Jü gens, Ke s in; Ho mann, Reine ; Schildmann, Ch is ina
Resea ch Repo
Le 's ans o m wo k! Recommenda ions and p oposals
om he Commission on he Wo k o he Fu u e
S udy de Hans-Böckle -S i ung, No. 376
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
The Hans Böckle Founda ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Jü gens, Ke s in; Ho mann, Reine ; Schildmann, Ch is ina (2018) : Le 's
ans o m wo k! Recommenda ions and p oposals om he Commission on he Wo k o he
Fu u e, S udy de Hans-Böckle -S i ung, No. 376, ISBN 978-3-86593-286-0, Hans-Böckle -S i ung,
Düsseldo
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KERSTIN JÜRGENS, REINER HOFFMANN,
CHRISTINA SCHILDMANN
RECOMMENDATIONS
AND PROPOSALS
FROM THE COMMISSION
ON THE WORK
OF THE FUTURE
LET’S
TRANSFORM
WORK!
KERSTIN JÜRGENS, REINER HOFFMANN,
CHRISTINA SCHILDMANN
LET’S TRANSFORM WORK!
This i le is No. 376 in he Hans Böckle Founda ion’s S udy
se ies ha con inues, wi h sequen ial numbe ing, he edi ion
Hans-Böckle -S i ung se ies in elec onic o m.
PROF. DR. KERSTIN JÜRGENS, bo n in 1970, is P o esso o
Mic o sociology a he Uni e si y o Kassel, Ge many. She has
been esea ching change in he wo ld o wo k since he 1990s.
REINER HOFFMANN, bo n in 1955, is P esiden o he Ge man
T ade Union Con ede a ion and chai o he execu i e boa d
o he Hans Böckle Founda ion.
CHRISTINA SCHILDMANN, bo n in 1973, is head o he scien i ic
sec e a ia o he Commission on he Wo k o he Fu u e. She
is a specialis in labou ma ke policy, (gende -neu al) digi ali-
sa ion,ca e wo k and amily policy.

KERSTIN JÜRGENS, REINER HOFFMANN,
CHRISTINA SCHILDMANN
LET’S
TRANSFORM
WORK! RECOMMENDATIONS
AND PROPOSALS FROM
THE COMMISSION ON
THE WORK OF THE FUTURE
T ansla ed om he Ge man
by And ew Wilson
© Hans-Böckle -S i ung 2018
Hans-Böckle -S aße 39, 40476 Düsseldo , Ge many
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Le ’s T ans o m Wo k! by Ke s in Jü gens, Reine Ho mann and
Ch is ina Schildmann is licensed unde a
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In e na ional License (CC-BY-ND-NC).
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sepa a e pe mission om he espec i e copy igh holde .
O iginally published in Ge man unde he i le
A bei ans o mie en! by ansc ip Ve lag, Biele eld, Ge many.
Copy igh © 2017 by ansc ip Ve lag, Biele eld.
Co e : Manja Hellpap, Be lin
wi h use o images om Shu e s ock.com:
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Book design and ypese ing: Manja Hellpap, Be lin
P in ed in Ge many
ISBN e-book: 978-3-86593-286-0
ISBN p in ed book: 978-3-86593-287-7
In oduc ion 6
The Commission 13
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK 16
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
INCOME 48
REVALUING WORK
EDUCATION AND TRAINING 78
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
WORKING TIME 108
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
WORK ORGANISATION 140
PEOPLE TAKE CENTRE STAGE
MIGRATION 166
COMMITMENT TO DIVERSITY
FRAMEWORK FOR CHANGE 190
SHAPING THE FUTURE
P ospec s 222
Glossa y 226
Re e ences 228
CONTENT
Jus a ew yea s ago i would ha e been impossible o pu oge he a
ex in he same way as he p esen publica ion was compiled. Coun -
less mee ings and elephone con e sa ions would ha e been necessa y
in o de o all he au ho s o discuss and ag ee on he a ious d a s.
Today, hanks o mode n in o ma ion and communica ions echnol-
ogies, we can wo k oge he on ex s ega dless o geog aph ical dis-
ance, access all he necessa y da a, compa e he a ious e sions o
documen s and make all he s ages in he w i ing and edi ing p ocess
isible. Howe e , i is no only he d a ing and edi ing o books o
o he ex s ha oday ely as a ma e o cou se on he use o digi al
echnologies and collabo a ion in i ual ne wo ks. These o ms o
digi al wo king ha e long since gained en y in o he whole o eco-
nomic li e and a ec he daily li es o us all. This has no only adical-
ly changed wo k ou ines and ways o wo king oge he bu has also
gi en ise o new wo k asks and comple ely new business models.
When he Hans Böckle Founda ion se up he ‘Commission on he
Wo k o he Fu u e’ in 2015, i was clea ha he ask acing he new
body would no be an easy one. I s 32 membe s, d awn om he supe -
iso y boa ds and wo ks councils o la ge companies, he c ea i e
economy, ade unions, go e nmen minis ies and a ious a eas o
academic esea ch, we e asked o each ag eemen on he change in
he wo ld o wo k and, in doing so, o ocus in pa icula on wo ques-
ions. Fi s ly, wha will he wo k o he u u e look like? And secondly,
wha a e he new challenges acing employmen policy make s?
In o de o ind answe s o hese ques ions, he Hans Böckle
Founda ion ook he conscious decision o ensu e ha he Commis-
sion would be composed o equal sha es o academics and p ac i ion-
e s and ha he chai ’s du ies would be di ided up in he same way.
