He mkes, Rico; Minnameie , Ge ha d; Heue -Kinsche , Manon
A icle
A p ocessual pe spec i e on whole-class- sca olding in
business educa ion
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET)
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: He mkes, Rico; Minnameie , Ge ha d; Heue -Kinsche , Manon (2022) :
A p ocessual pe spec i e on whole-class- sca olding in business educa ion, In e na ional
Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET), ISSN 2197-8646, Eu opean
Resea ch Ne wo k in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional Resea ch
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A P ocessual Pe spec i e on Whole-Class-
Sca olding in Business Educa ion
Rico He mkes*, Ge ha d Minnameie , Manon Heue -Kinsche
Facul y o Economics and Business, Depa men o Business E hics and Business Educa ion,
Goe he Uni e si y F ank u am Main, Theodo -W.-Ado no-Pla z 4,
60629 F ank u am Main, Ge many
Recei ed: 20 Janua y 2022, Accep ed: 06 May 2022
Abs ac
Con ex : Sca olding is a o m o p ocess-adap i e lea ning suppo ha is ele an in nu-
me ous con ex s, including in o mal lea ning, wo kplace lea ning as well as school eaching.
While sca olding can be well concep ualised o indi idual lea ning si ua ions (especially
o u o ing si ua ions), he e is a di icul y in measu ing p ocess adap i i y in he e ogeneous
lea ning g oups, such as school classes.
App oach: In his pape , we de elop a measu emen me hod ha a ge s he deep s uc u e
o eaching and lea ning in whole class se ings. P ocesses o sha ed knowledge cons uc-
ions a e aken in o accoun , since whole-class-sca olding (WCS) means o shape and de e-
lop common o join knowledge spaces a he han o sca old a mul i ude o indi idual con-
s uc ion p ocesses a he same ime. To achie e a coding p ocedu e o WCS in e ac ions,
we in eg a e sca olding p inciples and p inciples o dialogic eaching and explica ed a se o
ules ha can be co ela ed o he quali y o WCS-episodes a ed on dis inc Like scales.
Resul s: The measu emen me hod de eloped in he pape p o ides a solu ion o he p ob-
lem o how o measu e p ocess-adap i e lea ning suppo ha is no only ela ed o indi i-
dual lea ne s, bu is di ec ed a a he e ogeneous g oup o lea ne s in which di e en suppo
needs may be p esen simul aneously. The coding p ocedu e sys ema ically links sca olding
p inciples and p inciples o dialogic eaching and enables us o cap u e he dynamics o
eaching and lea ning p ocesses in la ge g oup se ings. In his espec , concep s such as
join - and common space, ep esen ing en i ies o which WCS e e s, a e ope a ionalised.
*Co esponding au ho : he [email p o ec ed]
217
He mkes, Minnameie , Heue -Kinsche
Conclusions: When me hods o measu ing he dynamics o eaching and lea ning p o-
cesses a e a ailable, esea ch on ins uc ional suppo is no longe limi ed o global a ings
o whole lea ning uni s. Fu he mo e, he codings allow o a mo e ine-g ained analysis
o ajec o ies o sca olding in e ac ions. Such an analysis e eals in o ma ion abou local
speci ics o WCS ha can explain u he lea ning di e ences be ween s uden s and ha can
be used o de i e implica ions o e ec i e ins uc ional echniques.
Keywo ds: Sca olding, Dialogic Teaching, Sha ed Knowledge Cons uc ion, Adap i i y,
VET, Voca ional Educa ion and T aining
1 In oduc ion:Sca olding
E ec i e suppo o lea ning p ocesses is a majo emi o educa ional p ac ice. On he one
hand, lea ning should be ac i e, open and sel -di ec ed. On he o he hand, lea ne s should
no be le alone wi h lea ning di icul ies, ambigui ies o misconcep ions. Finding an app o-
p ia e le el o suppo he e o e in ol es no only suppo ing s uden s indi idually acco ding
o hei abili ies, bu also being adap i e wi h espec o he cou se o lea ning i sel . Such a
ailo -made suppo is e e ed o as "sca olding".
