Di Foggia, Giacomo; A igo, Ugo
A icle
The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e
unc ions: insigh s om he ine iciency o I alian local
public anspo
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics (EJGE)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e sidade da Co una
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Di Foggia, Giacomo; A igo, Ugo (2015) : The scope o public o ganisa ions
wi h p oduc i e unc ions: insigh s om he ine iciency o I alian local public anspo , Eu opean
Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics (EJGE), ISSN 2254-7088, Uni e sidade da Co una, A Co uña,
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Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics
Volume 4, Numbe 2 (Decembe 2015)
ISSN: 2254-7088
134
The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h
p oduc i e unc ions: insigh s om he
ine iciency o I alian local public anspo
Ugo A igo, Uni e si y o Milano-Bicocca
Giacomo Di Foggia, Uni e si y o Milano-Bicocca
Abs ac
I is a well-known ac ha e o ms necessa y o enhance compe i ion and make
he economy mo e a ac i e play a majo ole in he Go e nmen ac i i y in
Eu ope. Conside ing he I alian s a e o a ai s, his pape ocuses on he
ine iciency o public p oduce s in he ligh o ce ain ma ke and legal impedimen s.
This pape desc ibes key ba ie s ha unde mine he heal hy unc ioning o an
impo an indus ial and se ice sec o o he I alian economy: speci ically local
public anspo . This pape also sheds some ligh on his p oblem analysing he
impac ha a con o e sial egula ion amewo k may ha e on an indus y and
sugges s ha he deg ee o libe alisa ion a ec s he e u n on in es men s.
JEL classi ica ion
H11; H40; D78.
Keywo ds
S a e-owned en e p ises; e iciency; I aly; local public anspo ; compe i ion.
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 4(2)
135
1. In oduc ion
The economic li e a u e on public economics has o en analysed ela ionships
be ween he go e nmen , socie y and he ma ke , ecu en ly o e alua e he ole o
public o ganisa ions and he impac o public policies on he unc ioning o mode n
ma ke s. Indeed, o e he pas decades, he e has been heigh ened in e es in he
o ganisa ion and e iciency o public o ganisa ions wi h as consensus o essen ial
key oles o mode n go e nmen s ha comp ehend he p o ec ion o indi iduals’
eedom, he edis ibu ion o esou ces and he mi iga ion o ma ke ailu es (Polli ,
2004), acco dingly, many schola s ag ee on he good eason o he exis ence o
go e nmen o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e unc ions. A ela i ely young a ea o
esea ch is he analysis o Eu opean in eg a ion on local go e nmen s alongside
hei suble els. In his ega d, i is gene ally acknowledged ha public budge s in
many Eu opean coun ies a e unde signi ican cons ain s. Schmid (2006) a gues
ha he ins i u ional s uc u e has con ibu ed o al e he balance o powe among
na ional ins i u ions and weakened na ional decision au onomy.
The e iciency o he s a e-owned en e p ises o EU coun ies a ies widely,
howe e a ailable in o ma ion on hei pe o mance is agile. Ne e heless,
signi ican e en i minu e s eps o wa d a e being made in I aly, in ac , he
publica ion o he da abase on SOEs (especially key accoun s a iables) has
cons i u ed a conside able ad ance o e he p e ious si ua ion, allowing he
knowledge o he main cha ac e is ics o such i ms, and acili a ing he e alua ion
o pe o mance acco ding o he di e en indus ies. Wi h his in mind, i is
unde lined ha he pe o mance can be s ongly a ec ed by a mul i ude o
exogenous ac o s ha can’ be obse ed om ou analyses. A any a e, Pu nam
e al. (1994) p o ide measu es o e alua e ins i u ional pe o mance gi en ha he
quali y o he ins i u ion is s ongly co ela ed wi h g ow h (A nold e al. 2011).
P io esea ch p o ides use ul inpu s using di e en app oaches and shows ha
new challenges a ise o public o ganisa ions as hey ha e o deal wi h apid and
accele a ing economic change, inc easing complexi y o egula o y issues, new
echnologies and se ices, calls o openness, anspa ency and ci izen
pa icipa ion (Pi lik e al. 2012). Re o ms mus be implemen ed and sus ained
du ing imes when iscal cons ain s and budge consolida ion p essu es become
inc easingly igh e since good legisla i e amewo ks can p omo e he heal hy
unc ioning o he ma ke (A nold e al. 2011).
