He ich, E win; K eu ze , Ma kus
A icle — Published Ve sion
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies: An
In e o ganiza ional P ocess Model
B i ish Jou nal o Managemen
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John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: He ich, E win; K eu ze , Ma kus (2021) : S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss
O ganiza ional Bounda ies: An In e o ganiza ional P ocess Model, B i ish Jou nal o Managemen ,
ISSN 1467-8551, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 32, Iss. 1, pp. 147-199,
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B i ish Jou nal o Managemen , Vol. 32, 147–199 (2021)
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8551.12473
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional
Bounda ies: An In e o ganiza ional P ocess
Model
E win He ich1and Ma kus K eu ze 2
1Ins i u e o Managemen and S a egy, Uni e si y o S . Gallen, Du ou s asse 40a, S . Gallen, 9000,
Swi ze land 2Managemen G oup, EBS Business School, EBS Uni e si ä ü Wi scha und Rech ,
Gus a -S esemann-Ring 3, Wiesbaden, 65189, Ge many
Co esponding au ho email: ma kus.k eu ze @ebs.edu
S a egic decision-make s oday ace complex en i onmen s wi h me a-p oblems ha cu
ac oss mul iple indus ies. Single o ganiza ions canno add ess hese me a-p oblems. As
a esul , o ganiza ions collabo a e wi h pa ne s, among hem also compe i o s, and com-
monly wo k oge he in mul i-pa ne ini ia i es (MPIs). How hese o ganiza ions join ly
o m an in e o ganiza ional s a egy (IOS), howe e , is no well unde s ood. In his pape ,
we ex end he cu en s a egy p ocess concep ualiza ions om an in ao ganiza ional
ocus o a single i m o an in e o ganiza ional p ocess o mul iple s a egy-making en i-
ies wo king oge he . We selec ed he eMobili y sec o as ou esea ch con ex o de elop
such an IOS p ocess model. We i s de eloped 25 cases on MPIs in he Ge man-speaking
a ea based on in e iews and desk esea ch, be o e we ocused on he eMobili y ecology
in he sou he n pa o Ge many. We iden i ied 291 MPIs, conduc ed in e iews wi h 19
cen al ac o s, held se e al wo kshops and in o mal ga he ings, and complemen ed hese
da a wi h an analysis o publicly accessible documen s. Using an induc i e esea ch de-
sign, we de eloped a p ocess model ha un olds in h ee phases: ini ia ion, nego ia ion and
execu ion. We e eal speci ic p ocess dynamics in MPIs o be c i ical in he o ma ion and
mani es a ion o IOS.
In oduc ion
S a egic decision-make s ace complex en i on-
men s wi h me a-p oblems ha cu ac oss mul i-
ple indus ies. Single o ganiza ions, he e o e, ace
an inc easingly o e whelming en i onmen wi h
a cons ained capaci y o app op ia e esponse.
As a esul , o ganiza ions collabo a e wi h pa -
ne s, o e en compe i o s, like Daimle and BMW
in mobili y se ices (Daimle AG, 2014). Such si-
mul aneous coope a ion and compe i ion be ween
i ms is common p ac ice no only in he au o-
mo i e indus y (Ri ala, 2012), and o en in ol es
mo e han wo o ganiza ions, bo h public and p i-
a e, om a ious indus ies ha wo k oge he in
A ee ideo abs ac o accompany his a icle can be
ound online a : h ps://you u.be/sY12 9LRueo
mul i-pa ne ini ia i es (MPIs) (e.g. Deken e al.,
2018).
P io li e a u e emphasizes ha in e o ganiza-
ional s a egy (IOS) allows o ackling complex
me a-p oblems (Huxham and MacDonald, 1992),
including social and ecological issues (Cla ke and
MacDonald, 2016), by d awing on a g ea e a-
ie y o pe spec i es (Seidl and We le, 2017) and
sensemaking capaci y (Hau z, Seidl and Whi ing-
on, 2017), se ing s anda ds (Leiponen, 2008), e-
alizing c ea i e ini ia i es (Windele and Sydow,
2001) and inno a i e solu ions (Powell, Kopu
and Smi h-Doe , 1996) and eaping in e o ga-
niza ional ad an ages (e.g. Gula i, Noh ia and
Zahee , 2000) single i ms canno achie e.
The ele ance o IOS is undispu ed. The p ocess
by which mul iple pa ne ing o ganiza ions join ly
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish Academy
o Managemen . Published by John Wiley & Sons L d, 9600 Ga sing on Road, Ox o d OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main
S ee , Malden, MA, 02148, USA.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s Li-
cense, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-
comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made.
148 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
o m an IOS is, howe e , no su icien ly well un-
de s ood. S a egy p ocess models (e.g. Ha , 1992)
p edominan ly ake an in a i m pe spec i e, ha
is he eme gence and e olu ion o one o gani-
za ion’s s a egy wi hin i s o ganiza ional bound-
a ies (e.g. Bu gelman, 1983, 1991, 2002; Min zbe g
and Wa e s, 1985; Mi abeau and Magui e, 2014;
Quinn, 1978). Building on he p emise ha s uc-
u al and s a egic con ex s ex e nal o a i m be-
come mo e impo an (Bowe and Gilbe , 2005),
he ecen end o open s a egy p ocesses in-
c eased he anspa ency o – and inclusion o –
in e nal and ex e nal ac o s, bu con inues o o-
cus on he de elopmen o a single i m’s s a egy
(Appleya d and Chesb ough, 2017; Hau z, Seidl
and Whi ing on, 2017; Whi ing on, Caillue and
Yakis-Douglas, 2011).
We wan o explo e how s a egy eme ges and
anscends ac oss o ganiza ional bounda ies (see
Bu gelman e al., 2018). Seminal con ibu ions on
IOS include he s udy by Doz, who ook an e o-
lu iona y pe spec i e o desc ibe ‘alliances as in-
e ac i e and i e a i e cycles o lea ning, ee alu-
a ion and eadjus men ’ (Doz, 1996: 59) and Ring
and Van de Ven’s (1992, 1994) h ee-phase model
o IOS – nego ia ion, commi men and execu ion.
Thei wo k explo ed o e a ching p ocess pa e ns
as in e ela ed s ages, bu a he expense o a g anu-
la iew on speci ic ac i i ies and dynamics. We an-
swe he ques ion o how ac i i ies, p ocesses and
dynamics un old in IOS among mul iple pa ne s
in MPIs.
A e e iewing exis ing in a- and in e o gani-
za ional s a egy p ocess esea ch, we ou line ou
me hod and hen p esen and discuss he ind-
ings we de i e om a quali a i e s udy o MPIs
in he b oade Ge man-speaking eMobili y sec-
o . We con ibu e o s a egy p ocess esea ch by
cap u ing he dynamics and ac i i ies ha eme ge
ac oss mul iple en i ies, hus p o iding a ine -
g ained empi ical accoun and na a i e explain-
ing he mechanisms and empo al sequences ha
help explain p ocess lows (Clou ie and Langley,
2020; Co nelissen, 2017; Langley, 2007). We iden-
i y sepa able subp ocesses and he ansi ions be-
ween hem. Ou de eloped IOS p ocess model
complemen s in a i m and high-le el in e i m
p ocess models. We also con ibu e o esea ch
on mul iple pa ne alliances (MPAs), which pose
idiosync a ic challenges de ia ing om dynamics
as obse ed in dyadic alliances (La ie, Lechne
and Singh, 2007; Tho g en, Wincen and E iksson,
2011) – in e ms o addi ional in o ma ion, co-
o dina ion and moni o ing equi emen s (Ga cía-
Canal, Valdés-Llaneza and A iño, 2003) and he
c i ical ole o in e media ies and hi d pa ies
(Heidl, S eensma and Phelps, 2014; Lazza ini,
2015). We also con ibu e o he esou ce and es-
pecially he capabili y-based iew (Schilke, Hu and
Hel a , 2018), as an IOS capabili y migh enable
o ganiza ions (MPAs) o ou pe o m o he o gani-
za ions (MPAs) ha a e less p ocess-capable (Ha
and Banbu y, 1994). Las ly, by unco e ing ac i i-
ies and p ac ices in he p ocess o IOS eme gence
and embedding hem empo ally ac oss o ganiza-
ions, ou pape helps b idge he dialogue be ween
he s a egy p ocess and he s a egy-as-p ac ice
s eam (Bu gelman e al., 2018; MacKay, Chia and
Nai , 2020; Mi abeau, Magui e and Ha dy, 2018)
and he mic o-p ac ices s eam (Felin, Foss and
Ployha , 2015).
Backg ound on s a egy p ocess
esea ch
The majo i y o s a egy p ocess esea ch ocused
on in ao ganiza ional p ocesses, ha is means
whe eby a single o ganiza ion de elops i s s a -
egy. Min zbe g depa ed om he classic s a egy
concep ualiza ion as a pu pose ully de eloped and
delinea ed plan (e.g. Anso , 1965) and de ined
s a egy as a ‘pa e n in a s eam o decisions
and ac ions’(Min zbe g, 1978: 934), he eby s ess-
ing he impo ance o unplanned s a egies and
he exis ence o in ended bu un ealized s a egies.
Bowe (1970) highligh ed he ele ance o ac ual
esou ce alloca ion in his h ee-s age model o de i-
ni ion, impe us and s uc u al con ex . Bu gelman
(1983) added he selec ion mechanisms, induced
and au onomous beha iou and s a egic con ex .
Also e e ed o as he ‘Bowe –Bu gelman (B–
B) p ocess model o s a egy making’ (Noda and
Bowe , 1996: 160), i combines he wo bo om-
up subp ocesses o de ini ion and impe us wi h
he wo co po a e-le el p ocesses o de e min-
ing s uc u al and s a egic con ex . Thei hink-
ing is buil on ‘an in ao ganisa ional ecologi-
cal pe spec i e, ollowing he a ia ion–selec ion–
e en ion amewo k o cul u al e olu iona y he-
o y’ (Noda and Bowe , 1996: 160). Mi abeu and
Magui e (2014) p opose a p ocess model ha
ou lines how eme gen s a egy ei he becomes
pa o ealized s a egy h ough mobilizing wide
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 149
suppo o impe us, manipula ing he s a egic
con ex and al e ing he s uc u al con ex , o be-
comes epheme al.
Re iews on s a egy p ocess in gene al
(Hu zschen eu e and Kleindiens , 2006) and
s a egy-making modes in pa icula (Ha , 1992;
Ha and Banbu y, 1994) show ha esea ch
has p edominan ly ocused on in ao ganiza-
ional s a egizing. Recen s udies call o esea ch
ha looks beyond o ganiza ional bounda ies
(Bu gelman e al., 2018). Exis ing IOS s udies
mainly buil on Doz’s (1996) e olu iona y model
o lea ning, e-e alua ion and eadjus men , o
Ring and Van de Ven’s (1992, 1994) sequence
o nego ia ion, commi men and execu ion, each
assessed in e ms o e iciency and equi y. O he
li ecycle app oaches di e en ia ed ou s ages:
ini ia ion, nego ia ion, o ma ion and ope a ion
(Das and Teng, 2002; Schilke and Cook, 2013).
Beyond hese comp ehensi e IOS models, ew
s udies ocused on one pa icula phase and opic;
Deken e al. (2018) s udied he ini ia ion phase and
de eloped a p ocess model o p ospec i e esou c-
ing. Di ks, Lewicki and Zahee (2009) pu hei a -
en ion on he execu ion phase and he p ocesses
o ela ionship epai .
O e all, esea ch o e s insigh s in o he highes -
le el IOS s ages o pa icula ac i i ies. Ou unde -
s anding o he unde lying p ocesses and dynamics
o IOS in MPIs is, howe e , s ill agmen ed. We
need nuanced insigh s in o he ac i i ies, subp o-
cesses and dynamics ha o m a s age model om
ini ia ion o execu ion. The elucida ion o hese
p ocess dynamics is he in ended con ibu ion o
ou pape .
Me hods
Resea ch con ex
The eme ging elec ic mobili y (eMobili y) sec-
o p o ides us wi h a e ealing se ing. The au-
omobile indus y aces an unp eceden ed ans-
o ma ion ha has been in oduced by egula o y
p essu e o educe ca bon dioxide, new de elop-
men s in d i e ain echnology and new ma ke
playe s en e ing he a ena. Incumben ca manu-
ac u e s mo e om p oducing and selling ehi-
cles o c ea ing in e modal and complex mobili y
solu ions. This demands a la ge a ie y o ech-
nologies, p oduc s and business models, and led o
c oss-indus y MPIs wi h di e en hema ic p io -
i ies (Kley, Le ch and Dallinge , 2011).
Da a sou ces
To be e unde s and he ield and he ac i i-
ies and dynamics in such MPIs, we de eloped
case s udies o 25 eMobili y MPIs. We sampled
he MPIs based on da a access, while a emp -
ing o each an insigh ul b ead h on he loca ion
(b oade Ge man-speaking a ea), s age ( ecen ly
launched and ma u e), scope o pa ne ships and
goal di e si y. We included la ge-scale and local
MPIs. A numbe o MPIs ocused on winning
pa ne s, o he s on implemen ing o scaling solu-
ions. We a ied cases in e ms o scope – Tesla and
only a ew o he s included >50 pa ne s. We buil
on public sou ces and conduc ed in e iews in 22
o hese MPIs wi h a leas one esponsible man-
age o indus y expe o imp o e ou unde s and-
ing o hese ini ia i es, hei membe s, oles and
ac i i ies, and he ongoing IOS-making (Table 1).
Th ee cases we e de eloped h ough desk esea ch.
Nex , we ocused on he MPI ecology in sou h-
e n Ge many, a egion well known o i s lead-
ing b ands and dense ne wo k in he au omobil-
i y space wi h BMW, Bosch, Daimle and Siemens.
