Bha ga a, Sm i i; Ke , Amanda
A icle
The e ec o ime-sa ing household appliance owne ship
on ou comes o child en and ma ied women: E idence
om India
IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
IZA – Ins i u e o Labo Economics
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bha ga a, Sm i i; Ke , Amanda (2022) : The e ec o ime-sa ing household
appliance owne ship on ou comes o child en and ma ied women: E idence om India, IZA
Jou nal o Labo Policy, ISSN 2193-9004, Sciendo, Wa saw, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 1-42,
h ps://doi.o g/10.2478/izajolp-2022-0008
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Sm i i Bha ga a1 and Amanda Ke 2
The e ec o ime-sa ing household
appliance owne ship on ou comes o
child en and ma ied women: e idence
omIndia
Abs ac
We use mic ole el da a om he India Human De elopmen Su ey o es ou hypo hesis
ha owne ship o ime-sa ing household appliances esul s in he ollowing: an inc ease in
employmen a es o ma ied women; an inc ease in school en ollmen a es; and a dec ease
in employmen a es o child en. We add ess he conce n o endogenei y o appliance owne -
ship by ins umen ing household owne ship o ime-sa ing appliances by wo amily-speci ic
ime-using household asse s and (1) a e age owne ship a e among single women li ing in he
same p ima y sampling uni ( o he adul emale sample) o (2) a e age owne ship among
households wi h no child en li ing in he same p ima y sampling uni ( o he child sample).
Ou esul s sugges a dec ease in ma ied women’s and child en’s employmen when owne ship
o ime-sa ing appliances inc eases. Disagg ega ing ou measu e o employmen , we ind ha
ma ied women use ime-sa ing appliances as a subs i u e o human capi al and inc ease hei
p obabili y o wo king in mo e p oduc i e employmen ou side o he household.
Cu en e sion: Augus 15, 2022
Keywo ds: household appliances, home p oduc ion, India
JEL codes: J16, J22, I25
Co esponding au ho : Sm i i Bha ga a
[email p o ec ed].edu
Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
© The Au ho (s). 2022 Open Access This a icle is dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License
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Ci e as: Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08.
h ps://doi.o g/10.2478/izajolp-2022-0008
1 Depa men o Economics, F ancis Ma ion Uni e si y, Flo ence, SC, USA
2 Ad anced Academic P og ams, Johns Hopkins Uni e si y, Washing on, DC, USA
Page 2 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
1 In oduc ion
The Sus ainable De elopmen Goals we e se by he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly in
2015. These goals we e in ended o p omo e peace and p ospe i y o people and he plane ,
now and in o he u u e.1 Two o he goals ha ha e been highligh ed hea ily in de elopmen
esea ch a e quali y educa ion and gende equali y. Wi h many po en ial pa hs o imp o e
gende equali y and educa ion, esea che s ace he challenge o de e mining which me hods
will bes assis de eloping coun ies in achie ing hese goals. Addi ionally, wi h he ecen
co ona i us disease-2019 (COVID-19) ou b eak, “ he e is a high isk ha gende inequali ies
will widen du ing and a e he pandemic and ha gains in women’s and gi ls’ accumula ion
o human capi al, economic empowe men , and oice and agency, pains akingly buil o e
he pas decades, will be e e sed.”2 Now, mo e han e e , i is c ucial o esea che s o de e -
mine wha me hods mos signi ican ly imp o e emales’ well-being and p epa e o s ep in and
mi iga e he nega i e side e ec s o he global pandemic. We explo e one pa h ha po en ially
a ec s bo h adul emales and child en: inc easing he p esence o household capi al asse s,
which allow household membe s o subs i u e appliances o labo in home p oduc ion.
Alloca ion o ime wi hin he household has been widely discussed since he pape by
Becke (1965). Recen li e a u e has inco po a ed ime-sa ing appliance owne ship in o Beck-
e ’s model. G eenwood e al. (2005) use his amewo k o explain inc eases in adul emale
labo o ce pa icipa ion (LFP). They a gue ha appliances, such as washing machines and
e ige a o s, ‘libe a ed’ women om household wo k and allowed hem o ealloca e ime
o he wo k o ce. Thei model has been es ed wi h da a om he Uni ed S a es (Coen-Pi ani
e al., 2010) and China (Tewa i and Wang, 2016), wi h bo h a icles sugges ing an inc ease in
LFP among adul women who li e in households ha own ime-sa ing du able goods. A simi-
la ela ionship is ound in La in Ame ican coun ies (Cubas, 2016) and in Nige ia (Omo oso
and Obembe, 2016, 2017). Ca alcan i and Ta a es (2008) ake ad an age o a 24-yea da a se
ha con ains he ela i e p ice index o home appliances o 17 O ganisa ion o Economic
Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD) coun ies o examine he impac o home appliances
on emale LFP and ind a la ge inc ease in emale LFP in coun ies ha also expe ience la ge
d ops in he ela i e p ice o home appliances, which suppo s indings in p e ious s udies.
Ke (2019) ex ends p e ious analyses by s udying he ela ionship be ween hese same
ime-sa ing appliances and child ou comes in China. She sugges s ha child en ealloca e
ime om household wo k o schooling when ime-sa ing appliances a e p esen in he house-
hold. Dao (2021) simila ly examine he ela ionship be ween echnological p og ess, house-
wo k, women in wage employmen (nonag icul u al sec o ), and daugh e s’ educa ion in >100
de eloping coun ies. Again, hei esul s sugges an inc ease in daugh e s’ schooling and an
inc ease in emale wage employmen .
In his pape , we empi ically es he hypo heses o he abo e esea che s using mic ole el
da a o Indian ma ied women and child en. This is he i s pape o explo e his ques ion
in he Indian con ex . India is unique in ha , e en wi h cons an g ow h in o e all LFP, India
has expe ienced a decline in emale LFP o e he pas 15yea s. Female LFP eached i s peak
in 2005, wi h 32.17% o he emale popula ion aged ≥15yea s pa icipa ing. Howe e , be ween
1 h ps://sus ainablede elopmen .un.o g/?menu=1300 Sou ce: The Uni ed Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals.
2 h ps://blogs.wo ldbank.o g/ oices/co ona i us-no -gende -blind-no -should-we-be?cid=ECR_LI_wo ldbank_EN_
EXT Sou ce: The co ona i us is no gende -blind, no should we be.
Page 3 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
2005 and 2012, he coun y expe ienced a s eady dec ease in pa icipa ion among emales
acco ding o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), achie ing only a 20.02% emale LFP
a e in 2012. The e was a sligh inc ease om 2012 o 2017, bu a es ha e allen again in ecen
yea s.3 Female LFP is an impo an d i e o economic g ow h and de elopmen , and India’s
cu ious dec ease p o ides esea che s he oppo uni y o explo e whe he me hods ha ha e
been ound o inc ease emale LFP in o he coun ies could also inc ease emale LFP in India.
Addi ionally, India’s Hindu cul u e, unique cas e sys em, and g owing popula ion wa an s
u he esea ch speci ic o his economy.
This pape exploi s c oss-sec ional a ia ion in household appliance owne ship o explo e
he e ec o amily in es men s in ime-sa ing du able goods on (1) employmen o ma ied
women and olde child en and (2) schooling o olde child en. We use mic ole el da a o he
yea s 2004–2005 and 2011–2012 and add ess he conce n o po en ial endogenei y o appliance
owne ship, which a ises om unobse ed amily p e e ences ha a ec bo h appliance own-
e ship and ou ou comes o in e es , by using an ins umen al a iable (IV) s a egy. When
es ima ing he e ec o appliance owne ship on a ma ied woman’s LFP, we ollow Coen-Pi ani
e al. (2010) and ins umen he owne ship o a ime-sa ing appliance by a e age owne ship
a e among single women li ing in he same p ima y sampling uni . When es ima ing he e ec
o appliance owne ship on a child’s schooling o LFP, we ollow Ke (2019) and ins umen
he owne ship o a ime-sa ing appliance by a e age owne ship a e among households li -
ing in he same p ima y sampling uni bu wi h no child en. The undamen al logic o hese
ins umen s is ha single women and households wi h no child en by cons uc ion canno be
mo i a ed in hei pu chasing decisions by po en ial amily ou comes. We include wo amily-
speci ic a iables as addi ional ins umen s in all wo-s age leas squa es (2SLS) es ima ions.
These a iables include ime-using household asse s ha a e likely o be associa ed wi h own-
e ship o ime-sa ing appliances and a e unlikely o di ec ly a ec ma ied women and chil-
d en’s ou comes o employmen o school en ollmen .
Ou esul s indica e ha he p esence o a e ige a o in households educes he p obabil-
i y o ma ied women’s employmen by 10.2 pe cen age poin s. This esul is coun e in ui i e
and is he opposi e o wha p e ious li e a u e has ound in o he coun ies. Thus, we u -
he explo e his ques ion by examining he impac o hese same appliances on wo di e en
ypes o employmen : wo k inside he household and wo k ou side he household. We ind ha
appliance owne ship leads o an inc ease in he p obabili y o women’s employmen in wo k
ou side he household and educes he p obabili y o women’s employmen in wo k inside he
household.4 These esul s sugges ha women ha e he oppo uni y o ealloca e hei ime o
mo e- ewa ding oppo uni ies.
