Gilibe , Mi eia; Ribas, Imma
A icle
Syne gies be ween app-based ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y
se ices o he de elopmen o mo e p o i able business
models
Jou nal o Indus ial Enginee ing and Managemen (JIEM)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
The School o Indus ial, Ae ospace and Audio isual Enginee ing o Te assa (ESEIAAT), Uni e si a
Poli ècnica de Ca alunya (UPC)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Gilibe , Mi eia; Ribas, Imma (2019) : Syne gies be ween app-based ca - ela ed
sha ed mobili y se ices o he de elopmen o mo e p o i able business models, Jou nal o
Indus ial Enginee ing and Managemen (JIEM), ISSN 2013-0953, OmniaScience, Ba celona, Vol. 12,
Iss. 3, pp. 405-420,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3926/jiem.2930
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Jou nal o Indus ial Enginee ing and Managemen
JIEM, 2019 – 12(3): 405-420 – Online ISSN: 2013-0953 – P in ISSN: 2013-8423
h ps://doi.o g/10.3926/jiem.2930
Syne gies be ween App-Based Ca -Rela ed Sha ed Mobili y Se ices
o he De elopmen o Mo e P o i able Business Models
Mi eia Gilibe 1,2 , Imma Ribas1
1Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya (Spain)
2SEAT, S.A. (Spain)
mi eia.gilibe @upc.edu, imma. [email protected]
Recei ed: May 2019
Accep ed: Sep embe 2019
Abs ac :
Pu pose:
Eme ging sha ed mobili y se ices a e an oppo uni y o ci ies o educe he numbe o ca
single ips o bo h imp o e a ic conges ion and he en i onmen . Use s o sha ed mobili y se ices,
such as ca sha ing, idesha ing and singula and sha ed ide-hailing se ices, o en need o be cus ome s o mo e
han one se ice o co e all hei anspo needs, since ew mobili y p o ide s o e mo e han one o
hese se ices om a single pla o m. On he o he hand, p o ide s o e ing hese se ices sepa a ely do
no op imise cos ly esou ces and ac i i ies, such as he ehicles o he echnology. Hence, he aim o his
pape is o ind syne gies be ween he di e en app-based ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices ha os e
he de elopmen o new business models, o inc ease he p o i abili y o hese se ices.
Design/me hodology/app oach:
The esea ch app oach is buil on he li e a u e o ca - ela ed sha ed
mobili y se ices business models, suppo ed by he e iew o ce ain ou s anding se ices websi es, and
ace- o- ace in e iews wi h use s and d i e s o hese anspo se ices. The analysis is p esen ed by
means o he Business Model Can as me hodology.
Findings:
Based on he syne gies ound, his pape sugges s a ew di e en app oaches o se ices o
sha e some esou ces and ac i i ies.
O iginali y/ alue:
This s udy iden i ies he common ea u es o ca sha ing, idesha ing and singula and
sha ed ide-hailing se ices o de elop mo e p o i able business models, based on p o iding he se ices in
agg ega ed o m, o ou sou cing ac i i ies and esou ces. In addi ion, he implica ions o hese p oposals
a e discussed as ad an ages and d awbacks om a business pe spec i e.