Wi hin his ecology, we iden i ied a o al o 291
eMobili y MPIs om 2007 o 2015, wi h he ma-
jo i y launched in 2011 and 2012. Building on
in e nal and publicly a ailable documen s, p ess
and media eleases and in o mal alks wi h in-
dus y expe s, we eco ded each ini ia i e’s de ails
(Table 2). Mos ini ia i es ocused on ca elec i i-
ca ion and ba e y echnology (35%), ollowed by
demons a ion-o -use -accep ance p ojec s (15%)
and cha ging in as uc u e and g id in eg a ion
(13%). O he s a ge ed mobili y concep s, ecy-
cling, educa ion o egional in eg a ion (all less
han 5%). The a e age ini ia i e comp ised i e
o six o ganiza ions including a publicly owned,
esea ch-o ien ed o ganiza ion. Playe s om o -
me ly un ela ed sec o s we e in ol ed, mainly om
he chemical, ene gy supply and ICT indus y.
Building on he esul ing in-dep h unde s and-
ing o he Ge man eMobili y MPI ecology, we
conduc ed a second ound o in-dep h in e iews
wi h 19 key in o man s be ween Sep embe 2012
and Oc obe 2013 (Table 3). All in e iewees we e
ac i e in mul iple MPIs and could build on a
ich expe ience in IOS de elopmen in he eMo-
bili y sec o . In hese in e iews, which las ed on
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
150 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 1. 25 MPI sho case s udies
Ini ia i e (launch –
loca ion)
P ocess s age (main ac i i ies) Majo objec i es Ini ia i e pa ne In o man Me hod (in e iew
da e)
Alpiq E-Mobili y AG
(2011 – Swi ze land)
Nego ia ion
- T us -building measu es
ongoing
- P oblem analysis and
iden i ica ion o common
g ound
- Ac i i y dis ibu ion
- Building isibili y
- Me a-goal de ined
Alpiq E-Mobili y AG was
se up o de elop, plan
and ins all in as uc u e
solu ions o
elec omobili y
Che ole ; Fiske Au omo i e; m-way
(Mig os G oup, Mi subishi Mo o s);
P o osca ; Toyo a; Emil F ey G uppe;
Po sche AG; PSG G oup (Ci oen,
Peugeo ); Tou ing Club Swi ze land
(TCS); Mobili y academy; Pos al
Se ice; Swisscom AG; Swiss
eMobili y Associa ion; Fede al Roads
O ice (ASTRA); Swiss Fede al O ice
o Ene gy (BFE)
(1) CEO o Alpiq
E-Mobili y AG
(2) Head o
In as uc u e a
Toyo a
Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(1: 28.05.2013)
(2: 30.05.2013)
BeMobili y 1.0
(2009 – Swi ze land)
(BeMobili y 1.0
p eceded he
BeMobili y 2.0
ini ia i e)
Ini ia ion
- T igge ed by go e nmen o
ackle mobili y challenges o
u banized a eas
The in eg a ion o he
elec ic ca -sha ing
sys em e-Flinks e and i s
linkage wi h Be lin’s
public anspo sys em.
Tes ing cus ome
accep ance
DB Fuh pa kSe ice GmbH; InnoZ
GmbH; Technische Uni e si ä Be lin;
HaCon Ingenieu gesellscha mbH;
Robe Bosch Ca Mul imedia
GmbH; Con ipa k
Pa kga agengesellscha mbH;
CHOICE GmbH; Happold
Ingenieu bü o GmbH; Daimle AG
Desk esea ch
BeMobili y 2.0
(Be linelek oMobil)
(2011 – Ge many)
Execu ion
- Co-specializa ion and
dis ibu ion o asks
acco ding o co e
compe encies
- De eloping s uc u es (i.e.
con olling and epo ing) o
ack p og ess
- Rede ining o e a ching goals,
‘goal alignmen ’
De eloping a sys emic
in eg a ion o elec ic
mobili y (i.e. lexible,
one-way ca sha ing wi h
elec ic ca s and a
mul imodal mobili y
ca d)
DB Fuh pa kSe ice GmbH; InnoZ
GmbH; Technische Uni e si ä Be lin;
HaCon Ingenieu gesellscha mbH;
Robe Bosch Ca Mul imedia
GmbH; Con ipa k;
Pa kga agengesellscha mbH;
CHOICE GmbH; Ve keh s e bund
Be lin-B andenbu g; Happold
Ingenieu bü o GmbH; Daimle AG;
RWE AG; Va en all AG; Ci oën
Mul ici y; Technologies i ung Be lin
(TSB); Schneide Elek ik;
Fo schungszen um Jülich
P ojec Head Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(31.05.2013)
Ci oën Mul ici y
Ca -Sha ing
(2012 – Ge many)
Nego ia ion/Execu ion
- Scaling h ough cus ome
accep ance (e.g., mobile App)
and inc easing each (e.g.,
implemen a ion Call-a-bike)
- Task dis ibu ion and
au onomous execu ion
De eloping and es ing o
he i s comme cial
ca -sha ing o e s in
Ge manyaswellasin
Eu ope powe ed by
elec ic ehicles
DB Ren ; RWE AG; Mi subishi; Be lin
Mobili y Se ices (BVG);
Tou ism-Inside ; Radio FluxFM
Desk esea ch
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .

S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 151
Table 1. (Con inued)
Ini ia i e (launch –
loca ion)
P ocess s age (main ac i i ies) Majo objec i es Ini ia i e pa ne In o man Me hod (in e iew
da e)
- Co-aligning s a egic goals
and managing
in e dependence be ween
ehicles (Ci oën) and
cha ging s a ions (RWE AG)
Elek omobili ä sp ojek
CROME
(c oss-bo de
mobili y o elec ic
ehicles)
(2011 – Ge many)
Ini ia ion/Nego ia ion
- Inc easing isibili y o he
ini ia i e and de eloping
me a-goal
- Adding capaci y o p oblem
solu ion
- Task sepa a ion by
compe ency (i.e., Cha ging
plugs, cha ging cables,
cha ging communica ion,
access sys ems, se ices, and
use beha io )
- B idging di e ences h ough
s anda disa ion
Build a c oss-bo de , secu e,
use - iendly
and eliable elec ic
mobili y solu ion be ween
F ance and Ge many,
including au hen ica ion,
billing, oaming,
ese a ion, e c.
Bosch AG; Daimle AG; ENBW
GmbH; Siemens AG; Po sche AG;
Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology
(KIT); Ve band de
Au omobilindus ie (VDA);
Municipal u ili ies Ka ls uhe,
Mi elbaden and Baden-Baden; EDF;
IFSSTAR; Renaul Nissan; Schneide
Elec ic; PSA G oup; Toyo a; Region
Alsace; Depa emen Moselle;
Municipali y S asbou g
P ojec Head a KIT Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(06.06.2013)
eGap
(2010 – Ge many)
Nego ia ion
- De eloping a ‘democ a ic’
decision p ocess
- P o iding a neu al space o
he de elopmen o s a egy
- Sea ching o mone iza ion
mechanisms
As a pa icula ly agile
ecosys em, he Alpine
egion needs
en i onmen ally and
clima e- iendly a ic
solu ions. The ini ia i e
aims o de elop such
op ions
Kompe enzzen um Spo Gesundhei
Technolgie GmbH; B.A.U.M Consul
GmbH; SP G oup; Gene al Elec ic;
Audi AG; BMW G oup; Deu sche
Bahn AG; Municipali y
Ga misch-Pa enki chen; Micma;
FG.de; Fo sys; Swa co T a ic
Sys ems; Innoz GmbH; Lebe Sys em
Technik; Con inen al AG; R&R
Fah zeug echnik; Bie sack Ca
Ren al; Ho els – Fou Seasons,
S audache ho , Riesse see; e-La e ne
e-Au o In as uk u GmbH; IRT
Ins i u ü Rund unk echnik;
Uni e si y o Passau; Technical
Uni e si y o Munich
Head o Ini ia i e Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(10.06.2013)
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
152 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 1. (Con inued)
Ini ia i e (launch –
loca ion)
P ocess s age (main ac i i ies) Majo objec i es Ini ia i e pa ne In o man Me hod (in e iew
da e)
RWE e-Mobili y
(2008 – Ge many)
Execu ion
- Rollou and es ing o
in as uc u e o 500
cha ging s a ions and 100
sma elec ic ehicles
- Building consensus and
b idging ac oss di e en
posi ions
- De ining agenda beyond
cu en ini ia i e
The objec i e o his
ini ia i e was o es he
ma ke o e-mobili y and
o con ince u u e use s
in he Be lin a ea o he
concep
RWE AG; Daimle AG; ADAC (ca
b eakdown se ice); Six (ca en al);
Apoca (pa king se ice); Renaul
Nissan; Siemens AG; Uni e si y o
Be lin; E.ON AG; Va en all GmbH;
TOTAL; TÜV Rheinland; VW AG
(associa e pa ne ); ABB AG
(associa e pa ne )
Head o Ini ia i e Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(05.06.2013)
EASYBAT
(2011 – Ge many/EU)
Ini ia ion
- Rallying pa ne s and
esou ces
- B oadening he pa ne base
o b ing new s anda d o
ma ke and build ne wo k
e ec s
- Inc easing momen um o
change
EASYBAT’s main mission
is o add ess hese
in eg a ion challenges by
de ining new concep s o
he sma inse ion o
ba e ies and by
de eloping in pa icula
gene ic in e aces o
elec ic ehicles. This
esea ch aims o enable
smoo h ba e y
in eg a ion and swapping
Be e Place; Renaul Nissan;
Con inen al AG; E ns & Young;
TÜV Rheinland; KEMA Nede land;
RWTH Aachen; F aunho e -Ins i u e;
Technical Uni e si y Munich; Danish
Technology Ins i u e; Uni e si y o
Hai a
P ojec Manage Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(09.06.2013)
Econnec eE-Tou Allgäu
(2011 – Ge many)
(p eceding ini ia i e:
eE-Tou Allgäu om
2009 o 2011)
Nego ia ion
- Coo dina ing in e es s and
deg ee o au onomy o
pa ne s
- In e dependencies ac oss
dis ibu ed pa ne asks
- Aligning indi idual pa ne
in e es s owa ds o e a ching
goals
Holis ic, a o dable business
models and solu ions o
elec ic mobili y h ough
(1) de elopmen o an
economical and
inno a i e ICT sys em;
(2) accep ance and
u he de elopmen o
e-mobili y in u al a eas
Allgäue Übe landwe k GmbH;
Hochschule Kemp en; MSR Solu ions
GmbH; Soloplan GmbH; John Dee e
Head o Ini ia i e Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(05.06.2013)
Ca 2Go
(2008 – Ge many)
Execu ion
- In eg a ion o addi ional
pa ne s and
complemen a i ies
- Balancing in luence and
in e es s among he wo
bigges pa ne s: Daimle
AG und Eu opca
Expand business ou side he
adi ional co e and
explo e and d i e o wa d
new, po en ially a ac i e
business a eas o add ess
ising cus ome need o
lexible, u ban anspo
Daimle AG; Eu opca ; Be line
Ve keh sbe iebe; Shopping Ci y Süd
(1) Business
Inno a ion
Manage (Daimle
AG); (2) P o esso
a S u ga Media
Uni e si y
Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(16.05.2013)
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Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 153
Table 1. (Con inued)
Ini ia i e (launch –
loca ion)
P ocess s age (main ac i i ies) Majo objec i es Ini ia i e pa ne In o man Me hod (in e iew
da e)
eMO
‘Combined Cha ging
Sys em (CCS)’
(2012 – Ge many)
Ini ia ion
- Making sense o ma ke s
- Finding common g ound
ac oss loosely coupled
pa ne s
- Oppo uni y aming o win
pa icipan s and c ea e
a ou able egula o y
amewo k
Iden i ica ion o ields o
ac ion and ‘unique selling
poin s’ o he egion
ega ding elec ic
mobili y (e.g. as
cha ging s a ions)
eMO Agen u ü Elek omobili ä ;
Be lin Pa ne GmbH; TSB
Inno a ionsagen u Be lin GmbH;
RWE AG; Va en all GmbH; EON
AG; Daimle AG; TOTAL; TÜV
Rheinland; Technical Uni e si y
Be lin
Head o Ini ia i e Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(13.05.2013)
Hubjec GmbH
(2011 – Ge many)
Nego ia ion
- De eloping a cus ome alue
p oposi ion
- Coo dina ing and adjus ing
pa ne ac i i ies
- De ining s anda d p o ocols
o in e ac ion
Ac i i ies ocused on
managing and ope a ing
he cha ging
in as uc u e o elec ic
ehicles anging om
cus ome ela ionship
managemen solu ions o
coo dina ion o cha ging
s a ions o billing o
cha ging olumes
BOSCH So wa e Inno a ions; Hubjec
GmbH (BMW G oup, Daimle AG,
EnBW AG, RWE AG und Siemens
AG); Mennekes Elek o echnik
GmbH & Co. KG; Ebee Sma
Technologies GmbH
Desk esea ch
(01.05.2013)
‘Hambu g - Wi scha
am S om’
(2011 – Ge many)
Ini ia ion/nego ia ion
- Iden i ying po en ial poin o
collabo a ion
- Nego ia ing he ole o he
coo dina ing uni :
hySOLUTIONS GmbH
Resea ch and de elopmen
in ba e y elec ic ehicles
and use -o ien ed
demons a ions.
Facili a ing knowledge
in eg a ion in o
highe -le el pla o ms
and local ne wo k
de elopmen om
ele an indus ies,
science and public
au ho i ies
Finanzbehö de de F eien und
Hanses ad Hambu g;
Handelskamme Hambu g; HSBA
Hambu g School o Business
Adminis a ion; Technische
Uni e si ä
Hambu g-Ha bu g; Va en all Eu ope
Inno a ion GmbH; Me cedes-Benz
Bank; Renaul ; C édi In e na ional
Banque; DB Fuh pa k-Se ice
GmbH; GE Au o Se ice Leasing
GmbH
Head o Ini ia i e a
hySOLUTIONS
GmbH
Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(05.06.2013)
Ha z.EE-Mobili y
(2009 – Ge many)
Nego ia ion
- Ha monizing collec i e and
indi idual goals
- Balancing he applica ion o
di e en echnologies (e.g.