When analyzing child en aged 12–18yea s, we ind no signi ican e ec on en ollmen
o employmen o child en li ing in a household ha owns a washing machine. Howe e ,
ou esul s sugges ha child en li ing in a household ha owns a e ige a o expe ience a
15.3 pe cen age poin inc ease in he p obabili y o being en olled and a 9.1 pe cen age poin
dec ease in he p obabili y o being employed.
3 h ps://da a.wo ldbank.o g/indica o /SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS?loca ions=IN Sou ce: The Wo ld Bank’s Da abank on
Female Labo Fo ce Pa icipa ion Ra e (modeled In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion [ILO] es ima e).
4 Speci ically, among ma ied women, he p obabili y o pa icipa ing in animal ca e and amily businesses ( wo lowe
paying employmen oppo uni ies) is ound o be educed and he p obabili y o pa icipa ing in ag icul u al labo
and sala ied posi ions ( wo highe paying employmen oppo uni ies) is inc eased. De ailed employmen esul s a e
a ailable in Tables A4 and A5 in he Appendix.
Page 4 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
These esul s imply ha owning ime-sa ing home appliances consequen ly a ails amily
membe s he oppo uni y o ealloca e hei ime om household cho e wo k o o he ime-
using ac i i ies, such as wo k ou side he household o adul emales and a ainmen o human
capi al in he o m o schooling o child en. The esul s p esen ed in his pape sugges ha
one e ec i e way o inc ease human capi al de elopmen among child en and inc ease emale
LFP among ma ied women is o educe household wo k obliga ions.
2 Backg ound
2.1 Appliance owne ship
Appliance owne ship in India has inc eased du ing ecen decades, owing, in la ge measu e, o
ising disposable incomes, u baniza ion, inc easing o ganized e ail, easie inancing op ions,
g owing demand, and inc easing elec i ica ion (E ns  & Young, 2015). The p opo ion o
Indian households owning a ele ision inc eased om 47% in 2011 o 65% in 2018. Re ig-
e a o s a e he second mos p e alen household asse , ollowed by washing machines.5 These
ends a e e lec ed in he India Human De elopmen Su ey (IHDS) da a. Owne ship o a
colo ele ision inc eased om 24% in 2005 o 58% in 2012; owne ship o a e ige a o ose
om 13% in 2005 o 24% in 2012; and owne ship o a washing machine inc eased om 3% in
2005 o 8% in 2012.
In his analysis, we ollow Bowden and O e (1994) by dis inguishing be ween wo ypes
o household appliances: ime-sa ing and ime-using. Time-sa ing echnologies embody appli-
ances ha educe ime equi ed o pe o m household wo k. In he IHDS da a, a ailable ime-
sa ing appliances include washing machines, e ige a o s, mic owa e o ens, elec ic cooking
po s, and p essu e cooke s. Time-using goods, on he o he hand, enhance he quali y o dis-
c e iona y ime. Examples a ailable in he IHDS da a include ai condi ione s, ai coole s,
came as, colo ele isions, and elec ic ans.
In his s udy, we ocus on wo la ge ime-sa ing appliances: washing machines and e ig-
e a o s. Owne ship o hese appliances p o ides households he oppo uni y o subs i u e
be ween capi al and labo in home p oduc ion. When a household pu chases a ime-sa ing
appliance, household membe s ha e he oppo uni y o ealloca e ime o leisu e, schooling,
o ma ke wo k. P e ious li e a u e on du able goods owne ship has ound ha he p esence
o ime-sa ing du able goods inc eases adul emale LFP in he Uni ed S a es (G eenwood e
al., 2005; Coen-Pi ani e al., 2010), China (Tewa i and Wang, 2016), La in Ame ican coun ies
(Cubas, 2016), Nige ia (Omo oso and Obembe, 2016, 2017), and OECD coun ies ( Ca alcan i
and Ta a es, 2008). These same appliances a e ound o inc ease school en ollmen and
dec ease child LFP in China (Ke , 2019). Time-conse ing appliances p o ide women and
child en wi h mo e e icien ways o pe o m domes ic asks, making hem mo e p oduc i e in
he household, and hus inc easing hei in a amily ba gaining powe .
This pape adds o he li e a u e by s udying he e ec o household appliances on Indian
adul emales and child en. Wi h he d as ic changes in appliance owne ship occu ing in
India, as desc ibed abo e, and he cul u al di e ences be ween India and he coun ies
5 h ps://www.li emin .com/Specials/bhWpWqj3AFuETVdsC05 dM/In-India-washing-machines- op-compu e s-in-
popula i y.h ml Sou ce: Li emin , “In India, Washing Machines Top Compu e s in Popula i y.”

Page 5 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
s udied in p e ious esea ch, explo ing he ela ionship be ween appliance owne ship and
emale and child ou comes wi hin he Indian con ex is an impo an con ibu ion o cu en
li e a u e.
2.2 Female LFP
As desc ibed abo e, appliance owne ship has been ound o be associa ed wi h inc eases in
emale LFP in mul iple de eloped and de eloping coun ies. While p e alence in hese same
appliances has inc eased in India, India’s emale LFP has been declining while emaining is-
ibly low. The ILO anked India as he coun y wi h he 28 h lowes emale LFP in 2019, as
emale LFP declined om 31% in 1990 o 23.4% in 2019.6
One hypo hesis as o why emale LFP in India has declined e en wi h ex eme economic
g ow h is ha he Hindu cul u e and he cas e sys em c ea e a need o di e en ial p e e -
ences o women. While Chinese women ha e inc eased hei LFP wi h inc eased echnologi-
cal ad ancemen s, Indian women ace di e en obs acles. India’s a e age household size is 1.2
pe sons la ge han China’s, sugges ing ha amily esou ces may be mo e dilu ed and equi e
a la ge ime commi men a home o women.7 Addi ionally, India has a cas e sys em ha lim-
i s emale mobili y in bo h ma iage and employmen . Women in India a e expec ed o ma y
wi hin hei cas e and ha e a complemen a y ole in hei husband’s occupa ion (Bidne and
Eswa an, 2015). These aspec s a e unique o India and, as he second mos populous coun y in
he wo ld, i is wa an ed o ake a look a wha imp o es women’s wel a e and wha s ill holds
women back.
Unde s anding he unde lying ends in emale LFP is impo an o hose in e es ed
in women’s well-being. Beyond women’s con ibu ion o g ow h, being economically ac i e
a ec s women’s p og ession owa d economic independence, ba gaining powe , and hei chil-
d en’s o e all well-being (Klasen and Pie e s, 2015; Mammen and Paxson, 2000). Wi h India’s
dec ease in emale LFP, i is impo an o explo e whe he he appliances ound o imp o e
emale ou comes in o he coun ies also imp o e emale ou comes in a coun y ha is cu -
en ly expe iencing a consis en decline in emale LFP. This s udy hus helps unde s and he
ela ionship be ween appliance owne ship and emale LFP in he Indian con ex .
2.3 School en ollmen
The educa ion sys em in India, also known as he “10 plus 2” sys em, consis s o 4–5yea s
o p ima y educa ion, 3–4yea s o middle educa ion, 2–3yea s o seconda y educa ion, and
2yea s o senio seconda y educa ion. Child en begin p ima y educa ion by he age o 5yea s.
Acco ding o Go e nmen o India’s Minis y o Human Resou ce De elopmen , he
o al g oss en ollmen a io (GER) a he p ima y le el inc eased om 109.4 in 2005 o 116 in
2012.8 The GER o middle educa ion inc eased om 71 in 2005 o 85.5 in 2012; and seconda y
6 These a e es ima es o he pa icipa ion a e o he emale labo o ce (pe cen age o he emale popula ion aged
≥15yea s).
7 h ps://popula ion.un.o g/Household/#/coun ies/840, accessed Ap il 2020.
8 G oss En ollmen Ra io (GER) is de ined as he o al s uden en ollmen in a gi en le el o educa ion, ega dless o age,
exp essed as pe cen age o he co esponding eligible o icial age-g oup popula ion in a gi en school yea . This allows
he GER o be >100%.
Page 6 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
and senio seconda y educa ion inc eased om 52.2 and 28.5 in 2005 o 65 and 40.3 in 2012,
espec i ely.9 The epo s show s a k di e ences in he GER be ween boys and gi ls.
Ke (2019) indica es ha he p esence o ime-sa ing household appliances alle ia es
child en om household wo k and p o ides hem he oppo uni y o ealloca e ime o school-
ing in China. Wi h he low seconda y and senio seconda y en ollmen a es p esen in India,
i is use ul o explo e whe he hese same appliances can help ini ia e simila changes in school
en ollmen a es.