A he same ime, he Founda ion e ained om se ing he Com-
mission closely de ined objec i es o obliging i o p oduce a inal
INTRODUCTION
JOINING FORCES TO SHAPE
THE WORK OF THE FUTURE
CO-CHAIRS
REINER HOFFMANN P esiden o he Ge man T ade
Union Con ede a ion, chai o he execu i e boa d o he
Hans Böckle Founda ion
PROFESSOR DR KERSTIN JÜRGENS P o esso o Mic o-Sociology,
Uni e si y o Kassel
MEMBERS
PROFOSSOR JUTTA ALLMENDINGER, PH.D. P esiden o he WZB Be lin
Social Science Cen e and P o esso o he Sociology o Educa ion
and Labou Ma ke Resea ch, Humbold Uni e si y, Be lin
ANSGAR BAUMS Head o Go e nmen Rela ions Eu ope / Middle
Eas / A ica, HP Deu schland GmbH
CHRISTIANE BENNER Co-Chai o he IG Me all ade union
PROFESSOR DR ANDREAS BOES Membe o he boa d o managemen
o he Ins i u e o Social Science Resea ch and P o esso a he
Da ms ad Uni e si y o Technology
DR JULIA BORGGRÄFE Head o Human Resou ces & Co po a e
Go e nance, Messe Be lin, and Pa ne , au en icon – consul ing
in con ex
PROFESSOR DR GERHARD BOSCH Di ec o o he Ins i u e o Wo k,
Skills and T aining, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen
MONIKA BRANDL Chai o he gene al wo ks council and membe
o he supe iso y boa d o Deu sche Telekom AG, Chai o he
e .di ade union council
WOLFGANG DANIEL Fo me depu y chai o he wo ks council and
membe o he supe iso y boa d, BASF SE
ALFRED GEISSLER Membe o he boa d o managemen and
Di ec o o Human Resou ces, STEAG GmbH
THE COMMISSION
13
THE COMMISSION

RALF GIESEN Membe o he boa d o managemen , Vi awes
GmbH and Vi awes Wohnen GmbH
EDELTRAUD GLÄNZER Depu y chai o he IG Be gbau, Chemie,
Ene gie ade union
PROFESSOR DR ANKE HASSEL Academic Di ec o o he Ins i u e o
Economic and Social Resea ch o he Hans Böckle Founda ion
LOTHAR HERBST Membe o he boa d o managemen and Di ec o
o Human Resou ces, Maino a AG
PROFESSOR DR HEIKE JOEBGES P o esso o In e na ional Economics
a HTW Be lin
VALENTINA KERST Managing Di ec o , opiclodge – s a egic In e ne
consul ancy, and Di ec o o he Council o Digi al De elopmen
and Cul u e in Rheinland-P alz
MATTHIAS GRAF VON KIELMANSEGG Head o he Di ec o a e-Gene al
o S a egies and Policy Issues, Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and
Resea ch
ANDREA KOCSIS Depu y chai o he e .di ade union
PROFESSOR DR. KARL-RUDOLF KORTE P o esso o Poli ical Science,
Di ec o o he NRW School o Go e nance and Dean o Social
Sciences a he Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen
HOLGER KRÖKEL Membe o he wo ks council and gene al wo ks
council, Bosch Rex o h AG
PROFESSOR DR JAN MARCO LEIMEISTER P o esso o In o ma ion
Managemen , Uni e si y o S . Gallen and Uni e si y o Kassel
MARTIN MATHES Di ec o o he Depa men o Economic and Social
Policy, IG Bauen-Ag a -Umwel ade union
BENJAMIN MIKFELD Head o he Depa men o Policy Issues,
Fede al Minis y o Labou and Social A ai s
EMERITUS PROFESSOR DR ULRICH MÜCKENBERGER Ju is and poli ical
scien is and Eme i us P o esso o Labou and Social Law in he
Depa men o Socio-Economics a he Uni e si y o Hambu g
BERND OSTERLOH Chai o he gene al and g oup wo ks council and
membe o he p esiding commi ee o he supe iso y boa d,
Volkswagen AG
PROFESSOR DR LUDGER PRIES P o esso o Sociology,
Ruh -Uni e si ä Bochum
ISABEL ROTHE P esiden o he Fede al Ins i u e o Occupa ional
Sa e y and Heal h
14 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
PROFESSOR DR GÜNTHER SCHUH P o esso o P oduc ion Sys ems,
RWTH Aachen Uni e si y, and Di ec o o he Di ision o
Technology Managemen , F aunho e Ins i u e o P oduc ion
Technology
BIRGIT STEINBORN Chai o he gene al wo ks council and depu y
chai o he supe iso y boa d, Siemens AG
PROFESSOR DR TILL VAN TREECK P o esso o Socio-Economics a
he Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen
PROFESSOR DR BERTHOLD VOGEL P o esso o Sociology and
Di ec o o he Ins i u e o Sociological Resea ch a he Uni e si y
o Gö ingen
Anneka h in Mülle and Lisa Sch ep in he o ice o he ‘Wo k in
he Fu u e’ Commission assis ed in he d a ing o he Commission’s
epo . The ollowing indi iduals also p o ided aluable suppo :
Pe a Adolph, Ju a Blankau, Michael Fische , Thomas Fische ,
Melanie F e ichs, Michael Guggemos, Sa ah He bs , Michael
Kühlen, Kai Lindemann, Manuela Maschke, Oli e Suchy, Do o hea
Voss and o he colleagues a he Hans Böckle Founda ion and
he Ge man T ade Union Con ede a ion. We hank hem all o
hei ou s anding commi men .
15
THE COMMISSION
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS
FOR DIVERSITY
DEFEND
STANDARDS,
EXTEND
PROTECTION
Wo ke s’ posi ion in he wo ld o wo k and hence in he wide soci-
e y is de e mined by he employmen o m. A e hey employees? On
wha e ms a e hey employed? Do hey ha e an employmen con-
ac o a e hey jus gi en a wo k o de ? I is no only he olume o
wo k and emune a ion ha a e linked o hese ques ions, bu also
employmen igh s and social secu i y.
THE STANDARD EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP AS A GUARANTEE OF
PROTECTION. F om he la e 1950s onwa ds, manu ac u ing indus y
in he hen ecen ly es ablished Fede al Republic o Ge many g ew a
a e y apid pace. This expansion wen hand in hand wi h a conside -
able inc ease in employmen and he de elopmen o code e mina-
ion in indus y-le el collec i e ba gaining and wo kplace ep esen -
a i e bodies. This pe iod, now known as he ‘economic mi acle’, was
cha ac e ised by ull employmen , con inual wage inc eases and he
expansion o he wel a e s a e. The high demand o labou , which
also led businesses o ec ui wo ke s om o he Eu opean coun ies
( MIGRATION), mean ha he ade unions we e able o push
h ough many imp o emen s o hei membe s.