Howe e , egula o y amewo ks (i) may be lawed by a ious ac o s ha
unde mine hei public in e es aims, (ii) may in ol e cos s ha exceed hei
expec ed bene i s; (iii) may suddenly become obsole e because o echnical
de elopmen s o he e olu ion o demand. Many economis s end o be inclined o
os e policies aimed a inc easing compe i ion in o de o inc ease e iciency
(Ama al e al., 2009; Jonsson, 1984; Niskanen, 1973).
Such compe i ion can also be gene a ed wi h he aid o con inuous p oduc i i y and
e iciency compa isons be ween public bodies which p o ide simila ou pu .
Likewise, o he au ho s ha e been s essing he impo ance o collabo a ion
(En wis le and Ma in, 2005; Ha ley e al. 2013; Osbo ne and S okosch, 2013;
Wa ne , 2011).
In his pape he owne ship o en e p ises is also discussed, he e is in ac
enewed in e es in he ole ha SOEs can play in p omo ing economic
de elopmen , he ela ionship be ween SOEs and he go e nmen as a
sha eholde , and he c i e ia used in assessing op ions o in es ing in o disposing
o s a e-owned en e p ises. Gi en he impo ance o a well- unc ioning sec o and
he p esence o ce ain indica ions ha compe i ion in he I alian local public
anspo s uggles (Boi ani e al. 2009; IBL, 2013), we y o look a he easons o
hese ine iciencies.
A igo and Di Foggia ● The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e unc ions
136
In an e o o p o ide hese concep s wi h mo e de ails, we ocus on he
pe o mance o he selec ed en e p ises ope a ing in i . As he indus y is s ongly
egula ed and he beha iou o companies needs o be assessed in he con ex o
he exis ing egula o y amewo k, we also look in b oad e ms a aspec s o he
egula o y amewo k. We hen champion some condi ions o be achie ed o
de ended, such equi emen s lies in he es ic ion o he spoil sys em, choice o
managemen made om speci ic lis s o candida es wi h a ce i ied le el o
expe ise and based on ee-access compa a i e selec ion p ocedu es and
implemen a ion o aining schools and human esou ces de elopmen .
App op ia e policies could p o ide ci izens wi h e icien se ices while a he same
ime may con ibu e o he c ea ion o an open business en i onmen ha suppo s
he compe i i eness o he indus y. Tha said, policies will ensu e ha se ices
en us ed by open, anspa en and non-disc imina o y ende s, make a ailable he
public se ice obliga ions and he p ocedu es o de e mining compensa ion, and
de ine p ecisely he subjec o he ende and he amoun o in es men s.
The esul s o ou analysis sugges a posi i e ela ion be ween open business
en i onmen and p oduc i i y. Ne e heless his ela ion is only es ed using he
e u n on equi y (ROE) as dependen a iable consis en ly wi h he I alian Minis y
o Economics. We ind ha SOEs ope a ing in a highly libe alised ma ke (ene gy)
ou pe o m hose ope a ing in local public anspo a ion.
The emainde o his pape is s uc u ed as ollows: in he i s sec ion, we p o ide
a e iew o ela ed li e a u e used o in oduce and suppo ou s a emen s. A e
ha , he backg ound o he I alian si ua ion is p esen ed; his is ollowed by he
in oduc ion o he I alian local public anspo ma ke . Nex , he empi ical analysis
is pe o med. The discussion o he esul s and conclusion ollow.
2. Re iew o ele an li e a u e
The e olu ion o he ole o go e nmen in mode n s a es has been well
documen ed and a guably ep esen s one o he cu en mos hough -p o oking
opics (Heady, 2001). A keys one in he classi ica ion o oles is he wo k o
Musg a e (1959); p o iding o adjus men s in he dis ibu ion o income and he
unc ion o con ibu ing o s abilisa ion, see Habe mas (1994), Dahl (1947) and
Ke l (2002). Simila ly, Ba o (1958), Newman (1974), B own, Po oski and Van
Slyke (2006), Haque, (2001) desc ibe he iple ole o go e nmen : secu i y o he
indi iduals’ eedom, he edis ibu ion o esou ces, and he in e en ion in ma ke
ailu es. While he i s wo oles – edis ibu ion o esou ces and he in e en ion in
ma ke ailu es – de i e om he unc ioning o he ma ke , as explained in
no ma i e economic heo y (Buchanan, 1968; Ma imo and Pouye , 2008), he
secu i y o he indi iduals’ eedom is a condi ion sine qua non o mode n s a es
(B ennan, 1977; Nozick, 1974). I migh be objec ed hough ha despi e many
di e en app oaches ha e been p oposed in an e o o shed some ligh on his
issue he iden i ica ion o scope and unc ions is ough (Hood, 2000). This is
co obo a ed by Raadschelde s and Lee (2011) ha p esen a his o ical e iew o
esea ch and in e ha mo e ecen esea ch has ended o ocus on di e en
me hods, mainly ega ding o ganisa ion, me ics and pe o mance (F ede ickson e
al 2003; G andy, 2009; Os om and Os om, 1971).
