Cui, Ge-Qi; Lee, Jung-Yong; Jin, ChangHyun
A icle
The ole o spo s sponso ship in nega i e new s o ies
abou a b and: App oach he halo e ec
Cogen Business & Managemen
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Cui, Ge-Qi; Lee, Jung-Yong; Jin, ChangHyun (2019) : The ole o spo s
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The ole o spo s sponso ship in nega i e new
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Ge-Qi Cui, Jung-Yong Lee & Chang-Hyun Jin |
To ci e his a icle: Ge-Qi Cui, Jung-Yong Lee & Chang-Hyun Jin | (2019) The ole o spo s
sponso ship in nega i e new s o ies abou a b and: App oach he halo e ec , Cogen Business &
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MARKETING | RESEARCH ARTICLE
The ole o spo s sponso ship in nega i e new
s o ies abou a b and: App oach he halo e ec
Ge-Qi Cui
1
, Jung-Yong Lee
2
and Chang-Hyun Jin
2
*
Abs ac : This s udy examines whe he a company’s spo s sponso ship plays
a bu e ing ole ha mi iga es nega i e consume pe cep ions o he company o i s
b ands. The s udy highligh s he necessi y o examining how cong uence be ween
a spo s e en and a sponso ing b and is ela ed o b and image o b and a i ude
o ma ion. An expe imen al design was used o es he hypo heses. To p e en
leakage o in o ma ion abou he expe imen al s imulus, wo expe imen s we e
implemen ed in di e en places a he same ime. The e was no exposu e o ei he
expe imen al s imulus in ad ance. A andom sampling scheme was used o g oup
alloca ion. The esul s indica ed ha a i ude and image o ma ion changed con-
side ably when spo s sponso ship was s ongly ela ed o a company’s co po a e
image. In gene al, consume s expe ience amicable and a o able eac ions and
e alua ions o a company ha sponso s spo s e en s ha a e highly cong uen
wi h he company’s co po a e image. Consume s e alua e a company o p oduc
mo e a o ably when a spo s e en is cong uen wi h he company o p oduc
image. As indica ed in he expe imen al esul s, spo s sponso ship a ec s co po-
a e b and a i ude and pu chase in en ion.
Subjec s: B and Managemen ; Spo Psychology; Spo & Leisu e Indus ies
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Ge-Qi CUI is Ph.D candida e in he depa men o
business Adminis a ion a Kyonggi Uni e si y,
Ko ea. His main esea ch in e es is in b and
Communica ion, al e na i e ma ke ing s a egy,
and consume beha io .
Jung-Yong Lee is Ph.D candida e in he
depa men o business Adminis a ion a
SungKyunKwan Uni e si y, Ko ea. His main
esea ch in e es is in ma ke ing s a egy, in o -
ma ion echnology and consume psychology.
Chang-Hyun Jin is an associa e p o esso in
he depa men o business Adminis a ion a
Kyonggi Uni e si y, Ko ea. He ecei ed a Ph.D in
ad e ising om he Uni e si y o Flo ida and an
MA in ad e ising om he Uni e si y o Texas.
His main esea ch in e es is in ma ke ing com-
munica ion s a egies such as b anding, com-
munica ion echnology, ma ke ing heo y, and
consume psychology. His wo k has been pub-
lished in se e al jou nals. Chang-Hyun Jin is he
co esponding au ho and can be con ac ed a :
[email p o ec ed]
PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Global companies ha e aken g ea in e es in
global spo ing e en s because such ma ke ing
anscends cul u al ba ie s in an inc easingly
compe i i e wo ld economy. Mo eo e , no only is
he e ec i eness o ma ke ing ia adi ional
media weakening, bu companies also inc eas-
ingly iew spo s sponso ship o g ow b and
equi y. Global companies a e acing a ie ce and
ie ce and compe i i e en i onmen . In his
si ua ion, es ablishing a di e en ia ed co po a e
image has become as impo an as pu suing
p o i s.
Fo ha eason, spo s sponso ship is one o he
mos impo an ypes o sponso ship. A spo s
e en is a ield-o ien ed communica ion channel
o companies and many well-known companies
a e al eady using his channel. This s udy
ega ding he halo e ec o spo s sponso ship
a e expec ed o in o m p ac ical guidelines o
spo s sponso ship by s essing he impo ance o
he cong uence o a spo s e en wi h a co po a e
o b and image and examining i s ole as a bu e
ha mi iga es nega i e consume pe cep ions.
Cui e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2019), 6: 1699284
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2019.1699284
© 2019 The Au ho (s). This open access a icle is dis ibu ed unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC-BY) 4.0 license.
Recei ed: 23 May 2019
Accep ed: 25 No embe 2019
Fi s Published: 30 No embe 2019
*Co esponding au ho : Chang-Hyun
Jin, Business Adminis a ion, Kyonggi
Uni e si y, Ko ea, Republic o
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Re iewing edi o :
Len Tiu W igh , De Mon o
Uni e si y Facul y o Business and
Law, UK
Addi ional in o ma ion is a ailable a
he end o he a icle
Page 1 o 20
Keywo ds: nega i e e ec ; co po a e b and image; spo sponso ship; halo e ec ;
pu chase in en ion; cong uence e ec
1. In oduc ion
Ma ke e s and esea che s ha e long explo ed he e ec s o sponso ship, a ma ke ing al e na i e
o comme cial ad e ising. Spo s sponso ship in ol es placing b and images and logos on a h-
le es’uni o ms and equipmen as well as on s uc u al elemen s a spo s enues. The goal o
spo s sponso ship is o acili a e he ecogni ion o a co po a e b and and o sus ain and imp o e
i s b and image (Baue , Go don, & Spillecke, 2013; Co nwell e al., 2001; Coughlan & Mules, 2001).