Ge man e-ca s and Audi A2)
- Rein eg a ing p ojec
indings
The Ha z.EE-Mobili y
p ojec s eng hens he
echnological and
economic posi ion o he
pa ne s in he key a eas
o sma g id (in elligen
powe g id) and
elec omobili y
F aunho e Ins i u ; Hochschule Ha z;
DB Ren GmbH; E.ON A acon AG;
Siemens AG; Voda one G oup;
in.powe GmbH; K ebs&Aulich
GmbH; Ge man-e-Ca s;
Regene a i K a we k Ha z GmbH &
Co. KG
P ojec Head Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(01.05.2013)
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Academy o Managemen .
154 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 1. (Con inued)
Ini ia i e (launch –
loca ion)
P ocess s age (main ac i i ies) Majo objec i es Ini ia i e pa ne In o man Me hod (in e iew
da e)
eMobili y Me cedes
Benz Schweiz AG
(2010 – Swi ze land)
Execu ion
- Secu ing cons an
in o ma ion lows
- Managing s akeholde s and
join public communica ion
- Managing coope a ion and
compe i ion in he ligh o
o e lapping in e es s (i.e.
ewz/ekz)
De eloping an ecosys em o
inc ease he o al alue
added and c ea e a
showcase in he ma ke o
elec omobili y
Me cedes-Benz Swi ze land;
Elek izi ä swe k de S ad Zü ich
(ewz); Elek izi ä swe ke des Kan ons
Zü ich (ekz); S ad Zü ich; Mobili y
AG; elec osuisse; Mig os (MGB)
Head o eMobili y On-si e in e iew,
ansc ibed and
desk esea ch
(21.03.2013)
Mobili y Ca -Sha ing
Schweiz
(2011 – Swi ze land)
Nego ia ion/execu ion
- Expanding he alue
p oposi ion
- Sepa a ing and balancing
ini ia i e and i m-speci ic
ac i i ies
Make elec ic mobili y
a o dable and easily
accessible o e e yone
m-way AG; Siemens AG; SBB (Swiss
Fede al Railways) AG; Mobili y AG
Head o P oduc s &
S a egy a
Siemens
Swi ze land
Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(06.06.2013)
Die Modell egion
G oss aum G az
(2010 – Aus ia)
Ini ia ion/nego ia ion
- Acqui ing speci ic esou ces
and pa ne s o ealize
ini ia i e
- Enabling knowledge sha ing
ac oss he ini ia i e’s
pa icipan s
- I e a ing be ween p op ie a y
and open sys em
Inc easing a ac i eness o
elec ic mobili y and
e icien in eg a ion in o a
holis ically op imized
anspo sys em.
O ganiza ional goals
include in ensi ied
knowledge exchange and
collec i e lea ning
e-mobili y G az GmbH; Holding G az
(ca ie o he ci y’s public anspo );
Ene gie G az; Ene gie S eie ma k;
Technical Uni e si y G az; Klima und
Ene gie onds; Lebensminis e ium;
e-connec ed
Head o Ini ia i e a
e-mobili y G az
GmbH
On-si e in e iew,
ansc ibed and
desk esea ch
(28.06.2013)
Mul ici y Ca -Sha ing
Be lin
(2011 – Ge many/EU)
Nego ia ion/execu ion
- In eg a ing complemen a y
se ices
- Ini ial p oduc es s
Build solu ion ha includes
all a ailable means o
anspo and di ec
booking
Ci oën; Deu sche Bahn; DB Ren
GmbH; Flinks e
Call a Bike; RWE AG; Be line
Ve keh sbe iebe (BVG)
Head o
Coo dina ion
Mobili y P ojec s
a Ci oen
Ge many GmbH
Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(06.06.2013)
P ojek esha e
(2011 – Ge many)
Execu ion
- Decomposing asks ac oss
pa ne s
- Join communica ion o gain
publici y
- Expanding geog aphic
p esence
On use side, p omo e
en i onmen ally iendly
elec omobili y solu ions.
Fo he pa icipan s o
he ini ia i e, es ing
elec ic mobili y unde
ealis ic condi ions, as
empi ical knowledge
wi hin he Swiss ma ke is
s ill imma u e
Mobili y Solu ions AG;
Elek izi ä swe ke des Kan ons
Zü ich; IWB – Indus ielle We ke
Basel; BKW Ene gie AG;
Municipali y o Ge oldswil, I ingen,
Riehe and can on o Basel;
Associa ion Ine gie
Head o Ini ia i e a
Mobili y Solu ions
AG
Phone, ansc ibed
and desk esea ch
(07.06.2013)
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Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 161
Table 3. (Con inued)
In e iew
da e/du a ion
In o man Backg ound Role and key ac i i ies Exempla y ini ia i es
14.06.2013
90 min
Resea ch ins i u e,
Scien i ic pa ne
Well-es ablished esea ch ins i u ion in he
ield o applied eMobili y solu ions
in ol ed an encompassing se o
ini ia i es on a na ional and Eu opean
le el
Helping o concep ualize p oblems and ame
po en ial solu ions. De eloped signi ican
con ibu ions and ook on majo
coo dina ion e o h oughou he
execu ion phase
MORE: ecycling o componen s and
s a egic me als om elec ic ac ion d i es
and mo o (2011–2014); eFlo e: elec ic
lee ope a ion and echnology
(2012–2015); LHYDIA: ligh weigh
hyd aulics in elec ic ehicles (2012–2015);
Mul iKab: mul i-ma e ial sys ems o
weigh and cos -op imized comme cial
ehicle cabins (2012–2015)
18.06.2013
65 min
Supplie , Head o
P ojec s
Majo global supplie in he ield o
in o ma ion and communica ion
echnology wi h c i ical con ibu ions o
he eMobili y in as uc u e
P o ided s anda dized echnological solu ions
o a comp ehensi e se o eMobili y
ini ia i es in he ield o in o ma ion and
communica ion echnology
EDISON: elec ic ehicles in a dis ibu ed
and in eg a ed ma ke using sus ainable
ene gy and open ne wo ks (2009–2013);
RACE: obus and elian au omo i e
compu ing en i onmen o u u e eCa s
(2012–2014); INTELLAN: in elligen
cha ging in as uc u e wi h g id
in eg a ion (2012–2014)
15.07.2013
75 min
Au omo i e, Head o
S a egy
One o ou majo au omobile OEMs in
Ge many heading s a egic ini ia i es
ela ed o eMobili y. Key pa ne o
se e al MPIs
T igge ing ini ia i es and closing compe ency
gaps wi h pa ne s in join ini ia i es.
In eg a ing, coo dina ing and ma ke ing
solu ions
HyMEP: hyb idiza ion o Me cedes-Benz
ucks in de elopmen and p oduc ion
(2009–2011); SecMobil:
de elopmen /implemen a ion as well as he
legal conside a ion o IT secu i y in he
con ex o elec ic mobili y (2012–2014);
RoCC: secu i y by ada on chip o ca s
(2008–2012)
15.07.2013
75 min
Head o Regula o y
S a egy, P ojec
manage
One o ou majo au omobile OEMs in
Ge many heading s a egic ini ia i es
ela ed o eMobili y. Key pa ne o
se e al MPIs
T igge ing ini ia i es and closing compe ency
gaps wi h pa ne s in join ini ia i es.
In eg a ing, coo dina ing and ma ke ing
solu ions
Ex aLigh : ex emely ligh weigh
cons uc ion wi h plas ic–me al hyb ids
(2012–2015); LiBRi: de elopmen o a
easible ecycling concep o he
high-pe o mance ba e ies o u u e
elec ic ehicles (2009–2011); GaTE:
holis ic he mal managemen in elec ic
ehicles (2012–2015); P oPedes: p edic i e
pedes ian p o ec ion a nigh (2008–2011)
17.07.2013
75 min
Co po a e esea ch,
P ojec leade
Technology uni o a majo ca supplie
con ibu ing echnological and
in as uc u al solu ions o se e al
MPIs
Signi ican echnological con ibu ions
h oughou he execu ion phase. Le e aging
pa ne ships wi h specialized knowledge as
complemen s o own solu ions
ELANi: elec ical d i e low ol age
(2011–2014); Powe GaNplus: de elopmen
o ansis o s on gallium ni ide basis o
ol age conduc o s (2010–2013); E3Ca :
nanoelec onic-based sys em componen s
o e3CAR applica ions (2009–2015);
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .

162 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 3. (Con inued)
In e iew
da e/du a ion
In o man Backg ound Role and key ac i i ies Exempla y ini ia i es
EFA2014: ene gy-e icien d i ing sys ems
(2009–2011); P oPowe : compac elec onic
modules wi h high pe o mance o elec ic
mobili y, d i e and ligh ing echnology
(2012–2014)
17.08.2013
65 min
U ban de elopmen ,
Di ec o and P ojec
lead
Public uni coo dina ing ini ia i es on
eMobili y in he wide me opoli an
egion o S u ga – a key au omobile
echnology clus e
Mobilizing egional pa ne s wi h join
objec i es and suppo ing kicko p ojec s.
P o iding an a ena o egula mee ings
and a pla o m o showcase p ojec s
Ludwigsbu g in e modal: in e modal
ne wo king o anspo modes and
in eg a ion o eMobili y in o a sus ainable,
in e modal anspo concep (2013–2016);
Elek omobili ä e ne z nachhal ig:
awa eness aising and in eg a ion o elec ic
ehicles in o he u ban ehicle lee
(2010–2011)
11.09.2013
90 min
Mobili y concep s, CEO Enginee ing se ice company ha
de elops and con ibu es o eMobili y
concep s on a na ional and
in e na ional le el
P o iding deep enginee ing expe ise on
echnological challenges and building
ma ke able solu ions (i.e. p o o ype o
ma ke )
Undisclosed: pa icipa ed in mo e han 35
eMobili y ini ia i es (since 2011). Lis ed
pa ne o compe ency ne wo k a eMobil
BW
08.10.2013
120 min
Chie s a egy o ice ,
S a egic pa ne ships
One o ou majo au omobile OEMs in
Ge many heading s a egic ini ia i es
ela ed o eMobili y. Key pa ne o
se e al MPIs
Building a ne wo k o ‘capable’ pa ne s and
ini ia ing join ac i i y. In eg a ing,
coo dina ing and ma ke ing solu ions
HeP-E: highly lexible p oduc ion sys ems o
e iciency-enhanced e- ac ion d i es
(2012–2015); EFA2014: concep s o
educing he ene gy consump ion o
elec ic ehicles – i s p ojec phase
(2009–2011); Alpha-Laion: de elopmen o
li hium-ion cells (2013–2015); Ges eue es
Laden 2.0/3.0: inding a echnical and
economic/ecological op imum o cha ging
mobile ene gy s o age de ices h ough
in elligen ene gy managemen ; VisioM:
isiona y ehicle concep o u ban
eMobili y (2012–2014)
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 163
a e age 75 minu es ( o al 24 hou s; eco ded and
ansc ibed e ba im), we ocused on he collab-
o a ion and s a egy p ocess in MPIs (Table 4:
in e iew guideline). Ou esea ch was accompa-
nied by h ee wo kshops, each in ol ing i e o six
pa ne s, wi h he pu pose o e iewing and e-
e alua ing in e im esul s, and in o mal exchanges
wi h pa ne s and indus y expe s a ade shows
and demons a ion p ojec s. We also inco po a ed
an ex ensi e s udy o publicly accessible docu-
men s like annual epo s, pa ne ag eemen s,
p ess eleases, a icles and o icial websi e commu-
nica ions. A e 5 yea s, we conduc ed a ollow-
up membe check wi h he o iginally in e iewed
MPI heads. We asked o hei e ospec i e e al-
ua ion o he MPI and a alida ion o he de el-
oped IOS model. Ten esponded (45%), and wi h
wo we had addi ional ex ended elephonic discus-
sions (Table 5).
Da a analysis
We used a g ounded heo y app oach (Glase and
S auss, 1963; Pe ig ew, 1992; Ring and Van de
Ven, 1992) – no in i s pu is in e p e a ion, bu
in o med by p io esea ch o ha e heo e ical
sensi i i y and become awa e o possible p econ-
cep ions (Dunne, 2011). We s a ed o s uc u e
he da a and e en s in o successi e, adjacen pe i-
ods ha indica ed a ce ain ecu ence in he ac-
i i ies wi hin each pe iod. These pe iods, how-
e e , did no necessa ily p esume any p og essi e
de elopmen al logic (Langley, 1999). Beyond i s
me e s uc u ing u ili y, he b acke ing app oach
acili a ed de eloping uni s o analysis. We sub-
sequen ly connec ed he dis inc pe iods and col-
lec ed u he empi ical e idence by eplica ing he
eme ging model in o he cases. Any disc epancies
we e e iewed and e alua ed agains he espec i e
con ex .
By induc i e hema ic analysis, we iden i ied and
epo ed he pa e ns/ hemes (B aun and Cla ke,
2006). The wo au ho s i s coded independen ly,
hen compa ed hei codings and cla i ied any de-
ia ions. Using A las. i, we i s coded (‘close o
da a’) all s a emen s ela ed o he s a egy p o-
cess (810 quo es). We de eloped a comp ehensi e
lis o phase-speci ic seman ic and la en hemes
(Table 8). This s ep allowed us o build linkages
and de elop mo e abs ac and agg ega ed ca -
ego ies ac oss he concep s, ollowing an axial
coding s a egy (S auss and Co bin, 1998). We
hen aced pa e ns and explana ions in he ini-
ial codes. We collapsed and eo ganized he codes
owa ds highe -o de hemes, which allowed i s -
o de and second-o de hemes o eme ge. The la -
e , mo e abs ac coding s ep aimed a e bally
cap u ing he essence o he s a egic dynamics.