Keywo ds:
sha ed anspo se ices, ca sha ing, ide hailing, ide sha ing, business model
To ci e his a icle:
Gilibe , M., & Ribas, I. (2019). Syne gies be ween app-based ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices
o he de elopmen o mo e p o i able business models. Jou nal o Indus ial Enginee ing and Managemen , 12(3),
405-420. h ps://doi.o g/10.3926/jiem.2930
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Jou nal o Indus ial Enginee ing and Managemen – h ps://doi.o g/10.3926/jiem.2930
1. In oduc ion
The mobili y sec o has seen a g ow h in app-based on-demand sha ed anspo ini ia i es, such as en ing a ca by
he hou o minu e (ca sha ing) and aking a ide in a sha ed ehicle ( ide-sou cing). These new mobili y business
models ha e changed he u ban mobili y sec o om a limi ed anspo a ion o e o a scena io ull o new playe s
o e ing mobili y-on-demand in di e en ways. Some ci ies a e eac ing o his uncon olled expansion, such as
London, ying o ban he ide-hailing se ices o Ube , o New Yo k, announcing es ic ions on he numbe o
ehicles p o iding ide-hailing se ices (Goldman, 2017). Howe e , Ma ínez, Viegas, C is and Ma inie (2015) and
Alonso-Mo a, Sama anayake, Walla , F azzoli and Rus (2017) es ima ed ha i he ides would be sha ed, he
numbe o ehicles in he ci ies would g ea ly dec ease. Besides, on one hand, ide-sou cing p o ides a anspo
solu ion a a low in es men o pe iphe al neighbou hoods wi h ine icien access o public anspo . Fo ins ance,
Mo ozo (2016) explained ha some U.S. local adminis a ions asked Ube –in exchange o signi ican
subsidies– o assume public anspo unc ions in a eas whe e in as uc u e was poo ; and Wa anabe, Na eed,
Nei aanmäki, and Fox (2017) ema ked ha in coun ies like Saudi A abia Ube o e s eliable anspo a ion o
women, hus enabling hem o ha e jobs. On he o he hand, ca sha ing o e s ci ies he possibili y o educing hei
o al numbe o ehicles, which spend mo e han 90% o hei li es pa ked on he s ee s, and i exchanges he
ehicles in use o mo e sus ainable ones (Zhang, Spiese , F azzoli & Pa one, 2015).
A numbe o pape s ha e sugges ed a classi ica ion o app-based ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices. Rega ding
ca sha ing se ices, Shaheen, Malle y and Kingsley (2012) iden i ied ou models o Pee - o-Pee (P2P) ca sha ing
acco ding o he business model po ion o he ca sha ing pla o m; Cohen and Kie zmann (2014) and Münzel,
Boon, F enken and Vaskelainen (2017) dis inguished be ween he business ype (Business- o-Consume (B2C), P2P,
non-p o i and coope a i e ca sha ing) and he ope a ional model (one-way and ound- ip); Remane, Nicke son, Hanel ,
Tesch and Kolbe (2016) di ided ca sha ing business models in o 7 clus e s acco ding o he business ype: he
ope a ional model, he ehicle o e and he ype o access (manual o au oma ic); and Ro a is and Danielis (2017)
classi ied he se ice acco ding o who owns and main ains he ca . Fu he mo e, Bälan (2016) classi ied he main
models o ca sha ing, idesha ing and ide-hailing ha exis in Romania, ega dless o whe he o no hey a e
p o i able; and Chan and Shaheen (2012) dis inguished be ween di e en ypes o ide-sha ing based on he
ela ionships among hei pa icipan s.
I can be obse ed ha hese pape s used di e en business cha ac e is ics o classi y he mobili y se ices being
conside ed. Hence, o gi e a gene al o e iew o all ypes o o -p o i se ices, we p esen a mo e comp ehensi e
classi ica ion ha summa ises he se e al classi ica ions p o ided by he abo e-men ioned s udies (Figu e 1). Fi s ,
we di ide he sha ed mobili y business models in o wo main a eas: ide-sou cing, which e e s o he se ices o
ide-hailing and idesha ing; and ehicle sha ing, which is based on en ing ehicles o sho pe iods o ime.
Ride-hailing is in e p e ed he e as he business model ha ope a es like axis, wi h he di e ence being ha his
se ice is no au ho ised o pick up s ee hails, and he e o e, equi es passenge s o p e iously book hei ips. As
de ined in Figu e 1, ide-hailing is di ided in o p i a e B2C (chau eu d i en ehicles commonly called VTC se ices,
i.e., Chau eu ed Tou ism Vehicle), p i a e P2P, whe e people seek economic emune a ion by wo king as d i e s and
using hei ca s o ca y passenge s o hei des ina ions, and sha ed B2C and P2P models. On he o he hand,
idesha ing is de ined as a non-p o i ac i i y, whe e bo h d i e s and passenge s sha e simila des ina ions and decide
o sha e ips in o de o sha e a el cos s (Chan & Shaheen, 2012). Howe e , some o -p o i se ices exis , such
as BlaBlaCa and Amo ens, who apply an o ganisa ion-based model using in e ne pla o ms. The e o e, in his
pape only he idesha ing o ganisa ion-based model ha ope a es h ough o -p o i in e ne pla o ms is analysed. To
summa ise, he main di e ence be ween sha ed ide-hailing and idesha ing is: in he o me , d i e s a e employed o
wo k eelance, whe eas in he las , d i e s seek only o sha e he cos s o hei egula o occasional long ips. I is
wo h no ing ha his di e ence will disappea once hese se ices a e o e ed wi h au onomous ehicles.