A c i ical aspec howe e o many s udies aimed a assessing he pe o mance o
public en i ies in complying wi h hei manda e is he compa abili y o me hodology
and esul s cha ac e ised by ema kable he e ogenei y. In his sense, A onso e al.
(2005) compu e public sec o pe o mance (PSP) and public sec o e iciency
(PSE) indica o s and ind di e ences ha lead he au ho s o sugges pa hs o
public sa ings. To he same oken Dabla-No is e al. (2012) p o ide a public
in es men e iciency index ha cap u es he ins i u ional en i onmen unde pinning
public in es men managemen ac oss ou di e en s ages: p ojec app aisal,
selec ion, implemen a ion, and e alua ion. These s udies sugges ha
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 4(2)
137
go e nmen s besides he public sec o play an impo an ole in he economic li e
o he s a e h ough he e enue and expendi u e measu es. In he same ashion
o he gene al oles ou lines abo e he essen ial economic pu poses o bi a ound
a e axa ion and expendi u e measu es, s abilisa ion policies ( equi ed by he
go e nmen o a ec he le els o agg ega e demand) and alloca ion, i.e. he
p o ision o public goods ha canno be p o ided h ough ma ke mechanism. In
ce ain cases, e.g. i he e is ma ke ailu e, go e nmen may be able o p o ide he
good a a mo e op imal le el and p ice i compa ed wi h he ma ke equilib ium. As
a ma e o ac he economic manda e jus i ies a p oduc i e unc ion, e en ually, in
he o m o public p oduce s, bo h p o iding ma ke and non-ma ke goods and
se ices.
None heless, o he models o p o ision o ma ke and non-ma ke goods and
se ices exis , e.g. public-p i a e pa ne ships a e g owing in popula i y as a
go e ning model (Fo e e al., 2010). As a p oduce o goods and se ices, public
adminis a ion plays a signi ican ole o he well-being o ci izens and he
compe i i eness o coun ies.
Hence, he ques ions o which ac o s imp o e pe o mance and aise capaci ies o
a public adminis a ion o p o ide goods and se ices e icien ly a e a he hea o
all discussions abou public sec o e o ms (Pi lik e al., 2012). To his ega d a
g ea deal has been w i en abou he poli ics- ela ed ac o s ha impac on
pe o mance o i ms (Al-Obaidan and Scully, 1992; Bo asso and Sembenelli,
2004; Sapienza, 2004; Shlei e and Vishny, 1994; Zheng e al. 2003). Ama al
(2008) analyses he de e minan s o he pe o mance di e en ial be ween he
p i a e and public managemen o u ban public anspo in Eu ope. Acco ding o
he au ho , p i a e managemen is associa ed wi h lowe ope a ing cos s; howe e ,
he di e en ial can depend on he in e ac ion o he local au ho i ies' capaci y o
expe ise and he p i a e ope a o s' au onomy ma gin. In e ms o o al cos s, no
sys ema ic ad an ages should be expec ed om p i a e managemen . Despi e
signi ican egional a ia ion bo h be ween and wi hin di e en egions, he e is
widesp ead consensus on he scope o SOEs, o example, o co ec ma ke
ailu es, p o ide public goods, and os e economic de elopmen (Kowalski, Büge,
Sz aje owska and Egeland 2013). The p e iously men ioned p oduc i e unc ions
jus i y ce ain public p oduce s (A igo and Di Foggia, 2013; Dewen e and
Mala es a, 2001; Toninelli, 2000).
Al hough he go e nmen as a egula o and owne o asse s opens a possibili y o
a ou able ea men g an ed o SOEs (Kowalski, Büge, Sz aje owska and
Egeland, 2013), i may be a gued ha he e is, howe e , s ill li le eliable
in o ma ion on hei e iciency and on he ad an ages hey may be enjoying
because o hei owne ship since SOEs inc easingly compe e wi h p i a e i ms.