We ul ima ely unde ook selec i e coding by seek-
ing o con adic o y and con i ma o y e idence
in da a (Table 6); 357 quo es and 108 codes e-
mained, suppo ing he unde lying IOS amewo k
(Table 7, 8).
IOS p ocess model de elopmen
Ou da a analysis e ealed ha he IOS p ocess can
bes be displayed in h ee phases, wi hin which we
iden i ied se e al subp ocesses in ou da a: (1) ini-
ia ion – a s imulus o s a he IOS p ocess by ig-
ge ing i on he me a- o i m le el, ollowed by
mobiliza ion ac i i ies o assemble c i ical ac o s
and esou ces; (2) nego ia ion – b idging ac i i y
o o e come he s a egic di e si y and ma ching
p ocess o co-align he goals o cohe en ac i -
i y; (3) execu ion – ecu en , cyclical in e ac ion
in ol ing he decoupling and ecoupling o asks,
s abiliza ion and he pe pe ua ion o esul s and
ela ionships. Building on he empo al b acke -
ing s a egy ou lined ea lie , we p esen he case in-
sigh s along he h ee phases (Figu e 1).
Ini ia ion.
In e nal igge ing. F om a i m-in e nal pe -
spec i e, IOS ini ia ion can be acked back o a
sense o oppo uni y/u gency. New playe s, p e i-
ously un ela ed o only loosely connec ed o he
au omobile indus y, sensed oppo uni ies o be-
come in ol ed in he eme gen eMobili y sec o .
An indus y consul an emembe ed ha he ‘ ech-
nology was [as] ye imma u e, bu e e ybody was
eage o be pa o i somehow’. Long be o e he
media co e age spa ked hype and public awa e-
ness inc eased a he beginning o he 2010s, many
i ms, some o hem employing u u is s (B own
and Eisenha d , 1997), suspec ed ha a adical
echnological change lay ahead.
In se e al cases, isiona ies p o ided he majo
impe us ha allowed he eMobili y opic o be in-
cluded in o ganiza ional agendas and echnolog-
ical oadmaps. A BMW, Ul ich K anz ini ia ed
‘P ojec we’, which e en ually led o he i s ze o-
emission, mass-p oduced ehicle in 2013. K anz’s
e o s ‘ o ein en he ca ’da e back o 2007, when
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
164 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 4. In e iew guideline
No. Ques ion*/Ø =p omp La en cons uc /no e
A In oduc ion
A.1 In oduc ion in e iew pa ne and esea ch p ojec . Add essing
con iden iali y issues
Con iden iali y ag eemen
B Desc ip ion o ac i i ies/collabo a ion
B.1 Please desc ibe X ac i i ies in he ield o elec ic mobili y Main ac i i ies
B.2 How did ac i i ies ela ing o elec ic mobili y eme ge in you
o ganiza ion?
Ini ia ion
B.3 Wha a e you majo goals in ega d o elec ic mobili y? Re lec ion on objec i es
B.4 In which a eas do you collabo a e wi h pa ne s? Scope o collabo a ion
Ø Acco ding o which c i e ia did you choose you pa ne s?
Ø Wha signi icance do hese pa ne s ha e o you elec ic mobili y
ac i i ies?
Ø How a e pa ne s chosen? Wi h which pa ne s do you wo k mos
in ensi ely? Why?
B.5 Why did you choose o collabo a e wi h pa ne s in he ield o elec ic
mobili y?
In e dependence
B.6 Which ac o s a e mos c ucial o he de elopmen o he ini ia i e? Powe dis ibu ion
Ø Does one/se e al pa ne s play a dominan pa ?
B.7 Wha is you ole in he ini ia i e/pa ne ship? How do you con ibu e? Re lec ion on oles and cen ali y
Ø Do goals among ini ia i e pa ne s a y? How?
Ø A e he e di e ging in e es s (among he in ol ed ac o s)? How do
you cope wi h ha ?
Managing IOS di e si y
Ø Wha added alue do you see in collabo a ing wi h di e se pa ne s
in he ini ia i e?
Mo i a ion o collabo a ion
B.8 Wha ole/signi icance do public en i ies, such as p ojec o ices,
associa ions, public au ho i ies on na ional/ ede al le el ha e (e.g.
NOW GmbH, ede al inno a ion agencies)?
Role o public in e media ies
B.9 Wha challenges do you ace wi h ega d o he in ol emen in he
ini ia i e?
P obing o challenges
B.10 How a e you ac i i ies ela ing o elec ic mobili y o ganized
in e nally?
In e nal managemen
C S a egy p ocess
C.1 Who ini ia es elec ic mobili y p ojec s/ac i i ies in you o ganiza ion? Impe us
C.2 Who is he d i ing o ce behind elec ic mobili y ac i i ies in you
o ganiza ion?
Championing
C.3 Did any ex e nal impulses change he ajec o y o you s a egy? Ex e nal impe us
C.4 How impo an is (ea ly) success o elec ic mobili y ac i i ies o you
i m?
C.5 How impo an is commi men o pa ne s o you own ac i i ies and
decisions?
Role o pa ne commi men
C.6 Do you ha e a o malized s a egy o elec ic mobili y ini ia i es? Fo maliza ion o IOS
C.7 Did a o malized s a egy (s a egic guideline) eme ge among you
o he ini ia i e pa ne s? How?
S uc u al con ex : op-down inducemen s.
bo om-up ini ia i e
Ø Whe e does s a egic in e ac ion happen (e.g. mee ings, commi ees,
in o mal ge oge he s)
C.7 How do you achie e consensus on in e es s/s a egies ha exis among
in ol ed o ganiza ions?
IOS consensus inding
Ø Can you gi e an example o a goal con lic and how ini ia i e
membe s deal wi h i ?
C.8 How does he p ocess o planning and coo dina ion among ini ia i e
pa ne s happen?
S uc u al con ex : o ma ion and e ol emen
o IOS
Ø Do you ha e egula mee ings o wo king g oups?
Ø How does in o ma ion and esou ce exchange happen (e.g. IT
pla o ms)?
C.8 How does ask alloca ion happen? Execu ion o IOS
C.9 Ø How speci ic we e he asks and goals ou lined?
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S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 165
Table 4. (Con inued)
No. Ques ion*/Ø =p omp La en cons uc /no e
C.10 How do you implemen and ansla e s a egic plans ou lined in he
ini ia i e?
Implemen a ion o IOS
Ø How do ope a i e and managemen le els collabo a e?
C.10 Does a moni o ing p ocess exis ? Implemen a ion o IOS
C.11 Who decides abou he alloca ion o esou ces owa ds elec ic
mobili y ini ia i es in you o ganiza ion?
Re lec ion on IOS as esou ce alloca ion
Ø In es men o di es men o inancial o human esou ces?
C.11 The in ense collabo a ion among di e se o ganiza ions leads o s ong
in e dependencies among he same. Do you see a s a egic
in e dependence o mu ual in luence in s a egic e ms? Example?
S a egic in e dependence
C.12 Did membe s nego ia e abou objec i es and ac i i ies o he ini ia i e?
Example?
Re lec ion on IOS as nego ia ion
C.13 How a e ini ia i e ac i i ies epo ed back o you o ganiza ion? S a egic con ex : implemen a ion
C.14 In gene al, which s a egic impac do you ha e on he s a egies o
o he ini ia i e membe s?
S a egic in e dependence
D Collabo a ion
D.1 Do you ha e p inciples o collabo a ion? Re lec ion on ules and p inciples
D.2 How did he way you collabo a e change o e ime? IOS e olu ion
D.3 How would you gene ally e alua e and desc ibe collabo a ion wi hin
he ini ia i e?
E alua ion
D.4 How impo an a e pa ne ships o a ne wo k o you o de elop you
goals in his ield?
Re lec ion on in e dependence
D.5 Do you conside ini ia i e pa ne ships as long- e m? Re lec ion on in e dependence
D.6 How do you assess he eme ging dependencies among he in ol ed
membe s in an ini ia i e?
Re lec ion on in e dependence
D.7 Do common esou ces accessible o all membe s o he ini ia i e exis ? IOS ou comes
D.8 A e he e any ac i i ies pe o med in you o ganiza ion exclusi ely,
which you would no conside collabo a ing wi h you pa ne s?
Dep h o s a egic in e ac ion
E O he s (explo a i e)
E.1 Is he e any di e ence ela ing o he collabo a ion wi hin he ield o
elec ic mobili y?
Idiosync asies
E.2 Is he e any hing else ha we did no ouch upon, which is impo an
in ega d o collabo a i e s a egy wi hin he ini ia i e?
* Selec ed lis o co e ques ions. Ques ions we e adap ed o i he con ex and ype o o ganiza ion.
he s a ed ec ui ing an in e disciplina y eam and
pa ne ing i ms. In e nal igge ing ac i i y is no ,
howe e , es ic ed o ocal o ganiza ions, bu ap-
pea s o ouch upon s a egic issues ha span i ms
and indus ies. An au omobile echnology sup-
plie ’s di isional CEO s a ed:
I i s sugges ed [in ou i m] in 2004 ha we needed
o ake ca e o ou ecosys em and manage i delibe -
a ely and s a egically. Thus, [managing] s a egy no
only in-house, bu also wi hin a g oup o i ms o-
cusedonasimila ma ke .
The epea edly men ioned pe cei ed u gency,
which a ose om he ea o being le behind, was
he majo d i ing o ce behind he in e nal igge -
ing o eMobili y p ojec s. This co esponds o he
insigh s ha s a egies a e la gely p oblem-d i en;
hence, hey come in o being because a p oblem
needs s a egic a en ion (Mille and F iesen, 1983;
Po e , 1996). In ligh o he looming echnolog-
ical change owa ds eMobili y, some incumben
ma ke playe s became inc easingly awa e ha he
es ablished alue chain ac i i ies migh soon be
up o edis ibu ion. Howe e , he p ojec s and
p oduc s wi hin he eMobili y ield en ailed a com-
plexi y ha o e whelmed hei in e nal capaci-
ies; emendous challenges eme ged o i ms ha
had hi he o ope a ed la gely independen ly wi hin
hei espec i e ields.
This shows in he da a, as mos ac o s acknowl-
edged ha hey needed mo e han one pa ne o
c ea e a wo king sys em. A egional p ojec o ice’s
di ec o , wi h p io au omobile leade ship expe i-
ence, summa ized:
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166 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 5. Empi ical ma e ial
Type o ma e ial Pu pose and use in analysis
P elimina y
s udy
· Exchanges wi h indus y expe s (4) 2012
· Visi s and exchange wi h public eMobili y
agencies (4) 2013–2015
· Ini ial in e iews and de elopmen o sho cases
(25) 2012–2013
· O he wo kshops and exchange wi h pa ne s (3)
2013, 2020
· P epa a o y wo k o an in o med indus y
unde s anding
· Nego ia ing o access o e en s, in o man s and
ma e ial
· Ea ly cap u ing o ac i i ies and pa e ns o
s a egy p ocess dynamics
· Re iewing and e-e alua ing in e im esul s
In-dep h analysis · In-dep h in e iews wi h heads o ini ia i e o
p ojec leads (19)
· In o mal con e sa ions wi h a numbe o
o ganiza ional membe s, a ade shows o
demons a ion p ojec s
· In-dep h analysis o ac i i ies and pa e ns o IOS
p ocess
· Tes ing o he alidi y and a wide
gene alizabili y o ecu en ac i i ies and
dynamics as unco e ed in he IOS p ocess
Membe check · Membe check: heads o ini ia i e o p ojec leads
(9)
· In o mal con e sa ions wi h s udy pa ne s and
indus y expe s
· C edibili y check ega ding majo changes and
ini ia i e success
· Cap u ing eedback and es ing gene alizabili y
o he p ocess model
Documen s · Agendas, minu es and documen s used in
wo kshops and exchanges 2012–2013
· In e nal and public documen s on eMobili y
ini ia i es wi h ega d o goals and s a egic plans
2007–2015
· Annual epo s 2007–2015
· P ess eleases, communica ion on o icial websi e,
and o he ma e ial published on he ini ia i es
2013–2015, 2020
· Recons uc ion o he sequencing o key ac i i ies
and de elopmen in he ield
· Reco ding and analysing o ac i i ies and
pa e ns o he IOS p ocess
· T acking ac i i ies pe o med wi h pa ne s and
in he absence o pa ne s
· Analysing pa ne ag eemen s and s a emen s
ega ding oles, con en and objec i es o he
ini ia i es
· Ge ing insigh s in o o icial communica ion in
he con ex o join ac i i ies and s a egizing
Media · Newspape a icles (selec ion o ele an a icles on
eMobili y ini ia i es)
· In o mal con e sa ions wi h s udy pa ne s and
indus y expe s
· Recons uc ion o he sequencing o key ac i i ies
· Analysis o he ole o ex e nal igge s and
egula o y dynamics
· T ack he e olu ion and success o he ini ia i es
as pe cei ed by he public
… all s a ed wi h ea . Wi h a majo indus y’s ea
ha an indispensable echnological change would be
needed o deal wi h he u u e challenges o mobil-
i y’s ecologiza ion, which was ine i able. Thus, one
can ei he igh agains change, o ace i . Bu we
hink i was he ea ha […] made people om di-
e ging indus ies ask hemsel es how o app oach
his issue.