Finally, ca sha ing business models a e classi ied in o ou business ypes: B2C, P2P, co po a e ca sha ing and
a ge -o ien ed (e.g., coope a i es, municipally owned and p i a e communi ies). In he case o co po a e ca sha ing and
P2P, hey usually ope a e using he ound- ip mode, whe e use s a e eques ed o e u n he ehicles o he pick-up
loca ions. Howe e , some P2P ca sha ing se ices also o e he op ion o eques ing and o e ing a home pick-up
and deli e y se ice. B2C ca sha ing se ices can be ound ha use ei he ound- ip o one-way modes. The one-way (o
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poin - o-poin ) ype allows use s o e u n he ehicles nea hei des ina ions a speci ic poin s (s a ion-based) o di ec ly
on he s ee s ( ee- loa ing o lexible). The e o e, he poin - o-poin model is sui able o sho u ban ips; whe eas he
ound- ip ype co e s longe dis ance ips.
Figu e 1. Classi ica ion o o -p o i sha ed mobili y business models om he business poin o iew
The scope o his esea ch is limi ed o ca - ela ed se ices, hus he business models o scoo e sha ing, bike
sha ing and kick scoo e sha ing a e no analysed.
These eme ging sha ed mobili y se ices conce n and challenge he adi ional passenge anspo se ices, and in
pa icula , he au omo i e indus y, who migh see hei sales all. The e o e, au omake s a e in es ing, acqui ing
and pa ne ing hese se ices, o e en c ea ing hei own, as well as hei own mobili y ecosys ems. Fo ins ance,
Daimle launched he ca sha ing se ices o ca 2go and C oo e, in addi ion o he mobili y pla o m moo el;
acqui ed he axi-hailing se ices my axi and Hailo, se up a join en u e wi h he sha ed ide-hailing Via, and in es ed
in he singula ide-hailing Blacklane. Las ly, a he beginning o 2019, Daimle s a ed a coope a ion wi h i s
compe i o BMW, o consolida e he abo e-men ioned se ices by uni ying hem wi h hose o BMW. Besides,
o he big au omake s such as Volkswagen, Toyo a, Fo d o Gene al Mo o s a e also building hei mobili y
ecosys em in a simila way.
Nowadays, mos se ices p o ide s o e he di e en mobili y se ices sepa a ely (i.e. no sha ing he applica ion,
ehicles and s a wi h o he se ices o e ed by he same company). Besides, many o hese anspo se ices a e
unp o i able, and o his eason end up closing down, mo ing o o he ci ies o changing hei business model.
The e o e, his pape aims a answe ing he ollowing esea ch ques ion: Wha a e he syne gies be ween o -p o i
ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices –ca sha ing, idesha ing and ide-hailing– ha os e he de elopmen o mo e
p o i able business models?
The esea ch ques ion is add essed in his pape by examining ele an simila i ies and di e ences among hese
ypes o se ices, using he Business Model Can as (BMC) me hodology (Os e walde , Pigneu & Tucci, 2005) o
iden i y hem, and elying on di e en sou ces o in o ma ion: li e a u e e iew, se ices websi es, ace- o- ace
in e iews wi h use s and d i e s, and pe sonal expe ience.