Fi ms equen ly in e ac wi h public adminis a ion in many di e en ways and in a
a ie y o di e en ci cums ances. In addi ion, i ms indi ec ly ely on public
adminis a ion ou pu s. Thus, an e icien public adminis a ion ha e icien ly
p o ides public goods and se ices and ha abso bs ela i ely ew public
esou ces a ec s p oduc i i y and compe i i eness o i ms (A onso e al. 2005;
Allum, 1974; Caland a, 1978; F a ianni and Spinelli,1982; Onga o, 2004; To es,
2004). O he au ho s p o ide pieces o e idence on he causes o ine iciency
(Capano, 2003; Cassese, 1993; Del Mon e and Papagni, 2001; Tanzi, 1998).
Bandie a e al. (2008) es ima e he cos o ac i e (i s p esence en ails di ec o
indi ec bene i o he public decision-make ) and passi e (i s p esence does no
ad an age he public decision-make ) was e om obse ed cos s o public
se ices.
The au ho s assess he impac on how e icien ly a ce ain public se ice is
p o ided. Thei model ocused on gene ic goods pu chase which accoun o 40
pe cen o public spending o goods and se ices. Thei indings sugges ha he
di e ence in p ices ac oss public bodies is p incipally due o a ia ion in passi e

A igo and Di Foggia ● The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e unc ions
138
(83 pe cen o o al) a he han ac i e was e. Based on a e age o al cos (F ank,
Be nanke and Johns on, 2007) show ha p oduc i e ine iciency implies an excess
o p oduc ion cos s. O he no ewo hy and widely in es iga e elemen s ha concu
o de e mine he a e age low pe o mance o I aly a e bo h clien elism (Caciagli,
2006; Della Po a and Vannucci, 1997; Ga cía, 2013; Guzzini, 1995) and
co up ion. Also esul s o a ecen s udy (Fio ino e al. 2012) con i m e idence o a
nega i e co ela ion be ween co up ion and g ow h.
A he ime o w i ing a con o e sial opic is he unde pe o mance o local public
anspo o LPT sec o . I is gene ally acknowledged ha public budge s, including
hose dedica ed o co e public anspo , a e unde signi ican cons ain s. Recen
aus e i y measu es ha e a ec ed his sec o oo. Be ween 2010 and 2012, he
indus y wi nessed an o e all decline in esou ces (600 million) o -12 pe cen o
public con ibu ions. The educ ion o public ans e s has igge ed a gene al
endency o aise he p ice o icke s. Acco ding o a ecen ac - inding
in es iga ion o he I alian Compe i ion Au ho i y (AGCOM, 2014), he ongoing
si ua ion o gene al ine iciency and lack o inancial esou ces is la gely a ibu able
o he owne ship, he managemen objec i es and he egula o y amewo k ha is
laye ed and no always consis en . As highligh ed by Asque (2011), local public
anspo has adi ionally been ope a ed by local s a e-owned en e p ises – SOEs.
Boi ani e al. (2009) in es iga e how he owne ship and he p ocedu e o he
selec ion o i ms ope a ing in he local public anspo sec o a ec hei
p oduc i i y. In o de o compa e di e en ins i u ional egimes, hey ca y ou a
compa a i e analysis o companies ope a ing in la ge Eu opean ci ies. The au ho s
ind ha when i ms a e o ally o pa ially in public hands hei p oduc i i y is lowe .
Mo eo e , i ms selec ed h ough compe i i e ende ing display highe o al ac o
p oduc i i y. Howe e he e a e cases o SOEs success wo ldwide and some
SOEs a e closing he gap wi h hei p i a e-sec o compe i o s.
As a as we know, he e a e, howe e , ew s udies ha speci ically analyse SOEs
based on p o i abili y measu es. Bo ai d and Lö le (2009) p o ide some highligh s
on key concep s o managemen and pe o mance measu emen ha include
p o i abili y a ios. In ac he p o i made by o ganiza ions can be e ec i ely
e alua ed when compa ed o he amoun o esou ces and ac i i y equi ed o
gene a e i . Re u n on in es men (ROI) is a widely used measu e o o e all
pe o mance and he e a e wo key app oaches o ROI (Walsh, 2003). The i s
app oach is based on he Re u n on To al Asse s (ROTA) o Re u n on Capi al
Employed (ROCE) which ocuses on ope a ing e iciency o he o al en e p ise.
The second app oach, employed in his pape , is based on he Re u n on Equi y
(ROE), which concen a es on pe o mance e iciency as ansla ed in o e u n o
sha eholde s. I is an icipa ed ha his app oach opens o se e al in e p e a ions.