Sca olding is in es iga ed in nume ous con ex s, including in o mal and wo kplace lea -
ning (Dob icki e al., 2020; G een ield & La e, 1982; Khaled e al., 2014; Schwendimann
e al., 2015), sel -di ec ed lea ning (Aze edo e al., 2011; Becke s e al., 2019; Kicken e al.,
2008) and second language lea ning (Gibbons, 2015; Hea ley e al., 2011). I is o pa icula
impo ance in complex lea ning se ings wi h many deg ees o eedom and when si ua ion-
speci ic indi idual lea ne needs a e o be aken in o accoun . On he one hand, sca olds
can be implemen ed in he lea ning en i onmen (mac o-sca olding). This includes he de-
elopmen o lea ning ma e ials and he design o lea ning oppo uni ies and asks (e.g.,
wo ked ou examples, Bold ini & Ca aneo, 2013). On he o he hand, sca olds can be buil
up successi ely by eache s, u o s o aine s in he cou se o he lea ning p ocess o sup-
po indi idual knowledge cons uc ion o he co-cons uc ion o sha ed knowledge spaces
(mic o-sca olding).
In he ield o business educa ion, sca olding is s udied in oca ional educa ional se ings,
in highe educa ion and in business con ex s. Resul s show ha sca olding leads o a mo e
posi i e class oom expe ience (s uden s' o e all sa is ac ion, mo i a ion) and has a posi i e
e ec on achie emen a iables (knowledge acquisi ion, examina ion sco es) (Yang & Liu,
2021). In highe educa ion, sca olding plays a ole especially in p omo ing p ocedu al lea -
ning (Cowen e al., 2011), deep lea ning (G een e al., 2015), c i ical hinking (Chandle e
al., 2015) and in echnology-media ed lea ning (Janson e al., 2020). I can be s a ed ha sca -
olding always plays an impo an ole, when lea ne s a e engaged in au hen ic p ocedu al
218 Whole-Class-Sca olding in Business Educa ion
asks (such as cons uc ing a pe sonal inance plan; Cowen e al. 2011) and in linking al-
go i hmic p ocedu es o p ocess ou comes (e.g., s a is ical da a) wi h " eal-wo ld-meaning"
(G een e al., 2015, p. 325) in he con ex o economic p oblem sol ing o decision making.
In addi ion, he sca olding o social skills and he de elopmen o a co po a e cul u e a e
ocused on in business con ex s and oca ional aining p og ams. Fo example, Remidez J .
e al. (2010) show ha sca olding o he communica ion p ocess in i ual eams suppo s
he o ma ion o us be ween eam membe s in a signi ican way.
The e o e, we may conclude ha he unc ion o sca olding in he ield o business edu-
ca ion is no longe limi ed o he indi idual suppo o knowledge cons uc ion p ocesses
among lea ne s. Ra he , sca olding echniques a e sys ema ically linked o ( i ual) con e -
sa ional discou ses in o de o p omo e collabo a i e eal-wo ld decision making in oca io-
nal and business con ex s and o os e he co esponding skills among lea ne s.
The p oblem, howe e , is ha p ocess adap i i y, which unde lies he sca olding concep
(see Wood e al., 1976), is di ec ed owa d a single lea ne (o a homogeneous g oup o lea -
ne s) and does no apply o he e ogeneous lea ning g oups o eams. The e o e, ei he no -
ma i e assump ions mus be made abou which sca olding echniques a e adap i e o lea -
ning, o lea ning se ings wi h only one o a ew lea ne s can be add essed (see He mkes e
al., 2018; an de Pol e al., 2017; Wischgoll e al., 2019). Agains his backd op i seems wo h
ou while, o e en necessa y, o hink abou how o sca old la ge he e ogeneous g oups, in
pa icula en i e school classes o g oups o ainees. In o he wo ds, wha we lack so a is a
concep ion o adap i e whole-class sca olding (WCS).
A p omising way o concep ualising WCS is o inco po a e p inciples o dialogic eaching
and o use hese p inciples when de e mining adap i i y o sca olding in e ac ions (Bakke
e al., 2015; an de Pol e al., 2017). Howe e , he e a e a leas wo aspec s o conside . Fi s ,
ocusing on class oom communica ion would no be su icien . Ra he , he deep s uc u es
o eaching and lea ning would ha e o be cap u ed. This means ha knowledge cons uc-
ion p ocesses and lea ning di icul ies ha a ise among s uden s ha e o be iden i ied and
unde s ood. Second, we would ha e o ge a handle on sha ed knowledge spaces cons uc ed
h ough collec i e ac i i y, since whole-class-sca olding means o shape and de elop such
dynamic spaces a he han o sca old a mul i ude o indi idual cons uc ion p ocesses a he
same ime. In his espec , di e en kinds o knowledge spaces ha e o be di e en ia ed and a
dis inc ion has o be made be ween s uden solu ions ha a e in oduced in o he class oom
discou se o a c i ical discussion, on he one hand, and join ly cons uc ed knowledge ha
all lea ne s should possess in o de o success ully comple e subsequen lea ning s eps, on
he o he hand.