3 Da a and Desc ip i e S a is ics
3.1 IHDS da a
The da a used in his analysis come om he IHDS. This su ey was conduc ed by he
Uni e si y o Ma yland and he Na ional Council o Applied Economic Resea ch, New
Delhi. The IHDS is a na ionally ep esen a i e, wo-wa e longi udinal da a se consis ing o
a i s ound o in e iews comple ed in 2004–2005 and a second ound o in e iews, mos ly
ein e iews o households om he i s wa e, comple ed in 2011–2012. The i s wa e con-
ains da a on 41,554 households in 1,503 illages and 971 u ban neighbo hoods ac oss India,
and he second wa e con ains da a on 42,152 households in he same illages and u ban
neighbo hoods as he i s wa e.10 The su ey includes indi idual-, household-, and p ima y
sampling uni (PSU)-le el da a. PSUs consis o bo h illages and u ban neighbo hoods.
In his analysis, we ocus on households wi h elec ici y, as elec ici y is equi ed o bo h
washing machines and e ige a o s. Acco dingly, 83% o households in he IHDS indica e
ha ing elec ici y, wi h a ailabili y inc easing be ween he 2005 and 2012 wa es (78% and
88%, espec i ely).
3.2 Desc ip i e s a is ics
Ou i s sample consis s o 52,046 ma ied women o wo king age, wi h 73,916 obse a ions
o e he 2 yea s o da a. Table 1 p esen s he desc ip i e s a is ics o his sample, pa i ioned
by household owne ship o a washing machine and a e ige a o . Less han 10% o he sample
li es in a household ha owns a washing machine. Re ige a o owne ship is mo e p e alen ,
wi h nea ly 30% o he sample li ing in a household ha owns a e ige a o .11 The sample
consis s o ma ied women be ween he ages o 15yea s and 59yea s, as 60yea s o age is he
o icial e i emen age in India. Rela i e o women who do no own appliances, appliance-
owning women a e be e educa ed, ha e ewe child en, a e mo e likely o li e in an u ban
a ea, and a e less likely o belong o a scheduled cas e (SC) o scheduled ibe (ST).12 I appea s
ha owning ei he appliance is highly co ela ed wi h owning o he appliances. Women li ing
in households ha own an appliance a e ound o be weal hie , measu ed h ough he weal h
9 India’s Righ o Educa ion Ac makes schooling ee and compulso y o child en aged 6–14yea s, which pa ially
explains why GER d ops du ing middle educa ion.
10 Fo a ull desc ip ion o he su ey design, see: h ps://ihds.umd.edu/ IHDS.
11 The summa y s a is ics a e simila ega dless o whe he we pa i ion he sample by washing machine o e ige a o
owne ship. Thus, we discuss gene al di e ences be ween appliance owne ship a he han washing machine and
e ige a o owne ship sepa a ely.
12 SC-ST e e s o scheduled cas e–scheduled ibe, he his o ically unde p i ileged sec ions o he Indian socie y.
Page 7 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 1 Summa y s a is ics by owne ship o appliance: ma ied women aged 15–59yea s
Owns washing machine (9.6%) Does no own washing machine (90.4%)
Va iable Mean S anda d de ia ion N Mean S anda d de ia ion N
Age, yea s 38.367 10.624 6,809 35.83 10.671 64,205
No. o child en 1.459 1.565 6,809 1.768 1.629 64,205
Comple ed p ima y 0.873 0.333 6,801 0.52 0.500 64,006
Yea s o schooling 9.936 4.723 6,801 4.806 4.675 64,006
Cu en ly employed 0.26 0.439 6,809 0.488 0.500 64,205
Hindu 0.718 0.450 6,809 0.822 0.382 64,205
SC o ST 0.121 0.326 6,780 0.279 0.449 64,142
Ru al 0.277 0.447 6,809 0.645 0.479 64,205
Owns e ige a o 0.952 0.215 6,807 0.224 0.417 64,072
Owns colo ele ision 0.970 0.171 6,807 0.533 0.499 64,107
Weal h index 2.602 0.288 6,809 1.791 0.605 64,205
Owns e ige a o (29.4%) Does no own e ige a o (70.6%)
Va iable Mean S anda d de ia ion N Mean S anda d de ia ion N
Age, yea s 37.514 10.631 21,650 35.409 10.651 52,105
No. o child en 1.524 1.533 21,650 1.838 1.67 52,105
Comple ed p ima y 0.800 0.400 21,614 0.457 0.498 51,929
Yea s o schooling 8.375 4.844 21,614 4.066 4.342 51,929
Cu en ly employed 0.298 0.457 21,650 0.534 0.499 52,105
Hindu 0.770 0.421 21,650 0.832 0.374 52,105
SC o ST 0.164 0.370 21,604 0.301 0.459 52,059
Ru al 0.384 0.486 21,650 0.700 0.458 52,105
Owns washing machine 0.311 0.463 20,855 0.007 0.081 50,024
Owns colo ele ision 0.927 0.260 21,637 0.423 0.494 52,080
Weal h index 2.449 0.352 21,650 1.638 0.558 52,105
No e: Summa y s a is ics using IHDS da a o ma ied India women, aged 15–59yea s.
IHDS, India Human De elopmen Su ey; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.
index (desc ibed in he ollowing subsec ion), han women li ing in households ha do no
own an appliance.
Ou a iable o in e es in he sample o ma ied women is employmen s a us. Since he
IHDS does no p o ide da a on LFP, we cons uc he a iable using in o ma ion on di e en
wo k ca ego ies. The wo k ca ego ies include he ollowing: wo k on amily a m, wo k ending
o he household’s animals, amily’s non a m business wo k, ag icul u al wage labo , nonag i-
cul u al wage labo , and sala ied posi ion. Pa icipa ion in each ca ego y is gi en a alue o one
i he indi idual spen ≥240 hou s in ha ac i i y in he pas yea and ze o o he wise. Employ-
men s a us is indica ed using a dummy a iable, equaling one i he woman pa icipa es in any
o he wo k ca ego ies lis ed abo e and ze o o he wise. I appea s ha ma ied women who li e
in households ha own ime-sa ing appliances a e less likely o be employed han women who
do no li e in households ha own a ime-sa ing appliance.
In addi ion o s udying he e ec o ime-sa ing appliance owne ship on he o e all
employmen a e, we analyze he e ec o ime-sa ing appliance owne ship on di e en ypes o
employmen , as some employmen ypes a e iewed as mo e aluable han o he s. Fo example,
Desai e al. (2010) sugges ha sala ied wo k ( ypically ound ou side he home) is a he op o
Page 8 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
he job ladde , while manual labo posi ions ( ypically ound inside he home) a e alued much
lowe . We use IHDS da a on each indi idual’s wo k ca ego y, lis ed abo e, o classi y whe he
an indi idual’s employmen is in wo k inside o ou side he household. Using he de ini ions
p o ided by he IHDS, we cons uc he a iable wo k inside he household by combining he
h ee wo k ca ego ies o animal ca e, a m wo k, and non a m amily business wo k. These
a e mainly manual labo oles and a e ypically unpaid o low paid. Simila ly, we cons uc
he a iable wo k ou side he household o household membe s who wo k o paymen (wage
o sala y) by combining he h ee wo k ca ego ies o ag icul u al wage labo , nonag icul u al
wage labo , o sala ied posi ion wo ke . These posi ions a e iewed as mo e aluable, as hey
ypically come wi h highe pay han o wo k inside he household. Ou ca ego ies ollow he
ca ego ies used in p e ious li e a u e (such as by Desai e al., 2010).
Table A1 in he Appendix p esen s he ends in employmen a e sepa a ely o ma ied
and single women in he wo king-age popula ion. The o e all employmen a e o ma ied
women declined om 52% in 2005 o 48% in 2012. A he same ime, he o e all employmen
a e o single women declined om 36% in 2005 o 34% in 2012. Howe e , he able indica es
ha he decline in employmen a e obse ed o ma ied and single women occu s in all wo k
inside he household job ypes. Ma ied and single women expe ience an inc ease in wo o
he wo k oles ou side he household (nonag icul u al labo and sala ied posi ion) be ween
2005 and 2012, sugges ing ha he b eakdown by employmen ype in he empi ical analysis
is wa an ed.