3. Backg ound
3.1. Unsui abili y o egula ion p e en s he heal hy unc ioning
o local ma ke s
A b eak h ough in egula o y policy du ing he las decades has been he
awa eness ha go e nmen objec i es o he u ili y indus ies can also ake bene i
om acili a ing compe i ion (A igo and Di Foggia, 2013). The Eu opean
Commission en o ces compe i ion ules owa ds a single ma ke by ensu ing ha
all companies compe e equally and ai ly (Eu opean Commission, 2014a). This
bene i s consume s, businesses and he economy as a whole.
The compe i i e ma ke is p ima ily a selec ion mechanism o economic beha iou ,
e alua ed in e ms o e iciency, able o p o ec consume s and ul ima ely he
gene al public om he e ec s o poo decisions made by p oduce s.
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 4(2)
139
S ill, i compe i ion does no seem possible wi h ega ds o public o ganisa ions ha
p oduce adminis a i e ac s, i may be in oduced o SOEs ha compe e wi h
p i a e companies unde speci ic ules and in iable sec o s. This can in oduce
adequa e compe i ion o se ices ha will be o e ed by many o ganiza ions using
he same in as uc u e, as i is no economically con enien o duplica e i (OECD,
2004). To his ex en , A nold e al. (2011) unde sco e ha egula ion gene ally
add esses public-in e es conce ns abou ma ke ailu es, including monopoly
condi ions, ex e nali ies and asymme ic in o ma ion. In his con ex , a good
egula ion can p omo e compe i ion in ce ain indus ies by ensu ing ha ma ke
powe in na u al-monopoly segmen s is no used abusi ely and by p o iding he
co ec incen i es o business pa icipan s.
Howe e , egula o y amewo ks may be lawed by a ious ac o s, hus (i) some
egula ions may d i away om hei o iginal public in e es aims, (ii) egula ions
some imes in ol e cos s ha exceed hei expec ed bene i s and (iii) echnical
de elopmen , he e olu ion o demand and p og ess in egula o y echniques can
make he design o egula ions obsole e.
E en i i does no c ea e e ec i e compe i ion, he sepa a ion o p oduc ion and
dis ibu ion would make he in oduc ion o o ms o compa a i e compe i ion
be ween supplie s ope a ing in di e en geog aphical a eas possible. The same
me hod may also be in oduced in o de o e alua e he pe o mance o simila
o ices in he ypically public a ea o he p oduc ion o adminis a i e ac s.
3.2. Deg ee o libe alisa ion
The Wo ld Economic Fo um de ines compe i i eness as he se o ins i u ions,
policies, and ac o s ha de e mine he le el o p oduc i i y o a coun y. A he
oo s o compe i i eness a e he ins i u ional and mic oeconomic policy
a angemen s ha c ea e he igh condi ions o a weal hy business en i onmen
unde which businesses can g ow (Eu opean Commission, 2014b). By analysing
eigh sec o s, Asque (2011) sugges s ha he di icul y o implemen libe alisa ion
and egula o y e o ms in I aly may be explained by a ious concu en o ces,
which ha e o do wi h: he en -seeking beha iou , he ise o ba ie s o en y
agains compe i o s, and he isk o collusi e p ac ices be ween egula o s and
egula ed. I becomes he e o e impo an o shed some ligh on ac o s ha impac
he e iciency o I alian public adminis a ion.Table 1 gi es an idea abou he ank o
libe alisa ion in di e en sec o s in I aly. Fo each sec o a numbe o c i e ia a e
employed in o de o assess he exis ence o ba ie s o en y in, o ganiza ion
wi hin, and exi om he ma ke . The exis ence o such ba ie s is in e ed om a
numbe o quan i a i e as well as quali a i e indica o s. Among he o me ,
concen a ion indices, p ice dynamics, he public s. p i a e owne ship o he
incumben s, and o he s uc u al indica o s a e conside ed. Among he la e , he
Index o Libe alisa ion looks a such indica o s as he deg ee o unbundling o
essen ial acili ies in ne wo k indus ies, he exis ence o iscal o legal
disc imina ions agains he newcome s, he egula o y quali y, e c.
