems, household expendi u e su ey da a has o he common issues in he
o m o emp y da a (households ha do no consume a pa icula commodi y a all) o ze o consump-
ion (Gi ik Allo e al., 2019). Acco ding o Newman in Nug oho and Wa dhani (2016), ze o consump ion
can be a ibu ed o economic and non-economic ac o s, such as household income le els, ege a ian
households o indi iduals, and su ey pe iods sho e han he demand cycle o goods. Omi ing house-
holds wi h ze o consump ion om he su ey da a would educe he da ase size and lead o biased
es ima ion esul s, a phenomenon known as selec ion bias.
To add ess his issue, commodi y g ouping was pe o med, and he In e se Mills Ra io (IMR) a iable
was included and ea ed as an independen a iable, as done by Gi ik Allo e al. (2019) in hei esea ch.
6 B. KHARISMA ET AL.
The IMR is added o an icipa e ze o consump ion a e commodi y g ouping. The Heckman es de i es
he IMR a iable h ough a wo-s ep es ima ion p ocess. Based on his, he model used in his s udy
e e s o he model de eloped by Hamzah and Huang (2023), Poi (2012), Gi ik Allo e al. (2019), and
Kha isma e al. (2020). The QUAIDS model accommoda es egional classi ica ion a iables, household
size, gende o he head o he household, income g oup, educa ion o he head o household, and he
use o he In e se Mills Ra io (IMR) o add ess he ze o consump ion p oblem. Thus, he QUAIDS equa-
ion used in his s udy is as ollows:
wi¼aiþX
n
j¼1
yijln pjþbiln x
aðpÞ

þki
bðpÞln x
aðpÞ

2
þai1dlociþai2hsizeiþai3gende iþai4educi
þai5inciþai6IMRiþai7jobiþai8 oodaccessiþei(3)
whe e wi ep esen s he sha e o expendi u e om he i h ood commodi y g oup (i ¼1,2,3, ….,14), lnpj
is he agg ega e p ice o he j h ood commodi y g oup, xis household expendi u e o ood and non-
ood consump ion, ln ða=pÞis p ice index, bðpÞis p ice agg ega o , dloc is loca ion (u ban ¼1), hsizeiis
household size, gende iis sex o head o household (male ¼1), educ is le el o educa ion (yea s o
school), inc is income g oup (lowe income ¼1 as e e ence, middle income ¼2, uppe income ¼3),
IMR is In e se Mills Ra io, job is business ield o head o household (ag icul u al sec o ¼1), oodaccess
indica es people’s pe cep ion o access o ood (easy ¼1) and eiis he e o e m.
The QUAIDS model abo e is hen de i ed o ob ain income/expendi u e elas ici y and p ice elas ici y
as ollows:
Income Elas ici y
li¼1þ1
wi
biþ2ki
bðpÞln x
aðpÞ

"# (4)
Uncompensa ed p ice elas ici y (Ma shallian)
eNC
ij ¼1
wi cij −liajþX
n
k¼1
kjkln pk
!
−
kibj
bðpÞln x
aðpÞ

2
()
2
43
5−dij (5)
Compensa ed p ice elas ici y (Hicksian)
eC
ij ¼eij þliwj(6)
whe e eij is p ice elas ici y, cij is he ood p ice pa ame e , bi, and kia e linea and quad a ic income
pa ame e s, and wiis he a e age sha e o ood expendi u e.
Resul s
The a e age mon hly pe capi a consump ion expendi u e in Bali du ing he pandemic (2021) was IDR
1,468,624. This is a dec ease om he p e ious yea ’s a e age expendi u e o IDR 1,509,666. Du ing he
pandemic, households main ained consump ion despi e income and economic ins abili y. Table 2 shows
Table 2. A e age pe capi a mon hly expendi u e by esidence and ype o expendi u e in Bali P o ince in 2019–2021.