I is bene icial o examine he di e ences be ween ma ied and single women beyond
hei employmen decisions as we will use a e age appliance owne ship a e among single
women o es ima e a ma ied woman’s owne ship o an appliance, desc ibed in he ollow-
ing sec ion. Table A1 in he Appendix p esen s addi ional summa y s a is ics o ma ied and
single women sepa a ely. The p opo ion o women li ing in u ban a eas has inc eased o e
ou wo-wa e sample o bo h ma ied and single women, wi h a highe pe cen age o single
women li ing in u ban a eas in each wa e. Ma ied women a e olde han single women, a e
mo e likely o be Hindu, and a e mo e likely o ha e mo e kids li ing in he household han sin-
gle women. When looking a educa ion- ela ed a iables, we see ha single women ha e mo e
yea s o schooling, on a e age, and a e mo e likely o be li e a e han ma ied women. Weal h
indices o bo h g oups ha e inc eased o e he wo wa es o da a and a e simila in size. While
he e a e many di e ences be ween he ma ied- and single-women samples, bo h g oups ha e
seen an inc ease in washing machine owne ship om oughly 6% o 12% and an inc ease in
e ige a o owne ship om 24%–25% o 34%–36% (no shown in he able), sugges ing ha
household appliance owne ship decisions may be due o some hing o he han ma i al s a us.13
To unde s and how an appliance a ec s a household as a whole, we addi ionally pe -
o m ou empi ical analysis, desc ibed in he ollowing sec ion, on a child sample consis -
ing o 50,160 child en o e he 2yea s o da a. Desc ip i e s a is ics o he child sample a e
p esen ed in Table 2, which ollows he same o ma as Table 1. We analyze child en be ween
he ages o 12yea s and 18yea s, as he en ollmen a e begins o decline om 96% o 92%
and he employmen a e doubles om 3% o 6% a he age o 12yea s in he IHDS da a.
We obse e ha p ima y school comple ion a e is 10 pe cen age poin s highe o child en
13 Gi en he highe p e alence o e ige a o owne ship, we addi ionally p esen di e ences among women ac oss wa es
pa i ioned by e ige a o owne ship in Table A2 in he Appendix.
Page 15 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 3 OLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns an appliance on ma ied women’s employmen
Washing machine Re ige a o
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Owns washing machine 0.030*** 0.004
(0.009) (0.018)
Owns e ige a o −0.001 −0.010
(0.007) (0.011)
Age 0.054*** 0.064*** 0.054*** 0.063***
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Age-squa ed −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Yea s o schooling -0.007*** -0.012*** -0.007*** −0.012***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Ru al 0.244*** 0.043* 0.246*** 0.043*
(0.014) (0.025) (0.014) (0.025)
Hindu 0.060*** 0.078*** 0.060*** 0.079***
(0.009) (0.014) (0.009) (0.014)
SC o ST 0.015** 0.013 0.014** 0.013
(0.007) (0.009) (0.007) (0.009)
Weal h index −0.146*** −0.112*** −0.144*** −0.110***
(0.006) (0.008) (0.006) (0.008)
No. o child en (household) 0.000 −0.004* −0.000 −0.005**
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Village con ols
Dis ance o nea es own (km) −0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o oad access (km) 0.003** 0.003*
(0.001) (0.001)
Phone access −0.014 −0.013
(0.011) (0.011)
Dis ance o ailway s a ion (km) 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o ma ke (km) 0.002** 0.002***
(0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o seconda y school (km) 0.002*** 0.003***
(0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o highe seconda y school (km) 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
A e age appliance owne ship 0.096 0.046 0.294 0.191
A e age employmen 0.466 0.619 0.465 0.619
N 70,263 38,109 73,078 39,398
R2 0.303 0.228 0.302 0.225
No es: All columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
OLS, o dina y leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.

Page 16 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 4 OLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns a washing machine on child en’s ou comes
En ollmen Employmen
All Male Female All Male Female
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Owns
washing
machine
0.001 0.019 −0.004 0.018 0.007 0.024 −0.004 −0.025* −0.006 −0.024 −0.004 −0.023
(0.008) (0.013) (0.011) (0.015) (0.010) (0.019) (0.007) (0.014) (0.010) (0.020) (0.009) (0.018)
Age 0.142*** 0.168*** 0.167*** 0.202*** 0.108*** 0.129*** −0.064*** −0.062** −0.096*** −0.092*** 0.012 0.016
(0.017) (0.024) (0.022) (0.030) (0.027) (0.038) (0.017) (0.025) (0.023) (0.032) (0.023) (0.035)
Age−
squa ed
−0.007*** −0.008*** −0.008*** −0.009*** −0.005*** −0.006*** 0.004*** 0.004*** 0.005*** 0.005*** 0.000 0.001
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Female −0.016*** −0.032*** −0.055*** −0.051***
(0.005) (0.008) (0.005) (0.007)
Ru al 0.030*** −0.034* 0.046*** −0.019 0.006 −0.048 0.058*** 0.009 0.054*** 0.017 0.062*** 0.003
(0.008) (0.018) (0.011) (0.023) (0.010) (0.031) (0.009) (0.023) (0.011) (0.031) (0.010) (0.030)
Hindu 0.080*** 0.073*** 0.077*** 0.065*** 0.085*** 0.084*** −0.007 −0.005 −0.019** −0.020 0.003 0.010
(0.010) (0.014) (0.011) (0.014) (0.012) (0.020) (0.006) (0.010) (0.009) (0.015) (0.007) (0.013)
SC o ST −0.011* −0.020*** −0.018** −0.027*** −0.003 −0.010 −0.009 −0.007 −0.007 −0.008 −0.013* −0.009
(0.006) (0.008) (0.008) (0.009) (0.008) (0.011) (0.006) (0.008) (0.007) (0.010) (0.007) (0.011)
Weal h
index
0.096*** 0.079*** 0.096*** 0.076*** 0.095*** 0.083*** −0.067*** −0.054*** −0.065*** −0.050*** −0.068*** −0.058***
(0.008) (0.011) (0.009) (0.011) (0.010) (0.014) (0.006) (0.008) (0.008) (0.011) (0.008) (0.011)
Fa he ’s age −0.003*** −0.002*** −0.002*** −0.002* −0.004*** −0.003*** 0.001** 0.001 0.001** 0.000 0.001* 0.001
(0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Mo he ’s
age
0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.001 −0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Fa he ’s
yea s o
schooling
0.012*** 0.012*** 0.012*** 0.012*** 0.013*** 0.013*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.006*** −0.006*** −0.003*** −0.005***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Mo he ’s
yea s o
schooling
0.006*** 0.006*** 0.007*** 0.006*** 0.006*** 0.005*** −0.004*** −0.005*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.003*** −0.004***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
(Con inued)
Page 17 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
En ollmen Employmen
All Male Female All Male Female
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Village con ols
Dis ance
o nea es
own (km)
0.000 0.001 −0.000 −0.001 −0.000 −0.001**
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o
oad access
(km)
0.001 0.003 −0.000 0.000 −0.002 0.002
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.002)
Phone
access
0.003 0.001 0.010 −0.030** −0.027* −0.029*
(0.011) (0.013) (0.015) (0.012) (0.014) (0.016)
Dis ance
o ailway
s a ion (km)
−0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o
ma ke (km)
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.002*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o
seconda y
school (km)
−0.001 −0.000 −0.002 0.002** 0.002 0.002*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance
o highe
seconda y
school (km)
−0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000)
A e age
washing
machine
owne ship
0.079 0.037 0.076 0.038 0.083 0.037 0.079 0.037 0.076 0.038 0.083 0.037
A e age Yic 0.819 0.806 0.813 0.806 0.827 0.807 0.152 0.194 0.184 0.226 0.110 0.152
N 30,348 17,127 17,168 9,744 13,176 7,378 30,363 17,132 17,177 9,748 13,182 7,379
R2 0.248 0.245 0.249 0.246 0.281 0.290 0.170 0.167 0.196 0.196 0.163 0.166
No es: All columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
OLS, o dina y leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.