Among spo s ma ke ing ools, sponso ship is eme ging as a p ominen means o le e aging
a o able images, he eby inc easing awa eness and unde s anding o i ms and hei p oduc s.
This ecen upsu ge o in e es in spo s sponso ship and i s ma ke ing alue has led o apid
g ow h in sponso ship in es men ou lays (Co nwell e al., 2005; Jin, 2017; Meenaghan, 2005;
Olson, 2010). Global companies ha e aken g ea in e es in global spo ing e en s because such
ma ke ing anscends cul u al ba ie s in an inc easingly compe i i e wo ld economy. Mo eo e ,
no only is he e ec i eness o ma ke ing ia adi ional media weakening (Wes be g e al., 2011),
bu companies also inc easingly iew spo s sponso ship as a way o g ow b and equi y (Wilson,
1998). Many companies use sponso ship o inc ease p oduc and b and awa eness as well as o
s eng hen he associa ion be ween hei b ands and a ge ed consume s. Sponso ship also helps
i ms di e en ia e hemsel es om hei compe i o s (Lagae, 2003) and ein o ces hei images
while aking ad an age o oppo uni ies o p omo e p oduc s o make sales (Mullin e al., 2000).
Fo hese easons, sponso ship has become an inc easingly popula ool o inc easing b and
exposu e and s a egic ma ke ing communica ion, shaping consume a i udes and managing
b and equi y (Cha ana e al., 2009; Meenaghan, 2005).
I is, howe e , di icul o measu e he e ec s o sus aining a co po a e b and image h ough
sponso ship. Many companies a e ac i ely ying o mo e accu a ely measu e he e ec s o
sponso ship. Some schola a gued ha he halo e ec is s onge when consume s lack knowledge
o a ce ain subjec (Kol u , 1962; Kozlowski, Ki sch, & Chao, 1986). The halo e ec in he ela ion-
ship be ween a coun y and companies ha ope a e manu ac u ing acili ies in ha coun y.
A halo e ec ha s ems om he associa ion o a company wi h social ac i i y such as cul u al
e en (Klein & Dawa , 2004). Al hough companies a e de eloping spo s sponso ship ac i i ies as
a ma ke ing s a egy, e y li le e alua ion o he e ec s o spo s sponso ship be o e and a e an
e en has been conduc ed. The p esen s udy con ibu es o inc easing he c edibili y o measu es
o sponso ship by examining he e ec s o such nega i e image in o ma ion and applying he
concep o he halo e ec .
Thus, he pu pose o his s udy a emp s o in es iga e whe he he e is an in e ac ion e ec
be ween exposu e o pola ized co po a e in o ma ion and wo di e en exposu e on he ans e
o b and image a ibu ion. Also, he s udy explo es on wha ole nega i e in o ma ion and
sponso ship cong uence play in a ec ing co po a e b and e alua ion, and pu chase in en ion.
The s udy also examines how he co po a e b and as pe cei ed by consume s a ec s he o ma-
ion o an image o he company and b and h ough he halo e ec . The empi ical esul s o his
s udy ega ding he halo e ec o spo s sponso ship a e expec ed o in o m p ac ical guidelines
o spo s sponso ship by s essing he impo ance o he cong uence o a spo s e en wi h
a co po a e o b and image and examining i s ole as a bu e ha mi iga es nega i e consume
pe cep ions.
2. Li e a u e e iew
2.1. Pe spec i e o spo s sponso ship
Global companies ha e aken g ea in e es in global spo ing e en s because such ma ke ing
anscends cul u al ba ie s in an inc easingly compe i i e wo ld economy. Mo eo e , no only is
Cui e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2019), 6: 1699284
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2019.1699284
Page 2 o 20
he e ec i eness o ma ke ing ia adi ional media weakening (Wes be g e al., 2011), bu
companies also inc easingly iew spo s sponso ship o g ow b and equi y (Wilson, 1998). Global
companies a e acing a ie ce and ie ce and compe i i e en i onmen . In his si ua ion, es ab-
lishing a di e en ia ed co po a e image has become as impo an as pu suing p o i s. A company’s
co po a e image no only helps i su i e in he ma ke ; i also enables he company o lead ma ke
change. Global companies a e in es ing ime and money in building hei own di e en ia ed
images. The alue o a co po a e b and image can be inc eased by imp o ing he co po a e
image. While co po a e ma ke ing s a egy has in he pas ocused on a “buy me”s a egy, ecen
ma ke ing s a egy has ocused mo e speci ically on a “lo e me”s a egy based on es ablishing
a b and image ha appeals o consume s’emo ions (Hol , 2004).