The ac o s we e con on ed wi h demands o
in eg a ed solu ions ha equi ed coo dina ed e -
o s and inpu s om a ious ields. Compa ible
solu ions, which had nei he been p oduced no
es ed, we e equi ed o elec ic ehicles ega ding
hei ba e y echnology, so wa e and elec onic
con ol sys ems. The app op ia e in as uc u e o
powe and accommoda e elec ic ehicles had no
ye been de eloped, bu was c i ical o he unc-
ioning o eMobili y solu ions. The e we e no in-
dus y s anda ds and egula ions, employees’qual-
i ica ions we e unde de eloped and cus ome ac-
cep ance was insu icien o make a business case.
The head o esea ch on ba e y-powe ed ehicles
a a majo ca p oduce desc ibed:
You simply canno do i on you own. You nei he
ha e he echnological capaci y, no he manpowe .
You may unde s and many hings, bu you canno
pu hem in o p ac ice. This is why we sea ched o
pa ne s.
A senio p ojec manage a he ene gy supplie ’s
s a egy depa men ei e a ed:
Rega ding hese comp ehensi e challenges [o eMo-
bili y] – we as an indi idual i m we e a om being
able o sol e hem. Owing o he analysis conce ning
he [scope o he] cha ging in as uc u e, sales and
g ids, g id ees, e c., ha was all ye unclea . The e
we e s ill many open ques ions.
While he IOS p ocess can be aced back
o in ao ganiza ional spa ks o ini ia i e, he
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Academy o Managemen .

S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 167
Table 6. Coding s a egy – ou -s ep p ocess
S ep Phase Applied
app oach
Majo in en P ocess s eps o analysis/coding Coded da a sou ces
1 Theo e ical
sensi i i y
Li e a u e and
ex an
concep s
S udy o ex an li e a u e
and heo y
- Re iew o exis ing concep s, dynamics, and
ac i i ies
- Sys ema ic li e a u e e iew based on keywo d
sea ch in he Thomson Reu e s Da abase
(applying a “ opics” sea ch pa ame e , which
scans abs ac s, i les, and ou lined keywo ds)
- 891 a icles iden i ied, 70 ele an a icles
analysed in de ail o ex ac he explici ly, o
implici ly, desc ibed s a egic dynamics
- Documen and abs ac compe ing
in e p e a ions
Re iew: li e a u e and concep s on
in a- and in e o ganiza ional
s a egy p ocesses
2 Ini ial s uc u ing Phases, pe iods
and ecu en
ac i i ies
De eloping uni s o analysis
om da a and e en s
- Collec ing and o ganizing ini ial da a
- S uc u ing he da a and e en s in o
successi e, adjacen pe iods ha indica ed a
ce ain ecu ence in he ac i i ies wi hin each
pe iod
- De eloping simple desc ip i e and ca ego y
labels
In e iews: 41 ansc ibed in e iews
Documen s: ield no es; wo kshop
documen s; publicly accessible
documen s (e.g. annual epo s);
p ess eleases
3Da a
explo a ion
Phase-speci ic
seman ic and
la en hemes
T acing pa e ns and
explana ions ac oss whole
da a
- Induc i e hema ic analysis o hemes o ace
pa e ns and explana ions
- Coding ( e- isi ing and e-coding) all
s a emen s ela ed o he s a egy p ocess (810
codes)
- Axial coding o build linkages and agg ega ed
ca ego ies ac oss concep s
In e iews: 41 ansc ibed in e iews
Documen s: ield no es; wo kshop
documen s; publicly accessible
documen s (e.g. annual epo s);
p ess eleases
4 Co obo a ion Abs ac and
selec i e
coding
De eloping highe -o de
hemes om agg ega ed
codes
- De eloping i s - and second-o de hemes by
collapsing and eo ganizing codes
- Ve bal cap u ing o co e s a egic dynamics
and ac i i ies
- Wi hin and c oss-case analysis
- Selec i e coding o analyse con adic o y and
con i ma o y e idence in da a
In e iews: 41 ansc ibed in e iews
Documen s: ield no es; wo kshop
documen s; publicly accessible
documen s (e.g. annual epo s);
p ess eleases
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Academy o Managemen .
168 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 7. Coding s uc u e – agg ega ion o hemes
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes (agg ega ed) Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
INTIATION Expe s unde s and he p oblem be e Complex me a-p oblem
(p oblem-cen ed)
EXTERNAL
TRIGGERINGP oblem is pa o a mo e complex issue
Need o o ganized change
Beyond ou scope
No business case he e Insu icien momen um
(o ganiza ion-cen ed)Too much isk in ol ed
Insu icien esou ces
Smallness/lack o legi imacy
Ine ial o ces inside (pa h-dependence)
Window o oppo uni y Sense o oppo uni y INTERNAL
TRIGGERINGP ojec ing u u e
Missing u u e business
Acknowledging in e dependence Sense o u gency
Fea o being le behind by echnological change
No ou co e compe ency
De eloping join pla o ms Filling gaps MOBILIZING
I one pa icipa es he o he also wan s o (pull)
Talking ac oss bounda ies
Sys ema ically scou ing he ma ke o pa ne s
Filling gaps o compe ency
Bounda y-spanne s ha connec ac oss i ms Enhancing isibili y
Signalling om he op
Gi e he endea ou a ace
Mul iplying publici y
NEGOTIATION Top-le el esolu ion necessa y/pa ing way Neu al clea ing STRATEGIC
BRIDGINGMode a ing and speeding decisions
Building us
Spanning he ba gaining leeway Consensus inding
P o iding neu al space o s a egic dialogue
O ganizing/s uc u ing change
Mee ing on in e es s no posi ions/me a-goals
Pooling esou ces and needs F aming p oblems MATCHING
Many eyeballs on one p oblem
Finding consensus on non-compe i i e g ound
Building a sense o in e dependence
Seeking s a egic locks ep F aming u u e
Co-alignmen o in e es s
Thinking ou side indus y box
De eloping join business models
De eloping u u e scena ios
EXECUTION Need o educe complexi y o manageable uni s Decomposing subsys ems DECOUPLING
RECOUPLINGRein eg a ion o ac i i y
Impose amilia s uc u es
Decomposi ion o asks in o phases Phasing
In ensi ied ela ions En o cing and scaling STABILIZING
Scaling o ac i i ies
In ense communica ion
issue’s complex and in e dependen na u e de-
manded a collabo a i e pa hway. This is whe e
he p ocess c ossed i m bounda ies so as o o m
an IOS.
Ex e nal igge ing. The esponden s epea -
edly s essed he eMobili y sec o ’s complex and
highly in e dependen na u e, which spans se e al
indus ial domains o o m an in eg a ed solu-
ion. Complexi y ends o exceed he sensemak-
ing capaci ies o indi idual o ganiza ions (Weick,
1979), calling o mo e comp ehensi e, in e o ga-
niza ional app oaches o collec i ely unde s and,
analyse and decide on ac ion. The di ec o o he
p ojec o ice managing one egion emphasized
his challenge:
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Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 169
Table 8. Exempla y quo es
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
INITIATION Window o oppo uni y Indus y expe *Technology was [as] ye imma u e, bu e e ybody
was eage o be pa o i somehow.
Sense o oppo uni y INTERNAL
TRIGGERING
P ojec ing u u e CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
The e we e isiona ies a [ou i m]. Uli K anz, as an
example, who e y ea ly on […] conce ned wi h
wha he wo ld would look like o e he nex ew
yea s […] He [CEO] made i possible o Ul ich
K anz o do some hing comple ely new wi h a
small eam, o elec i y he Mini. Tha means o
ea e e y hing ou o a Mini and o elec i y i .
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B
Incumben s a e o en s uck in myopic isions due o
in ense pa h dependencies. Ex e nal impe us migh
be needed o o ganize echnological change.
Missing u u e business Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
We a e no ha a wi h he echnology ye anyway,
bu somehow you wan o be pa o i .
Regional p ojec o ice’s
di ec o
Bu hey all [speaking o indus y ep esen a i es]
would like o be he e [wo kshops] hemsel es,
pa icipa e in he discussion and see wha kind o
en i onmen ha is, wha can be my ole.
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
And hen we ealized e y quickly ha we should do
one o he o he hing ou sel es, bu also need
s able pa ne s, which we ne e had (conside ed)
be o e [name o ini ia i e de eloping ligh weigh
ca bon composi es]. […] he e a e jobs behind i –
in he Ba a ian au omo i e and supplie indus y.
The e is, I’d say, a lo o ac i i y in he e.
Acknowledging
in e dependence
CEO a enginee ing
company
I i mly belie e i [eMobili y] eally needs an
o e a ching business model.
Sense o u gency
Head o S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
And we managed o ge hem all in he same oom a
some poin , hen hey looked in o each o he ’s eyes
and said we can eally make a con ibu ion ha no
one can do alone. I’m in.
Head o Regula o y
S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
I belie e ha his complexi y in oduces a
de elopmen in pa ne ship, which will be much
g ea e in he u u e. […] because jubilan
[en e ainmen ] elec onics, e e y hing conce ning
communica ion, e c., he p ocess is much, much
as e han ha which we ha e in he ca s.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
170 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Fea o being le behind by
echnological change
Regional p ojec o ice’s
di ec o *… all s a ed wi h ea . Wi h a majo indus y’s ea
ha an indispensable echnological change would
be needed o deal wi h he u u e challenges o
mobili y’s ecologiza ion, which was ine i able.
Thus, one can ei he igh agains change, o ace
i . Bu we hink i was he ea ha he e would be
change and ha he e was no way, as ye , o
mee ing i , which hen made people om di e ging
indus ies mee o ask hemsel es how o app oach
his issue.
Head o S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
To my pe sonal su p ise, howe e , his [s a o
ini ia i e] has de eloped inc edibly posi i ely. Tha
spu ed us all on a bi . No mally, we had a
con e sa ion a he beginning wi h a young
gen leman, name and o igin no named, who
comes om he s a -up so wa e space. Since i is
also a so wa e opic. He i s ead us he Le i es
back hen and said, so wha do you ac ually hink
who you a e? Six age-old Ge man companies wi h
six age-old Ge man legal depa men s, un il you
ha e a con ac he opic is al eady h ough.
Somebody else did ha . We ac ually pu his whole
hing on he s ee in jus nine mon hs.
No ou co e compe ency Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
You can’ do e e y hing you sel . And you don’ ha e
he echnological capaci y o he manpowe o do
i . These a e a lo o hings you may unde s and,
bu you migh no be able o implemen hem and
ha ’s why you look o pa ne s.
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
Tha is why i is always pa o he e y i s
ac i i ies, o le ’s say in he i s hi d o his
coope a ion. Also, pa o his con ac un-up is
always a meaning ul di ision o labou based on
exis ing esou ces and skills. Who can do wha ?
The e is always a e y cons uc i e o e y ui ul
compe i ion be ween he enginee s o he bes
idea.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 177
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Head o S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
Well, ha [ eam composi ion] was eally eally high
anked. And ha shows ac ually also ha his is
mean se iously. Bu abo e all i has a sense o
communica ion.
Head o S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
When he CEOs, o a leas a di isional boa d, akes
a pe sonal s and behind he opic, i wo ks. I his
pe sonal commi men is no he e, hen he e is
ac ually no good business base and business
de elopmen ei he .
Di ec o , na ional p ojec
o ice eMobili y ini ia i es
I you each boa d-le el commi men , hen you ha e
a p ocess ha uns much, much smoo he because
e e yone has he eeling ha ‘I was no only
lis ened o, bu I ac ually made a con ibu ion’.
Gi e he endea ou a ace Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie *In an in o e ed i m [as ou s] he e a e only ew
ex o e s. I would no call mysel an ex o e , bu
in ou i m I am. Tha is, I am he ou wa d channel
on public e en s, in speeches, in YouTube ideos,
and social media. Fo us, his is an expe imen :
de eloping s a egy, bu combining i wi h a
communica ion ole.
U ban de elopmen ,
Di ec o and p ojec lead
We wan o be known [in case] we a e looking o
someone wi h a speci ic expe ise. Then hey
should know he e’s a clus e in Regensbu g, so I
cangi e hemacall.
Mul iplying publici y Di ec o , na ional p ojec
o ice eMobili y ini ia i es
Plus, his should no be unde es ima ed, he isibili y
o he opic o he ou side wo ld in e ms o
communica ion is pe haps e en a bi highe han i
would be i e e yone in he p i acy o hei own
did hings o hemsel es.
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
Le ’s do i oge he [c ea e isibili y], so ha no
e e yone uns up o us and says, ‘Go o i ’. […]
And I said a ha ime ha we needed a shining
igu e.
Senio s a egy manage a
u ili ies company
And we hen made hese ehicles isible wi h
poli ical suppo .
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .

178 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
NEGOTIATION Top-le el esolu ion
necessa y/pa ing way
Supplie , Head o p ojec s *The coope a ion con ac was blocked … A la ge
i m had a small sha e o he p ojec bu claimed
ull igh s o e e y hing. O cou se, he small i ms
did no wan his, bu only wan ed o collabo a e
a he in e aces. Then [ he disag eemen ] escala ed
and he op managemen became in ol ed [in he
disag eemen ’s esolu ion] … we we e hen able o
se le [ he issue].
Neu al clea ing STRATEGIC
BRIDGING
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e A
We know elec onic a chi ec u es, we know pa en
applica ions, we know de elopmen cen es, we
pa e he way o echnology pa ne s o ge
oge he . We pa e he way om indus ial pa ne s
o en u e capi alis s, dono s and banks. We know
business plans, bu we always know hem
bila e ally.
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
And when i eally is abou e y impo an hings,
hen you jus go o he op le els, e en up o he
boa d, i i has o be [CEO].
Mode a ing and speeding
decisions
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e A *We ce ainly ha e a pe sonal opinion, bu we don’
exp ess i . We mode a e a p ocess so ha we
achie e an ag eemen be ween he pa ne s … I is,
howe e , impo an ha he e is a mode a o , who
is neu al. By he way, i is highly in e es ing ha
cu en s a e ins i u ions [like ou s] ake on his
ole o acili a e a di icul echnological change
p ocess. We de ini ely do no conduc s a e
economic policy he e, bu he indus y demands a
clea ing poin a a highe le el.