Closely in e wined wi h his economic dynamic was he ins i u-
ionalisa ion o he s anda d employmen ela ionship. This e m de-
no es an employmen ela ionship ha is open-ended, subjec o
social insu ance con ibu ions and gene ally held
on a ull- ime basis.1 The s anda d employmen
ela ionship ul ils unc ions ha o e eliabili y o
employe s and employees alike. The ‘p o ec ion
unc ion’ ela es p ima ily o employmen secu i-
y, while employe s bene i om he ‘o ien a ion
and egula o y unc ion’ o labou and social secu i y law and he
‘incen i ising and selec ion unc ion’, which p o ides an incen i e
o con inuous employmen .2 In he compe i ion o labou , hese
WHERE
DO WE STAND?
1 A b oade de ini ion also includes
pa - ime jobs, bu only hose
in ol ing 20 o mo e hou s’ wo k
pe week.

unc ions p oduced ules ha c ea ed a le el play-
ing ield o all businesses and p e en ed hem
om o e bidding in hei e o s o ec ui wo k-
e s. F om 1950 o 1980, he s anda d employmen
ela ionship was he dominan employmen o m
in Wes Ge many. In Eas Ge many, ull employmen and ull- ime
wo k we e he no m, bu he low unemploymen a e concealed a
eali y o unde employmen and hidden unemploymen .
THERE HAS ALWAYS BEEN PLURALITY IN EMPLOYMENT RELATION-
SHIPS. Despi e he dominance o he s anda d employmen ela ion-
ship, he e ha e always been g oups who wo k in di e gen employ-
men o ms and ea n hei li elihood h ough, o example, seasonal
wo k, home wo king o pa - ime wo k. The s anda d employmen
ela ionship was ailo ed o he adi ional single b eadwinne model
o he amily, in which he man o he house ea ned enough o sup-
po he en i e amily. The wi e was o be la gely exemp om paid
wo k in o de o de o e he sel o domes ic wo k and childca e,
which i she we e o en e he labou ma ke jus i ied he lowe pay
and small numbe o hou s’ wo k on o e o e-
male employees.3 In his Wes Ge man model, he
as majo i y o emale wo ke s we e employed in
sho -hou jobs; in he o me Ge man Democ a -
ic Republic, on he o he hand, women we e
employed ull- ime. I is ue ha housewo k was
s ill la gely le o women he e as well, bu he
p o ision o whole-day childca e did p o ide
hem wi h some elie om he bu den o wo k,
bo h paid and unpaid.
Wi h he shi in alues, he women’s mo emen
and he expansion o educa ional pa icipa ion, he
adi ional Wes Ge man model g adually b oke
up. The b ead winne -seconda y ea ne model be-
came inc easingly popula and he numbe o couples who wished o
di ide he olume o wo k e enly be ween hemsel es also inc eased.
The expansion o he se ice sec o om he 1980s onwa ds was
d i en no leas by hese mode nised li e choices.
WORK IS UNDER PRESSURE. When g ow h began o slow down om
he 1970s onwa ds and unemploymen began o ise, employmen
2 On he unc ions o
he s anda d employmen
ela ionship, see
Mückenbe ge 1989.
3 The ‘spli ing’ sys em o
calcula ing he ax liabili y o
ma ied couples, which
allows bo h spouses o pay axes
on hal hei combined income,
e ec i ely lowe ing he ax
liabili y o he main b ead-
winne when he incomes di e
signi ican ly, ewa ds he
adi ional ole alloca ion and
encou ages an unequal di ision
o paid wo k be ween husband
and wi e.
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
19
ela ionships and he wel a e s a e came unde p essu e. Poin ing o
he in e na ional compe i ion, companies complained abou exces-
si ely high wage cos s. Employe s demanded g ea e lexibili y in em-
ploymen : binding wage s uc u es, collec i ely egula ed wo king
imes and p o ec ion s anda ds we e ega ded by many o hem as
obs acles o g ow h and ba ie s o ec ui men . The emedy, i was
a gued, lay in he de egula ion o employmen and he disman ling
o s a u o y p o ec i e p o isions, such as a loosening o dismissal
p o ec ion and elaxa ion o he egula ions go e ning ixed- e m em-
ploymen con ac s and ma ginal pa - ime em-
ploymen (so-called ‘mini-jobs’4). The consequence
was a di e en ia ion o employmen o ms, a p ocess
gi en u he momen um by he p i a isa ion o
public se ices and he g owing numbe o com-
panies no bound by collec i e ba gaining ag ee-
men s.
THE EXPANSION OF ‘NEW’ EMPLOYMENT FORMS.
The sha e o employmen ou side he s anda d
employmen ela ionship i ually doubled be-
ween 1991 and 2015. Acco ding o he Fede al S a is ical O ice,
a ound a qua e o all employees and i ually hal o all economical-
ly ac i e women a e now wo king pa - ime. In 2015, 16 pe cen o he
employed popula ion held mini-jobs. Fixed- e m employmen ose by
wo pe cen age poin s be ween 1995 and 2014; i s sha e o o al em-
ploymen is now 13 pe cen . Fixed- e m employmen is no a mass
phenomenon bu is s anda d o en y-le el jobs:
45 pe cen o new hi es a e ixed- e m.5
In addi ion, empo a y agency wo k and sel - em-
ploymen 6 ha e bo h inc eased massi ely. Since he
mid-1990s, empo a y agency wo k has inc eased
mo e han i e old. In 2016, i accoun ed o h ee
pe cen o all employees. The numbe o he sel -
employed ose signi ican ly up un il 2012 bu has
since allen back sligh ly; sel -employmen now
accoun s o abou six pe cen o o al employ-
men (b enke/beznoska 2016 ) . The sel -employed
a e an ex emely he e ogeneous g oup whose in-
come anges om e y low o e y high. Con ac s
4 Mini-jobs a e no subjec o income
axes i he o al mon hly ea nings
om hem s ay below a h eshold o
450 eu os. Mini-jobs equi e no social
insu ance con ibu ions om he
employees. Mos op ou o paying he
s anda d pay oll deduc ion o hei
pensions, inc easing he isk o po e -
y in e i emen .