The aim o his pape is o de elop a me hod o measu ing WCS based on he coding o
sha ed knowledge space cons uc ions aking place du ing class oom alk. In Sec ion 2, we
gi e a sho o e iew o o ms and p inciples o dialogic eaching. In Sec ion 3, we in oduce
219
He mkes, Minnameie , Heue -Kinsche
he concep s o sha ed knowledge spaces needed o coding WCS. Based on hese concep s,
we de elop he concep ion o WCS in Sec ion 4 and explica e he coding p ocedu e. Sec ion
5 p o ides a conclusion and an ou look on he nex esea ch s eps.
2 Class oomDiscou seandP incipleso DialogicTeaching
As has been shown in nume ous s udies, he de aul pa e n o class oom discou se is IRE,
which s ands o "ini ia ion", " esponse", and "e alua ion" (A wood e al., 2010; Cazden, 1988;
G eeno, 2015; Mehan, 1979; Wells, 1999). This ipa i e o m o class oom alk con en io-
nally consis s o eache ini ia ion, s uden esponse, and eache e alua ion (Cazden, 1988).
Despi e i s equen use, IRE is o en nega i ely associa ed wi h supe icial displays o p e-
iously lea ned knowledge (Newmann, 1990). I was ound ha ques ions ini ia ed by he
eache du ing eci a ions ended o be asking o al eady-known answe s and o in ol e
lowe -o de hinking (Nys and e al., 2003). IRE is o en e e ed o as eci a ion (O'Conno
& Michaels, 2007) and is iden i ied as being monologic (Alexande , 2006) o au ho i a ian
– in con as o he app oach whe e open dialogue and he exchange o s uden s' ideas a e
in ol ed (Nys and e al., 2003). Mo eo e , s uden s who ha e in e nalized he IRE-pa e n
end o main ain hei p edominan ly passi e ole in class oom alk. As G eeno (2015) pu s
i : "An indi idual lea ns o ac i a e cogni i e esou ces ha p epa e him o he o ake u ns
ha a e likely o happen la e in he sequence" (p. 257). In he case o he IRE scheme, his
leads o s uden s p epa ing o he ' esponse'- e m bu expec ing ha e alua ion, eedback,
cla i ica ion, co ec ion, e c. will be p o ided by he eache .
Bakh in's concep o dialogical meaning-making en ails ha he lea ne s play an ac i e
ole in de eloping a pe sonally cons uc ed unde s anding o he cu iculum h ough a p o-
cess o dialogic in e change (Bakh in, 1981). In his espec , dialogic o ms o class oom alk
such as explo a o y alk o accoun able alk also aim a "join cons uc ion o knowledge
in class ooms" (Me ce e al., 2019, p. 188). Explo a o y alk enables he s uden s o y ou
ideas and o see wha o he s make o hem (Ba nes, 1976) whe eas accoun able alk in ol es
s uden s no only p esen ing hei ideas o unde s andings bu also explaining hem o class-
ma es (Resnick e al., 2018). The p inciple o dialogic eaching en ails ha all s uden s a e
in ol ed in he class oom discou se, which shi s he ocus o pa icipa ion. In his sense,
s uden s a e encou aged o ake esponsibili y o hei s a emen s and hus hei own lea -
ning p ocess. Ul ima ely, his esul s in he co-cons uc ion o knowledge. In con as o IRE,
exp essing di e en iews is encou aged – and needed in o de o c ea e a join knowledge
space.

220 Whole-Class-Sca olding in Business Educa ion
3 DialogicTeachingandSha edKnowledgeCons uc ion
Dialogic eaching aims o p omo e s uden s’ lea ning p ocesses in phases o class oom alk.
In his sec ion, we ocus on such class oom con e sa ions in e ms o co-cons uc ion o
sha ed knowledge spaces. We di e en ia e sys ema ically o ms o knowledge spaces and e-
cons uc co-cons uc ion p ocesses as in e en ial p ocesses.
3.1 Co-Cons uc iono KnowledgeSpacesinClass oomTalk
The concep o knowledge spaces is well known in educa ional esea ch (see Falmagne e
al., 1990, 2013). Howe e , depending on he domain and he esea ch in e es , knowledge
spaces a e de ined in di e en ways. One such dis inc ion conce ns join spaces and com-
mon spaces. Join space e e s o he se o all non- edundan con ibu ions (p oposi ions) in
class oom alk up o he p esen ime. The join space cons uc ed by he con ibu ions g ows
acco dingly wi h he du a ion o he class discussion. The concep o join space has o be
dis inguished om he concep o common space. Common space e e s o he knowledge
sha ed (o o be sha ed) by all in e ac an s and acco dingly se es as he basis o subsequen
lea ning phases. The e o e, one also speaks o common g ound (Reusse , 2001).