Gene ally, he objec i e o spo s sponso ship is o build co po a e epu a ion, posi i e b and
awa eness, and a posi i e b and image as well as spo s sponso ship communica ion c ea es
a b and associa ion in he mind o he consume by linking a b and o he sponso ed ac i i y
(Co nwell and Coo e, 2005;Gwinne &Ea on,1999; Koo e al., 2009). Spo s sponso ship is ega ded
as an e icien ma ke ing ool o acili a ing communica ion be ween companies and consume s
(Ab a and G oble , 1989; Baue e al., 2013;Meenaghan,1983;Sleigh ,1989). Sponso ship can
enhance a company’s epu a ion and inc ease consume awa eness o i s b ands as well as p o i -
abili y (Gwinne & Ea on, 1999; Hoek, Gendall, & Wes , 1990; Ja algi, T aylo , G oss, & Lampman,
1994; Woodside & Summe s, 2010). Sponso ship is mo e e ec i e when consume p oduc compa-
nies a ge he gene al public and indus ial p oduc companies a ge membe s o he business- o-
business communi y (C owley, 1991;Meenaghan,1991). Sponso ship, which p o ides inancial,
human, and physical suppo o a ce ain e en despi e he isk o loss, is such a pe suasi e p omo-
ional ool (Al eck & Se le, 1999; Co nwell and Coo e, 2005; Gwinne & Ea on, 1999).
As discussed, he e ec i eness o spo sponso ship, sponso ship is a p omo ional ool ha
makes deli e ing c i ical messages o consume s easie and has been shown o be highly e ec i e
compa ed wi h he cos o comme cial ad e ising (Has ings, 1984). Whe he a sponso ship can
achie e i s goals depends on he cong uence be ween he e en s, he sponso ’s a i ude, he
imp ession he sponso ship makes on consume s, and consume awa eness o he b and in ol ed
(Baue e al., 2013; Speed & Thompson, 2000). Spo s sponso ship is one o he mos impo an
ypes o sponso ship. A spo s e en is a ield-o ien ed communica ion channel o companies and
many well-known companies a e al eady using his channel.
Ye ew s udies ha e de eloped e ec i e c i e ia o e alua ing he alue o a spo s e en
despi e he appa en ly high u ili y o spo s sponso ship (Nicholls, Roslow, & Laskey, 1994).
Following inc eased a en ion o how companies in es o gain ma ke sha e, esea ch on he
e ec i eness o sponso ship is ac i e now. The e ec i eness o sponso ship o spo s e en s has
been epo ed in a numbe o s udies ha ha e ound ha sponso ship ul ima ely enhanced
a co po a e image. Also, esea ch has s udied di e se aspec s o he cong uence be ween co po-
a e images and e en s. Howe e , ew s udies ha e in es iga ed whe he a company’s spo s
sponso ship ac s as a bu e in an en i onmen ha is un a o able o he company. The e a e
i ually no s udies on he halo e ec o spo s e en s.
2.2. E ec s o nega i e in o ma ion
When a company is exposed o nega i e e en s o in o ma ion, he company and i s p oduc s and
se ices, as well as i s epu a ion, su e s nega i e impac s (Fea n-Banks, 1996). Nega i e in o ma-
ion comp ises any message ha can-do ha m o he epu a ion o alue o a company’s employ-
ees o p oduc s. When people a e exposed o a nega i e message, i is s o ed in long- e m o
sho - e m memo y and he eby a ec s cu en o u u e decision-making p ocesses (Weinbe ge ,
Allen, & Dillon, 1981). I a ce ain p oduc is shown o do damage, such as h ough ood poisoning,
o a company has p ac iced une hical ea men o wo ke s o inapp op ia e business p ac ices,
publici y abou such p oblems gene a es nega i e in o ma ion abou he company o i s p oduc s.
Cui e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2019), 6: 1699284
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2019.1699284
Page 3 o 20

In gene al, nega i e in o ma ion is e ealed by mass media, epo s om ci ic g oups, o consume
complain s (DiDomenico, Haugh, & T acey, 2010; Klein & Dawa , 2004).
Exposu e o nega i e in o ma ion abou a company o p oduc a ec s he company’s epu a ion
and consume s’in en ion o pu chase he p oduc (Weinbe ge & Lepkowska-Whi e, 2000).
Compa ed wi h posi i e in o ma ion, nega i e in o ma ion d aws a en ion om consume s mo e
easily and occupies a g ea e sha e o publicly a ailable in o ma ion han posi i e in o ma ion does.
Nega i e in o ma ion is some imes dis o ed by umo s (Richins, 1983). Nega i e in o ma ion is
epo ed o ha e a nega i e in luence on a company’s epu a ion, ma ke sha e, b and equi y, and
consume a i udes owa ds a b and (Klein & Dawa , 2004; an Hee de, Helsen, & Dekimpe, 2007).
In a si ua ion in which a company is exposed o a h ea om nega i e in o ma ion, he
company’s social esponsibili y ac i i y can help i ob ain c edibili y and ecogni ion as an e hical
company and he eby mi iga e he e ec s o nega i e in o ma ion. Ha ing a posi i e image based
on social esponsibili y ac i i y can be help ul when he company encoun e s a c isis. This s udy
examines whe he spo s e en sponso ship can also mi iga e he e ec s o nega i e publici y.
2.3. The halo e ec
Some schola de ined he halo e ec as a phenomenon whe eby he gene al opinion o a ce ain
objec a ec s he e alua ion o he objec ’s speci ic cha ac e is ics as well as he halo e ec
de ined as a logical e o ha occu s when a pe son e alua es logically un ela ed beha io s
simila ly (Newcomb, 1931; Well, 1907). Hawkins, Roge , and Coney (1992) ocused on he con-
sume pu chase decision p ocess and de ined he halo e ec as he in luence o a b and name o
co po a e epu a ion on consume beha io , in pa icula on consume beha io in he p ocess o
making pu chase decisions. Blum and Naylo (1968) and Anas asi (1988) de ined he halo e ec as
a phenomenon whe eby an e alua ion o some p ominen cha ac e is ics o an objec a ec s he
e alua ion o i s less p ominen cha ac e is ics. He e, he gene al imp ession o an e alua ed
objec o he e alua ion o i s p ominen cha ac e is ics becomes he o igin o he halo.