Table 4 Con inued
Page 18 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 5 OLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns a e ige a o on child en’s ou comes
En ollmen Employmen
All Male Female All Male Female
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Owns
e ige a o
0.017** 0.010 0.015* 0.003 0.018** 0.018 0.005 −0.001 0.006 0.001 0.002 −0.005
(0.007) (0.010) (0.009) (0.011) (0.009) (0.014) (0.006) (0.010) (0.007) (0.013) (0.008) (0.015)
Age 0.149*** 0.169*** 0.173*** 0.201*** 0.113*** 0.133*** −0.067*** −0.068*** −0.100*** −0.099*** 0.011 0.015
(0.017) (0.024) (0.022) (0.031) (0.027) (0.037) (0.017) (0.024) (0.022) (0.032) (0.022) (0.035)
Age−
squa ed
−0.007*** −0.008*** −0.008*** −0.009*** −0.006*** −0.007*** 0.004*** 0.004*** 0.005*** 0.006*** 0.000 0.001
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Female −0.015*** −0.030*** −0.056*** −0.051***
(0.005) (0.008) (0.005) (0.007)
Ru al 0.029*** −0.036* 0.044*** −0.022 0.005 −0.047 0.059*** 0.010 0.056*** 0.016 0.061*** 0.007
(0.008) (0.018) (0.011) (0.023) (0.010) (0.031) (0.008) (0.023) (0.010) (0.031) (0.010) (0.029)
Hindu 0.080*** 0.074*** 0.077*** 0.066*** 0.085*** 0.084*** −0.004 −0.001 −0.014 −0.013 0.003 0.010
(0.009) (0.014) (0.011) (0.014) (0.012) (0.020) (0.006) (0.011) (0.009) (0.015) (0.007) (0.013)
SC o ST −0.010* −0.019** −0.016** −0.025** −0.003 −0.010 −0.008 −0.007 −0.007 −0.007 −0.011 −0.007
(0.006) (0.008) (0.008) (0.010) (0.008) (0.011) (0.005) (0.008) (0.007) (0.010) (0.007) (0.011)
Weal h
index
0.090*** 0.079*** 0.092*** 0.080*** 0.088*** 0.078*** −0.071*** −0.059*** −0.071*** −0.058*** −0.069*** −0.058***
(0.008) (0.011) (0.009) (0.012) (0.011) (0.015) (0.006) (0.008) (0.008) (0.011) (0.008) (0.011)
Fa he ’s age −0.003*** −0.002*** −0.002*** −0.002* −0.004*** −0.003*** 0.001*** 0.001 0.001** 0.000 0.001** 0.001
(0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Mo he ’s
age
0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Fa he ’s
yea s o
schooling
0.012*** 0.012*** 0.011*** 0.012*** 0.012*** 0.013*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.006*** −0.006*** −0.003*** −0.005***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Mo he ’s
yea s o
schooling
0.006*** 0.006*** 0.007*** 0.007*** 0.006*** 0.005*** −0.004*** −0.005*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.003*** −0.004***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
(Con inued)
Page 19 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
En ollmen Employmen
All Male Female All Male Female
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Village con ols
Dis ance
o nea es
own (km)
0.000 0.001 −0.000 −0.001 −0.000 −0.001*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o
oad access
(km)
0.001 0.002 −0.000 0.000 −0.002 0.002
(0.001) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.002)
Phone
access
0.003 0.000 0.009 −0.032*** −0.029** −0.030*
(0.011) (0.012) (0.015) (0.012) (0.014) (0.016)
Dis ance
o ailway
s a ion (km)
−0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o
ma ke (km)
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.002
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o
seconda y
school (km)
−0.001 −0.000 −0.002 0.002** 0.002* 0.003**
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance
o highe
seconda y
school (km)
−0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000)
A e age
e ige a o
owne ship
0.261 0.166 0.250 0.164 0.276 0.169 0.261 0.166 0.250 0.163 0.276 0.169
A e age Yic 0.819 0.807 0.812 0.805 0.828 0.808 0.151 0.194 0.183 0.227 0.108 0.151
N 31,376 17,518 17,833 10,009 13,539 7,506 31,391 17,523 17,842 10,013 13,545 7,507
R2 0.247 0.244 0.248 0.246 0.280 0.289 0.170 0.167 0.195 0.195 0.162 0.165
No es: All columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
OLS, o dina y leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.
Table 5 Con inued
Page 20 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
and (2) engage child en o a lesse ex en in ma ke wo k. Among he con ols, pa en s’ yea s
o schooling a e signi ican in all cases, wi h signs ha la gely ma ch hose o he weal h index.
The emaining con ols a e only spo adically signi ican , ye hei inclusion is use ul as a gen-
e al p inciple in isola ing he key independen a iable, appliance owne ship, a e con olling
o household and PSU cha ac e is ics.
The es ima es p esen ed in Tables 4 and 5 sugges ha ime-sa ing household appliances
do no consis en ly exe signi ican e ec s on employmen o en ollmen o child en. How-
e e , he impo an ca ea is he possible endogenei y o appliance owne ship. We add ess his
by using a 2SLS es ima ion o Eq. (1), he esul s o which a e discussed in he ollowing sec ions.
5.3 IV es ima ion: ma ied women
To add ess he conce n o appliance owne ship being endogenous, we begin ou 2SLS es ima-
ion by es ima ing Eq. (2), which eg esses household owne ship o ime-sa ing appliances o
ma ied women agains a e age PSU owne ship o ime-sa ing appliances o single women,
owne ship o an ai condi ione , owne ship o a colo ele ision, and he se o con ols included
in ou OLS es ima ion. The model is es ima ed sepa a ely o owne ship o washing machines
and e ige a o s.
Es ima es o Eq. (2) a e comp essed o he i s ou ows o Table 6 and sugges ha he
likelihood o owning ei he appliance inc eases o ma ied women when he a e age PSU
owne ship o he same appliance inc eases o single women li ing in he same PSU.19
The emaining ows o Table 6 p esen ou 2SLS esul s using Eq. (3) o ma ied women.
Columns 1 and 2 sugges insigni ican e ec s o washing machine owne ship on ma ied wom-
en’s employmen . In con as , we ind ha ma ied women li ing in households ha own a
e ige a o dec ease hei p obabili y o employmen by 10 pe cen age poin s (Columns 3 and
4 o Table 6). This inding is signi ican in bo h he ull sample (Column 3) and he illage
sample (Column 4) and does no ollow mos in ui ion o p e ious s udies. The esul s sugges
ha ime-sa ing appliances allow women o educe hei employmen a he han inc ease i .
We will explo e his inding la e in he pape . Simila o he OLS esul s, we ind s a is ically
signi ican e ec s o age, yea s o schooling, u al, Hindu, and he weal h index.20
Be o e mo ing on o he child sample, we spli ou sample o ma ied women on he basis
o hei educa ion o u he dis inguish he human capi al e ec . Table A3 in he Appendix
p esen s hese esul s, ollowing he same empi ical s a egy as abo e, sepa a ely o women
who did no comple e p ima y educa ion and o women wi h an educa ion le el o p ima y
and abo e. The esul s p esen ed in Table A3 in he Appendix a e consis en wi h hose p e-
sen ed in Table 6, sugges ing insigni ican e ec s o washing machine owne ship o bo h
educa ion le els and signi ican e ec s o e ige a o owne ship on he p obabili y o ma -
ied women’s employmen o bo h educa ion le els. The coe icien is la ge o he sample o
ma ied women who did no comple e p ima y (–18.4% in Column 5 compa ed o –13.1% in
19 Tables including i s -s age esul s ha p esen all con ols a e a ailable upon eques .
20 Fo obus ness, we gene a e ano he index by eg essing appliance owne ship on all household asse s/in as uc u e
a iables om he o iginal weal h index, and hen, we use he esidual in ou inal speci ica ion as an al e na i e index
o con ol o household weal h. The coe icien s on washing machine and e ige a o owne ship es ima ed using his
s a egy a e la ge han ou main esul s and a e highly signi ican . These esul s u he alida e ou esul s and a e
a ailable upon eques . We hank an anonymous e iewe o sugges ing his obus ness check.

Page 21 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 6 2SLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns an appliance on ma ied women’s
employmen
Washing machine Re ige a o
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Fi s s age
Owns washing machine
( single women)
0.501*** 0.485***
(0.017) (0.031)
Owns e ige a o (single women) 0.376*** 0.352***
(0.013) (0.020)
Owns ai condi ione 0.437*** 0.523*** 0.158*** 0.223***
(0.024) (0.0450) (0.019) (0.031)
Owns colo ele ision 0.003 0.000 0.121*** 0.100***
(0.004) (0.004) (0.008) (0.011)
F−s a is ic 638.36 146.45 495.87 193.80
2SLS
Owns washing machine 0.030 −0.074
(0.035) (0.061)
Owns e ige a o −0.102*** −0.097*
(0.031) (0.055)
Age 0.054*** 0.064*** 0.054*** 0.064***
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Age−squa ed −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Yea s o schooling −0.007*** −0.012*** −0.005*** −0.011***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Ru al 0.242*** 0.041 0.239*** 0.036
(0.014) (0.025) (0.014) (0.026)
Hindu 0.060*** 0.075*** 0.057*** 0.074***
(0.009) (0.014) (0.009) (0.014)
SC o ST 0.015** 0.012 0.013* 0.010
(0.007) (0.009) (0.007) (0.009)
Weal h index −0.140*** −0.102*** −0.107*** −0.082***
(0.007) (0.009) (0.010) (0.016)
No. o child en (household) 0.000 −0.004* 0.001 −0.004*
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Village con ols
Dis ance o nea es own (km) −0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o oad access (km) 0.003** 0.003*
(0.001) (0.001)
Phone access −0.014 −0.016
(0.011) (0.011)
Dis ance o ailway s a ion (km) 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o ma ke (km) 0.002** 0.001**
(0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o seconda y school (km) 0.002*** 0.002***
(0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o highe seconda y school
(km)
0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
(Con inued)
Page 22 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Column 7 o Table A3 in he Appendix), sugges ing ha hese ime-sa ing appliances ha e a
la ge impac on he p obabili y o being employed o less-educa ed ma ied women.21
5.4 IV es ima ion: child en
Fi s -s age es ima es using Eq. (2) o he child sample a e p esen ed in he i s h ee ows o
Tables 7 and 8. Simila o he ma ied women sample, he esul s sugges ha owne ship o
ime-sa ing appliances among households wi h child en inc eases as he a e age PSU owne -
ship among households wi h no child en in he same PSU inc eases.