A key di e ence be ween join space and common space is ha a join space does no ha e
o sa is y he p ope y o consis ency. Di e en mu ually incompa ible pieces o con en can
cons i u e i , e.g. when lea ne s in oduce undamen ally di e en solu ions o a ask o di e
in hei concep ual unde s anding o a ce ain issue (see, o example, he concep o sus ai-
nabili y in economic con ex s; Vidal e al., 2015). In con as , bo h consis ency and cohe ence
a e equi ed, o a leas aimed a , o common space, since his kind o knowledge space
is supposed o be s uc u ally equi alen o cogni i e s uc u es o an indi idual. In o he
wo ds, common space deno es he common unde s anding sha ed by a g oup o people,
whe eas join space deno es he se o iews o unde s andings sha ed by a g oup. Join space
equi es ha e e y membe o he g oup unde s ands he iews exp essed by o he mem-
be s o he g oup, bu no ha hey endo se each o he 's iews. Mo eo e , depending on he
esea ch ocus, we can ela e o he no ion o common space in di e en ways (see Table 1).
Table 1: De ini ion o he Common Space-Concep s
Common space concep De ini ion
In ended common space (CSin ) Common space as he educa ional objec i e he eache plans o
achie e o all s uden s in a pa icula lesson, which can be econs uc ed om
he eache 's lesson plan
Po en ial common space (CSpo ) Common space ha comp ises all spaces ha a e compa ible wi h CSin ; in his
espec , i conce ns he con en o he o e all domain beyond he selec ed CSin .
E ec i e common space (CSe ) Common space co-cons uc ed in he cou se o a lesson; unlike CSin and CSpo ,
CSe is dynamic
221
He mkes, Minnameie , Heue -Kinsche
The di e en ia ion o he h ee ypes o common space makes i possible o p ecisely mea-
su e spon aneously occu ing de ia ions in he cou se o he lesson. One ype o de ia ions
om he lesson plan conce ns amendmen s, which occu when CSe con ains elemen s ha
belong o CSpo bu no o CSin . The espec i e con ibu ions may be ei he made by he eache
( eache 's cons uc i e ac i i y) o pe mi ed (lea ne s' cons uc i e ac i i y) by hem. The
second ype o de ia ions conce ns dig essions om he subjec ma e , which occu when
CSe con ains elemen s ha do no belong o CSpo .
An example om he lesson will illus a e he ole ha he ela ionship be ween spaces
plays in coding decisions. In he subjec ma e o "p ocu emen p ocesses", he quan i a i e
and quali a i e c i e ia o he compa ison o o e s a e an essen ial pa o CSin . This means
ha no ( easonable) lesson plan is concei able wi hou a well-de ined se o quan i a i e c i-
e ia including deli e y cos s and discoun s as well as a se o addi ional (quali a i e) c i e ia
ha go beyond he calcula ed p ice (like sus ainabili y, main enance and du abili y o p o-
duc s). I is wo h no ing ha he ques ion o which o he quali a i e c i e ia o include and
how o weigh hem depends on he ype o p oduc o be p ocu ed. I , o example, o e s o
o ice compu e s a e compa ed, he eache could spon aneously go in o mo e de ail abou
quali a i e c i e ia like sus ainabili y and du abili y and add some new aspec s ha we e no
included in he lesson plan. Thus, he eache 's ema ks do no belong o CSin econs uc ed
om he lesson plan. Howe e , hey a e included in he econs uc ion o CSe because hey
a e pa o CSpo o his lea ning uni . I , on he o he hand, he eache explains ha dwa e
ea u es o echnical de ails and how hey wo k, hen such explana ions would belong nei he
o CSin no o CSpo . As a consequence, hese explana ions would be excluded om empi ical
econs uc ion o CSe .
I should be emphasised ha he common space does no only conce n he lea ning objec i es,
bu also he unde s anding o he lea ning p oblems. The e o e, he common space (CSe ) also
indica es whe he he lea ne s ha e a sha ed p oblem, hey a e wo king on (see sec ion 3.2.1).
Albei implici , he concep o a sha ed knowledge space is also con ained in he concep
o he "collec i e s uden ". As B omme and S einb ing (1994) pu i , he collec i e s uden "is
cons i u ed om he con ibu ions o he a ious indi idual s uden s" (p. 243 ). F om a cog-
ni i e poin o iew, his jus co esponds o he join space: "The class oom dialogue be ween
he s uden s and he eache hen esul s in he join ep esen a ion o he subjec ma e "
(p. 244). Mo eo e , as B omme and S einb ing poin ou , his kind o ins uc ional dialogue
occu s mainly wi h expe ienced eache s, while no ices end o ea " he con ibu ions o
indi idual s uden s as s a emen s o indi idual lea ne s. Hence, he discou se o he lesson is
agmen ed in o he sub opics o indi idual s uden s o s uden g oups, and has no consis en
dialogue e e ing o connec ed opics" (p. 244). In o de o econs uc co-cons uc ion p o-
cesses and he eme gence o knowledge spaces, he in e en ial concep ion can be employed,
as will be shown in he nex sec ion.