5 Acco ding o he Iab Es ablish-
men Panel 2014, 60 pe cen o
appoin men s in he public se ices
we e ixed- e m. The igu e was
40pe cen in he p i a e sec o and
87 pe cen in academia (HoHen-
danne e al. 2016 ).
6 In his publica ion, he e m
‘sel -employmen ’ is unde s ood o
e e o sel -employmen wi hou
employees only.
20 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
o wo k and se ices o e lap conside ably wi h eelancing. Since such
con ac s need no be epo ed, he e a e no eliable da a, in con as
o he si ua ion wi h empo a y agency wo k. Ne e heless, he e a e
signs o an upwa d end and cases o abuse (Ig Me all 2015; bäcke /
scHMI z 2016 ) ( MIGRATION).
I is epea edly emphasised in employmen policy deba es ha his
plu ali y o employmen ela ions is also a p oduc o employees’ p e e -
ences. This is indeed he case o a ce ain p opo ion o employees.
Howe e , he emphasis on p e e ences conceals he ac ha a signi i-
can sha e a e wo king ou side he s anda d employmen ela ionship
o lack o al e na i es. Pa - ime wo k and sel -employmen a e o en
esponses o he inadequa e lexibili y o s anda d employmen . The
unequal dis ibu ion o ca e wo k and an inadequa e child and social
ca e in as uc u e cons i u e majo obs acles o ull- ime employmen .
POLARISATION OF THE WORKING POPULATION BY EMPLOYMENT FORM.
The dominan employmen o m di e s om sec o o sec o . Mini-
jobs and o he pa - ime a angemen s a e ound abo e all in he hos-
pi ali y and e ail sec o s, empo a y agency wo k is a popula ins u-
men in la ge manu ac u ing companies and ixed- e m employmen
is he ins umen o choice o lexibilisa ion in he public se ices.
Inequali ies in employmen s a us a e ce ainly no con ined o slow-
g owing sec o s bu can also be obse ed in booming a eas o he
economy, as is e iden om he expansion o empo a y agency wo k
in he manu ac u ing sec o .
Howe e , one cha ac e is ic appea s o be common o all sec o s o
he economy: i is mainly women, younge wo ke s and he poo ly
quali ied who a e employed in pa - ime jobs,
mini-jobs, empo a y agency wo k and ixed- e m
jobs.7 A p eca ious employmen s a us and low
pay combine o p oduce an employmen si ua -
ion ha does gi e indi iduals a oo hold in he
labou ma ke bu ha dly enables hem o ea n
hei li elihood independen ly o o plan o he
u u e ( INCOME).
INCREASING PRECARITY EVEN IN STANDARD EMPLOYMENT. On
he one hand, he e is s ill a la ge g oup o em ployees who con inue
o be employed o a e newly ec ui ed on s anda d employmen con-
ac s. S anda d employmen has inc eased again, and he leng h o
7 The sha e o women in
s anda d employmen ela ion-
ships emains la gely un-
changed a a scan 30 pe cen
(eIcHHo s e al. 2017 ).
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
21
job enu e among co e employees is s ill high.8
Ne e heless, a i among employees is eme ging.
While some s ill wo k wi hin a space cha ac e ised
by high p o ec i e s anda ds, a high le el o co e -
age by collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s and s eady
imp o emen s in pay, he e a e o he s o whom
his has long ceased o apply. E en wi hin s anda d
employmen , some employees a e expe iencing
hei wo king li es as p eca ious because hey a e
aced wi h in ense compe i i e p essu es and he gua an ees o ad-
ancemen ha ha e exis ed hi he o a e no longe e ec i e. The con-
sequence is ha employmen ela ionships o e ing a ying deg ees o
p o ec ion now co-exis .
WHO STILL TALKS ABOUT THE UNEMPLOYED? Despi e he a ou able
de elopmen s in he labou ma ke , a conside able po en ial supply
o labou emains un apped. O e he cou se o 2016, an a e age o
2.7 million people we e unemployed; i pa icipan s in he Fede al
Labou Agency’s aining and back- o-wo k p og ammes a e includ-
ed, he igu e is 3.5 million (ba 2017a ) . A u he segmen o he wo k-
ing popula ion is unde employed. Acco ding o he Fede al S a is i-
cal O ice, 14 pe cen o pa - ime s and ou pe cen o ull- ime s
would like o inc ease hei wo king imes. Thus despi e a gene ally
posi i e labou ma ke si ua ion, he e is a conside able numbe o
people in employmen who could be desc ibed as gain ully employed
bu wo k-de icien ( INCOME).
8 Acco ding o IW kÖln (2016 ),
he leng h o job enu e has no
changed signi ican ly o e he
las en yea s. In 2015, 46 pe cen
o esponden s in he labou
o ce su ey had been wi h hei
cu en employe o a leas en
yea s (s a Is IscHes bundes-
aM 2017b ).
22 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
A NEW CONCEPT OF THE EMPLOYEE
The Commission ad oca es a ou -s age model o employmen p o-
ec ion:
1.
New g oups a e b ough in o he p o ec i e amewo k, which has hi he -
o been ied o he concep o he employee. This applies in pa icula
o he sel -employed who a e o mally sel -employed bu a e in ac
b ough unde an employe ’s con ol by p esc ibed wo k p ocesses o
a e economically dependen on him, i. e. when a dependen employ-
men ela ionship exis s in all bu name.
To his end, an ex ended and mo e eadily en o ceable de ini ion o
bogus sel -employmen (misclassi ica ion o employees as independen
con ac o s) is equi ed, i. e. one in which in all p obabili y a claim o
employee s a us can be legally en o ced. One s a ing poin migh be
he egula ion ha was in o ce un il 2002, which laid down i e clea
c i e ia o ma k he bounds be ween employmen and sel -employ-
men and placed he bu den o p oo on he employe .
I will u he be necessa y o de ine he concep o employee mo e
b oadly, i. e. ex end i o hose who a e no pe sonally subo dina e bu
a e subs an i ely o economically dependen , pa icula ly hose engaged
in wo k ob ained ia digi al pla o ms.