The emaining ows o Tables 7 and 8 p esen he es ima es o Eq. (3) o owne ship o a
washing machine and a e ige a o , espec i ely. Table 7 is consis en wi h he indings p e-
sen ed in Table 6, sugges ing ha washing machine owne ship does no signi ican ly al e
en ollmen o employmen decisions o child en in he sample. One no able di e ence is
ound in he illage sample o emale child en. These indi iduals expe ience a 16.2 pe cen age
poin dec ease in he p obabili y o being employed when li ing in a household ha owns a
washing machine, sugges ing ha washing machines alle ia e some o he employmen oppo -
uni ies o needs o olde emale child en. An analysis using ime-use da a would be bene icial
o u he unde s and why emale child en expe ience his signi ican change. Howe e , ime-
use da a a e no a ailable in his da a se .
Obse ing e ige a o owne ship in Table 8, we ind s a is ically signi ican e ec s on
bo h en ollmen and employmen decisions o child en. Beginning wi h en ollmen , we
obse e a 15.3 pe cen age poin inc ease in he p obabili y o being en olled when a child li es
in a household ha owns a e ige a o (Column 1 o Table 8). These signi ican esul s hold
when he sample is pa i ioned by gende (Columns 3 and 5). We ind ha he e ec o e ig-
e a o owne ship on en ollmen is la ge o males han o emales. Males ( emales) li ing in a
household ha owns a e ige a o expe ience an inc ease o 17.5 (12.7) pe cen age poin s in he
p obabili y o being en olled. These e ige a o -owning child en also expe ience a 9.1 pe cen -
age poin dec ease in he p obabili y o pa icipa ing in he labo o ce (Column7o Table 8).
21 We hank an anonymous e iewe o sugges ing his obus ness check.
Washing machine Re ige a o
(1) (2) (3) (4)
A e age appliance owne ship 0.096 0.046 0.294 0.194
A e age employmen 0.466 0.619 0.467 0.619
N 70,160 38,059 70,221 38,071
R2 0.303 0.227 0.298 0.225
No es: All columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in
pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
2SLS, wo−s age leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.
Table 6 Con inued
Page 23 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 7 2SLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns a washing machine on child en’s ou comes
En ollmen Employmen
All Male Female All Male Female
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Fi s s age
Owns
washing
machine
(no
child en)
0.379*** 0.406*** 0.405*** 0.454*** 0.348*** 0.348*** 0.379*** 0.406*** 0.405*** 0.454*** 0.348*** 0.348***
(0.027) (0.042) (0.026) (0.045) (0.034) (0.055) (0.027) (0.042) (0.026) (0.045) (0.034) (0.055)
Owns ai
condi ione
0.483*** 0.496*** 0.460*** 0.499*** 0.515*** 0.504*** 0.484*** 0.496*** 0.460*** 0.499*** 0.515*** 0.504***
(0.028) (0.075) (0.035) (0.093) (0.033) (0.091) (0.028) (0.075) (0.035) (0.093) (0.033) (0.091)
Owns
colo
ele ision
−0.002 0.004 0.005 0.008* −0.009 −0.002 −0.002 0.004 0.005 0.008* −0.009 −0.001
(0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.007) (0.006) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005) (0.007) (0.006)
F−s a is ic 108.67 17.72 156.08 50.09 175.99 30.48 207.77 55.00 156.10 50.08 176.29 30.48
2SLS
Owns
washing
machine
−0.014 0.034 −0.016 0.022 −0.020 0.036 0.009 −0.055 0.004 −0.002 −0.003 −0.162*
(0.022) (0.062) (0.028) (0.064) (0.030) (0.087) (0.021) (0.067) (0.032) (0.074) (0.022) (0.087)
Age 0.143*** 0.169*** 0.168*** 0.203*** 0.109*** 0.129*** −0.065*** −0.063** −0.098*** −0.094*** 0.012 0.019
(0.017) (0.024) (0.022) (0.030) (0.027) (0.038) (0.017) (0.025) (0.023) (0.032) (0.023) (0.035)
Age−
squa ed
−0.007*** −0.008*** −0.008*** −0.009*** −0.005*** −0.006*** 0.004*** 0.004*** 0.005*** 0.005*** 0.000 0.001
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Female −0.016*** −0.032*** −0.055*** −0.051***
(0.005) (0.008) (0.005) (0.007)
Ru al 0.029*** −0.033* 0.045*** −0.019 0.004 −0.047 0.058*** 0.006 0.054*** 0.017 0.062*** −0.009
(0.008) (0.019) (0.012) (0.023) (0.011) (0.033) (0.009) (0.024) (0.010) (0.031) (0.010) (0.034)
Hindu 0.081*** 0.074*** 0.078*** 0.066*** 0.085*** 0.086*** −0.007 −0.007 −0.019** −0.021 0.003 0.006
(0.010) (0.014) (0.011) (0.015) (0.013) (0.020) (0.006) (0.011) (0.009) (0.015) (0.007) (0.014)
SC o ST −0.011* −0.020*** −0.018** −0.027*** −0.002 −0.010 −0.009 −0.008 −0.007 −0.008 −0.013* −0.010
(0.006) (0.008) (0.008) (0.009) (0.008) (0.012) (0.006) (0.008) (0.007) (0.010) (0.007) (0.011)
(Con inued)
Page 24 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
En ollmen Employmen
All Male Female All Male Female
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Weal h
index
0.090*** 0.072*** 0.090*** 0.069*** 0.091*** 0.076*** −0.065*** −0.050*** −0.063*** −0.050*** −0.064*** −0.046***
(0.007) (0.010) (0.008) (0.011) (0.010) (0.015) (0.006) (0.009) (0.008) (0.011) (0.008) (0.012)
Fa he ’s
age
−0.003*** −0.002*** −0.002*** −0.002* −0.004*** −0.003*** 0.001** 0.001 0.001* 0.000 0.001* 0.001
(0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Mo he ’s
age
0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.001 −0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Fa he ’s
yea s o
schooling
0.012*** 0.013*** 0.012*** 0.012*** 0.013*** 0.013*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.006*** −0.006*** −0.003*** −0.005***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Mo he ’s
yea s o
schooling
0.007*** 0.006*** 0.007*** 0.007*** 0.006*** 0.005*** −0.004*** −0.005*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.003*** −0.003**
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance
o nea es
own (km)
0.000 0.001 −0.000 −0.001 −0.000 −0.001**
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance
o oad
access
(km)
0.002 0.003 −0.000 0.000 −0.002 0.002
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.002)
Phone
access
0.003 0.001 0.011 −0.030** −0.028** −0.029*
(0.011) (0.013) (0.015) (0.012) (0.014) (0.016)
Dis ance
o ailway
s a ion
(km)
−0.000 −0.000 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance
o ma ke
(km)
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.002*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Table 7 Con inued
(Con inued)
Page 31 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table 10 2SLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns a e ige a o on ma ied women’s wo k
Wo k inside household Wo k ou side household
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Fi s s age
Owns Re ige a o (single women) 0.376*** 0.352*** 0.376*** 0.352***
(0.0132) (0.0204) (0.0132) (0.0204)
Owns ai condi ione 0.158*** 0.223*** 0.158*** 0.223***
(0.0190) (0.0313) (0.0190) (0.0313)
Owns colo ele ision 0.121*** 0.0999*** 0.121*** 0.0999***
(0.00848) (0.0112) (0.00848) (0.0112)
F−s a is ic 495.87 193.8 495.87 193.8
2SLS
Owns e ige a o −0.145*** −0.106* 0.082*** 0.010
(0.030) (0.058) (0.026) (0.045)
Age 0.037*** 0.050*** 0.034*** 0.038***
(0.002) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002)
Age−squa ed −0.000*** −0.001*** −0.000*** −0.001***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Yea s o schooling −0.006*** −0.009*** −0.002** −0.007***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Ru al 0.285*** 0.072*** 0.010 −0.016
(0.014) (0.026) (0.011) (0.020)
Hindu 0.053*** 0.089*** 0.026*** 0.012
(0.009) (0.016) (0.006) (0.009)
SC o ST −0.065*** −0.079*** 0.113*** 0.136***
(0.008) (0.010) (0.008) (0.009)
Weal h index −0.025** −0.012 −0.150*** −0.136***
(0.010) (0.016) (0.010) (0.014)
No. o child en (household) 0.004*** −0.000 −0.005*** −0.005***
(0.002) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002)
Village con ols
Dis ance o nea es own (km) −0.001 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o oad access (km) 0.003* 0.002
(0.002) (0.002)
Phone access −0.046*** 0.016
(0.013) (0.010)
Dis ance o ailway s a ion (km) 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o ma ke (km) 0.003*** −0.002***
(0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o seconda y school (km) 0.003*** 0.000
(0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o highe seconda y school (km) 0.000 −0.000
(0.000) (0.000)
N 70,160 38,059 70,160 38,059
R2 0.288 0.191 0.206 0.249
No es: Wo k inside household includes he ollowing employmen ca ego ies: household a m wo k, animal ca e,
and wo k in he amily business. Wo k ou side household includes he employmen ca ego ies ag icul u al labo ,
nonag icul u al labo , and sala ied wo k. All columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e
p esen ed in pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
2SLS, wo−s age leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.