A ea o esidence
Type o expendi u e
Food Non Food
2019 2020 2021 2019 2020 2021
U ban 649,854 724,978 667,606 887,616 973,021 963,314
Changes (%) 11.56 −7.91 9.62 −1.00
Ru al 519,389 564,445 534,662 535,918 526,846 544,917
Changes (%) 8.67 −5.28 −1.69 3.43
Bali P o ince 609,181 675,146 628,472 777,972 834,520 840,152
Changes (%) 10.83 −6.91 7.27 0.67
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2019-2021 (P ocessed Da a).
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 7
commodi y g oup indica es ha p ice inc eases ha e li le impac on household consump ion, especially
hose li ing in u ban a eas and belonging o he uppe middle class.
Be o e he pandemic, he own-p ice elas ici y o ou een ood commodi y g oups was nega i e.
Du ing he pandemic, hese g oups’own-p ice elas ici y emained nega i e excep o g ains, obacco,
and be el nu s. This inding suppo s p e ious esea ch indica ing ha when he p ice o a ood com-
modi y ises, i s consump ion dec eases (G een e al., 2013).
In e es ingly, he own-p ice elas ici ies o g ains, obacco, and be el nu s a e posi i e. This means
ha e en as household p ices o hese commodi ies ise, hei consump ion con inues o inc ease. The
g ain commodi y g oup has an elas ici y alue o 0.244, meaning ha a 1 pe cen p ice inc ease will
boos he quan i y consumed by 0.244 pe cen . The inc ease likely e lec s a shi in household beha io s
due o mo emen es ic ions and a p e e ence o home cooking, pa icula ly among u ban and uppe -
middle-income g oups. In u ban a eas and among he middle and uppe -income classes, he posi i e
p ice elas ici y o g ain sugges s ha as p ices inc ease, so does he expendi u e sha e o g ains, pos-
sibly due o lowe p ice sensi i i y o a lack o sui able subs i u es. Con e sely, he nega i e p ice elas i-
ci y obse ed in u al a eas and lowe -income g oups indica es a mo e ypical economic esponse whe e
an inc ease in p ice leads o a dec ease in consump ion, e lec ing g ea e p ice sensi i i y o inancial
cons ain s.
Then, he own p ice elas ici y o he obacco and be el nu commodi y g oup is also posi i e. This
indica es ha an inc ease in he p ice o obacco and be el nu commodi ies has li le e ec on ciga e e
consump ion du ing he pandemic. This esul is in line wi h p e ious indings ha an inc ease in nico-
ine consump ion du ing a pandemic can be caused by bo edom, s ess, and anxie y (Almeda & G
omez-
G
omez, 2022). In addi ion, he in ensi y o spending on ciga e es emains high due o easy access and
he la ge selec ion o ciga e es sold on he ma ke .
Table 9. Income elas ici y 2019.
Food commodi y g oup To al
A ea Educa ion Le el Income G oup
U ban Ru al <¼9 Yea s >9 Yea s Lowe Middle Uppe
G ains 1.890 1.787 1.534 1.565 1.876 1.508 1.890 2.380
Tube s −0.597 −0.491 −0.071 −0.123 −0.601 −0.009 −0.597 −0.795
Fish 1.020 1.013 0.992 1.002 1.008 1.006 1.020 1.002
Mea −0.162 −0.181 0.036 −0.062 −0.132 −0.141 −0.162 −0.247
Eggs and Milk 1.548 1.410 1.455 1.464 1.392 1.451 1.548 1.359
Vege ables 0.935 0.926 0.932 0.936 0.920 0.974 0.935 0.916
Nu s 0.491 0.534 0.619 0.622 0.490 0.715 0.491 0.313
F ui s −0.065 0.001 0.171 0.119 0.002 0.128 −0.065 −0.082
Oil and Fa 1.408 1.332 1.239 1.241 1.392 1.232 1.408 1.614
Be e age Ing edien s 1.910 1.815 1.567 1.590 1.912 1.523 1.910 2.296
Spices 1.190 1.148 1.118 1.125 1.159 1.137 1.190 1.231
O he Consump ion 0.826 0.849 0.854 0.857 0.840 0.871 0.826 0.799
P epa ed Food and be e age 0.857 0.880 0.876 0.877 0.877 0.864 0.857 0.854
Tobacco and Be el nu 1.509 1.615 1.546 1.489 1.727 1.404 1.509 1.848
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2019 (P ocessed Da a).