The ques ion o de ining sel -employmen could also be app oached
om he opposi e di ec ion. A sel -employed pe son could be de ined
as someone who is essen ially ee o o ganise hei own wo k. Any-
one who is no in ha posi ion (e. g. in e ms o de e mining he p ice
o hei labou o hei wo king hou s) is no sel -employed. Encou -
agemen o such an app oach can be ound in he ‘con ol c i e ion’
ha is well es ablished in he USA. I b eaks away om he ‘pe sonal
subo dina ion’ c i e ion and ecognises elec onic ne wo king as sub-
s an i e dependency. Acco dingly, anyone who o a ce ain pe iod
p o ides a se ice o ano he pe son in acco dance wi h hei in-
s uc ions and ecei es paymen in e u n is also classi ied as an em-
ployee. Cou ulings (e. g., he FedEx case) ha e al eady con i med
his p inciple.
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
29

2.
The Commission is well awa e ha no all hose wo king in he in e -
media e zone be ween dependen employmen and sel -employmen
can be co e ed by an ex ended concep o he employee. Howe e , i
his g oup is no o become los o sigh in a g ey zone, his g oup also
needs o be e-ca ego ised. The ob ious choice he e is o ex end he
exis ing ca ego y o ‘employee-like pe son’. So a , his ca ego y has
been used o small g oups only (e. g. so-called ‘ ee collabo a o s in
he mass media). This s a us is associa ed wi h a numbe o social
p o ec ion egula ions, such as en i lemen o paid holidays and ca e
o s udy lea e. Mo eo e , i is possible o employees in his ca ego y
o en e in o collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s. This ca ego y can and
should be de eloped.
I would be logical also o amend he Collec i e Ba gaining Ac ,
acco ding o which all indi iduals who ob ain 25 pe cen o hei
ea ned income om one clien a e o be ega ded as ‘employee-like’.
The Eu opean Cou o Jus ice has al eady decla ed ha collec i e
ba gaining ag eemen s which egula e he employmen and wo king
condi ions o sel -employed indi iduals who a e in a si ua ion com-
pa able o ha o an employee a e exemp om EU legisla ion on
ca els and a e hus legal. Pu ing hem unde he umb ella o he
Collec i e Ba gaining Ac would be an op ion.
In o he coun ies, he di e en ia ion be ween (genuine) sel -em-
ploymen , employee-like indi iduals and employees has al eady passed
in o law. In he U.S. and Canadian legal sys ems, he e is he new,
hi d ca ego y o ‘dependen con ac o ’ in addi ion o he ca ego ies
o ‘independen con ac o ’ (sel -employed) and ‘employee’. A simi-
la dis inc ion has long been es ablished in I aly and Spain. In e na-
ional compa isons can p o ide s a ing poin s o he u he de el-
opmen o employee p o ec ion in Ge many. I should be bo ne in
mind ha , as he new ca ego ies a e in oduced, he e mus be no
wa e ing down o he ex ended de ini ion o employee and ha he
new and / o ex ended ca ego ies should con e he same p o ec i e
igh s as hose enjoyed by dependen employees.
3.
Righ s and p o ec i e no ms ha a e indeed linked o wo k bu a e in-
dependen o wo ke s’ legal s a us mus also be aken in o conside a-
ion. The e a e h ee possible s a ing poin s he e:
P o ec i e igh s ha a e linked o he sou ce o isk (e. g. pu ely
echnical heal h and sa e y o da a p o ec ion egula ions) and a o d
p o ec ion agains he sou ce o isk a e al eady in place o he
sel -employed and agency wo ke s. In he digi al wo ld o wo k, his
p o ec ion is well applicable o he isks associa ed wi h da a handl-
ing, bea ing in mind igh s o in o ma ional sel -de e mina ion.
P o ec i e no ms ha en o ce he igh o equal ea men can also
be applied in many cases wi hou he e ha ing o be any pe sonal
subo dina ion in he execu ion o wo k asks.
The in oduc ion o po able igh s o employees should equally
accommoda e wo ke s’ conce ns wi h mobili y and companies ope -
a ing globally. I is ue ha § 613a o he Ge man Ci il Code and § 4
o he Ac on he Imp o emen o Employe -Based Pension Schemes
con ain p o isions on ans e o business owne ship and changes o
employe espec i ely, bu hese a e excep ions and do no sys ema i-
cally egula e he indi idual employe -employee ela ionship. Em-
ployees’ igh s and posi ions should made ‘po able’ in o de o p o-
ec employees’ acqui ed igh s agains loss i hey change employe
o lose hei job and make i possible o ans e hem o hei new
economic and social ci cums ances.
A basis on which o build his po abili y al eady exis s in he
p o isions o , and expe ience wi h, he legisla ion on holiday en i-
lemen , on occupa ional pension and on wo king ime c edi
schemes, as well as he social insu ance scheme o a is s and he
indus y-wide holiday schemes in he cons uc ion sec o . Fo exam-
ple, in he d a o he ‘Whi e Pape Wo k 4.0’, published by he
Fede al Minis y o Labou and Social A ai s (bMas 2016b ) , a pe -
sonal de elopmen accoun is p oposed, which could be u he ex-
ended in conjunc ion wi h long- e m wo king ime accoun s. Fu -
he p oposals could be based on he ‘comp e pe sonnel d’ac i i és’
o ‘indi idual ac i i y accoun ’ ecen ly in oduced in F ance. I s
co e idea is o make bene i s no longe con ingen on a pe son’s job.
Ins ead, e e y wo ke would ha e an accoun whe e hei social
bene i s would be kep in he o m o poin s ega dless o employ-
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
31
men s a us. Op ions and mechanisms o his po abili y ha e no
ye been su icien ly explo ed.
Fu he mo e, compulso y membe ship o he s a u o y old age in-
su ance scheme would seem o be necessa y o he sel -employed. Im-
p o emen o he olun a y unemploymen insu ance scheme o he
sel -employed should also be conside ed. In he case o pla o m wo k-
e s, he e needs o be cla i ica ion on he issue o how bo h cus ome s
and pla o m ope a o s can be in ol ed in inancing hese schemes.