The es o he pape is o ganised as ollows: he second sec ion explains he me hodology used o conduc he
esea ch p ocess. The hi d sec ion p esen s he main cha ac e is ics o he app-based ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y
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se ices business models, based mainly on he li e a u e e iew and se ices websi es, h ough he nine building
blocks o he BMC. Nex , a discussion abou he conduc ed esea ch is gi en, and inally, he conclusions and
u u e lines o esea ch a e p esen ed.
2. Me hodology
We in es iga ed he common ea u es and di e ences o he di e en ypes o app-based ca mobili y se ices by
analysing hei business models by means o he BMC me hodology. The BMC p o ides a de ailed and clea isual
o e iew o how business ope a es, and i is a help ul ool o iden i ying wha ac i i ies a e he mos impo an o
c ea ing and deli e ing alue o s akeholde s while gene a ing inno a i e e enue s eams.
Fi s , we conduc ed a li e a u e e iew based on speci ic esea ch using as keywo ds he combina ion o he e ms
“business model” wi h “sha ed mobili y”, “mobili y se ices” o he names o he exis ing ca - ela ed sha ed
mobili y se ices: “ca sha ing”, “ idesha ing” and “ ide-hailing”. We conduc ed he sea ch in he elec onic da abases
SCOPUS and Web o Science om he 1s Janua y 2000 un il he 31s Decembe 2018.
Second, o include he comme cial and ope a ional pe spec i e in ou esea ch, we inspec ed he websi es o 19
ou s anding se ices o singula and sha ed ide-hailing, B2C and P2P ca sha ing, and idesha ing, being ew o hem
o e ed by he same p o ide and h ough he same applica ion.
Finally, o app ecia e he di e ences be ween hese anspo se ices and be e de ine hei alue p oposi ion and
he a ge ed cus ome segmen s om use s’ poin o iew, as well as he s eng hs and weaknesses o he se ices,
we e iewed he las use s’ commen s pos ed on hei App S o e and Google Play pages (Apple Inc., 2018; Google,
2018), we expe ienced some o he se ices, and conduc ed 30 semi-s uc u ed ace- o- ace in e iews wi h use s
and 7 wi h d i e s o ide-hailing and idesha ing se ices. Bo h he su eys and he es s we e conduc ed in di e en
ci ies o Spain, Ge many and he Uni ed S a es.
Wi h ega d o he in e iews, we mainly asked use s he ollowing ques ions: when and why hey used he speci ic
se ices, wha hey liked and disliked, and why hey did no choose o he anspo se ices o hese ips. As o
he d i e s, we asked hem why hey d o e o he se ice, and also, wha hey liked and disliked.
Table 1 speci ies he se ices ha ha e been e iewed h ough hei websi es, and App S o e and Google Play
pages, by ype o se ice; and he numbe o conduc ed in e iews and es s o each ype. Da a was collec ed om
July 2017 un il Decembe 2018, and was classi ied, jus as he li e a u e e iew, acco ding o he 9 building blocks o
he BMC.
Type o se ice Ope a ing se ices e iewed No o in e iews
and es s
Ride-hailing
Singula
Didi Chuxing (2018), my axi (2017), Ge (2017), Ube (2017), Ly (2018),
Maxi Mobili y (2017), ReachNow (2018)
10 use s
3 d i e
5 es s
Sha ed
Via (2018), Cle e Shu le (2018), Ube (2017), Ly (2018)
7 use s
2 d i e
3 es s
Ridesha ing Blablaca (2018), Waze (2018), Amo ens Soluciones (2017)
3 use s
2 d i e s
2 es s
Ca sha ing
B2C
Zipca (2017), ca 2go (2017), D i eNow (2017), ReachNow (2018), Respi o
(2018), Wible (2018)
8 use s
2 es s
P2P
D i y (2017), SocialCa (2017), Amo ens Soluciones (2017) 2 use s
Table 1. Lis o se ices e iewed h ough hei websi es and numbe o in e iews and es s conduc ed, by ype o se ice.
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3. Business Model Can as Pe spec i e on Sha ed Mobili y Se ices
In his sec ion, all he in o ma ion ob ained om he li e a u e e iew, he websi es o exis ing mobili y se ices,
hei App S o e and Google Play pages, he es s, and he in e iews, is analysed using he nine building blocks o
he Business Model Can as: Cus ome Segmen s, Value P oposi ions, Channels, Cus ome Rela ionships, Re enue
S eams, Key Resou ces, Key Ac i i ies, Key Pa ne ships, and Cos S uc u e.