Di ec o , na ional p ojec
o ice eMobili y ini ia i es
Bu his is exac ly whe e we see ou ask as [company
name] y o b ing he playe s oge he along he
en i e alue chain in o de o inc ease
unde s anding and also o neu alize o a ce ain
ex en – neu alize, in o de o b ing he en i e
scene in o he main di ec ion.
Building us Di ec o , na ional p ojec
o ice eMobili y ini ia i es
I is always impo an hen o ha e his discussion
ou side he public sphe e. Because hen people will
also alk abou he eal p oblems and indings.
And only hen can a consensus posi ion be ound.
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
So in a sense you gi e an ad ance, hen he o he one
has o ollow up and hen i builds up.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 179
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Spanning he ba gaining leeway P o esso a echnical
esea ch ins i u e
Howe e , i soon becomes appa en , especially in he
con iden ial one-on-one mee ings, ha he
in e es s behind he publicly exp essed posi ions
do o e lap o can be econciled. E en i he
posi ions canno be econciled now, I will ha e
hem econciled o in e es s. One hen also ies o
es op ions in such a se ies o con e sa ions.
Consensus inding
Senio s a egy manage a
u ili ies company
Tha [ e ms o ini ia i es and goals] was all a he
loosely amed.
Di ec o o ins i u e We de elop esul s openly. In o he wo ds, we do no
ha e a pa icula [goal], we do ha e some kind o
esul in mind, bu we ei he wan a
ecommenda ion o we wan o sha pen he issue
o we wan o c ea e a scope o ac ion.
P o iding neu al space o
s a egic dialogue
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B *This is ce ainly o ma i e o he ad ancemen o
he en i e opic. We ega d his as ou mission,
because [ his agency] ies o assemble all ac o s
along he whole alue chain a ound a able in
o de o inc ease unde s anding. We desc ibe
co-aligning he whole scene owa ds he
mains eam as neu aliza ion.
Di ec o o ins i u e When he discussion has been going on o a while, a
esul s pape will be p oduced, summa izing he
main poin s o iew and a eas o consensus.
Depending on he opic o hesis, we hen add an
open e en (i.e. a wo kshop o some hing like
ha ). Online we ha e sha pened he opic, he
con o e sies ha e become clea and now we pick
ou hese con o e sies and wo k on hem u he
in o line o ma .
Di ec o o ins i u e In o he wo ds, you ha e o know ela i ely p ecisely
who you a e in i ing, you ha e o gi e people he
eeling ha hey can ac ually be open and do no
ha e o hide behind he posi ions o hei
o ganiza ion.
O ganizing/s uc u ing change Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B
One o he o he pa ne may hen ei he no longe
be sui able o pa icipa e o simply no longe wan s
o pa icipa e unde he gene al condi ions. And
hen i has al eady been seen ha new pa ne s will
be b ough in o he p ojec conso ium.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
180 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Di ec o o ins i u e Because we ha e a di e en app oach o s uc u ing
such a change oge he wi h hose a ec ed.
Head o Ini ia i e a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
And in he decision-making p ocess i is impo an o
ind he igh suppo e s and alliance pa ne s.
They hen unde s and, igh , we ha e o do ha
and hen make su e ha he e is a posi i e
discussion. So ni i y he opinion leade s, ge hem
behind i .
Mee ing on in e es s no
posi ions/me a-goals
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
[…] such a conso ium o six big companies can
somehow be capable o ac ing when hey ha e
such a me a goal. And hen [ he p ojec ] has eally
become possible.
Ul ima ely, i ’s all abou […] ha one c ea es a
con iden ial a mosphe e, ha one conside s
in e es s and no jus posi ions.
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
When we en e in o a coope a ion o a p ojec , he
i s phase is o cou se a synch oniza ion o goals,
including physical, weigh , cos s, in es men s.
Pooling esou ces and needs Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
You can’ do e e y hing you sel . And you don’ ha e
he echnological capaci y o he manpowe o do
i . These a e many hings ha you may
unde s and, bu you canno pu in o p ac ice and
ha ’s why you look o pa ne s.
F aming p oblems MATCHING
P o esso a echnical
esea ch ins i u e
Sus ainable mobili y is a p ojec ha ouches on
a ious specialized a eas, so clea ly
in e disciplina i y is equi ed he e.
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
[…] we we e i ed ha e e y Tom, Dick and Ha y
came o us and said ha we ha e a cha ging poin
a he Nu embe g ain s a ion o I ha e a piece o
a ba e y ha I may con ibu e. We we e i ed o i
and said: ‘People come, le ’s do i oge he . Le ’s
ha e a look, c oss a line h ough Ba a ia and say,
wha do we ac ually wan o ha e? Wha would be
use ul o us?’ And also in e y simple e ms,
saying: ‘We will es om he e ia F eising o
Landshu , and back again. I you a e in, hen le ’s
equip his p ojec acco dingly’.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 181
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Many eyeballs on one p oblem Di ec o o ins i u e Tha ’s why he e is qui e an elabo a e p epa a ion.
Among o he hings, he e a e one-on-one
mee ings, de ini ely wi h all he people, each las ing
one o one and a hal hou s, whe e a pic u e
g adually c ys allizes, in some cases sys ema ic
p io i ies a e hen de e mined, in o he cases we
p epa e some hing like a inal de elopmen . We
hen build he e en concep o he wo kshop on
his con en . Some imes a day, some imes a day
and a hal . The goal is o do he pu e exchange o
in o ma ion be o e he wo kshop and so ha you
can hen di ec ly en e he con o e sial o
in e es ing pools in he wo kshop, ge people
di ec ly in ol ed in discussions and wo k.
A ca manu ac u e ’s Head
o Regula o y S a egy
In he au omo i e indus y, we always come up wi h
insanely p op ie a y … in o he wo ds, i m o
au omo i e p op ie a y solu ions. We always make
legal cons uc ions ha a e ex emely biza e. Tha
a e always p o ec ed. Always his ac o y ence
[ges u e o enclosed i m].
Finding consensus on
non-compe i i e g ound
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
So in p inciple his always d i es us o look a he
ma ke o see whe e he e a e people who ha e
simila goals and in e es s.
U ban de elopmen ,
Di ec o and P ojec lead
On he basis o his alue chain, he companies can
discuss well wi h each o he and also se a ge s.
The idea o compe i ion is no in he spo ligh
he e. I ’s di e en when you say ha you’ e
discussing p ojec s in he powe ain sec o o in
he ehicle sec o . He e he discussion is al eady
mo e es ained.
Di ec o ins i u e In such dialogues one in i es indi iduals, no
o ganiza ions. In o he wo ds, we s uc u e i in
such a way ha people lea e hei o ganiza ion a
home o a while.
Building a sense o
in e dependence
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
E e y single componen is in p inciple sys em
ele an and we a e dependen on i .
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
182 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B
In o he wo ds, in a clus e is he co e o all wo k, is
o spend ime o b ing abou cong uence in he
goal. […] In he end, he cong uence o goals is, i
you like, again sys em- heo e ical, is he ne wo k
and he connec ion be ween he pa ne s. Tha is a
he end, is he c ea ion o a common goal, is he
co e o he ne wo k.
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
We ha en’ pu all ou eggs in one baske and a e
making a comple e swi ch o elec ic ehicles, no
because we hink he e is no u u e o hem, bu
because we a e awa e o his complexi y and i we
had he ca s now and needed he public u ili ies o
pu wall boxes [cha ging in as uc u e] in hem,
we would be he ones si ing on ho coals. Tha is
no always a one- o-one i in e ms o ime, and i
is no accep able ha , once he municipal u ili ies
ha e eleased hei budge s and he wall box is
he e, he ehicles should be he e he nex day.
Seeking s a egic locks ep Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
So he manage o he ene gy company ne e has a
sales pe spec i e, bu always looks only a he
communica i e pe spec i e and hen comes o
comple ely di e en conclusions and s a egy
p io i ies han he p oduc ion manage o a
componen supplie .
F aming u u e
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
We ha e a gene al ag eemen o a la ge con ac
[wi h o ganiza ion name] o so-called ‘s a egic
dialogues’. A s a egic dialogue is a o ma ha we
ha e de eloped, no a igid o ma , hings wo k a
li le di e en ly o each opic, bu in he end i is
all abou b inging ac o s om business, science
and poli ics in o a dialogue.
Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
We’ e in locks ep he e. All companies belie e ha
he u u e o he ene gy indus y lies in
decen alized, ecological, sel -su icien ene gy.
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B
Wi h pa ne s [in MPIs] i is like wi h a box o
magne s. When you shake i [box], hey a e all
diso ien ed and when you pu a magne in he
dis ance as a igge o wha e e is in a sys em,
hen uno hodox single magne s u n a ound. Bu
a some poin in hese boxes a e hese indi idual
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .

S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 183
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
magne s ha ha e no iced
some hing ha is
happening and hen mo e
and mo e o hem s a o
u n and when he i s
en o i een pe cen
u n, hey all u n in one
di ec ion.
Co-alignmen o in e es s CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
You need pa icipan s and you need a pa ne who
unde s ands you o who suppo s wha you a e
doing he e.
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e A
And when you conside ha no mally he wo o
hem [compe i o s] a e ela i ely s ingen in hei
ma ke ing appea ance and in o de o main ain
hei CI, wi h dis ances, ligh ing, logos and
b anding, hen he pic u e ac ually makes i qui e
clea ha he e a e also a eas whe e, o cou se,
one’s own in e es s a e no comple ely h own
o e boa d, bu whe e join appea ances a e
cul i a ed in he spi i o he common cause. And
ha ’s simply wha OEMs do, in his case unde he
common guise o an elec omobili y showcase,
which makes i easie o p esen a join image a
one poin o ano he .
Di ec o o ins i u e Bu he philosophy behind his is ha one analyses
and dissec s complex ques ions on he one hand,
and on he o he hand does so in such a way ha
he decision esul ing om i is al eady suppo ed
by he people in ol ed in he p ocess. This means
ha we in ol e he people in such a way ha hey
a e no only apped as a sou ce o in o ma ion,
like ‘now ell me e e y hing you know’, bu we also
include in e es s and needs. This is also done in he
same way: ‘Tell us wha you in e es s and needs
a e’. And om ha we can kni hings ha a e hen
much be e sui ed o implemen a ion a e wa ds.
Head o S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
I hink i ’s mo e he pa ne sea ch, o ind he igh
one who wan s o go he e. Bu no o cing
someone who wan s o go le o go igh .
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
184 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Thinking ou side indus y box CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
You [a e] s a ing o discuss in a e y sus ained
manne abou s anda diza ion a one poin o
ano he . In o he wo ds, he e is al eady a
conside able need o change in many a eas,
especially when i comes o in as uc u e. And
also in he p ocess. You a e hinking abou
cha ging in as uc u e. You a e hinking abou
whe e I need he cha ge . Wha mus he ehicle be
capable o ? Wha mus he cha ging s a ion be
capable o , e c.?
Head o S a egy a ca
manu ac u e
Tha ’s why hey need good people o handle i .
[Company name] unde s ood his e y ea ly on,
because now i ’s no abou pu ing down he man
who de eloped he Se ies X o i e gene a ions in
a ow o was esponsible o i , bu abou pu ing
down someone who b eaks comple ely. Someone
who is pe haps also in ellec ually di e en . Jus o
push h ough one o he o he la e al hinke . I
you gi e hem a lo o eedom, hen i wo ks.
De eloping join business
models
Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
The challenge in elec omobili y is o b ing oge he
he a eas o ha dwa e, so wa e and business
models in o a well- ounded o e all package in
such a way ha elec omobili y pays o in bo h
echnical and economic e ms.
Head o S a egy a an
au omobile i m’s
business uni
Bu we ha e o make su e ha e e yone can ake pa
in he business case and ha he business model is
c ea ed in he i s place, and hen i will happen.
Senio s a egy manage a
u ili ies company
So, o be hones , a he momen he e is no money o
be made wi h he cha ging in as uc u e. Fo
nobody in he indus y, which o cou se makes i
all he mo e complica ed.
De eloping u u e scena ios Di isional CEO o an
au omo i e echnology
supplie
*Tha is, because he i ms ha see i [ he u u e],
also wan i and consequen ly shape i . One in en s
he ou lined u u e in his way. And i doesn’ jus
happen. I you ha e he imagina ion o
inno a ion … i is c ea ed by he ac o s in he
ma ke who wan i o happen. Then i makes
sense o iden i y pa ne s by ollowing hese u u e
p ojec ions – hose who also wan i o happen in
o de o conque he wo ld.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 185
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Indus y expe You ha e o dis inguish be ween dialogue and he
pla o m. We see i in such a way ha he basic
building block o basic app oach is o conduc a
dialogue wi h he ele an ac o s, which akes in o
accoun he needs o he ac o s and leads o he
poin ha a e wa ds he e is no only a decision
bu also a commi men .
Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
In he con e sa ions, you ealize ha you see a
simila u u e. And i he esonance exis s, hen
you do some hing oge he . Whe eas when we ha e
con e sa ions, as we ha e done wi h he la ge
ene gy supplie s, we simply no ice ha , somehow
hey a e planning o a u u e ha is ce ainly
he e, bu which we do no conside o be
s a egically ele an o ou company.
EXECUTION Need o educe complexi y o
manageable uni s
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B *When you manage o join ly de elop a eeling, like
a sense o ‘we’ – a eam spi i in a way – i you
manage ha , ou p ojec s showed ha you hen do
no alk [abs ac ly] abou he elec i ied wo ld, bu
abou he elec ic d i e ain, o he ba e y. You
can join ly wo k on hese opics o ages.