4.
I , o some Ge mans, employmen is no longe egula ed by an em-
ploymen con ac bu a he by he Ge man Ci il Code, which go e ns
he legal ela ionships be ween p i a e indi iduals, hen ‘social p i a e
law’ comes o he o e.
Membe s o socie y ha e igh s ega dless o hei posi ion in he
wo ld o wo k – pa icula ly when hey a e he s uc u ally in e io
pa y in an unequal powe ela ionship (e. g. in a enancy ag eemen
o consume issues). This social p i a e law ha dly ensu es ha labou
s anda ds o o he legal igh s will be upheld bu i does gain in
signi icance when no o he p o ec i e igh s ha e aken e ec in a
digi alised wo ld o wo k. In he case o c owd wo k, i can be shown,
o example, ha consume p o ec ion p o isions unde he law o obliga-
ions could indeed be b ough o bea in conjunc ion wi h he use o
‘gene al e ms and condi ions o business’ ( INCOME). Howe e , he
mo e economically dependen c owd wo ke s a e, he mo e unlikely
i is ha hey will ac ually seek o uphold hei ‘consume igh s’. Fo
his eason, collec i e en o cemen ins umen s a e equi ed he e oo,
along he lines o he class ac ion sui s by consume ad ice cen es.
Copy igh p o ec ion and u ili y and design pa en s should also
become mo e signi ican in c owd wo k (and in digi al wo k in gene -
al) ( INCOME). Howe e , he ques ion is which egula ions will ac-
ually ha e any e ec on pla o ms headqua e ed ab oad (see p. 37).
All in all, ‘social p i a e and comme cial law’ will become mo e im-
po an in all si ua ions in which he concep o employee and i s
ex ensions p o e o be inapplicable.
This new no ma i e amewo k will be able o accommoda e he
di e si y o employmen o ms ha exis in he wo ld o wo k and will
call ime on he c eeping loss o he social and legal embeddedness,
and he p o ec ion i a o ded, ha has cha ac e ised wo k and em-
ploymen in Ge many.
CONCEPTUALISING THE COMPANY
ON THE BASIS OF ITS FUNCTIONS
The dissolu ion o he company is no a new p ocess; i was being
desc ibed as ea ly as he end o he 1980s, when he p ocesses o
ma ke isa ion and decen alisa ion began. The p inciples o compe i-
ion we e assimila ed in o he company, managemen was made lean-
e , hie a chies we e hinned ou and mo e and mo e s ages o he
p oduc ion p ocess we e ou sou ced. Now, agains he backg ound o
digi alisa ion, a u he shi ing o he bounda ies is being discussed;
he e is e en alk o he ‘dissolu ion’ o he company, which is de el-
oping om a echnical and o ganisa ional uni in o a digi ally connec -
ed ne wo k.
The In e ne is gi ing ise o new o ms o collabo a ion and ne -
wo king, which can gi e ise o new alue c ea ion sys ems and alue
added chains and which in u n can p oduce new p oduc ion s uc-
u es. Employmen and p oduc ion a e less ied o ixed loca ions i
he means o p oduc ion, physical objec s on which wo k is pe -
o med, he o ganisa ion o he wo k p ocesses and he accompany-
ing communica ion can be b ough oge he ia he In e ne . In glo-
bally in eg a ed companies, a ious componen s o he alue added
ha e long been p oduced a e y di e en loca ions.
Employees do no necessa ily ha e o be p esen wi hin he com-
pany any longe . The use o cloud pla o ms as hubs o he o ganisa-
ion o wo k ha e con ibu ed o a change in company s uc u es.
They a e being opened up o ou side s and e e y hing is connec ed,
which is made possible by In e ne pla o ms. IBM calls his ‘wo king
in he open’. Wo ke s sca e ed ac oss he globe can be deployed ia
he pla o m and in eg a ed in o he alue added chain. Ul ima ely,
he bounda y be ween he inside and he ou side is de ined by he
igh s o access o he cloud pla o ms – and hese igh s can be e-
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
33
assigned as equi ed. A company’s pe manen employees may
wo k wi h employees o supplie companies, wi h independen
con ac o s and sel -employed wo ke s and e en wi h c owd
wo ke s and cus ome s in a sha ed alue adding p ocess (boes
2017 ) . I is ue ha hese phenomena a e by no means uni e sal,
bu hey a e ex emely in luen ial in de e mining he ways in
which co po a e s uc u es a e being concep ualised and shaped.
POINT OF CONTROVERSY
A NEW CONCEPT OF THE COMPANY
The company is no disappea ing as echnological p og ess and
global ne wo king o ge ahead. Ra he i s o m and o ganisa-
ional p inciples a e changing, and wi h hem i s isk s uc u e.
Mo e and mo e isks a e being shi ed o ‘ma ke pa icipan s’,
who p e iously wo ked as dependen employees and we e p o-
ec ed by his s a us.
In case law, a i m is ‘ he o ganisa ional uni wi hin which
he employe , wi h o wi hou his employees and using angible
and in angible esou ces, pu sues ce ain ope a ional objec i es
ha a e no limi ed o he sa is ac ion o pe sonal needs’ ( om
a May 2000 uling by he Fede al Labou Cou ). This de ini ion
is al eady mo e lexible han he s anda d concep o a company
as being si ua ed in a ixed loca ion.
This no ion o he localised company is being eplaced by a
de ini ion o he company as a unc ional uni . In as much as an
economic ac o succeeds in c ea ing he social ies equi ed o
his p oduc ion p ocesses and on ha basis builds he ansac ion
and con ol s uc u es equi ed o exe cise his manage ial p e-
oga i e, he esul is o be ega ded as a company. This is o
g ea signi icance o labou law and code e mina ion because
he a ious igh s o in o ma ion, consul a ion and code e mi-
na ion a e linked o he company (and o in e p e a ions o he
concep o he company).
By using a pu ely unc ional de ini ion, i becomes possible
o pu o wa d a mode n concep o he company. I is impo -

an o no e ha his in no way makes he company any less impo -
an . I s ma e ial o m hus does change, bu i s essence emains, as
does i s legal signi icance as an o ganisa ional uni .