Conside ing he halo e ec mo e b oadly, i has been obse ed in social psychology, pe sonal
psychology, ma ke ing, and poli ics. The halo e ec also ac s di e sely and unconsciously in daily
li e. Pe sonal appea ance, amily backg ound, weal h, occupa ion, and au ho i y can gene a e a halo
e ec . P e ious s udies ha e a gued ha a gene al imp ession o an e alua ed objec o he p ominen
cha ac e is ics o he objec can also gene a e a halo e ec (Anas asi, 1988; Blum & Naylo , 1968).
Re u ning o his s udy’s ocus on co po a e o b and image, s udies ha e ound a halo e ec in
he ela ionship be ween a coun y and companies ha ope a e manu ac u ing acili ies in ha
coun y. Schi man (1972) ound ha a coun y image gene a es a halo e ec ha inclines
consume s o d aw ce ain conclusions abou a company o p oduc om he coun y when
he e is e y li le expe ience o in o ma ion abou he company o i s p oduc s.
2.4. The cong uence e ec
P e ious s udies on co po a e sponso ship ac i i y ha e ocused mainly on he concep o con-
g uence. The concep o cong uence has been s udied in a wide ange o esea ch ields in e ms o
i , simila i y, ele ancy, ela edness, o linking. The e m “cong uence”will be used h oughou his
pape based on de ining i as a “simila i y be ween a company and an e en ha he company
sponso s in e ms o image”(Gwinne , 1997). Cong uence is ocused on he simila i y be ween he
image ha he public has abou a company and he image o a sponso ed e en in a cul u al o
a is ic ield. Cong uence be ween a sponso and a subjec causes a s ong bond be ween he wo
and s eng hens image ans e (Gwinne , 1997; Gwinne & Ea on, 1999). A mo e posi i e a i ude
abou a sponso can be induced when cong uence be ween he sponso and an e en is g ea e
(Ri on, Choi, T imble, & Li, 2004). Cong uence be ween a sponso and an e en also has a posi i e
in luence on emo ional ans e (Chebli & Gha bi, 2014).
Cui e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2019), 6: 1699284
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2019.1699284
Page 4 o 20
This s udy examines changes o image a ibu es acco ding o he deg ee o cong uence
be ween a sponso and a spo s e en by ex ac ing componen s o b and image. This s udy
also in es iga es changes in he componen s o image a ibu es o a co po a e b and be o e
and a e exposu e o nega i e/posi i e in o ma ion abou a company.
2.5. Resea ch hypo heses
Exposu e o a company o a nega i e e en o in o ma ion can ha e a nega i e impac on he
company o he public, as well as i s p oduc s, se ices, and he epu a ion ela ed o he company
(Fea n-Banks, 1996). In gene al, consume s pay mo e a en ion o nega i e in o ma ion han
posi i e in o ma ion when conside ing an issue. Nega i e in o ma ion abou a company e ealed
by mass media no only hinde s es ablishing c edibili y wi h consume s, i can also cause a c isis
(Hena d, 2002). Consume s who ha e been exposed o nega i e in o ma ion use he nega i e
in o ma ion in hei decision-making mo e analy ically han in he case o posi i e in o ma ion
(Ahluwalia, Bu nk an , & Unna a, 2000; Fiske, 1980; Klein, 1996; Skow onski & Ca ls on, 1989).
Addi ionally, nega i e in o ma ion has been ound o a ac mo e in e es and a en ion on he
pa o consume s han posi i e in o ma ion (Maheswa an & Meye s-Le y, 1990). People end o
pe cei e s onge pain when losing a ce ain amoun o money han when gaining he same
amoun o money (Kahneman & T e sky, 1982). Consume s keep nega i e in o ma ion in hei
minds longe han neu al in o ma ion (Kensinge & Co kin, 2003).
Based on he abo e discussion, co po a e exposu e o nega i e in o ma ion abou a company
ce ainly a ec s he o ma ion o he company’s co po a e image. This s udy examines how he
image a ibu es o a co po a e b and change in es subjec s when hey a e exposed o nega i e
in o ma ion by conduc ing an ac ual expe imen . This s udy p oposes he ollowing hypo hesis:
H1: Unde he assump ion ha all o he condi ions a e he same, he alue o co po a e b and
image a ibu ions will be lowe a e exposu e o nega i e in o ma ion han be o e exposu e.
Cong uence be ween a company and a spo s e en is one o he key subjec s o esea ch on he
sponso ship e ec (Co nwell, Humph eys, Magui e, Weeks, & Tellegen, 2006). Rele an s udies
ha e emphasized he impo ance o he e en –sponso cong uence by highligh ing consume s’
posi i e pe cep ion o a company, sponso ship, o e en (Co nwell e al., 2006; Gwinne , 1997;
Gwinne & Ea on, 1999; Ri on e al., 2004). Companies can expec di e se posi i e impac s om he
mo e a o able a i ude o consume s ha sponso ship gene a es. Image ans e akes place
h ough ac o s such as he simila i y be ween a company and a spo s e en . Cong uence
consequen ly a ec s consume selec ion beha io in an e ec i e way (P acejus & Olsen, 2004;
Speed & Thompson, 2000). The le el o e en –sponso cong uence becomes an impo an ac o
when consume s e alua e sponso ship (Coppe i, Wen zel, Tomczak, & Henkel, 2009). As image
ans e om an e en o a sponso b and ac i ely occu s, consume a i udes owa ds he
sponso ing b and become mo e posi i e (Weeks, Co nwell, & D ennan, 2008). A p e ious s udy
epo ed ha a icula ion in sponso ship has a posi i e impac on memo ies o an e en and
sponso (Co nwell e al., 2006). While he sponso memo y e ec was neu al in he case o
a sponso ship ea u ing high cong uence, sponso memo y could be enhanced h ough a icula ion
in he case o a sponso wi h low cong uence (Co nwell e al., 2006).