Decomposing
subsys ems
DECOUPLING
RECOUPLING
CSO and Head o S a egic
Pa ne ships
I we ake ha back o collabo a ion, i means ha
he collabo a ion has o b ing oge he as many
playe s as possible who somehow ha e he abili y
in common, o a leas a ack he issue, o make
such a complex sys em wo k. And hen, b eaking
i down in o indi idual ac ions, who wan o
p o ide componen s in his sys em.
Head o Ini ia i e Bu o change o occu a all, we ha e o pick ou
manageable, manageable elemen s, and we ha e,
once again, and i ac ually goes a s ep deepe , we
ha e picked ou ce ain elemen s o elec omobili y
whe e we ha e said ha we ha e he powe o
change some hing.
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B
Fi s o all [ini ia i es] ha e o b ing oge he as
many playe s as possible ha somehow ha e he
capabili y in common […] o ep esen such a
complex sys em by he playe s in he i s place.
And hen, b eaking down in o indi idual ac ions
o p o ide componen s in his sys em.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
186 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
Table 8. (Con inued)
Phase Seman ic and la en hemes Posi ion Exempla y quo es Fi s -o de heme Second-o de heme
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e A
This i s s ep akes place in he g oup as a whole, as I
said, and hen subg oups a e o med acco dingly,
which hen wo k ou a s icking poin wi h a
wo king g oup in o de o wo k ou a p oposal,
which hen has o be ag eed upon acco dingly.
Head o P ojec a a
echnology supplie
In spi e o his eally e y ne wo ked way o wo king,
whe e e e yone wo ks wi h e e yone else and in
di e en cons ella ions, p ojec s and ac i i ies
a ise, so ha he sys em has i s subsys ems, in
which some hing is hen done ope a ionally wi h a
manageable numbe o people.
Rein eg a ion o ac i i y Municipal p ojec leade *E e y hing is in e linked. You ha e he au omobile
and he agile and as -mo ing IT indus y. You
ha e o manage o b ing hose oge he . And hen
he e is he mos undynamic indus y e e – he
ene gy indus y. Tha is a ho o .
Di isional CEO o an
au omo i e echnology
supplie
ICT c ea es he link be ween ehicles, cha ging
s a ions, back-end se ices and mobile de ices and
hus plays an impo an ole as an in eg a ing
elemen .
Impose amilia s uc u es Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B *I was help ul o e e ybody ha we did no depa
om known, simple ins umen s [o ganiza ional
s uc u ing], because ha would ha e been an
addi ional le el o complexi y, which we p e e ed
o elimina e.
Di ec o esponsible o he
eMobili y clus e B *They ha e ebuil he ma ix, bu i you eally look
a wha is happening, i is ac ually an o ganic
ne wo k, and ye we ealize ha i is necessa y, o
he people who wo k in he sys em and i is
necessa y o he ex e nal p esen a ion, ha i is
no jus p esen ed as a pu ely wild and o ganic
ne wo k, bu ha i s ill gi es a amilia isual
image.
Indus y expe The g oup has s a ed o gi e i sel an o ganiza ional
o m, has de eloped a s a egy, a ision, a guiding
p inciple, a s a egy, a piece o s uc u e using
classical ins umen s.
Decomposi ion o asks in o
phases
Head o p ojec a a
echnology supplie
Sp eadshee s will be w i en, which a e o be illed
ou by he pa ne s and sen o he p ojec
coo dina o [company name] a egula in e als.
Wi hin he wo k package, we ha e also ag eed on a
Phasing
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 193
[abs ac ly] abou he elec i ied wo ld, bu abou he
elec ic d i e ain, o he ba e y.
Ma ching, howe e , did no occu in a s uc-
u al oid, decoupled om he in ol ed i ms’
in ao ganiza ional s a egies. Ra he , he i m
ep esen a i es s uggled o econcile hei i m’s
s a egy wi h he eme ging IOS. Disc epancies
we e o en esol ed h ough op-managemen in-
e en ion. In one case, he op execu i es a anged
a wo kshop wi h he p esence o execu i e boa d
membe s o co-align and app o e he esul s om
p io ma ching ac i i ies. The p ojec leade em-
phasized:
The coope a ion con ac was blocked … A la ge
i m had a small sha e o he p ojec bu claimed ull
igh s o e e y hing. O cou se, he small i ms did
no wan his, bu only wan ed o collabo a e a he
in e aces. Then [ he disag eemen ] escala ed and he
op managemen became in ol ed [in he disag ee-
men ’s esolu ion] … we we e hen able o se le [ he
issue].
Execu ion. The ini ia ion and nego ia ion phases
igge ed, mobilized and ma ched ac o s o ha -
monize a ying s a egic di ec ions and build
commi men . In he execu ion phase, human and
inancial esou ces a e alloca ed o implemen he
de ined objec i es. The IOS sp eads o he pa ne -
ing i ms’ope a i e le els o de elop wo king solu-
ions in decoupled subsys ems. We ound IOS exe-
cu ion o p og ess cyclically in h ee s ages.
Decoupling. The encompassing asks and col-
labo a ion we e decoupled in subsys ems,suchas
wo kg oups, p ojec s, inno a ion ci cles, segmen s
o modules. The mos willing, mos compe en , o
simply mos powe ul o ganiza ions led hese sub-
sys ems. The decoupling p ocess ollowed a dis-
inc pa e n. Fi s , ini ia i es o a ge a complex
issue we e ou lined. Second, hese complex issues
we e b oken down in o manageable chunks wi h
wo k packages and speci ic objec i es. Unlike in
he p io phases, a minimum hie a chical s uc-
u ing was equi ed o alloca e esponsibili y and
manage he di e se inpu . Tasks, howe e , we e
alloca ed based on in e es , i and compe ency,
no on adi ional logics o au ho i a i e dis ibu-
ion. The head o he la ges eMobili y ini ia i e
in Hambu g commen ed ha i is his ‘decons uc-
ion o ac i i ies ha g an s a la ge deg ee o ma-
noeu ing in a de ined space o hese en i e di e se
ecosys em pa ne s’.
While he p ocess pa e n was simila ac oss
MPIs, he o ganiza ional se ups a ied. Some
MPIs main ained an uns uc u ed app oach wi h
ad-hoc mee ings, an in o mal exchange o ideas,
dilu ed hie a chies and a cons an ly changing lead-
e ship. O he MPIs we e highly o malized and hi-
e a chically s uc u ed. One p ojec leade high-
ligh ed:
I was help ul o e e ybody ha we did no de-
pa om known, simple ins umen s [o ganiza ional
s uc u ing], because, ha would ha e been an ad-
di ional le el o complexi y, which we p e e ed o
elimina e … We again buil ma ix s uc u es … bu
i was impo an o he people who wo ked in his
sys em and o ex e nal ep esen a ion o no [o ga-
nize] in a wild, o ganic way, bu o gi e i a amilia
image.
The au omobile incumben s p o ided e idence
ha he decoupling p ocess also occu ed on he
i m le el. In one case, he op managemen de-
cided ea ly on o decouple he eMobili y uni om
he es o he co po a ion o allow a - eaching
‘space o expe imen a ion’. Collabo a ion wi hin
di e en ia ed and mo e ocused subsys ems no
only c ea ed mo e manageable p ocessing uni s,
bu also seemed o acili a e he p ocess o s a egic
de ia ion om he bounda ies o he in ao gani-
za ional s a egies.
Decoupling appea ed o be empo a y, wi h ini-
ia i e ac i i y o ganized in phases and p ocessed
s epwise un il ein eg a ion occu ed a a la e
s age. Se e al MPIs we e o ganized in o ou s eps
om 2010 un il 2020: indi idual p ojec s (I), in e-
g a ed sys ems wi hin limi ed p ojec egions (II),
in eg a ion o p ojec egions (III) and s a e-wide
in eg a ion o all p ojec s (IV).
Recoupling. A he end o he execu ion
phase, au onomous ini ia i es need o be ecou-
pled. To adjus and synch onize he ac i i y ac oss
he subsys ems and p e en hem d i ing om
p e iously nego ia ed s a egic di ec ions, ex en-
si e collabo a ion e o was necessa y. Di e ing
ways o conduc ing business (i.e. p ocesses, cul-
u es, s anda ds) and a ious paces o di e en
indus ies posed challenges. A municipal le el’s
p ojec leade said:
E e y hing is in e linked. You ha e he au omobile
and he agile and as -mo ing IT indus y. You ha e
o manage o b ing hose oge he . And hen he e
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .

194 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
is he mos undynamic indus y e e – he ene gy in-
dus y. Tha is a ho o .
IT-based pla o ms we e help ul o educe he
empo al and spa ial hu dles ha o en challenged
in e disciplina y collabo a ion, o acili a e eal-
ime exchange and o ack and subsequen ly ag-
g ega e de elopmen s ac oss he dispe sed ac i i-
ies.
S abilizing. Se e al ini ia i e membe s poin ed
owa ds he agili y o IOS du ing he execu ion
phase. A e esou ces we e in es ed in IOS im-
plemen a ion, isks o oppo unism, unin ended
knowledge leakage and misapp op ia ion by pa -
ne s seemed o peak. The ongoing compe i ion
o s a egic di ec ions and o he pa ne s’ en y
o exi igge ed enego ia ions, which in u n e-
qui ed s abiliza ion measu es o suppo IOS con-
inui y. A la ge echnology supplie ’s di isional
CEO highligh ed:
… we li e in con inuous su p ise … We ha e o ead-
jus equen ly. The pa ame e s some imes change.
He e a pa ne comes in, he e some hing else. Tha
means we look a he pa ame e s again as new hings
come up. We hink hese pa ne ships equi e mo e
in e en ions jus because we a e also dependen on
o he s’ decisions.
Two dynamics appea ed o be o pa icula im-
po ance o IOS s abili y. Fi s ly, du ing he scal-
ing o ini ia i es, as MPIs ma u ed, he alue o
he join app oaches became inc easingly isible.
Less success ul ini ia i es we e e mina ed, o he s
managed o a ac e en mo e esou ces, as hei
p ospec s g ew and he isks diminished.1This
p ocess had s ong simila i ies o wha Bu gel-
man (1983) de ined as ‘ o cing’ o ‘building’ on
in a i m s a egy le el. In some cases, as in he
MPI aiming o c ea e a na ionwide cha ging in-
as uc u e, he scope was expanded o educe he
ime o he ‘indus ializa ion mode’, o hey we e
me ged wi h o he ini ia i es in adjacen ields o
accele a e hei g ow h. One ini ia i e, ocused on
building and es ing as -cha ging in as uc u e,
1To explo e he ace s behind ini ia i e ailu es, we iden i-
ied and con ac ed hose esponsible o ea ly- e mina ed
MPIs. Mos we e no a ailable o unwilling o disclose
in o ma ion. The in o ma ion we ecei ed – also in ou
membe check – indica es ha he desc ibed conce ns,
loss o p op ie a y knowledge, lack o us , di e ging
s a egic posi ions and insu icien communica ion ( ans-
pa ency), caused hei e mina ion.
was s a ed in Munich, hen g adually inc eased
in scope o expand o Be lin, and las ly connec ed
wi h he eMobili y ini ia i es in Slo akia and Aus-
ia. Many new pa ne s joined along he scaling.
Secondly, IOS is likely o be ein o ced by in en-
si ied ela ionships. All MPIs ini ially s a ed o as
a mobilized c owd o un ela ed o ganiza ions, be-
o e de eloping in o g oups wi h o e lapping pe -
cep ions and, inally, con e ged h ough ecu en
in e ac ion. Th oughou his p ocess, ela ionships
de eloped by means o o mal (e.g. egula mee -
ings) and in o mal (e.g. ‘going o a bee ’) in e -
ac ions. O e ime, his in ensi ied exchange acil-
i a ed mu ual lea ning, con lic managemen and
he c ea ion o no ms o cope wi h di e se in e -
es s and, mos impo an ly, o de elop us . Wi h
in ensi ied in e ac ion, some i ms expanded and
deepened hei ela ionships o c ea e mo e o -
mal MPAs. An au omobile manu ac u e iden i-
ied ‘s a egic pa ne s’ h ough hese ini ia i es
and upg aded some pa ne s o op- ie supplie s.
A ca manu ac u e ’s head o co po a e esea ch
on eMobili y desc ibed:
A he beginning, you don’ unde s and each o he a
all. Bu you ge e y close o each o he h ough hese
p ojec s and we ha e ac ually always expe ienced ha
one complemen s he o he … Tha s imula ed he
whole hing [p ocess o collabo a ion]. Tha made i
as . Ve y as .
T adi ional o ms o o ganiza ion ha e clea
bounda ies de ined h ough asse owne ship and
employmen con ac s (Simon, 1953), speci ic
goals (S inchcombe, 1965) and ou inized p o-
cesses ha s abilize he pa e ns o in e ac ion
(Nelson and Win e , 1982). Few o hese p ope ies
we e p esen when mul iple o ganiza ions ga he ed
o pu sue MPIs.
This ins i u ional oid c ea ed uns uc u edness
du ing he ini ial collabo a ion phase (Phillips,
Law ence and Ha dy, 2000), which demanded in-
ense nego ia ion. To allow o such nego ia ion
and accommoda e s a egic in e ac ion, empo al
a enas eme ged on a ious le els. These a enas
p o ided s uc u e o a hi he o uns uc u ed ac-
i i y, and con ex s ha we e ound c ucial o IOS
o un old. Fo ins ance, poli ics, indus y and sci-
ence es ablished na ional and egional pla o ms
o se he amewo k condi ions (legal, egula o y,
s anda ds, go e nmen in ol emen ) and ‘s uc-
u e he sys emic ansi ion’. Municipali ies we e
seen as mic o-cosmic a enas o expe imen a ion,
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 195
he applica ion o new echnologies and as an im-
po an use in e ace. On an ope a i e le el, he
ac o s ins alled online and o line a enas o medi-
a e he in e es s (dialogue pla o ms, ci cles), build
ne wo ks and execu e p ojec s.