Page 32 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
p obabili y o ma ied women’s pa icipa ion in wo k inside he household by 14.5 pe cen age
poin s in he ull sample (Column 1). These esul s hold when we ex end ou analysis o he
illage sample, wi h ma ied women’s p obabili y o being employed in wo k inside he house-
hold being educed by 10.6 pe cen age poin s in he illage sample (Column 2). Simila o he
washing machine- ela ed indings, e ige a o owne ship is ound o inc ease he p obabili y
o ma ied women’s employmen in wo k ou side he household by 8.2 pe cen age poin s in he
ull sample.
The esul s p esen ed in Tables 9 and 10 a e sugges i e o appliances being used as a ool o
assis women in al e ing hei ime commi men s be ween employmen in di e en wo k ypes.
Appliances allow ma ied women o ealloca e hei ime o jobs ha a e o mo e alue o hem
as bo h appliances a e ound o signi ican ly al e wo k o ce decisions o ma ied women.
The esul s sugges ha ime-sa ing appliances allow women mo e eedom o choice, allowing
hem o selec employmen ha is less home-based and po en ially mo e luc a i e and libe a ing.
6 Summa y and Discussion
P e ious li e a u e has s essed he impo ance o household capi al in he o m o ime-sa ing
echnologies in al e ing women’s and child en’s labo o ce and educa ion decisions in o he
coun ies (Coen-Pi ani e al., 2010; Tewa i and Wang, 2016; Ke , 2019). Ou pape is he i s
o discuss he e ec s o ime-sa ing appliance owne ship on adul emale and child ou comes
in he Indian con ex .
Using de ailed da a om he IHDS and obse ing wo ime-sa ing appliances, we s udy
he e ec o appliance owne ship on ma ied women’s employmen , olde child en’s employ-
men , and school en ollmen . We ind ha ime-sa ing appliance owne ship educes he p ob-
abili y o ma ied women’s o e all employmen . Owne ship o ime-sa ing appliances may
inc ease he ela i e p oduc i i y o ma ied women in household p oduc ion, and i hese
appliances a e complemen s o household wo k, we would expec o obse e an inc ease in
household p oduc ion and dec ease in o e all employmen o ma ied women.24
Howe e , when ca ego izing employmen ype by economic ac i i y inside and ou side he
household sepa a ely, we ind ha ma ied women dec ease he p obabili y o being employed
inside he household and inc ease he p obabili y o being employed ou side he household
when li ing in a household ha owns a ime-sa ing appliance. These esul s sugges ha , e en
wi h India’s Hindu cul u e, cas e sys em, and educ ion in o e all emale LFP, appliance own-
e ship imp o es ma ied women’s ou comes.
Owne ship o a e ige a o inc eases he p obabili y o olde child en being en olled
in school and educes he p obabili y o hem being employed. Li ing in a household ha
owns ime-sa ing appliances inc eases a child’s school en ollmen by p o iding he child he
oppo uni y o ealloca e hei ime om household labo o schooling. The p esence o a ime-
sa ing appliance lowe s he oppo uni y cos o s aying in school by di ec ly educing chil-
d en’s ime alloca ed o household wo k.
24 Gi en he s ong pa ia chal na u e o he Indian socie y and he p esence o adi ional gende oles, i is expec ed ha
Indian ma ied women pe o m mos o he household cho es in an Indian household. This is suppo ed by he da a
p o ided by he OECD a : h ps://s a s.oecd.o g/index.aspx?que yid=54757 OECD S a is ics on ime spen in unpaid
wo k. While ou model a emp s o con ol o di e en p e e ences, his is no di ec ly es able in ou da a as we lack
ime-use in o ma ion.
Page 33 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Gi en he cu en and p ojec ed g ow h in he owne ship o such ime-sa ing du able
household appliances in he Indian economy, ou pape h ows ligh on an impo an channel
ha a ec s bo h women and child en ou comes. This is pa icula ly ele an o esea che s
and policymake s who a e in e es ed in unde s anding he d i e s o Indian ma ied wom-
en’s declining LFP, a phenomenon ha is coun e in ui i e and he opposi e o wha is being
obse ed in o he de eloping and de eloped coun ies.
Decla a ions
A ailabili y o da a and ma e ial
h ps://ihds.umd.edu/da a
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e none.
Funding
No ex e nal unding.
Au ho s' con ibu ions
SB and AK pa icipa ed in ob aining da a, cleaning da a, pe o ming analysis, and w i ing manusc ip equally.
Acknowledgemen s
We hank Timo hy Be sak, Jacob Bu gdo , wo anonymous e e ees, and pa icipan s o con e ence
p esen a ions o use ul eedback h oughou his p ojec .
Re e ences
A idi, Fa zana; Ta yn Dinkelman; Kanika Mahajan (2018): Why a e Fewe Ma ied Women Joining he Wo k
Fo ce in India? A Decomposi ion Analysis o e Two Decades. Jou nal o Popula ion Economics 31.3,
783-818.
Becke , Ga y S. (1965). A Theo y o he Alloca ion o Time. The Economic Jou nal 75, 493-517.
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Page 35 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Appendix
Table A1 Summa y s a is ics o he women in he s udy, by ma i al s a us
Ma ied women
aged15–59yea s
Single women
aged15–59yea s
Va iable 2005 2012 2005 2012
U ban 27.76 32.97 31.98 34.04
Age 35.15 36.64 25.16 26.72
Hindu 82.77 82.4 78.43 79.64
Mean numbe o kids in he household 1.674 2.049 0.796 1.639
(1.585) (1.99) (1.242) (1.909)
Educa ion:
Mean yea s o schooling 3.921 4.988 6.46 7.46
Li e a e 49.59 59.32 72.69 77.35
Employmen :
Wo k inside he household:
Animal ca e 29.59 22.34 17.47 11.91
Fa m wo k 20.93 18.31 9.94 8.92
Family business wo k 3.05 3.99 2.31 2.72
Wo k ou side he household:
Ag icul u al labo 14.38 11.96 9.03 8.24
Nonag icul u al labo 4.39 7.12 3.44 5.06
Sala ied posi ion 3.47 4.69 5.36 6.85
Employmen a e 51.73 48.25 35.64 33.63
Ru al 63.71 60.48 43.3 39.09
U ban 20.57 23.37 19.34 23.07
Mean weal h index 1.537 1.760 1.607 1.757
(0.687) (0.693) (0.679) (0.674)
N 45,538 42,715 18,727 20,937
No e: Summa y s a is ics o Indian women using IHDS da a.
IHDS, India Human De elopmen Su ey.
Page 36 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table A2 Summa y s a is ics o he women in he s udy, by owne ship o e ige a o
Owns e ige a o Does no own e ige a o
Va iable 2005 2012 2005 2012
U ban 68.62 64.3 20.95 22.07
Mean numbe o kids in household 1.358 1.634 1.727 2.194
(1.42) (1.70) (1.60) (2.06)
Mean yea s o educa ion 8.68 8.48 3.12 3.77
Li e a e 85.89 85.48 43.5 50.22
Employmen :
Wo k inside he household:
Animal ca e 12.13 11.88 32.53 25.98
Fa m wo k 6.11 8.35 23.42 21.78
Family business wo k 3.48 4.96 2.98 3.66
Wo k ou side he household:
Ag icul u al labo 0.39 1.11 16.68 15.73
Nonag icul u al labo 0.34 1.94 5.06 8.92
Sala ied posi ion 6.68 7.38 2.94 3.76
Mean weal h index 2.519 2.459 1.376 1.517
(0.37) (0.33) (0.59) (0.62)
Owns washing machine 24.94 30.87 0.2 0.62
Owns colo ele ision 88.13 96.55 15.46 49.11
Owns ai condi ione 4.05 7.07 0.03 0.13
N 8,440 13,119 36,008 29,562
No e: Summa y s a is ics o Indian women using IHDS da a.
IHDS, India Human De elopmen Su ey.