Figu e 2 summa ises and dis inguishes he key ea u es o each building block, pe ype o se ice analysed:
ide-hailing, idesha ing and ca sha ing. Nex sec ions a e de o ed o analyse each o hese blocks.
Figu e 2. Summa y o he key ea u es o ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices pe building block
3.1. Cus ome Segmen s
Ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices a e o ien ed owa d p i a e cus ome s, business clien s and public au ho i ies
(Hunke, Schü i z & Kuehl, 2017). The majo i y o hem equi e use s o be holde s o a sma phone and a c edi
ca d, debi ca d, o a digi al paymen accoun , which oge he gua an ee he ese a ions and cashless paymen s.
Some idesha ing and sha ed ide-hailing se ices a ge speci ic Cus ome Segmen s, such as commu e s (Waze, 2018;
Via, 2018) o long-dis ance a elle s (Mazzell & Sunda a ajan, 2016). On he o he hand, singula ide-hailing se ices
mainly a ge leisu e, ci y nigh uses, and o he sho ips ba ely co e ed by he public anspo o co e ed bu
wi h low com o , such as ips o he ai po (Ly , 2018).
On he o he hand, Cohen and Kie zmann (2014) s a ed ha ca sha ing add esses indi iduals who aim o shi om
owne ship o a sha ed ehicle (B2C model) o o sha ing he ehicles hey own when no in use (P2P model).
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Shaheen and Cohen (2013) highligh ed he po en ial o he neighbou hood, business and uni e si y cus ome
segmen s, o being p edominan ma ke segmen s as well as he mos p o i able ma ke s. Mo eo e , he au ho s
also s udied he ca sha ing add essed o go e nmen and ins i u ions, public ansi , aca ion eso s and ou is
loca ions. Les e en and Leu en (2016) also p oposed a ype o ca sha ing o ou is s, and Ro a is and Danielis
(2017) analysed as well he uni e si y-sponso ed ca sha ing a ge ing s uden s and employees, he ca sha ing p o ided
by public anspo ope a o s a ge ing public anspo use s, and he ca sha ing se ices owned by municipali ies.
3.2. Value P oposi ions
Al hough each mobili y se ice has i s pa icula alue p oposi ion, hey all ha e wo main ea u es in common: hey
a e app-based and hey can con ibu e o imp o e mobili y, mainly in u ban a eas, by educing ca owne ship. The
g ea es di e ence be ween hese new anspo a ion se ices and he adi ional ones is ha hey use he la es
echnology, which enables use s o book, ide, d i e and pay in a lexible, easy and con enien way. Fu he mo e,
Wa anabe e al. (2017) poin ed ou ha Ube ( ide-hailing se ice) enables a as e and cheape sea ch o anspo ,
and a be e u ilisa ion o asse s, bene i s ha a e also o e ed by he o he ca - ela ed sha ed mobili y se ices.
Ride-hailing se ices a e g owing as an al e na i e o axis, as hey o e lexible and low cos on-demand ides easily
while p o iding a be e use expe ience (Bonazzi & Pigneu , 2015; Janasz & Schneidewind, 2017; Gao & Zhang,
2016; Wa anabe, Na eed & Nei aanmäki, 2016). Howe e , Ube and Cabi y could be mo e expensi e when he
use eques s a luxu y ca , o when he e is mo e demand han supply. Mo eo e , Cabi y also gi es he op ion o
eques child sea s and i o e s p emium acili ies such as WiFi, a bo le o wa e and he possibili y o choosing
he music and empe a u e du ing he ip. Acco ding o ou in e iewees, hei speed and con enience is wha
con inced hem o use hese se ices ins ead o using he public anspo , and because o hei low and
gua an eed a e hey chose hem ins ead o he axi. Acco ding o Janasz and Schneidewind (2017), ide-hailing
se ices help sol e he i s - and las -mile p oblems. Wa anabe e al. (2016) added ha hey also p o ide eal- ime
in o ma ion on he Es ima ed Time o A i al (ETA) and cab posi ion, cashless paymen and ime sa ings in
eaching a loca ion. Mo eo e , some ide-hailing se ices also p o ide he use wi h in o ma ion on he assigned
d i e (pic u e, name, a es, e c.), and hey o e cen alised in oicing o businesses. Wa anabe e al. (2016, 2017) also
no ed ha ide-hailing gi es anspa en o e iew o he quali y and p ices. Ride-hailing is also ound in he sha ed
e sion, such as he ope a ing se ices Ube POOL and Via.