Cong uence be ween an e en and a sponso has been ound o be one o he main
in luen ial ac o s in gene a ing a sponso ship e ec . Many s udies ha e s essed he impo ance
o e en –sponso cong uence (Gwinne , 1997; Gwinne & Ea on, 1999; Ri on e al., 2004).
Cong uence be ween a sponso and a subjec c ea es a s ong bond be ween he wo and he eby
s eng hens image ans e (Gwinne , 1997; Gwinne & Ea on, 1999). G ea e cong uence be ween
a sponso and an e en gene a es a mo e posi i e a i ude owa ds he sponso (Ri on e al., 2004).
A mo e posi i e e ec o a company’s spo s sponso ship can be expec ed when he image o he
spo s e en is highly cong uen wi h he company’sco po a e image.
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H2: Unde he assump ion ha all o he condi ions a e he same, a g oup ha is exposed o
a spo s sponso ship wi h g ea e cong uence be ween a co po a e image and a spo s e en will
place a highe alue on he co po a e b and image a ibu ions han a g oup ha is exposed o
a spo s sponso ship wi h less cong uence.
A p e ious s udy a gued ha consume a i udes do no easily change because o nega i e
in o ma ion when a company al eady has a good ela ionship wi h consume s (Coombs, 1999).
Tha is, he o ma ion o a posi i e ela ionship be ween a company and consume s can p e en
damage o in angible asse s ha he company has accumula ed, such as eliabili y o epu a ion,
as he posi i e ela ionship p oduces a halo e ec (Coombs & Holladay, 2004).
The o e all image o a pe son, a p oduc , a company, o a coun y is o malized by se e al
componen s o an image. An image a ec s he e alua ion o o he ela ed cha ac e is ics o an objec
once i is o med. In gene al, his phenomenon is connec ed o wha is known as he halo e ec , in
i ue o which a comp ehensi e image o a ce ain objec a ec s he e alua ion o o he cha ac e -
is ics o he objec (Ghiselli & B own, 1949). Resea che s ha e in es iga ed he halo e ec om
a a ie y o pe spec i es. Howe e , hey ha e commonly a gued ha consume s make e alua ions
based on comp ehensi e imp essions a he han dis inguishing be ween e alua ing a p oduc based
on di e se aspec s o i s pe o mance. A s udy on social esponsibili y also showed e idence o a halo
e ec . A halo e ec ha s ems om he associa ion o a company wi h social esponsibili y a ec s
h ee concep s o a ibu ion heo y, which include accoun abili y, s abili y, and con ollabili y. This in
u n posi i ely a ec s he b and and company e alua ion (Klein & Dawa , 2004).
The halo e ec is a esul o an indi idual’s o e all a i ude owa ds a b and and ha i has a g ea
in luence on he e alua ion o he b and’s indi idual a ibu es (Holb ook, 1983). People e alua e
a a ie y o speci ic cha ac e is ics by e e ing o he imp essions, memo ies, o a i udes ha hey
i s de elop o a ce ain objec o pe son. Depending on an e alua o ’s i s imp ession, he assessmen
o speci ic and di e se eelings is made in he same way, whe he posi i ely o nega i ely. A p e ious
s udy ound ha people who a e no amilia wi h a ce ain subjec de elop a s onge halo e ec han
hose who a e amilia wi h i . Consume amilia i y wi h a subjec , he e o e, plays a ole in gene a ing
he halo e ec as well (Kol u , 1962). I has been epo ed ha he halo e ec is s onge when
consume s lack knowledge o a ce ain subjec . These esul s a e consis en wi h he common belie
ha wo k- ela ed knowledge is nega i ely ela ed o he halo e ec (Kol u , 1962; Kozlowski e al., 1986).
A co po a e image ha is es ablished h ough spo s sponso ship can ac as a bu e when he
company is exposed o nega i e messaging. Hence, companies should seek spo s sponso ship
oppo uni ies as a ma ke ing s a egy. Recen s udies ha e poin ed ou ha he halo e ec can di e
acco ding o he deg ee o cong uence be ween he cha ac e is ics and image o he company and
hose o he spo s e en being sponso ed. Accep o s’pe cep ions o nega i e in o ma ion can di e
acco ding o he in en ion behind he nega i e in o ma ion, accoun abili y, and in ensi y.