222 Whole-Class-Sca olding in Business Educa ion
3.2 Cogni i eModelingo Co-Cons uc i eP ocesses
In he ollowing sec ion, we in oduce he in e en ial app oach. This app oach enables a
cogni i e modeling o class oom con e sa ions and allows us o di e en ia e co-cons uc i e
p ocesses o di e en knowledge spaces. Mo eo e , he in e ences can be conside ed as spe-
ci ic s eps in p oblem-based lea ning cycles.
3.2.1 In e en ialApp oach oKnowledgeCons uc ion
Success ul collec i e co-cons uc ion o knowledge equi es ha he eache and he s uden s
c ea e a common space wi h espec o he ask and he goal o he espec i e lesson, ha lea -
ning un olds om he e in a join space, so ha each indi idual is able o ollow he discou se
and pa icipa e in i , and ha inally he eache and he s uden s end in a common space
o knowledge, as a as he educa ional goals a e conce ned. How can we desc ibe he s a es
(especially ini ial and inal common space) and he p ocesses om a cogni i e poin o iew?
We sugges an in e en ial app oach o knowledge cons uc ion, in which he whole cou se
o lesson, bu also speci ic lea ning asks can be econs uc ed as a sequence o (i) s a ing
p emises (which may include, o example, p io knowledge o he ask a hand), (ii) de i ing
esul s and (iii) d awing conclusions. Any easoning s a s om p emises, p oduces esul s,
some o which a e dismissed and some e ained, based on inal conclusions.
This is no es ic ed o deduc i e in e ences. Mode n logic is much b oade and co e s
also induc i e and abduc i e in e ences. Wi h his mo e, logicians aim a na u alising logic
in he sense o de eloping o mal models ha allow us o econs uc (all) he ways in which
eal people hink – whe he hey hink co ec ly o whe he hey make mis akes (Woods,
2013, 2017).
Thus, analysing sca olding om a logical poin o iew means ha we ha e o unde s and
he speci ic in e ences lea ne s a e in ol ed in, how hey o m p emises, come up wi h esul s
and e alua e hem, so ha eache s can join hem in hei in e en ial s a es and p ocesses
and guide hem along by, e.g., hin ing a neglec ed aspec s, alse p emises o conclusions
and so o h. No only deduc ion, bu also all o he in e ences we a e going o dis inguish,
un om p emises o conclusions. In pa icula , making an in e ence can be desc ibed as a
cogni i e p ocess including h ee cha ac e is ic sub-p ocesses, i.e. (1) ga he ing he p emises
om which o in e some hing, (2) obse ing o p emises in o de o disco e some esul ,
(3) es ablishing whe he he esul ac ually ollows om he p emises.
Based on Pei ce's o iginal app oach (see Minnameie , 2004, 2010, 2017), we di e en ia e
be ween h ee basic ypes o in e ences, which a e abduc ion, deduc ion, and induc ion. And
223
He mkes, Minnameie , Heue -Kinsche
we call he h ee subp ocesses ha apply o any in e ence "colliga ion", "obse a ion" and
"judgemen " (acco ding o Pei ce, 1893/1932 [CP 2.442-444]1; see also Minnameie , 2017).
In he ollowing subsec ions we in oduce he in e ences, hen discuss how hey a e com-
bined in p oblem-based easoning. Finally, we add a b ie accoun on wha we call "in e se
in e ences".
3.2.2 Abduc ion,Deduc ionandInduc ion
Abduc ion is he in e ence ha s a s om a puzzling si ua ion, e.g. consis ing o incohe en
explana ion-seeking phenomena, wi h he aim o explain hem, i.e. o de i e a cohe en ac-
coun o hose phenomena. Fo ins ance, in business educa ion s uden s migh be con on ed
wi h he si ua ion whe e a company manu ac u es a p oduc ha yields losses a he han
p o i s, and con inues p oduc ion a he han s opping i . Assuming ha he managemen is
no i a ional o ill-mo i a ed, how could his be explained?