Page 37 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table A3 2SLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns an appliance on ma ied women’s employmen by
educa ion
Washing machine Re ige a o
Below p ima y
educa ion
P ima y & abo e Below p ima y
educa ion
P ima y & abo e
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Fi s s age
Owns
washing
machine
( single
women)
0.394*** 0.303*** 0.472*** 0.520***
(0.026) (0.037) (0.019) (0.041)
Owns
e ige a o
(single
women)
0.336*** 0.309*** 0.350*** 0.354***
(0.018) (0.025) (0.015) (0.026)
Owns ai
condi ione
0.509*** 0.443*** 0.385*** 0.501*** 0.318*** 0.276*** 0.0915*** 0.148***
(0.049) (0.099) (0.024) (0.040) (0.039) (0.058) (0.017) (0.035)
Owns colo
ele ision
0.0102*** 0.00598* −0.000673 −0.00571 0.100*** 0.0808*** 0.144*** 0.121***
(0.003) (0.003) (0.006) (0.006) (0.009) (0.011) (0.011) (0.014)
F−s a is ic 141.1 32.11 372.77 133.3 209.87 72.14 295.98 105.74
2SLS
Owns
washing
machine
−0.082 0.004 0.005 −0.100
(0.062) (0.120) (0.036) (0.069)
Owns
e ige a o
−0.184*** −0.090 −0.131*** −0.117*
(0.054) (0.083) (0.031) (0.064)
Age 0.058*** 0.065*** 0.048*** 0.061*** 0.057*** 0.064*** 0.047*** 0.061***
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003)
Age−squa ed −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001*** −0.001***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Yea s o
schooling
−0.007*** −0.007** 0.003** −0.008*** −0.006** −0.006* 0.006*** −0.007***
(0.002) (0.003) (0.001) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.001) (0.002)
Ru al 0.274*** 0.053 0.221*** 0.020 0.273*** 0.046 0.219*** 0.016
(0.016) (0.033) (0.016) (0.028) (0.016) (0.033) (0.016) (0.030)
Hindu 0.075*** 0.075*** 0.037*** 0.065*** 0.072*** 0.073*** 0.034*** 0.067***
(0.011) (0.016) (0.010) (0.020) (0.012) (0.016) (0.010) (0.020)
SC o ST 0.012 0.010 0.010 0.015 0.011 0.009 0.005 0.011
(0.008) (0.009) (0.009) (0.013) (0.009) (0.009) (0.009) (0.014)
Weal h index −0.114*** −0.077*** −0.153*** −0.128*** −0.077*** −0.059*** −0.104*** −0.100***
(0.009) (0.010) (0.008) (0.013) (0.013) (0.017) (0.013) (0.022)
No. o
child en
( household)
0.000 −0.005** 0.003 −0.002 0.001 −0.005* 0.004* −0.001
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003)
(Con inued)
Page 38 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Washing machine Re ige a o
Below p ima y
educa ion
P ima y & abo e Below p ima y
educa ion
P ima y & abo e
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Village con ols
Dis ance o
nea es own
(km)
−0.001 0.000 −0.001* 0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ic o
oad access
(km)
0.003* 0.003* 0.003* 0.003
(0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Phone access −0.001 −0.035*** −0.003 −0.039***
(0.012) (0.013) (0.012) (0.013)
Dis ance
o ailway
s a ion (km)
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o
ma ke (km)
0.001 0.002** 0.001 0.002*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance o
seconda y
school (km)
0.001* 0.003*** 0.001 0.003***
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Dis ance
o highe
seconda y
school (km)
0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
A e age
appliance
owne ship
0.027 0.0167 0.151 0.08 0.1313 0.099 0.425 0.305
A e age
employmen
0.618 0.722 0.344 0.498 0.6187 0.723 0.344 0.498
N 31285 20575 38875 17484 31309 20581 38912 17490
R2 0.271 0.174 0.249 0.222 0.261 0.171 0.240 0.220
No es: Columns 1–4 show he esul s o owne ship o washing machine o women wi h lowe − han−p ima y le el
o educa ion (Columns 1 and 2) and o women wi h educa ion le el o p ima y and abo e (Columns 3 and 4).
Simila ly, Columns 5–8 show he esul s o e ige a o owne ship o women wi h a ying le els o educa ion. All
columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
2SLS, wo−s age leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.
Table A3 Con inued
Page 39 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Table A4 2SLS: e ec o li ing in a household ha owns a washing machine on ma ied women’s employmen by job ype
Animal ca e Fa m wo k Ag icul u al labo Nonag icul u al
labo
Sala ied pos Family business
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Fi s s age
Owns washing
machine
(singlewomen)
0.501*** 0.485*** 0.501*** 0.485*** 0.501*** 0.485*** 0.501*** 0.485*** 0.501*** 0.485*** 0.502*** 0.486***
(0.0171) (0.0310) (0.0171) (0.0310) (0.0171) (0.0310) (0.0171) (0.0310) (0.0171) (0.0311) (0.0174) (0.0309)
Owns ai
condi ione
0.437*** 0.523*** 0.437*** 0.523*** 0.437*** 0.523*** 0.437*** 0.523*** 0.437*** 0.523*** 0.437*** 0.523***
(0.0239) (0.0450) (0.0239) (0.0450) (0.0239) (0.0450) (0.0239) (0.0450) (0.0239) (0.0449) (0.0240) (0.0449)
Owns colo
ele ision
0.003 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.003 0.000
(0.00409) (0.00407) (0.00409) (0.00407) (0.00409) (0.00407) (0.00409) (0.00407) (0.00409) (0.00407) (0.00409) (0.00404)
F−s a is ic 638.49 146.37 638.36 146.45 638.37 146.45 638.37 146.55 637.65 145.43 638 147.85
2SLS
Owns washing
machine
−0.068** −0.136** −0.002 −0.073 0.141*** 0.098*** −0.016 −0.049*** 0.032** 0.017 −0.023*** −0.016
(0.027) (0.069) (0.018) (0.051) (0.015) (0.022) (0.011) (0.018) (0.015) (0.020) (0.008) (0.013)
Age 0.030*** 0.043*** 0.019*** 0.028*** 0.017*** 0.023*** 0.009*** 0.010*** 0.011*** 0.009*** 0.007*** 0.006***
(0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Age−squa ed −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000*** −0.000***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Yea s o
schooling
−0.007*** −0.008*** −0.005*** −0.006*** −0.007*** −0.012*** −0.003*** −0.003*** 0.007*** 0.007*** 0.000 0.001*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Ru al 0.206*** 0.040* 0.211*** 0.045** 0.052*** −0.009 −0.001 0.025* −0.032*** −0.025 −0.008** 0.015*
(0.013) (0.022) (0.016) (0.021) (0.010) (0.011) (0.006) (0.015) (0.004) (0.019) (0.004) (0.008)
Hindu 0.026*** 0.046*** 0.074*** 0.111*** 0.031*** 0.029*** −0.005 −0.014** 0.003 −0.002 −0.004 −0.005
(0.007) (0.013) (0.008) (0.012) (0.005) (0.007) (0.004) (0.006) (0.003) (0.004) (0.003) (0.005)
SC o ST −0.039*** −0.050*** −0.051*** −0.069*** 0.077*** 0.103*** 0.022*** 0.029*** 0.024*** 0.017*** −0.009*** −0.007**
(0.007) (0.009) (0.008) (0.010) (0.007) (0.008) (0.004) (0.005) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)
Weal h index −0.053*** −0.034*** −0.050*** −0.025*** −0.106*** −0.120*** −0.027*** −0.022*** −0.015*** −0.007*** 0.009*** 0.011***
(0.005) (0.008) (0.007) (0.009) (0.007) (0.008) (0.004) (0.004) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
No. o child en
(household)
0.001 −0.003 0.003** 0.001 −0.005*** −0.005*** 0.001 0.001 −0.001** −0.001* −0.001 −0.001**
(0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001)
(Con inued)
Page 40 o 42 Bha ga a and Ke . IZA Jou nal o Labo Policy (2022) 12:08
Animal ca e Fa m wo k Ag icul u al labo Nonag icul u al
labo
Sala ied pos Family business
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Village con ols
Dis ance o
nea es own
(km)
−0.001 −0.000 −0.000 0.000 0.000** 0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o
oad access
(km)
0.000 0.005*** 0.003** 0.000 0.000 0.000
(0.002) (0.002) (0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.001)
Phone access −0.025* −0.062*** 0.007 0.013* 0.003 −0.002
(0.013) (0.014) (0.009) (0.007) (0.003) (0.003)
Dis ance o
ailway s a ion
(km)
−0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o
ma ke (km)
0.003*** 0.003*** −0.001* −0.000 −0.000** −0.001**
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance o
seconda y
school (km)
0.001 0.004*** 0.000 0.000 −0.000* 0.001
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Dis ance
o highe
seconda y
school (km)
0.000 0.000 −0.000 0.000 0.000* 0.000
(0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
N 70,146 38,048 70,160 38,059 70,156 38,056 70,155 38,054 70,154 38,058 70,048 38,015
R2 0.256 0.193 0.276 0.223 0.277 0.279 0.101 0.119 0.061 0.050 0.024 0.031
No es: All columns include dis ic and yea ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s a e p esen ed in pa en heses.
*Deno es signi icance a 10%.
**Deno es signi icance a 5%.
***Deno es signi icance a 1%. S anda d e o s a e clus e ed a he dis ic le el.
2SLS, wo−s age leas squa es; SC/ST, scheduled cas e/ scheduled ibe.
Table A4 Con inued