Conce ning idesha ing se ices, hey acili a e o a ange sha ed ips in ad ance, in o de ha passenge s can sha e
he cos s o hei occasional o ecu ing a els be ween he d i e and he ide s, wi hou he d i e cha ging mo e
money han is needed o co e he cos s o uel and ehicle dep ecia ion. To make idesha ing easie and mo e
lexible, his se ice is e ol ing owa ds eal- ime idesha ing (Raney, 2010; Chan & Shaheen, 2012; Janasz &
Schneidewind, 2017). These au ho s highligh ed he di ec ly ela ed bene i s om he use o idesha ing, which a e
educ ions in a ic and g eenhouse gas emissions.
On he o he hand, ca sha ing o e s easy access (no pape wo k equi ed and ehicles a e usually nea by) o ca
en als by he minu e o by he hou , usually wi h digi al access ( ia a subsc ip ion ca d o he app). I is a ailable a
any ime o he day, on-demand o wi h a p e ious booking, and wi hou he need o e u n he ehicle o he
pick-up loca ion (one-way ype) (Cohen & Kie zmann, 2014; Ho mann, Hinkeldein, G a & K ame , 2014; Wu,
2016; Remane e al., 2016; Janasz & Schneidewind, 2017). In e iewees wi hou access o a ca ound ca sha ing e y
use ul o day/weekend ips, o each emo e a eas such as indus ial pa ks o uni e si y campuses, and o e u n
home a e shopping. Ho mann e al. (2014) p oposed a se ice wi h a a ie y o ca models o co e all use
needs, ecommended an elec ic lee o mo e wi hin he ci y cen es, sugges ed ha loca ions and cha ging s a ions
be easily eachable and nea public anspo , and hey men ioned use s’ desi e o ese ed pa king spaces and he
abili y o e u n ca s anywhe e in he coun y. On he o he hand, Cohen and Kie zmann (2014) men ioned ha
P2P ca sha ing allows ca owne s wi h unde used ehicles o en hem pe day in exchange o an addi ional sou ce
o income.
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3.3. Channels
App-based mobili y se ices mainly each hei cus ome s h ough hei own se ices’ applica ions, o h ough
mul imodal applica ions p o ided by Mobili y as a Se ice (MaaS) pla o ms ha include hem. The majo i y o he
use complain s o he se ices analysed pos ed on App S o e and Google Play we e ela ed o app p oblems o
bad cus ome se ice expe iences. The e o e, i he applica ion, which is he main channel, is no use - iendly o
ails, no only he deli e y o he Value P oposi ion ails, bu also he e is a high isk ha use s s op using he
se ice. Ano he common and key channel o all hese se ices is hei websi e, since cus ome s usually look up
in o ma ion he e abou he se ices and e en sign up as use s. In addi ion o well designed and use - iendly mobile
apps and landing pages, communica ion and ad e isemen o hese se ices also use email and social media
ma ke ing, online campaigns, con en ma ke ing and mul ichannel Business- o-Business ma ke ing o he
co po a e segmen (Janasz & Schneidewind, 2017). Besides, Ho mann e al. (2014) highligh ed he impo ance o
ha ing a ho line o book he se ice in he case o ide-hailing se ices.