The de ini ion o he company as a unc ional uni has implica-
ions o he code e mina ion sys em. I he concep o he company
is becoming ‘delocalised’, employe s can no longe ci cum en code-
e mina ion by agmen ing companies in o small uni s, as he h esh-
old o he igh o es ablish a wo ks council is i e employees. A he
same ime, he new concep o he company opens up oppo uni ies
o wo ks councils o en o ce hei igh s o ep esen a ion all he
way along he alue chain.
The e is much o be said o supplemen ing he old concep o he
company by placing he new concep alongside i , pa icula ly in o -
de o e ain he employe unc ion. Thus he exis ing code e mina-
ion a angemen s and p o ec i e s anda ds (such as highe indus-
y-le el minimum wages, o example) could be p o ec ed and he
agmen a ion o employmen ela ionships in o a mul iplici y o
sho - e m ela ionships a oided.
All his aises some undamen al ques ions o he social pa ne s.
Wha does i mean o social pa ne ship i companies and indus ies
‘ luidi y’ and i becomes inc easingly impossible o d aw clea bound-
a ies be ween hem? Wha o m would e ec i e ade union ep esen-
a ion ake in a ne wo k company, wi hou ade unions’ poaching on
each o he ’s e i o ies?
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
35
PUTTING PROTECTION IN PLACE
FOR EACH ASSIGNMENT
In he digi al wo ld o wo k, he e is an inc easing numbe o indi id-
uals who, ins ead o ha ing an employmen ela ionship and an em-
ploymen con ac , simply comple e assignmen s. Mos o hese assign-
men s a e ob ained ia digi al pla o ms. This so-called c owd wo king
cons i u es a new o m o labou u ilisa ion, s ill ma ginal in Ge ma-
ny. Howe e , i de elopmen s in o he coun ies a e any hing o go
by, conside able inc eases a e o be expec ed.
The e a e some 2,300 c owd wo king pla o ms wo ldwide (o
which abou 65 a e ope a ed om Ge many). The Wo ld Bank es i-
ma es ha u no e will each abou 25 billion dolla s by 2020 and
ha he numbe o c owd wo ke s will ise o some 112 million (kuek
e al. 2015 ) . E en now, 750,000 people a e al eady wo king on Top-
Code (USA), 14.5 million on F eelance (Aus alia), a million on
Mechanical Tu k (USA) and 700,000 on Clickwo ke (Ge many)
(klebe 2016 ) . Acco ding o one s udy, a e age ea nings a e wo dol-
la s pe hou (eu oFound 2015; I anI/sIlbe Man 2013 ) . E en i
c owd wo king in Ge many is s ill p ima ily some hing people do o
supplemen hei incomes om hei main jobs, i seems necessa y o
explo e he ques ion o how i migh be possible no only o ensu e
ha his o m o employmen pays a li ing wage bu also o sa egua d
all he s anda ds ha ha e been linked o employmen .
Since pla o ms see hemsel es no as employe s bu as b oke s o
in e media ies, c owd wo ke s a e ea ed as sel -employed wo ke s.
Consequen ly, nei he he usual wage se ing mechanisms no he
s a u o y minimum wage apply o hem, no a e hey co e ed by any
o he o he o ms o p o ec ion linked o employmen .
One o he easons adduced o jus i y he lack o social and labou
s anda ds in c owd and click wo king is ha hey cons i u e a global
wo k space ha canno be egula ed a he le el o he na ion s a e.
Ne e heless, he e a e ways o p o iding he same kind o p o ec ion
o his kind o wo k as ha which applies o s anda d employmen .
E en hough c owd wo k is, by i s e y na u e (assignmen s alloca ed
ia digi al pla o ms), mo e di icul o egula e han dependen em-
ploymen by means o labou and social secu i y law, s anda ds can
ne e heless be in oduced.
POINT OF CONTROVERSY
‘PURCHASER PRINCIPLE’ FOR DIGITAL WORK
One p omising s a ing poin o he sa egua ding o s anda ds in
c owd wo k ha he Commission discussed is he in oduc ion o a
compulso y ‘pu chase p inciple’ o digi al wo k.
This means ha when a Ge man company pu chases se ices ia a
digi al pla o m, Ge man o EU law would ha e o apply, i. e. he
s anda ds in o ce in Ge many wi h ega d o (minimum) wages, ax
ea men and labou law. Thus he decisi e ac o in de e mining
con ac o s’ pay and wo king condi ions would no be he loca ion a
which he se ice is p oduced bu a he in wha coun y he pu chas-
e is loca ed. This p oposal was he subjec o a hea ed deba e wi hin
he Commission, as he e s ill many issues in need o cla i ica ion.
The Commission did ag ee, howe e , ha he pu chase p inciple
could be a game change . In many ways, i is e y simila o o he
app oaches. The Ge man Ac on Real Es a e Agen s, which was enac -
ed in 2015, is also based on he p inciple ha ‘whoe e pu chases he
se ice also pays o i , and his o he go e ning law and place o ju-
isdic ion shall apply’. O e en g ea e in e es , howe e , a e he pa -
allels wi h he EU Pos ed Wo ke s Di ec i e. I is based on he no ion
ha , in he case o pos ed wo ke s, he coun y o employmen o
place o wo k ma e , no he coun y o o igin. Pos ed wo ke s’ pay
and he labou s anda ds ha apply o hem depend on whe e hey
ca y ou hei wo k. In essence, he ‘equal pay o equal wo k a he
same loca ion’ p inciple, as espoused by he EU Pos ed Wo ke s
Di ec i e, means he same hing.
In he Commission’s iew, howe e , he analogies wi h he Pos ed
Wo ke s Di ec i e also show ha a numbe o un esol ed issues
a ound he pu chase p inciple s ill ha e o be cla i ied.