This is a ypical abduc i e ques ion. As an in e ence i s a s by colliga ing he ele an
p emises as desc ibed, which a e hen obse ed in o de o ind a cohe en accoun . Ideas
in his espec will sp ing o he mind spon aneously in he phase o obse a ion. Howe e ,
no all hese ideas necessa ily i . The e o e, he inal judgmen al pa consis s in e alua ing
whe he he gene a ed ideas eally emo e he p oblem. I hey do, he abduc ion is alid.
Fo ins ance, di e en ia ing be ween ixed and a iable cos s allows us o sol e he abo e-
men ioned p oblem, because selling a a loss is a ional as long as i yields posi i e con ibu-
ion ma gins ( ha co e he a iable and a leas pa o he ixed cos s, which he i m incu s
anyway). G asping he e y idea pe ains o obse a ion, accep ing i o judgmen .
No e ha abduc i e alidi y does no imply o en ail ha he accoun be " ue". This is
why he e can e en be a numbe o accoun s ha a e all abduc i ely alid a he same ime,
al hough hey migh exclude each o he . In science, his deno es he all oo amilia case, in
which heo ies compe e wi h each o he . They a e all explana o y alid, al hough only one
can ac ually be ue (i hey a e no alse al oge he , which is also possible).
Deduc ion s a s om such heo e ical accoun s and allows us o in e consequences o
hem, based on addi ional p emises om ou backg ound knowledge. In pa icula , we can
deduce wha we would expec unde ce ain expe imen al condi ions (o wha we could ule
ou based on hose p emises). Again, i s a s wi h colliga ing p emises, leads o obse a-
ions o esul s which a e inally analysed o make su e ha he consequences eally ollow
necessa ily om he p emises. Since deduc ion essen ially means ha he conclusions a e
al eady implied by he p emises, his is he essen ial c i e ion o deduc i e alidi y.
1 Ins ead o page numbe s we e e o he s anda dised e e ence o Pei ce which indica es he wo k (CP as in "Collec ed Pa-
pe s", ollowed by he numbe s o he olume and he pa ag aph).
230 Whole-Class-Sca olding in Business Educa ion
Figu e 2: Join /Common Space Cons uc ion by S uden s si and Teache .
The cons uc ional ac i i y o he eache is ep esen ed by TSI. In addi ion, he eache ini-
ia es class oom alk and es ablishes discou se ules (a ow om eache o class/s uden s),
also in o de o le s uden s p o ide he necessa y suppo and engage hem in mu ual sup-
po . S uden con ibu ions can be o dina y ques ions, answe s o commen s, which can in-
clude misconcep ions in e en ial mis akes.
To cap u e adap i i y, Wood e al. (1976) o mula ed he con ingen -shi -p inciple (CSP).
"Con ingen shi " e e s o he ajec o y o eache in e en ions o e he cou se o lea ning,
gi en a s uden 's lea ning s a e ( o de ails see He mkes e al., 2018). Such a ajec o y should
de elop as ollows:
(1) A he beginning, s uden s' solu ions and ideas should be deba ed discu si ely in class.
In es ablishing such a discou se, he p inciples o dialogic eaching play a ole (accoun able
alk, explo a o y alk; c . Sec ion 2). Lea ne s should do he main pa o he co- cons uc i e
ac i i y, no he eache . Ini ial eache ac i i ies conce n TSI o alue 0, which codes o
(me ely) diagnosing s uden s' le el o a ainmen o con i ming hei con ibu ions and en-
cou aging hem (a pu ely communica i e unc ion, no o be unde s ood as a judgmen o
co ec ness o inco ec ness o s uden s' con ibu ions). Since i is a ue ze o o he TSI scale,
such ac i i ies do no cons i u e in e en ions in s uden s' knowledge cons uc ion p ocesses.
(2) When a lea ning di icul y (misconcep ion, in e en ial mis ake) occu s, he eache
in e enes and ac i ely pa icipa es in s uden s' knowledge cons uc ion p ocesses. The
con ingen -shi p inciple applies he e: S a ing low and i i does no help lea ne s o
p og ess, hen successi ely inc easing he s eng h o in e en ion.
Teache
Join space /
common space
Class
S1... Sn
Teache s eng h
o in e en ion
Dialogic
eaching
S uden con ibu ions

231
He mkes, Minnameie , Heue -Kinsche
(3) When he lea ning di icul y is o e come, he eache should s a ading, i.e. he s u-
den s ge back he esponsibili y o he cons uc ion o he join o common space.
A c i ical issue is how o deal wi h he e ogenei y ha exis s among s uden s. This p oblem
in ol es wo aspec s. One is he ques ion o how he eache should deal wi h o e he e o-
genei y. The o he is he ques ion o which coding ules o apply when he e ogenei y and
s uden s' need o suppo a e unknown?