P e ious s udy ela ed o consume a i ude should be demons a ed how he d i e s o in en ions
e ol e as cus ome s epea edly use and expe ience an o e ing h ough he in oduc ion and g ow h
s ages o a li e cycle (Johnson, He mann, & Hube , 2006). They emphasized ha esea che who look a
he consume beha io is he exis ence o empo al o ca yo e e ec s om one pe iod o ano he . The
ime dependence o e alua ions, a i udes, and in en ions is cen al ac o s in consump ion-sys em
app oach e ining as a bundle o goods and se ices ha a e consumed o e ime in mul iple consump-
ion episodes (Mi al & Kamaku a, 2001). Some schola s ound ha beha io al in en ions in a gi en
pe iod a e a unc ion o a i udes in ha pe iod and p io pe iod in en ions (Bol on and D ew, 1991;
Johnson e al., 2006;Oli e ,1980). Thus, e alua ions o company, p oduc and b and a e no cons uc ed
anew each pe iod. Consume a e willing o ha e upda ed e sions o p io e alua ions (Bol on and D ew,
1991; Johnson e al., 2006;Oli e ,1980). To examine how he o ma ion o consume a i udes is
a ec ed by he halo e ec o spo s sponso ship be o e and a e exposu e, his s udy poses he
ollowing esea ch ques ion:
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H3: All o he hings being equal, subjec s commi ed o pos -exposu e nega i e in o ma ion abou
he company wi h high cong uence sponso ship as opposed o hose commi ed o p e-exposu e
nega i e in o ma ion wi h abou he company wi h high cong uence sponso ship a e less likely o
ha e a i s co po a e b and image (H3-1), o pu chase in en ion (H3-2).
H4: All o he hings being equal, subjec s commi ed o pos -exposu e posi i e in o ma ion abou
he company wi h high cong uence sponso ship as opposed o hose commi ed o p e-exposu e
posi i e in o ma ion wi h abou he company wi h high cong uence sponso ship a e mo e likely o
ha e a i s co po a e b and image (H4-1), o pu chase in en ion (H4-2).
RQ1: Can consume a i udes owa ds a co po a e b and, o he in en ion o pu chase ha b and,
be o e and a e exposu e o sponso ship o a spo s e en , change due o he halo e ec
(including nega i e in o ma ion abou he company o spo s e en ), based on he deg ee o
cong uence be ween he company/b and and he spo s e en ?
3. Me hod
3.1. Expe imen al design
The s udy is o explo e he ole o he pola i y o co po a e in o ma ion (e.g., nega i e and posi i e)
and wo di e en exposu es (p e s. pos ) on he ans e o b and image a ibu ion. The s udy
also examines how he co po a e b and as pe cei ed by consume s a ec s he o ma ion o an
image o he company and b and h ough he halo e ec . We in es iga e how such in o ma ion
induces consume s o e hink o change hei company o b and image and by dis inguishing
be ween consume a i udes be o e exposu e o in o ma ion abou a company and a e such
exposu e. The p ocedu e and expe imen al design used in his s udy adop ed by he p e ious s udy
(Be ens e al., 2005; Jin, 2017; Jin & Lee, 2019). Some schola emphasized ha he expe imen al
design is he bes way o explo e he ela ionship be ween independen and dependen a iables
such as causal ela ionship in he social science iled (Holb ook, 1983).
A 2 (p e-exposu e s. a e exposu e) X 2 (Nega i e s. Posi i e in o ma ion) X 2(High s. low
cong uence sponso ship wi h company) ac o ial be ween-subjec design was used o his s udy.
Fi s , he s udy explo es he ans e o co po a e b and a ibu ion a e exposing nega i e
in o ma ion abou company wi h ele an sponso ship e en . The co po a e b and a i ude and
pu chase in en ion ea ed as dependen a iables in his s udy. The dependen a iable is con-
sume s’in en ion o ake pe cep ion and ac ion agains he nega i e in o ma ion and company
wi h e e ence o i s high ele an sponso ship e en s.
3.2. P e es
Be o e conduc ing he expe imen , he esea che adminis e ed a p e es o check he expe i-
men al design p ocedu e and he expe imen al s imulus. Fi s , an expe in he ele an ield chose
ou ypes o expe imen al s imuli deemed app op ia e o his s udy. Conside ing ha he majo i y
o he esea ch subjec s used his s udy a e in hei wen ies o hi ies, a global au omobile
company was chosen as he subjec company and a Fo mula One (F1) ca ace was chosen as
he ecipien o sponso ship.
Fo nega i e in o ma ion abou a company, con en s ela ed o une hical beha io we e p o-
ided, such as epo s o accoun ing aud, ax e asion, echnological de ec s, uel e iciency
manipula ion, and en i onmen al pollu ion. Fo posi i e in o ma ion, con en s ela ed o he
company’s new in es men s and chie execu i es’ olun ee wo k and commi men o new
echnology de elopmen we e p o ided. Fo he expe imen ega ding cong uence be ween co -
po a e image and spo s e en s, e ec s we e es ed by di iding he e en s in o wo ypes: a spo s
e en s ha a e mos ly cong uen wi h he co po a e and p oduc image and ano he e en ha is
mos ly incong uen .