Discussion
Theo e ical implica ions
By shi ing he ocus om in ao ganiza ional o
in e o ganiza ional p ocesses and om one ocal
i m’s o a join MPI’s s a egy o ma ion, we ex-
end p io s a egy p ocess (Bu gelman e al., 2018)
and open s a egy esea ch (Whi ing on, Cail-
lue and Yakis-Douglas, 2011). Wi h he de eloped
concep ual IOS p ocess model, we make a p ocess
heo y con ibu ion (Clou ie and Langley, 2020).
We e ine exis ing models (e.g. Ring and Van de
Ven, 1992) by highligh ing he h ee e olu iona y
phases in MPIs – ini ia ion ( a ia ion), nego ia ion
(selec ion) and execu ion ( e en ion) – and e eal-
ing he ine -g ained ac i i ies, p ocesses and dy-
namics. These ange om igge ing and pulling
oge he he necessa y ac o s and esou ces (ini-
ia ion), inding a minimum consensus (nego ia-
ion), o execu ing and s abilizing he p ocess in
i e a ions o decoupling and ecoupling o man-
ageable chunks (execu ion). Speci ic subp ocesses,
pa icula ly in he nego ia ion phase, ex end ac oss
s ages, ying s a egic ac i i y oge he h oughou
he whole IOS p ocess. Mobilizing e o s, o ex-
ample, ex ended in o he execu ion phase o ill ini-
ially un o eseen capabili y o esou ce gaps. O
ma ching ac i i ies eached back o he ini ia ion
phase (e.g. in indus y ga he ings), engaging in he
aming o p oblems and po en ial u u es long be-
o e MPIs o med.
Ou esul s indica e ha he in e nal selec ion
p ocesses o au onomous and induced beha iou
– conside ed he key d i e s o ini ia i e selec-
ion in e olu iona y, in ao ganiza ional models
(e.g. Bu gelman, 1983) – ace es ic ions when
complex alue p oposi ions as in he eMobil-
i y indus y a e equi ed. In e nal selec ion p o-
cesses ma e o sensing h ea s and oppo uni-
ies bu need o be complemen ed by ex e nal
igge s o o e come sca ci y o ine ia. We co -
obo a e he impo an oles o ex e nal ac o s
(e.g. Doz, Olk and Ring, 2000; Whi ing on, Cail-
lue and Yakis-Douglas, 2011) and linking p o-
cesses (Bu gelman, 1983) spanning mul iple o -
ganiza ions. Mobilizing a c i ical mass o mem-
be s and a ac ing a b oad esou ce base in MPIs
equi e isibili y and bounda y-spanning ac i i y.
In a i m s udies desc ibe he ini ial esou ce al-
loca ion as ba ely no iceable (Bowe and Gilbe ,
2005), o consciously concealing championing
beha iou (Bu gelman, 1983). In IOS wi hou
op-down command, esou ces esiding ou side
he o ganiza ional bounda ies equi e sea ch and
ac i a ion cos s (Williamson, 1981) and i e a i e
cycles o p ospec i e esou cing o c ea e esou ce
complemen a i y (Deken e al., 2018).
Recen accoun s o in e i m ela ionships indi-
ca e ha in e media ies’ compensa o y ole may
be c ucial (Lazza ini, 2015) o enhance us
(Mesqui a, 2007), acili a e exchange (McE ily
and Zahee , 1999), esol e in e nal con lic and s a-
bilize ela ionships (Heidl, S eensma and Phelps,
2014). In IOS p ocesses, we ind in e media ies’
salien ole in s a egic b idging. The ma ch-
ing p ocess is a majo selec ion mechanism in
IOS building. Fo mula ing a ge ed u u es, co-
aligning objec i es and de eloping join business
models acili a e he iden i ica ion and selec ion
o compa ible pa ne s – wi h selec i e dynamics
when pa ne s compe e o in luence he MPI’s di-
ec ion. All MPIs in ol ed scena io planning and
p ojec ing he exchange alue in o he u u e, mi -
o ing Zajac and Olsen (1993) and in a i m ind-
ings on s a egy as empo al wo k (Kaplan and
O likowski, 2013). Impo an ly, hese IOS am-
ing p ocesses occu ed ac oss i ms in join ac i i-
ies. In i e a i e aming, wo kshop-incompa ible
ac o s o posi ions we e deselec ed (Wes ley and
V edenbu g, 1997), he eby inc easing he o he s’
commi men .
Decomposing asks in o manageable uni s
h ough di e en ia ion and in eg a ion (Law ence
and Lo sch, 1967) o modula iza ion (Baldwin
and Cla k, 2003) helps coping wi h complexi y
wi hin o ganiza ions. E ec i e s a egies end o
a ise om s a egic subsys ems, each o which
a ge s pa icula s a egic issues (Quinn, 1978).
Collabo a ion in subsys ems acili a es he p ocess
o s a egic de ia ion inside i ms (Ch is ensen
and Bowe , 1996; Leona d-Ba on, 1992), he eby
allowing mul iple and e en inconsis en s a egies
o be execu ed in one i m. Gi en he absence o
s uc u al and s a egic con ex s wi hin a se up o
mul iple au onomous o ganiza ions, decomposing
asks adds complexi y bu can s imula e p og ess
in he subsys ems and p e en pa alysis ac oss an
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
196 E. He ich and M. K eu ze
en i e sys em (Ba ne and Bu gelman, 1996). No
imposing IOS bu ins ead allowing i o eme ge
om he in e play be ween he subsys ems p o-
duces he bes solu ions locally and a obus IOS
globally.
This equi es, howe e , eno mous e o s in sub-
sequen ecoupling. The e-GAP ini ia i e, o ex-
ample, builds on i e au onomous ope a ing sub-
sys ems (in as uc u e, u ili ies, lee s, mobili y
and mic omobili y). Me a-goals p o ided basic
guidance on he execu ion, wi h join expe imen a-
ion and in ense communica ion ac oss he wo k-
g oups p e en ing oo much d i . IT pla o ms
wi h sophis ica ed so wa e suppo ed his p ocess.
Co obo a ing alliance esea ch (e.g. Dye and
Singh, 1998), we ind inhe en ly agile IOS needs
o be ein o ced by s abiliza ion ac i i ies, pa ic-
ula ly h ough in ensi ied ela ionships and com-
munica ion. Challenges co ela e wi h he num-
be o pa ne s (e.g. Ga cía-Canal, Valdés-Llaneza
and A iño, 2003). We ou lined how enhancing
and scaling ac i i ies – e en ion mechanisms – a e
ele an o s abilizing IOS, simila o in a i m
s udies ocused on ac i i ies o s a egic building
and o cing ini ia i es (Bu gelman, 1983), shel-
e ing and de eloping s uc u es (Bowe , 1970),
empowe ing and enabling pe sonnel (Ha , 1992)
and nou ishing social capi al (Lo as and Ghoshal,
2000).
We unde line he impo ance o s a egic a enas
o IOS. MPIs equen ly ope a ed wi hin an ins i-
u ional oid wi h high deg ees o uns uc u ed-
ness (Phillips, Law ence and Ha dy, 2000). Unclea
o ganiza ional bounda ies, a lack o asse owne -
ship and employmen con ac s (Simon, 1953), as
well as unspeci ic goals (S inchcombe, 1965) and
insu icien ly ou inized p ocesses led o uns able
in e ac ion condi ions (Nelson and Win e , 1982).
To allow o nego ia ions and accommoda e in e -
ac ion, empo al a enas eme ged on a ious le els
(na ional, egional, ope a ional), p o iding su i-
cien s uc u e and con ex .
We u he con ibu e o b idging he i be-
ween he s a egy p ocess and s a egy-as-p ac ice
s eams (Bu gelman e al., 2018) by aking a g an-
ula pe spec i e on wha p ac i ione s ac ually do
and by agg ega ing hese ac i i ies in o b oade
ca ego ies, p ocesses and phases. We also con-
ibu e o he mic o- ounda ions s eam by show-
ing how he in e ac ions o indi iduals om di -
e en o ganiza ions lead o IOS (Felin, Foss and
Ployha , 2015).
Las ly, ou indings complemen ou knowledge
on collabo a i e business models and ecosys ems
(Adne , 2017). In ecosys ems, ou come unce ain y
is high, as meaning ul isions, join alue p opo-
si ions and consume - acing p oduc s a e la gely
absen ex-an e. Ou model and insigh s show how
he IOS p ocess helps collec i ely cons uc a join
s a egy o na iga e h ough an ‘unbounded ange
o po en ial alue p oposi ions’(Da ée, Alexy and
Au io, 2018: 466).
P ac ical implica ions
Ou s udy p o ides h ee insigh s o manage s.
Fi s ly, unde s anding how an IOS is shaped al-
lows in e en ion o in luence i s ajec o y. The
eedback loops we exhibi ed ad ise manage s o
p epa e o ecu en nego ia ion. Secondly, man-
age s a e nudged o app ecia e ha s a egic impe-
us may come om ou side and IOS is less delibe -
a e han p e iously po ayed. We p o ide ad ice
on when ex e nal impe us may be necessa y and
sugges acknowledging he ole o in e media ies.
Thi dly, we show ha IOS is no a mas e s oke
bu a ecu en and dispe sed ac i i y in need o
o e a ching goals, s a egic b idging and ma ching
ac i i y, as well as cons an s abiliza ion. This eas-
su es manage s ha hey can ind cohe en s a e-
gic di ec ions o a di e se se o o ganiza ions in
ecu en in e ac ions.
Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
Ou s udy has some limi a ions ha o e oppo -
uni ies o u u e esea ch. Fi s ly, we ocused
on complex MPIs in a Ge man eMobili y-ecology
wi h idiosync asies ha limi ou indings’ gen-
e alizabili y. Tes ing ou model in o he con ex s
would be use ul. Schola s may explo e he impli-
ca ions o MPIs’ di e en size (numbe o pa -
ne s) and scope (b ead h o opics/indus ies) and
esul ing complexi y on he IOS dynamics (Ma-
jch zak, Ja enpaa and Baghe zadeh, 2015).
Secondly, we used a con enience sample o ou
ini ial 25 eMobili y case s udies o gain a i s
o e iew o he ecology. To accoun o po en ial
bias in ou in e p e a ion, we exposed ou ini ial
insigh s o ellow esea che s.
Thi dly, mo e esea ch is needed o subs an ia e
he in ica e in e play be ween he ou lined phases
and p ocesses, hei eoccu ence and hei in eg a-
i e ole h oughou di e en s ages. Fu he mo e,
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .
S a egy Fo ma ion Ac oss O ganiza ional Bounda ies 197
phase models occasionally de ia e om ou lined
pa hs o all sho o cap u ing all s a egic ac i i-
ies e ol ing in pa allel, ins ead o in sequence. Fu-
u e esea ch could illumina e unde wha condi-
ions ac i i y un olds in pa allel – as opposed o in
phases.
Fou hly, s udying ac i i ies ha ansla e IOS
back in o single o ganiza ions is wo hwhile. How
does IOS in e naliza ion and econcilia ion occu
inside i ms and how do in ao ganiza ional s a -
egy and IOS in e ac and possibly complemen
each o he ? Ha e some o ganiza ions a highe
p edisposi ion o pa icipa ion in and in e nal-
iza ion o IOS? In he ealm o ecosys ems, he
connec ions be ween o mal and in o mal ac i i-
ies in in e o ganiza ional collabo a ion and IOS
could be explo ed. How does he IOS enable, hin-
de o p e en subsequen ac i i ies among pa -
ne s in ecosys ems? How can po en ial ensions
be ween a i m iden i y and an ecosys em iden-
i y be balanced (Lindg en, E iksson and Lyy i-
nen, 2015)? Wha a e he implica ions o un eal-
ized and epheme al s a egies (Mi abeau, Magui e
and Ha dy, 2018) in IOS o subsequen IOS and
join ac i i ies?
Fi hly, u u e esea ch could u he de elop
he mic o-p ac ices s eam and i s link o s a egy
p ocess and p ac ice esea ch: Wha makes o an
e ec i e manage in IOS p ocesses? Wha capa-
bili ies does such a pe son need? How a e s a e-
gic a enas es ablished and o ganized o IOS o
eme ge and e ol e? How do we know wha ype
and ex en o con ol o enac o e di e en play-
e s in IOS phases?
Las ly, o ake accoun o he comple e IOS p o-
cess as obse ed in he da a, we aded g anula i y
o comp ehensi eness. Fu u e s udies may del e
in o single phases o speci ic mechanisms o add
dep h o ou model.
Acknowledgemen s
We would like o hank he edi o s o his spe-
cial issue and he anonymous e iewe s who p o-
ided use ul commen s on ou manusc ip . We also
wan o hank he managemen eams o he wo
e-mobili y clus e s, e-mobil BW and Baye n In-
no a i , and speci ically D Johann Schwenk o
his con inuous suppo . We also g ea ly app ecia e
he deep insigh s p o ided by indus y expe s and
in e iew pa ne s o he mul i-pa ne ini ia i es
and he eedback p o ided by ou colleagues Tomi
Laamanen, Ch is oph Lechne , Gün e Mülle -
S ewens and Pia Neude on p io e sions o his
manusc ip .
Open access unding enabled and o ganized by
P ojek DEAL.
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Ma kus K eu ze is a P o esso o S a egic and In e na ional Managemen a EBS Business School
(Ge many). He ecei ed his doc o a e and pos doc o al lec u ing quali ica ion om he Uni e si y o
S . Gallen (Swi ze land). His esea ch in e es s include in e o ganiza ional s a egy-making, o ganiza-
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esea ch in he Academy o Managemen Annals,Academy o Managemen Re iew,Jou nal o Man-
agemen S udies,Long Range Planning,S a egic Managemen Jou nal,S a egy Science and o he s.
© 2021 The Au ho s. B i ish Jou nal o Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o B i ish
Academy o Managemen .