A p omising solu ion s a egy is o combine he ules o adap i e sca olding wi h he
p inciples o dialogic eaching and social lea ning (see Fe nández e al., 2001; Rams ead e
al., 2016). In dialogic eaching, all s uden s a e in ol ed in he class oom alk, so ha he
likelihood ha lea ning di icul ies will be e ealed is inc eased. Mo eo e , s uden s a e en-
cou aged o ake esponsibili y o hei lea ning p ocess and o ca y ou he main pa o he
cons uc i e ac i i y. In his espec , dialogic eaching is in acco dance wi h he con ingen -
shi p inciple. Howe e , he gene al p inciples o dialogic eaching ha e o be ansla ed
in o a se o coding ules. The ules mus ensu e ha a eliable and su icien ly ine-g ained
measu emen o speci ic eaching and lea ning p ocesses can be ca ied ou .
We s a by in oducing ules ha map he p inciples o dialogic eaching ( i s and second
ule) and combine hem wi h CSP ( hi d and ou h ule) o ope a ionalise con ingen WCS:
(1) Pa icipa ion and join p og ess: The eache in ol es all s uden s in he class oom
alk. Since he discussion is conduc ed in he spi i o a gene a i e co-cons uc ion o
knowledge, he eac ion o he s uden s' con ibu ions does no ha e o come om he
eache (as in he IRE-scheme). Ra he , o he s uden s ha e he oppo uni y o exp ess
hei iews on he con ibu ions o hei classma es. So, he eache would pass he ball on
o o he s uden s a he han playing i back o he s uden di ec ly.
(2) Engaging di e ences: Di e en solu ions and ways o sol ing p oblems a e allowed.
The s uden s can b ing hei ideas, s a egies and poin s o iew in o he discussion, bu
a e also equi ed o jus i y hem and ela e hem o o he iewpoin s. This holds in pa i-
cula when he aim is o c ea e join space.
(3) Co ec i e in e en ion: Once alse s a emen s o judgemen s a e con ibu ed, which
a e no co ec ed by he s uden s hemsel es, he eache has o in e ene (albei acco -
ding o he ules o con ingen suppo ).
(4) Remedial suppo : I con ibu ions by o he s uden s a e non-con ingen and canno
be unde s ood p ope ly by hose wi h he lea ning di icul ies, he eache would ei he
ha e o engage o he s uden s o close he gap o in e ene in o de o p o ide con ingen
suppo o mee he lea ning di icul ies.
These ules unc ion as guiding p inciples o con ingen WCS. Teache s may ollow hem
only implici ly, and hey may no mee hem in e e y espec all he ime, because hey lack
in o ma ion abou each s uden 's s a e, because hey may no be able o engage e e y s uden ,
232 Whole-Class-Sca olding in Business Educa ion
and because hey canno de e mine he s uden s' con ibu ions in dialogic sequences. They
can only call up s uden s wisely (so ha hey migh deli e con ingen suppo ) and eac
o hei s a emen s. Howe e , based on hese combined p inciples, we aim a a ing WCS-
episodes wi h espec o hei adap i i y.
4.3.3 Ra ingandCodingWholeClassSca olding
To analyse WCS, we sugges a combina ion o (mo e coa se-g ained) a ings and ine-
g ained codings o speci ic sca olding episodes. A p e equisi e o bo h is he sequencing
o he lesson o de e mine he uni s o be a ed and coded. This leads o he ollowing s eps:
1. Sequencing he lesson: Using he in e en ial app oach, he sequences (p oblem induc ion,
abduc ion, and so o h) a e iden i ied. I a ailable, eache s' lesson plans can be used as
basis. Howe e , since eache s migh de ia e om hei plan, we ha e o econs uc he
ac ually implemen ed lesson based on he ideos. Wi h espec o WCS such sequences
may be u he di ided, whe e necessa y, in o subsequences in which i s join space is
c ea ed and a subsequen one in which common space is c ea ed. Mo eo e , a WCS phase
may ela e o di e en lea ning p oblems, so ha a sequence could be subdi ided acco -
dingly. O e all, his p ocedu e yields a se o sepa a e and hema ically dis inc episodes
ha a e he uni s o be a ed and (la e ) coded.
2. Fo he a ing o he co-cons uc ion p ocesses wi h espec o hei adap i i y, we use
h ee analy ically dis inc h ee-poin Like scales (0 = no applicable, 1 = pa ly appli-
cable, 2 = ully applicable). The i s scale conce ns he s uden s' a en i eness, i.e. whe-
he hey a e on ask o no . The second measu es he ex en o which he eache engages
s uden s in he co-cons uc ion p ocess, i.e. passes he ball on hem o back o hem
and keep a cons uc i e whole-class dialogue going. The hi d ela es o he logicali y o
his whole-class con e sa ion, in pa icula whe he and how he eache moni o s and
mode a es he logicali y o his dialogue. These h ee sco es a e inally added o yield an
o e all se en-poin Like scale (0 o 6) o he adap i i y o WCS.