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Table 6. Resul o he halo e ec
P e-Exposu e D.V A e -Exposu e Halo E ec
N/P Types M (S.D) N/P Types M (S.D) Mean di e ence p
Di e pDi e pDi e
N Low 3.24(.080) B and N Low 2.55(.061) 0.69 .001 .03 .001
High 3.26(.070) High 3.65(.080) −0.39 .001 .65 .001
P Low 3.14(.071) P Low 2.77(.067) 0.37 .001 .35 .001
High 3.61(.068) High 3.63(.065) −0.02 .851
N Low 3.37(.070) PI N Low 2.89(.078) 0.48 .001 .11 .027 .22 .001
High 3.05(.066) High 3.42(.080) −0.37 .001
Low 3.29(.062) P Low 2.87(.086) 0.42 .001 .11 .038
High 3.77(.073) High 4.08(.059 −0.31 .001
N: nega i e, P: posi i e, High: High Cong uence, Low: Low Cong uence, B and: Co po a e B and A i ude, PI: Pu chase In en ion, D.V: Dependen Va iables, *p < .1, ** p < .05, ***p < .01
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cong uence wi h a co po a e image we e examined in his s udy. The s udy inds ha a i ude and
image o ma ion changed conside ably when spo s sponso ship was s ongly ela ed o a company’s
co po a e image. In gene al, consume s expe ience amicable and a o able eac ions and e alua-
ions o a company ha sponso s spo s e en s ha a e highly cong uen wi h he company’s
Figu e 1. Co po a e b and a i-
ude high s. low cong uence
p io sponso ship e alua ion.
Figu e 2. Pu chase in en ion
high s. low cong uence p io
sponso ship e alua ion.
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co po a e image. Consume s e alua e a company o p oduc mo e a o ably when a spo s e en is
cong uen wi h he company o p oduc image.
The indings indica ed ha spo s sponso ship a ec s co po a e b and a i ude and pu chase
in en ion. Examining whe he a halo e ec a ec s consume a i udes as a esul o spo s
sponso ship ha is cong uen wi h a co po a e image, such sponso ship was ound o be closely
ela ed o a i ude changes in he expe imen al pa icipan s. A signi ican in e ac ion was obse ed
be ween he o ma ion o a co po a e image and in en ion o pu chase, implying ha he o ma-
ion o consume a i udes owa ds a co po a e b and o pu chase in en ion can be posi i ely
enhanced by he halo e ec . In o he wo ds, a company’s spo s sponso ship gene a es a halo
e ec on such beha io al ac o s as image o ma ion and in en ion o pu chase. Examining image
ans e wi h ega d o a co po a e b and, he b and image ei he dec eased o inc eased depend-
ing on he combina ion o nega i e/posi i e in o ma ion abou he company and he deg ee o
cong uence be ween a spo s sponso ship and ha image. The esul s o he empi ical analysis o
he halo e ec o spo s sponso ship indica e he occu ence o a signi ican in e ac i e e ec ,
implying ha b and a i ude can be enhanced h ough a halo e ec .
The s udy highligh s he necessi y o examining how cong uence be ween a spo s e en and
a sponso ing b and is ela ed o b and image o b and a i ude o ma ion. This pape analyzed
b and a i ude and in en ion o pu chase be o e and a e exposu e o in o ma ion as a unc ion o
a halo e ec o sponso ing a spo s e en . The s udy inds ha a i ude and image o ma ion
changed conside ably when spo s sponso ship was s ongly ela ed o a company’s co po a e
image. In gene al, consume s expe ience amicable and a o able eac ions and e alua ions o
a company ha sponso s spo s e en s ha a e highly cong uen wi h he company’s co po a e
image. Consume s e alua e a company o p oduc mo e a o ably when a spo s e en is con-
g uen wi h he company o p oduc image.
F om a ma ke ing communica ion pe spec i e, his s udy makes a aluable con ibu ion o he
li e a u e by compa ing consume a i udes owa ds a sponso ’s b and p io o and a e a spo s
sponso ship e en . Mo eo e , he s udy is unique in using a ield s udy o in es iga e consume
g oups. The esul s should bene i ma ke ing s udies by o e ing c ucial s a egic implica ions o
ma ke e s seeking o adop e ec i e sponso ship s a egies.
6. Theo e ical and manage ial implica ions
Acco ding o his s udy’s analysis, which examined whe he spo s sponso ship ha is cong uen
wi h a co po a e image gene a es a halo e ec and he eby gene a es a i ude changes in
consume s, he de elopmen o such sponso ship was closely ela ed o a i ude changes in he
expe imen al pa icipan s. A signi ican in e ac ion be ween he o ma ion o a co po a e b and
a i ude and in en ion o pu chase was obse ed, implying ha he o ma ion o consume
co po a e b and a i udes o in en ion o pu chase can be posi i ely enhanced h ough a halo
e ec .
Sponso ship o spo s e en s plays an impo an ole when companies a emp o es ablish
posi i e co po a e and b and images among consume s. Companies should choose ca e ully when
selec ing spo s e en s o he pu pose o building a posi i e image among consume s h ough
sponso ship. Nega i e in o ma ion no only p o okes nega i e emo ions bu also s ongly a ec s
hough s and a i udes (A e ill, 1982; Ho be g, O eis, Kel ne , & Cohen, 2009). Nega i e in o ma-
ion abou a company in luence on he o ma ion o b and images and a i udes, in en ion o
pu chase a p oduc , and b and loyal y. Once in o ma ion ha implies ha a company o b and
beha es in wha consume s pe cei e as a good way is s amped on consume s, i can be e lec ed
in ac i e consume beha io .
The esul s o his s udy a e consis en wi h hose epo ed in p e ious s udies (Becke -Olsena,
Cudmo e, & Hill, 2006; Fo ehand & G ie , 2003; Menon & Kahn, 2003; Sen & Bha acha ya, 2001). In
Cui e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2019), 6: 1699284
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e ms o b and–spo s cong ui y o cong ui y be ween b and a ibu es and e en a ibu es,
co po a e ma ke e s should conside any such co espondence be ween he a ibu es o
a b and and hose o an e en when de eloping ma ke ing s a egies.