A igo and Di Foggia ● The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e unc ions
140
Table 1: Index o Libe alisa ion (I aly)
Sec o s 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2012/07*
Na u al Gas 48 54 52 55 62 64 +16
Pos 37 38 38 41 47 52 +15
Elec ici y 63 65 69 71 72 77 +14
Labou Ma ke 50 35 55 60 60 60 +10
Mo o way 32 32 29 29 28 40 +8
Financial Se ices 59 62 63 64 69 66 +7
P o essional
o de s 46 46 47 47 47 52 +6
I aly ( o al) 47 47 49 48 49 52 +5
Telecommunica io
n 40 35 39 41 42 45 +5
A 55 55 56 56 56 58 +3
Inland e enue 44 43 52 48 48 47 +3
Public
adminis a ion 40 37 35 38 39 42 +2
Local public
anspo 45 46 43 43 44 45 0
Ai ways 66 70 68 60 62 65 -1
Wa e 27 27 32 17 19 19 -8
TV 70 68 67 65 62 61 -9
Railways 49 49 49 41 36 36 -13
*Change o e he pe iod 2007 – 2012. Sou ce: IBL (2012), Libe alisa ion Index, page 41.
Table 1 also shows he o e all ankings o he IBL libe alisa ion index, compa ing
his yea ’s ankings wi h hose om he p e ious edi ion o he index, showing all
sec o s anked oge he . As G aph 1 shows he IBL Index o Libe alisa ion appea s
o be co ela ed wi h he Wo ld Economic Fo um’s Compe i i eness Index while i is
nega i ely co ela ed wi h he OECD S a e Con ol indica o (The indica o co e s
o mal egula ions in he a ea o s a e con ol o business en e p ises). These
ela ionships suppo he idea ha he selec ed index cap u es ac o s ha a e
impo an o de eloping he LPT indus y. On he same basis we see he IBL
Libe alisa ion Index is aken as a e e ence o measu ing he libe alisa ion deg ee
o wo I alian sec o s, namely LPT and ene gy o be used in ou analysis.
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 4(2)
141
G aph 1: Co ela ion be ween IBL's Index o Libe alisa ions, WEF's
Compe i i eness index and OECD S a e Con ol Indica o
Sou ce: own elabo a ion based on IBL libe alisa ion index (IBL_Lib), OECS S a e Con ol indica o
(OECD_STC), WEF compe i i eness index (WEF; GCI). Re e ence yea : 2013.
3.3. The owne ship o o ganisa ions
The e a e well-known di e ences be ween go e nance o public and p i a e
companies (Rainey e al. 1976) and he concep o go e nance is a g owing body
o Eu opean li e a u e (Pe e s and Pie e, 1998). Al hough s a e-owned en e p ises
as go e nmen asse s open a possibili y o a ou able ea men hese
o ganisa ions may cope wi h mul iple, unclea , o con lic ing inancial and social
objec i es. Poli ical in e e ence can p omp decisions ha h ea en a company’s
inancial goals; he e o e, manage s can ind i ho ny o ma ch he p i a e sec o ’s
pe o mance s anda ds. The de ining cha ac e is ics o such o ganisa ions a e ha
hey ha e a dis inc legal o m and hey a e es ablished o ope a e in ma ke s e en
in hey may also ha e public policy objec i es.
To be e comp ehend he s uggle o public managemen and decision- aking
p ocess one mus emembe ha adminis a i e ac ion wi hin he sphe e o he
s a e ha p oduces adminis a i e ac s, is go e ned by igid w i en p ocedu es ha
a e consis en wi h he jus ice/equali y objec i es ha adminis a i e ac ion
pu sues. Ga one e al. (2013), unde line ha managemen disc e ion is a
signi ican sou ce o ine iciency in municipal en e p ises. Public sec o
o ganisa ions a e simila o p i a e companies since hey ha e hie a chical
s uc u es ha impose manda o y alloca ions o p oduc i e ac o s.
Howe e , while in p i a e companies pe sonal au ho i y as de ined by A ow (1974)
is dominan , in public o ganisa ions impe sonal au ho i y p e ails, consis ing o
w i en ules and laws and egula ions ha a e ela i ely igid and s able o e ime
(A ow, 1974). In his way, public sec o o ganisa ions do no bene i om he
ad an age ha p i a e companies ha e, ep esen ed by non- igidi y and he open
and only pa ially p ede e mined con en o wo k con ac s. In p i a e companies,
he ules and p ocedu es a e subjec o he leade ship, on he con a y, in public
o ganisa ions, leade ship is subjec o ules. The e o e, in he case o poo legal
A igo and Di Foggia ● The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e unc ions
148
he e a e con as ing s udies ocused on he e en ual poli ical in e e ence and on
i s e ec i e abili y o p omp decisions ha h ea en a company’s inancial goals.