O he channels o idesha ing se ices a e mee ing places such as pa k and ide acili ies and ans e hubs (Raney,
2010; Chan & Shaheen, 2012; Cohen & Kie zmann, 2014). Wha is mo e, some companies encou age hei
employees o commu e by sha ing ips wi h o he employees (Janasz & Schneidewind, 2017). O he essen ial
channels ha allow use s o access ca sha ing se ices a e pa king a eas, and o e-ca sha ing, cha ging s a ions
(Shaheen e al., 2012; Ho mann e al., 2014; He ado , Ca alho & Fei o, 2015; Reine & Haas, 2015; Remane e al.,
2016; Janasz & Schneidewind, 2017).
3.4. Cus ome Rela ionship
Bo h he applica ions and websi es o he mobili y se ices ha ha e been explo ed p o ide a sel -se ice in e ace
o cus ome s o help hemsel es, al hough all o hem o e a cus ome suppo se ice. Howe e , use s also need
pe sonal assis ance when signing up o a ca sha ing se ice o as d i e s o a ide-hailing se ice, since
documen a ion needs o be checked and p oblems need o be esol ed, such as when he eques ed ide-hailing o
idesha ing se ice does no a i e, he doo o en ed ca does no open, o he cos o he se ice is no co ec . An
impo an numbe o he e iews pos ed on App S o e and Google Play a e complain s o cus ome se ice, o
being slow, no help ul o di icul o each. Apa om ha , a epu a ion sys em based on a ings o social media is
widely used among hese se ices, since i is impo an o enhance use con idence and assu e he us and sa e y
o use s (Shaheen e al., 2012; Wu, 2016). Fu he mo e, in o de o e ain cus ome s, some se ices also o e
loyal y p og ams. Bonazzi and Pigneu (2015) sugges ed social ga he ings o ide s and d i e s and he gami ica ion
o he applica ion. Rega ding ide-hailing se ices ha employ hei d i e s, hese d i e s also p o ide human
in e ac ion wi h he use s.
3.5. Re enue S eams
Eme ging mobili y se ices gene ally cha ge hei cus ome s pe use; howe e , many B2C ca sha ing se ices, such as
Zipca and Respi o, use a combina ion o a subsc ip ion ee and a usage ee, adap ing he ee pe use o he
subsc ip ion chosen. Pe boli, Fe e o., Musso and Vesco (2018) emphasised he impo ance and also he complexi y
o c ea ing cus omised a i plans o ca sha ing se ices.
Ride-hailing se ices only use he pay-pe -use me hod, cha ging o each ide, bu allowing o di e en
combina ions. Some apply a a e pe kilome e and/o pe minu e, and o he s o e la a es (Janasz &
Schneidewind, 2017; Pakusch, Bossaue , Shakoo & S e ens, 2016). Mo eo e , du ing pe iods o high demand,
Ube uses dynamic p icing o ma ch he supply wi h he demand and Cabi y applies an ex a cha ge. O he ex a
cha ges a e applied when eques ing a se ice wi h a p emium ehicle o wi h child sea s, among o he op ions. In
P2P se ices, he pla o m cha ges a commission pe ip, which in he case o Ube is 20% (Cohen & Kie zmann,
2014; Gao & Zhang, 2016; Wu, 2016).
Ridesha ing se ices such as BlaBlaCa and Waze Ca pool cha ge a se ice ee o co e he ope a ing expenses o he
pla o m. Fo ins ance, BlaBlaCa ’s commission is a ound 17% o he cos o he ip (BlaBlaCa , 2016). O he
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ope a o s such as TwoGo by SAP a e subsc ip ion-based o hey apply a eemium model (Janasz & Schneidewind,
2017).
Rega ding ca sha ing se ices, Remane e al. (2016) speci ied ha hei e enue model is based on a p ice s uc u e
ha is ei he de e mined by he du a ion o he en al o a combina ion o he du a ion and he dis ance a elled.