The coding o sca olding episodes wi hin he sequences is ca ied ou in wo s eps:
3. Iden i ying s uden s' lea ning s a es (including lea ning di icul ies): This can be done
based on ( ideo) da a, which show he s uden s' lea ning s a us a he beginning o a
class discussion. In bo h cases, s uden s' lea ning s a es can be de e mined on he basis
o he in e en ial axonomy and hus assigned o he knowledge cons uc ion p ocesses
acco ding o hei in e en ial econs uc ion.
233
He mkes, Minnameie , Heue -Kinsche
4. Coding o sha ed knowledge cons uc ion: This includes he a iable eache s eng h o
in e en ion o eache con ibu ions as well as s uden s' con ibu ions o he c ea ion
o a common o a join space (see Fig. 1 abo e). Rules de i ed om he CSP a e used o
assess he con ingency o he coded sca olds (see He mkes e al., 2018).
The a ing and coding measu es can be iangula ed, since high sco es in he mo e in ui i e
global a ing should be co ela ed posi i ely wi h highly-adap i e sca olding in e ac ions in
e ms o he ule-based codings.
5 Conclusion
In ou pape , we de eloped a sca olding concep ion ha no only conce ns he communica-
ion s uc u e o class oom in e ac ions, bu also a ge s he deep s uc u e o eaching and
lea ning. P ocesses o sha ed knowledge cons uc ions a e aken in o accoun , since WCS
means o shape and de elop common o join knowledge spaces a he han o sca old a
mul i ude o indi idual cons uc ion p ocesses a he same ime.
I should be no ed, ha he ocus on p ocesses o sha ed knowledge cons uc ion is also
associa ed wi h an impo an limi a ion conce ning coding s ep 4: I equi es a minimum
le el o subjec knowledge on he pa o he code . The coding o sha ed knowledge spaces
is based on co ec con ibu ions a icula ed in class oom con e sa ions. E oneous con-
ibu ions should be iden i ied so ha hey do no en e he cons uc ed knowledge space.
This also applies o cases whe e alse con ibu ions a e simply igno ed and no co ec ed by
he eache . To ensu e he necessa y expe ise among code s, a mo e de ailed code aining
would be equi ed.
Ne e heless, by ocussing on p ocesses o sha ed knowledge cons uc ion and in eg a-
ing sca olding p inciples and p inciples o dialogic eaching we ha e achie ed a alid p o-
cedu e o coding sca olding in e ac ions (WCS) and explica ed a se o ules ha can be
co ela ed o he quali y o WCS-episodes a ed on dis inc Like scales. These esul s enable
he c ea ion o esea ch a iables ha can be empi ically s udied as p edic o s o s uden lea -
ning ou comes. Fu he mo e, he codings allow a mo e ine-g ained analysis o ajec o ies
o sca olding in e ac ions ha occu , o example, in he con ex o collabo a i e decision-
making- o p oblem-sol ing p ocesses in (he e ogeneous) g oups, o in he de elopmen o
g oup-le el a iables such as us in eams and wo king g oups. Such an analysis e eals in-
o ma ion abou local speci ics o WCS ha can explain u he lea ning di e ences be ween
s uden s o g oup membe s, as well as di e ences in he de elopmen al dynamics o g oup-
le el a iables be ween di e en g oups.
234 Whole-Class-Sca olding in Business Educa ion
Acknowledgemen
This wo k was suppo ed by he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion (Deu sche Fo schungsge-
meinscha , DFG) [g an numbe MI654 13-1].
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Biog aphicalNo es
Rico He mkes, D e . pol., wo ks as a esea che a he Chai o Business E hics and Business
Educa ion a Goe he Uni e si y F ank u am Main. His esea ch is ocused on eaching qua-
li y, aci knowledge, in ui ion and embodimen , in e ac ion dynamics.
Ge ha d Minnameie , D e . pol., is ull p o esso o Business E hics and Business Educa ion
a Goe he Uni e si y F ank u am Main. His main esea ch ocus is on he in e en ial heo y
o easoning and lea ning, mo al de elopmen and agency, e hics and economics.
Manon Heue -Kinsche , M.A., wo ks as a doc o al s uden a he Chai o Business E hics
and Business Educa ion a Goe he Uni e si y F ank u am Main. He esea ch is ocused on
eache educa ion and eaching quali y.