Table 10. Income elas ici y 2021.
Food commodi y g oup To al
A ea Educa ion Le el Income G oup
U ban Ru al <¼9 Yea s >9 Yea s Lowe Middle Uppe
G ains 1.147 1.165 1.127 1.133 1.177 1.139 1.233 1.332
Tube s 0.752 0.740 0.764 0.767 0.728 0.783 0.708 0.681
Fish 0.330 0.309 0.358 0.352 0.298 0.388 0.238 0.162
Mea 0.937 0.935 0.940 0.935 0.936 0.924 0.913 0.913
Eggs and Milk 1.854 1.816 1.926 1.970 1.773 1.874 1.969 1.895
Vege ables 1.096 1.115 1.074 1.083 1.117 1.085 1.132 1.173
Nu s 1.033 1.036 1.029 1.032 1.037 1.048 1.057 1.070
F ui s 0.928 0.926 0.930 0.925 0.929 0.919 0.910 0.907
Oil and Fa 1.242 1.270 1.207 1.208 1.296 1.192 1.336 1.482
Be e age Ing edien s 0.922 0.922 0.922 0.928 0.916 0.947 0.922 0.899
Spices 1.086 1.090 1.081 1.088 1.088 1.103 1.114 1.127
O he Consump ion 1.002 0.997 1.010 1.006 0.998 1.005 1.009 1.013
P epa ed Food and be e age 1.056 1.039 1.095 1.076 1.040 1.071 1.058 1.032
Tobacco and Be el nu 0.205 0.184 0.230 0.188 0.197 −0.127 0.130 0.079
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2021 (P ocessed Da a).
14 B. KHARISMA ET AL.

Discussion
The measu es implemen ed du ing he COVID-19 pandemic ha e in luenced shi s in household ood
consump ion pa e ns in Bali P o ince. Be o e and du ing he pandemic, mos household expendi u es
we e alloca ed o p ocessed oods, g ains, obacco, and be el nu s. Du ing he pandemic, he ocus
shi ed o p ocessed oods, ice, g ains, and ege ables. Signi ican a ia ions in a e age consump ion
expendi u e ac oss di e en commodi y g oups a e e iden when examining he de ails. The expendi-
u es o ube s, ege ables, and nu s we e he mos subs an ial inc eases. Con e sely, he highes
Table 11. Es ima ed uncompensa ed own p ice elas ici ies 2019.
Food commodi y g oup Uncompensa ed
A ea Educa ion Le el Income G oup
U ban Ru al <¼9 Yea s >9 Yea s Lowe Middle Uppe
G ains −0.238 −0.119 −0.371 −0.342 −0.040 −0.426 −0.100 0.868
Tube s −0.597 −0.535 −0.666 −0.639 −0.525 −0.636 −0.578 −0.143
Fish −0.652 −0.633 −0.677 −0.659 −0.642 −0.669 −0.625 −0.681
Mea −0.263 −0.215 −0.327 −0.242 −0.293 −0.107 −0.361 −0.310
Eggs and Milk −0.681 −0.698 −0.650 −0.646 −0.718 −0.631 −0.667 −0.914
Vege ables −0.838 −0.821 −0.859 −0.856 −0.805 −0.869 −0.807 −0.721
Nu s −1.047 −1.050 −1.042 −1.042 −1.054 −1.036 −1.052 −0.977
F ui s −0.489 −0.457 −0.532 −0.490 −0.489 −0.446 −0.516 −0.453
Oil and Fa −0.742 −0.712 −0.777 −0.776 −0.678 −0.801 −0.702 −0.881
Be e age Ing edien s −0.930 −0.922 −0.940 −0.938 −0.917 −0.942 −0.927 −0.760
Spices −0.893 −0.887 −0.901 −0.900 −0.882 −0.909 −0.882 −0.897
O he Consump ion −0.569 −0.578 −0.555 −0.575 −0.562 −0.603 −0.577 −0.715
P epa ed Food and be e age −0.609 −0.644 −0.535 −0.567 −0.649 −0.547 −0.604 −0.778
Tobacco and Be el nu −0.367 −0.373 −0.353 −0.377 −0.332 −0.120 −0.412 0.418
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2019 (P ocessed Da a).