Ou indings sha e a numbe o simila i ies wi h hose epo ed in some o he
pape s abo e men ioned and in e ms o he models p esen ed in Table 6, esul s
suppo he heo e ical assump ion ha di e en le els o libe alisa ion associa ed
wi h di e en indus ial ac i i ies a ec he ROE. Appa en ly, a compe i i e
en i onmen wi h a sound egula o y amewo k may enable imp o emen s in he
p o i abili y o i ms, speci ically he pe o mance e iciency as ansla ed in o e u n
o sha eholde s. In addi ion coe icien s associa ed wi h he dummy a iables
ENERGY, posi i e (p<0.05), and LPT, nega i e (p<0.01) a e bo h signi ican ,
he e o e as pu o wa d, ou esul s show di e en p o i abili y o i ms ac oss
di e en ma ke s, egula o y amewo ks and compe i ion le els. Gi en ha ou
indings a e based on a limi ed numbe o i ms, he esul s om such analyses
should consequen ly be ea ed wi h he u mos cau ion. Impo an limi a ions migh
ha e in luenced he esul s ob ained, allowing al e na i e explana ions. In
pa icula , as p e iously indica ed, i is possible ha ine iciency may be d i en
mo e by omi ed o ces han by he a iables highligh ed in ou heo e ical and
empi ical a gumen s.
As pe he egula ion o local public se ices, he cu en si ua ion is a a s ands ill.
Al hough he goal is o mo e om a sys em o a ibu ion o exclusi e igh s by
issuing adminis a i e o de s o he libe alisa ion o he se ice, which en ails he
consequen ee deli e y, some c i ical aspec s mus be conside ed, among o he s
he public se ice obliga ions o be obse ed by he ope a ing en i y, he de ini ion
o economic compensa ion and he issue o minimum s anda ds (e iciency and
quali y) o se ices o be p o ided. We unde line he need o high quali y se ices
g an ed in e icien and a o dable p ocedu es and p o iding all s akeholde s wi h
he equi ed legal ce ain y. In his sense app op ia e policies would p o ide people
wi h e icien se ices while a he same ime con ibu e o he c ea ion o an open
business en i onmen ha suppo s he compe i i eness o he indus y. As a
p emise, he simpli ica ion o he ma ke access p ocedu e, in e ms o ime
equi ed o au ho isa ion is needed. A he same ime he widely ecognised lack o
anspa ency in he cu en sys em impedes he e icien de elopmen o his
ma ke . We claim ha he comple ion o he libe alisa ion and simul aneously he
p i a isa ion o a numbe o en e p ises would pilo a be e alloca ion o esou ces
and consequen ly o an inc ease o he demand (appa en ly unde he le el o he
men ioned Eu opean coun ies). As a ma e o ac , acco ding o OECD (2006),
SOEs ace explici di icul ies ega ding hei go e nance since a e o en e ec i ely
p o ec ed om wo majo h ea s i.e. h ea o akeo e and bank up cy. Da a in
Table 7 seem o con i m ha p oblems a ise when con ol o public en i ies exceed
he 50 pe cen . We also ag ee wi h indings o he Compe i ion au ho i y AGCOM
(2014) who ad ises ha he mos impo an aspec s o he ma ke de elopmen
a e he p ope de ini ion o he a eas o public se ice, bo h in e ms o e i o y as
ega ds he na u e o he se ices o e ed and he de ini ion o minimum se ices
and he ela ed ques ion o he co ec quan i ica ion o he compensa ion o he
public se ice obliga ions.
Table 7: Ne Income pe employee and EBITDA ma gin (I aly - EU 15)
coun y Public owne ship EBITDA
Ne Income pe
Employee
IT >50.01% 8.05 -2.69
≤ 50% 10.11 43.80
EU-15 >50.01% 11.18 18.39
≤ 50% 13.24 74.39
Sou ce: own elabo a ion
Ou esul s con ibu e o he li e a u e on he go e nance o I alian public anspo
by ocusing on how di e en ma ke s uc u es in luence he p o i abili y o i ms.
Resul s suppo leade s o public sec o o ganisa ions as well as policy make s.

Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 4(2)
149
Ou esea ch sugges s ha , as pe he p o i abili y o i ms wi hin he LPT sec o ,
SOEs could boos hei p oduc i i y. Howe e , companies and o he o ganisa ions
and policy make s need o add ess conside able challenges i hey a e o cap u e
he ull po en ial o such ma ke s.