I also elies on con inuous e enues and ansac ion-based e enues. The con inuous e enues iden i ied by Cohen
& Kie zmann (2014) and Remane e al. (2016) we e membe ship and se ice ees om use s, go e nmen subsidies
and g an s, and sponso ship and ad e ising. Münzel e al. (2017) dis inguished he ee s uc u e used by he
ope a o s, depending on he ype o ca sha ing p o ided. Th ough hei analysis, he au ho s ound: mos o he
ca sha ing ope a o s in Ge many cha ged a egis a ion ee, excep in he case o he P2P model; coope a i es and
B2C ound- ip se ices usually also cha ged a mon hly ee; and, ega ding he a e pe use, ope a o s o B2C
ound- ip se ices and coope a i es cha ged pe hou o pe day whils ope a o s o B2C one-way cha ged a
by- he-minu e ee. In e es ing is he p icing model o Wible, which cha ges a by- he-minu e ee wi hin he i s
hou , pe hou om he second hou onwa ds o a daily a e, hus combining he one-way and ound- ip uses as well
as he adi ional ca en al. Besides, Zipca and Respi o adap hei a es depending on hei di e en mon hly
subsc ip ion plans. The cheapes plan o e s he mos expensi e a es pe en al and he mos expensi e plan o e s
he cheapes a es. Addi ional ees could be applied depending on he ca model chosen, he des ina ion o he ip
(e.g., s a ing o ending a en al a an ai po ) o o ex ending a ese a ion, which is how D i eNow wo ks. On he
o he hand, P2P ca sha ing pla o ms ask o nei he egis a ion ees no mon hly ees (Wu, 2016; Münzel e al.,
2017), bu ins ead usually cha ge pe day, as in he case o Amo ens and D i y. In his ca ego y, he p ices a e no
egula ed and hus allow ca owne s he eedom o se he p ices o hei ehicles. The ca sha ing pla o m
unc ions as an agen ha collec s paymen o each en al and keeps a commission o each ansac ion, which
could be up o 25%, as in he case o Tu o (Wu, 2016).
3.6. Key Resou ces
Vehicles and so wa e (use applica ion and echnological pla o m) a e he main and common key esou ces o any
ca - ela ed mobili y se ice, ollowed by he cha ging in as uc u e i he ehicle lee is elec ic. Fu he mo e,
esou ces such as sma phones and digi al paymen (Wa anabe e al., 2016) as well as da a, capi al and specialis s
(Hunke e al., 2017) a e also equi ed o ope a ing hese se ices. O he key esou ces a y acco ding o he
di e en se ice ca ego ies.
Fo Ride-hailing se ices, in addi ion o he echnological pla o m equi ed o he cha ac e is ics o his ype o
se ice and he applica ion o o de ing ides, he ollowing asse s a e equally impo an o being able o o e he
co esponding alue p oposi ion: skilled d i e s (on some occasions hey a e also equi ed o hold a axi o a VTC
license, depending on he se ice p o ide and he place whe e he se ice is o e ed); he d i e applica ion (needed
o ecei e use eques s); ehicles adap ed o he ea u es o each se ice (basic, p emium, sus ainable, e c.);
algo i hms ha p o ide ou ing, ma ch di e en use s going in he same di ec ion and who a e willing o sha e he
ide (in he case o sha ed ide-hailing); algo i hms ha de e mine su ge p icing, depending on he demand and supply
o he momen (in he case o Ube ); insu ance o he se ice p o ided; and in es o s, who a e willing o acqui e a
lee o ehicles and VTC licenses, o in es money in he co esponding se ice p o ide .
Conce ning idesha ing se ices, Raney (2010) demons a ed he impo ance o GPS sma phone echnology and
ex messaging o enable eal- ime idesha ing and social ne wo ks o imp o e he use ’s expe ience. In addi ion,
Janasz and Schneidewind (2017) added he use o au oma ed ide ma ching so wa e applica ions.
Besides, ca sha ing se ices equi e some addi ional key esou ces: digi al access echnology, which enables use s o
open he en ed ca by means o hei sma phones; on-s ee and o -s ee pa king spaces; insu ance; and
in es men (Hampshi e & Gai es, 2011; Shaheen e al., 2012; Janasz & Schneidewind, 2017). Fu he mo e, Shaheen
e al. (2012) added he impo ance o in eg a ing in- ehicle echnology, such as con ol and secu i y mechanisms,
and in- ehicle da a eco ding and ansmission de ices.
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