Table 12. Es ima ed compensa ed own p ice elas ici y 2019.
Food commodi y g oup Compensa ed
A ea Educa ion Le el Income G oup
U ban Ru al <¼9 Yea s >9 Yea s Lowe Middle Uppe
G ains 0.014 0.117 −0.093 −0.072 0.190 −0.133 0.157 0.591
Tube s −0.600 −0.539 −0.667 −0.641 −0.529 −0.636 −0.583 −0.576
Fish −0.596 −0.580 −0.618 −0.602 −0.588 −0.610 −0.572 −0.608
Mea −0.269 −0.225 −0.324 −0.246 −0.302 −0.115 −0.372 −0.414
Eggs and Milk −0.617 −0.631 −0.590 −0.586 −0.648 −0.574 −0.602 −0.692
Vege ables −0.765 −0.754 −0.775 −0.774 −0.744 −0.775 −0.741 −0.711
Nu s −1.033 −1.039 −1.026 −1.026 −1.043 −1.016 −1.041 −1.063
F ui s −0.485 −0.456 −0.522 −0.484 −0.489 −0.440 −0.520 −0.573
Oil and Fa −0.710 −0.683 −0.742 −0.740 −0.650 −0.762 −0.670 −0.559
Be e age Ing edien s −0.884 −0.879 −0.890 −0.889 −0.875 −0.892 −0.880 −0.865
Spices −0.872 −0.867 −0.879 −0.878 −0.863 −0.884 −0.861 −0.846
O he Consump ion −0.557 −0.566 −0.543 −0.562 −0.550 −0.589 −0.565 −0.447
P epa ed Food and be e age −0.287 −0.283 −0.273 −0.283 −0.278 −0.280 −0.274 −0.260
Tobacco and Be el nu −0.254 −0.258 −0.244 −0.266 −0.220 −0.036 −0.285 −0.159
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2019 (P ocessed Da a).
Table 13. Es ima ed uncompensa ed own p ice elas ici ies 2021.
Food commodi y g oup Uncompensa ed
A ea Educa ion Le el Income G oup
U ban Ru al <¼9 Yea s >9 Yea s Lowe Middle Uppe
G ains 0.042 0.153 −0.094 −0.098 0.246 −0.206 0.208 0.868
Tube s −0.207 −0.105 −0.326 −0.292 −0.093 −0.283 −0.147 −0.143
Fish −0.632 −0.622 −0.648 −0.631 −0.635 −0.617 −0.644 −0.681
Mea −0.249 −0.242 −0.260 −0.209 −0.286 −0.129 −0.304 −0.310
Eggs and Milk −0.809 −0.824 −0.784 −0.766 −0.845 −0.753 −0.845 −0.914
Vege ables −0.773 −0.751 −0.800 −0.792 −0.749 −0.801 −0.760 −0.721
Nu s −0.985 −0.984 −0.986 −0.986 −0.983 −0.987 −0.983 −0.977
F ui s −0.417 −0.391 −0.453 −0.418 −0.416 −0.374 −0.434 −0.453
Oil and Fa −0.921 −0.914 −0.930 −0.931 −0.908 −0.937 −0.911 −0.881
Be e age Ing edien s −0.816 −0.805 −0.831 −0.836 −0.789 −0.840 −0.809 −0.760
Spices −0.907 −0.905 −0.909 −0.908 −0.904 −0.910 −0.906 −0.897
O he Consump ion −0.736 −0.745 −0.720 −0.734 −0.737 −0.749 −0.731 −0.715
P epa ed Food and be e age −0.722 −0.749 −0.662 −0.684 −0.752 −0.664 −0.733 −0.778
Tobacco and Be el nu 0.085 0.144 0.009 0.051 0.148 0.354 0.069 0.418
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2021 (P ocessed Da a).