5.1. Conclusion
In his pape , we ha e highligh ed ha public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e
esponsibili ies – public p oduce s – may ace mul iple p oblems linked o he
owne ship, he managemen , he egula o y amewo k and he deg ee o
compe i ion o he ma ke s in which hey ope a e. This is done in con o mi y wi h
he indings o he Eu opean Commission (2014b) epo on compe i ion as i
shows ha compe i ion en o cemen helps p omo ing g ow h and compe i i eness
o s a es, p e en s dominan companies om expelling compe i o s om he
ma ke , keeps ma ke s open and e icien , and c ea es he condi ions o lowe
inpu p ices o he indus y. As pe he go e nmen expendi u e ela ed o SOEs
(also in he o m o s a e aid), policies aimed a en o cing compe i ion help o s ee
public esou ces owa ds g ow h-enhancing objec i es. Indeed, on he one hand
we ha e s essed ha like unlaw ul go e nmen subsidies, unp oduc i e
go e nmen expendi u e in SOEs can dis o he le el playing ield, e ec
supe luous ba ie s and unde mine he g ow h po en ial. On he o he hand, we
ha e also poin ed ou ha go e nmen suppo and in e en ion can also ha e a
posi i e impac when i is well- a ge ed.
We ad oca e ha e iciency and p o i abili y p oblems a ise in ma ke s
cha ac e ised by biases in some o he abo e men ioned aspec s which h ea en
compe i ion. This is pa icula ly ue in hose ma ke s whe e go e nmen s end o
in e ene o p o ec incumben s. Focusing on local public anspo , we ha e
highligh ed c i ical aspec s ha ha e a nega i e impac on ma ke de elopmen .
Speci ically, he e idence o his s udy and he ela ed li e a u e poin s owa ds he
idea ha bo h exogenous ac o s like he egula o y amewo k and he le el o
compe i ion coexis wi h endogenous ac o s (owne ship and size) and mu ually
concu o he ine iciency o LPT. Gi en hese poin s, we ha e unde lined ha he
esul s o ou es ima es ein o ce ou a gumen s. Ou esul s endow p elimina y
suppo o ou assump ions. O e all, he esul s o he h ee eg ession analyses
e eal a numbe o signals on how he ma ke s uc u e impac s on he employed
measu e o pe o mance, he ROE. Indeed, coe icien s associa ed wi h he
a iables aimed a iden i ying he ene gy and LPT ma ke s, con i m he be e
pe o mance o i ms ope a ing in he ene gy ma ke . The indings a e no
ep esen a i e o he en i e SOEs uni e se i s ly because o he lack o consis en
and obus in o ma ion and secondly because in line wi h he opening decision his
pape does no add ess in de ail he po en ial addi ional a ec ing o ces. The
esul s howe e will be us ed conside ing he uni o mi y wi h mos o he
dedica ed li e a u e, hough he indings canno be gene alised o o he ma ke s,
coun ies o e en measu es o pe o mance.
Ou esea ch sugges s ha policies aimed a con aining go e nmen expendi u e
and in he mean ime inc easing he e iciency o he se ices p o ided will (i)
ensu e ha se ice ope a o s a e en us ed by open, anspa en and non-
disc imina o y ende s and p ocedu es, (ii) pu a he disposal o all po en ial
ope a o s clea and sound ules o comply wi h he public se ice obliga ions and
simpli y p ocedu es o de e mining compensa ion, and (iii) de ine p ecisely he
subjec o he ende s in o de no o hampe conside ably he pa icipa ion o new
en an s.
The indings o his esea ch ha e manage ial implica ions oo. Go e nmen s
should be able o selec op-le el managemen on SOEs who shall hen ha e
au onomy. A e ha , he selec ion o pe sonnel (bo h a op and middle le els)
should only be made om speci ic lis s de ailing candida es wi h ce i ied expe ise
based on ee-access compa a i e selec ion p ocedu es. To do his, ad anced and
A igo and Di Foggia ● The scope o public o ganisa ions wi h p oduc i e unc ions
150
p o essional schools o public managemen should be en o ced, c ea ing incen i e
schemes o encou age young people who a e mo i a ed and p epa ed o a public
ca ee . Fu u e wo k will concen a e on an in e na ional compa ison o con olled
companies and SOEs’ go e nance, egula ion and pe o mance in speci ic sec o s
by sha e o owne ship.
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