Pe spec i e om he esul , companies should emphasize spo s e en sponso ship when i co e-
sponds o hei in ended consume concep s because such s a egies ha e conside able po en ial o
e ec i ely connec ing he ac i e image o a spo s e en wi h he a ibu es o a company o a b and,
and his may e en ually inc ease b and equi y. The posi i e image ha consume s de elop om
a company’s spo s sponso ship ac i i y ha is pe cei ed o ha e high cong uence is linked o a o able
imp essions o he company o b and, which consequen ly enhances he company’sco po a eimageas
well as b and a i ude and in en ion o pu chase among consume s. When consume s emembe
a sponso ship, ela ionship in ol ing a spo s e en whe e cong uence be ween a sponso ing company’s
image and ha e en is pe cei ed o be high, he memo y p oduces a s ong halo e ec enabling he
image o be mo e posi i ely ans e ed. Companies should, he e o e, be ca e ul when choosing spo s
e en s o achie e he mos posi i e e ec s o sponso ship. Mo eo e , companies can make use o an
al eady es ablished posi i e image among consume s h ough he halo e ec . Selec ion o spo s e en s
ha ha e high cong uence wi h a co po a e and p oduc image is c i ical. Co po a e image and pu chase
in en ion can be enhanced h ough he halo e ec .
The esul s o his s udy p o ide an oppo uni y o check he impo ance o nega i e in o ma ion
abou a company o p oduc as well as a selec ion o spo s e en s ha a ec image o ma ion.
The s udy sugges s ha only spo s sponso ship ha a e highly cong uen wi h a company o i s
b and can p oduce posi i e and amicable eac ions om consume s h ough a halo e ec .
7. Limi a ions and sugges ions
Al hough his s udy success ully es ed se e al hypo heses and p o ides impo an implica ions o
ma ke esea che s, i is also subjec o se e al limi a ions. Conside ing he di icul y o measu ing
he e ec s o spo s sponso ship, his s udy may ha e ailed o measu e such e ec s wi h
comple e accu acy. The e a e se e al issues in ol ed in secu ing and p o ec ing sponso ship igh s
in an en i onmen o bu geoning sponso ship g ow h o which he s udy applied no con ols.
Ambush ma ke ing occu s when a non-sponso s a emp o gain bene i s a ailable only o o icial
sponso s (C ow & Hoek, 2003) and should, he e o e, be conside ed in u u e s udies. Compa a i e
s udies ha gauge he ela i e e ec s o ambush ma ke ing and o icial sponso ship on b and-
ela ed a i udes a e needed (C ow & Hoek, 2003; Meenaghan, 1994).
Consume in ol emen wi h spo s and b ands should be s udied u he because he le el o
consume in e es in spo s can g ea ly a ec a i udes owa ds b ands. The e o e, u u e s udies
ha connec consume in ol emen in spo s and he o ma ion o consume a i udes owa d
b ands a e needed. In addi ion, a ious b and ypes should be compa ed wi h one ano he , and
he ela ionship be ween a ious b ands and spo s needs o be examined. Al hough a mul iple-
sponso ship a angemen in luences he ela ionship be ween he sponso and he sponso ed
b ands a he cogni i e and a ec i e s ages (Cha ana e al., 2009), he capaci y o ake in o
accoun esponden s’b and sa is ac ion and usage beha io is limi ed. I migh , he e o e, p o e
ui ul in u u e esea ch o compa e he e ec s o single- and mul iple-sponso ship a angemen s
on consume -based b and equi y (image, awa eness, and quali y), he consume –b and ela ion-
ship (b and sa is ac ion and commi men ) and building b and loyal y.
Rega ding he sample used in his s udy, he consume segmen a ion migh no be as ep e-
sen a i e as i could ha e been because he sample was d awn om only one egion o one
coun y. Fu he mo e, he da a we e collec ed h ough con enience sampling, which may ha e
esul ed in sampling bias. In o de o es ablish a connec ion o u he ing s udies o o explo ing
new, he s udy should be conduc ed he a o ed sponso ship ypes wi h consume s using social
media and in e ne ad e ising. The e o e, u u e s udies applying hese esul s o heo e ical
models o consume beha io in connec ion wi h a global spo s sponso ship e en should
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compa e esul s o consume s om mul iple coun ies and cul u es. In addi ion, he s udy did no
con ol o di e ences in gende , age, le el o income, o educa ional a ainmen ha migh a ec
consume pe cep ions o a spo s e en . Thus, u u e s udies should in es iga e hese issues o
de e mine hei possible e ec s on b and equi y and spo s sponso ship e en s.
Funding
This wo k was suppo ed by he Minis y o Educa ion o
he Republic o Ko ea and he Na ional Resea ch
Founda ion o Ko ea [NRF-2018S1A5A2A02065798].
Au ho de ails
Ge-Qi Cui
1
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Jung-Yong Lee
2
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Chang-Hyun Jin
2
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
ORCID ID: h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2082-0220
1
Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Kyonggi
Uni e si y, 154-42, Gwanggyosan-Ro, Yeong ong-Gu,
Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16227, Ko ea.
2
Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, SungKyunKwan
Uni e si y, 25-2, Sungkyunkwan- o, Jong o-gu, Seoul
03063, Ko ea.
Ci a ion in o ma ion
Ci e his a icle as: The ole o spo s sponso ship in
nega i e new s o ies abou a b and: App oach he halo
e ec , Ge-Qi Cui, Jung-Yong Lee & Chang-Hyun Jin,
Cogen Business & Managemen (2019), 6: 1699284.
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