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 15
declines we e obse ed in he ui , p ocessed ood, be e age, and mea commodi y g oups. The
en o cemen o he PSBB policy signi ican ly al e ed consump ion pa e ns due o i s s ingen limi a-
ions on public ou ings and communal ac i i ies. These es ic ions, which cu ailed access o es au an s,
ea e ies, and shopping cen e s, na u ally led households o minimize hei consump ion o ou side-p e-
pa ed ood and be e ages, pi o ing ins ead owa ds in-home meal p epa a ion. Mo eo e , he PSBB’s
impac ex ended in o he cul u al and eligious domains, pa icula ly a ec ing he Balinese Hindu com-
muni y, o whom ui s and mea s a e no me ely die a y s aples bu also c ucial componen s o eli-
gious obse ances. The e o e, he es ic ions on eligious ga he ings di ec ly diminished he communal
consump ion and demand o hese p oduc s (Dewi e al., 2022; Sp anz & Schl€
u e , 2023).
The QUAIDS es ima ion esul s indica e ha income, app oxima ed by he a e age expendi u e alue,
and he p ice o own goods signi ican ly and posi i ely impac he sha e o household ood expendi u e
in Bali P o ince du ing he pandemic. Among socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics, he occupa ion o he
household head had he mos signi ican in luence. Households wi h heads wo king in he ag icul u al
sec o alloca ed a smalle sha e o hei expendi u e o ood han hose wo king in he non-ag icul u al
sec o . The indings align wi h obse a ions om Czechia, whe e ag a ian wo ke s’incomes a e lowe
han o he sec o s, an insigh o en mi o ed in he equi alized household income da a (Zden
ek e al.,
2022). Fu he ein o cing his pa e n, he esea ch by Ha oyo e al. (2021) in Boyolali Regency,
Indonesia, delinea es a simila scena io whe e households in ain ed a eas— ypically elian on ag icul-
u e—de i e a subs an ial po ion o hei income om non-ag icul u al ac i i ies.
Income elas ici y is posi i e o all 14 ood commodi y g oups, indica ing ha hese commodi ies a e
conside ed no mal goods. This sugges s ha inc eased income will inc ease he quan i y o ood house-
holds consume (Gi ik Allo e al., 2019). Own-p ice elas ici y is nega i e o he ood commodi y g oup
excep o he g ain and obacco/be el nu commodi y g oups. The own-p ice elas ici y o he g ain and
obacco/be el nu commodi y g oup is posi i e, indica ing ha households consume mo e o hese ood
commodi ies despi e a p ice inc ease.
The obse ed inc ease in g ain consump ion among u ban households and hose in he uppe -mid-
dle-income b acke du ing he pandemic can be a ibu ed o he cons ain s imposed by PSBB policy.
This policy educed he consump ion o p epa ed oods and a co esponding inc ease in home cooking.
Fu he mo e, he shi owa ds mo e ime spen a home may ha e also in luenced an up ick in he con-
sump ion o obacco and be el nu s among ac i e smoke s. These ends align wi h obse a ions om
I an, as epo ed by Hajipoo e al. (2023), whe e he e was a no able inc ease in he consump ion o
g ains and ege ables in u ban a eas du ing he COVID-19 qua an ine. Howe e , consuming ui s, dai y,
mea s, a s, and swee s dec eased.
Conclusion
The esul s e ealed a shi in household ood consump ion pa e ns du ing he pandemic in Bali P o ince.
The a e age ood expendi u e pe capi a dec eased, while he a e age non- ood expendi u e pe capi a
Table 14. Es ima ed compensa ed own p ice elas ici y 2021.
Food commodi y g oup Compensa ed
A ea Educa ion Le el Income G oup
U ban Ru al <¼9 Yea s >9 Yea s Lowe Middle Uppe
G ains 0.244 0.339 0.133 0.131 0.421 0.054 0.402 1.012
Tube s −0.198 −0.098 −0.316 −0.283 −0.086 −0.274 −0.140 −0.136
Fish −0.614 −0.605 −0.627 −0.611 −0.618 −0.595 −0.631 −0.672
Mea −0.183 −0.177 −0.193 −0.147 −0.217 −0.073 −0.235 −0.240
Eggs and Milk −0.717 −0.728 −0.697 −0.682 −0.744 −0.671 −0.746 −0.797
Vege ables −0.655 −0.641 −0.668 −0.664 −0.640 −0.668 −0.644 −0.616
Nu s −0.958 −0.959 −0.958 −0.958 −0.959 −0.957 −0.957 −0.955
F ui s −0.368 −0.344 −0.400 −0.369 −0.366 −0.328 −0.384 −0.401
Oil and Fa −0.885 −0.880 −0.890 −0.891 −0.876 −0.894 −0.876 −0.850
Be e age Ing edien s −0.790 −0.780 −0.802 −0.806 −0.766 −0.809 −0.784 −0.740
Spices −0.882 −0.881 −0.884 −0.884 −0.881 −0.884 −0.881 −0.874
O he Consump ion −0.718 −0.727 −0.703 −0.717 −0.720 −0.731 −0.714 −0.699
P epa ed Food and be e age −0.421 −0.415 −0.413 −0.418 −0.414 −0.412 −0.421 −0.401
Tobacco and Be el nu 0.099 0.156 0.026 0.064 0.161 0.347 0.079 0.424
Sou ce: The Na ional Socio-economic Su ey (Susenas), 2021 (P ocessed Da a).
16 B. KHARISMA ET AL.
sligh ly inc eased. No ably, he pe capi a ood expendi u e in u ban a eas dec eased mo e signi ican ly han
in u al a eas. The mos conside able inc ease in pe capi a ood expendi u e was obse ed in he consump-
ion o ube s, ege ables, and nu s, whe eas he mos signi ican decline occu ed in ui , p ocessed ood,
and mea commodi ies. Socio-demog aphic ac o s ha signi ican ly in luenced he sha e o household ood
expendi u e included he educa ion le el o he household head, hei occupa ion, and he household’s pe -
cep ion o ood access. The p ice o one’s goods posi i ely a ec ed he sha e o ood consump ion expend-
i u e bu nega i ely impac ed he quan i y consumed.
Fu u e esea ch should disagg ega e da a by egion o esidence, income g oup, and gende o iden-
i y how a iables such as income, p ice, and socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics in luence household
expendi u e in he di e en a eas and income g oups. This s udy ocused solely on household ood con-
sump ion pa e ns du ing he abno mal condi ions o he COVID-19 pandemic. The e o e, u u e esea ch
should compa e es ima ion esul s om be o e, du ing, and a e he pandemic. Addi ionally, his s udy
is limi ed o ood consump ion pa e ns; u u e esea ch should include non- ood commodi y a iables
o p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e iew o household consump ion pa e ns. This will allow o an ana-
lysis o he impac o COVID-19 on non- ood commodi ies consumed by households du ing he
pandemic.
Policy implica ions
Du ing The La ge-Scale Social Res ic ions (PSBB) policy, households in Bali, like many o he s globally,
expe ienced signi ican shi s in hei consump ion pa e ns, p ima ily due o inc eased home cooking
ac i i ies. This beha io al shi unde sco es he go e nmen ’s need o ensu e p ice s abili y o essen ial
commodi ies such as g ains, ege ables, mea , beans, seasonings, and oils. P ice s abili y is c ucial o
consume p o ec ion and main aining he economic iabili y o local p oduce s and he b oade ag icul-
u al sec o . To e ec i ely add ess hese needs, he go e nmen can adop se e al s a egic measu es,
such as moni o ing he supply o essen ial oods in he ield and implemen ing dis ibu ion s a egies
o ui s and mea s. This app oach aims o p e en losses among p oduce s, especially since hese i ems
we e less a o ed by he Balinese popula ion du ing he pandemic. Mo eo e , he go e nmen mus p i-
o i ize policies ha aid low-income illage households, emphasizing communi y-based ood ini ia i es
ha os e local empowe men . By implemen ing hese s a egies, he go e nmen can help ensu e he
popula ion has s able access o a o dable and nu i ious ood, suppo ing public heal h and economic
s abili y du ing challenging imes like a pandemic.
Acknowledgmen s
We a e deeply g a e ul o ou colleagues and iends om he Depa men o Economics, whose aluable insigh s
and eedback g ea ly in luenced he de elopmen o his esea ch. We also ex end ou hanks o he nume ous
e iewe s who gene ously sha ed hei insigh s, making he comple ion o his pape possible.
Au ho con ibu ions
Bayu Kha isma: concep ualiza ion o he idea, me hods, analysis, and w i ing; app o ed and e ised he inal manu-
sc ip and e isions om he e iew esul s. Al iah Hasanah: Analyze and in e p e esul s and w i ing. Su yas ie
Soemi o Remi p o ided adminis a i e and inancial suppo and w i ing. I Gus i Gede Gusna Yoga Sanjaya: da a
collec ion, es ima ion, and in e p e a ion o da a and w i ing.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he au ho (s).
Funding
This esea ch is suppo ed by DRPMI Uni e si as Padjadja an (UNPAD) wi h he RKDU scheme.
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 17
Abou he au ho s
Bayu Kha isma is a lec u e a he Depa men o Economics, Uni e si as Padjadja an. He ob ained his bachelo 's
deg ee in economics om Uni e si as Padjadja an, mas e 's deg ee in Ag ibusiness Managemen om Bogo
Ag icul u al Uni e si y, and bachelo 's deg ee in economics om Uni e si as Indonesia. He ob ained his doc o a e in
Economics om Gadjah Mada Uni e si y. His esea ch in e es s ocus on de elopmen and ins i u ional economics.
Al iah Hasanah is a lec u e and esea che a he Depa men o Economics, Uni e si as Padjadja an. She ea ned a
bachelo 's deg ee in economics om Uni e si as Padjadja an, Indonesia (1998), a mas e 's deg ee in in e na ional
inance om he In e na ional Islamic Uni e si y in Malaysia, Malaysia (2002), and a doc o a e in economics om
The Uni e si y o Wollongong. He esea ch in e es s ocus on Islamic inance, human esou ces, and heal h
economics.
Su yas ie Soemi o Remi is a lec u e and esea che a he Depa men o Economics, Facul y o Economics and
Business, Uni e si as Padjadja an, Indonesia. She ecei ed he doc o a e deg ee om Uni e si as Padjadja an,
Indonesia. He esea ch in e es s ocus on De elopmen Economics and Popula ion.
I Gus i Gede Gusna Yoga Sanjaya g adua ed om Poli eknik S a is ika STIS and is cu en ly wo king as a da a ana-
lys a he Cen al Bu eau o S a is ics o Jemb ana Regency, Bali, Indonesia. His esea ch in e es s ocus on S a is ics.
ORCID
Bayu Kha isma h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2625-5250
Al iah Hasanah h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-3927-8902
Su yas ie Soemi o Remi h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-7771-0367
I. Gus i Gede Gusna Yoga Sanjaya h p://o cid.o g/0009-0008-1923-505X
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
Da a suppo ing his s udy’s indings can be accessed on he Cen al S a is ics Agency (BPS) websi e a h ps://silas-
ik.bps.go.id/ 3/index.php/mik oda a/de ail/U1BGcE5sYzF amI2SGw0YmVUYUlDZz09. Da a a ailable upon easonable
eques om he co esponding au ho , BK.
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