The i s issue is i s scope. The Pos ed Wo ke s Di ec i e applies
only o wo ke s seconded o ano he EU membe s a e. I was only
because he go e nmen s o he membe s a es we e able o ag ee on
he applica ion o he coun y o employmen p inciple ha he
binding legal egula ion in he o m o he Pos ed Wo ke s Di ec i e
was possible. I he se ices p o ided ia digi al pla o ms in ol e
pu chase s and p o ide s who a e bo h loca ed in an EU membe
s a e, hen a simila egula ion in Eu opean law would be a leas
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
37
concei able. Howe e , ansac ions in which he pu chase and / o
p o ide eside ou side he EU would no be co e ed by Eu opean
law. A Eu opean egula ion making he pu chase p inciple binding
would be a conside able gain, bu i would be oo na ow in scope,
since digi al pla o ms in hei ole as in e media ies o en ope a e
globally.
A second p oblem, again by analogy wi h he EU Pos ed Wo k-
e s Di ec i e, conce ns he s a us o mos c owd wo ke s. They a e
no mally no dependen employees bu sel -employed wo ke s. The
Pos ed Wo ke s Di ec i e essen ially applies o dependen employees
who a e pos ed om hei home company o he con ac ing compa-
ny in ano he EU membe s a e in o de o ca y ou gi en asks. The
di ec i e, howe e , can easily be ci cum en ed i employees a e ope -
a ing as con ac wo ke s in o he EU coun ies, which means hey
a e o icially classed he e as sel -employed.
Thus in he case o wo k ha is assigned ia digi al pla o ms and
egula ly ca ied ou by sel -employed c owd wo ke s, i becomes
clea how impo an i is o conside he idea o in oducing a bind-
ing pu chase p inciple om he ou se in conjunc ion wi h a unda-
men al ede ini ion o he concep o employee (see abo e).
A hi d poin ha will ha e o be conside ed mo e closely in
conjunc ion wi h he in oduc ion o a binding pu chase p inciple
is he ques ion o which se ices and which digi al media ion pla -
o ms a e o be co e ed by i . In pa icula , a dis inc ion is o be made
be ween pla o ms ha o e se ices s ongly linked o a speci ic
loca ion and hose ha o e se ice wo k ac oss he wo ld. In he case
o pla o ms o e ing se ices ied o a loca ion, as is o en he case in
he so-called ‘sha ing economy’ (Ube being he a che ype he e), i
should be conside ed whe he o no he pla o m ope a o should
i sel be gi en he legal s a us o employe , in acco dance wi h he law
in he coun y in which hese se ices a e p o ided. On he o he
hand, he binding pu chase p inciple – based on he pu chase ’s
coun y o domicile – would apply p ima ily o se ices wi hou a
s ong local elemen ha a e assigned globally ia pla o ms.
cils’ igh s o code e mina ion (c . he p o isions in he collec i e
ag eemen on ‘Sho - ime wo king, eskilling and employmen p o-
ec ion’ concluded be ween IG Me all and he Südwes me all em-
ploye s’ associa ion ha was in o ce un il 2010).
Bea ing in mind he s uc u al change ha will be b ough abou by
digi alisa ion, he sho - ime allowance, an ins umen ha came in o
widesp ead use in he inancial and economic c isis, should be de elop-
ed u he . Fo example, businesses ha e hi he o made oo li le use o
he oppo uni ies o combining sho - ime wo king wi h eskilling. Ei he
because he e we e no plans in place o eskilling p og ammes o be-
cause employees we e eluc an o ake pa in such p og ammes, he
unding made a ailable by he Fede al Employmen Agency has no
been ully used. Consequen ly, companies should pu in place plans o
eskilling as a p e en i e measu e ( EDUCATION AND TRAINING).
Howe e much companies y o adap o digi alisa ion, no all o
hem will come o e ms wi h i quickly enough. Fo example, medium-
sized supplie s a e a isk o insol ency i hey do no ‘ge up o speed’
wi h digi alisa ion; else hey will d op ou o he in eg a ed alue
chains, a h ea ha hangs o e 30 pe cen o au omo i e componen
supplie s in Ge many (dIez 2016 ) . The companies a ec ed can ge
back on hei ee again, bu hey will need ime and suppo .
POINT OF CONTROVERSY DEVELOP
TRANSITIONAL COMPANIES FURTHER
T ansi ional companies (T ans e gesellscha en) a e a ied and es ed
ins umen o use in company insol encies o es uc u ings ha
can be u he de eloped as he pace o s uc u al change accele a es.
Employees who ha e los hei jobs o whose jobs a e a isk due o
subs an ial changes in hei company can be aken on by he ansi-
ional company, usually o a 12-mon h pe iod, o acili a e inding
new jobs. The e was a con o e sial deba e in he Commission abou
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
45

he p oposal ha he ules on ansi ional companies should be amend-
ed in such a way ha employees a e able o e u n om he ansi ion-
al company o hei o me company a e he es uc u ing and un-
de go u he aining du ing hei ime in he ansi ional company.
The ansi ional company could hus ope a e as an ‘in e nal s a -up’.
I was gene ally ag eed ha g ea e use should be made o ansi-
ional companies o u he aining. Reskilling is s ill being neglec -
ed in he nego ia ions on edundancy p og ammes, so a e hink is
equi ed he e. The idea o a special sho - ime allowance o wo ke s
in companies adjus ing o he digi al ans o ma ion, as ecen ly p o-
posed by IG Me all, was well ecei ed by he Commission.
Whe eas o la ge segmen s o he wo king popula ion s anda d em-
ploymen used o be a means o pe manen ly secu ing hei li elihood,
his is clea ly no longe he case. In a dynamic, globally ne wo ked
economy, job secu i y is no longe ce ain. The mo e in ense he com-
pe i ion in ce ain segmen s becomes, whe he as a esul o a ional-
isa ion e ec s o labou mig a ion, he mo e p eca ious li e in he
zone o social decline as well as in he middle s a a o socie y is pe -
cei ed o be (cas el 2000; cas el/dÖ e 2009 ) .
E en hough unemploymen has always been a pe sonal c isis si -
ua ion, he e o m o he social assis ance sys em has ce ainly exace -
ba ed he di icul ies. Social assis ance was in eg a ed in o he sys em
o he mo e gene ous unemploymen bene i s, which can now only
usually be d awn o 12 mon hs only (as opposed o 24 mon hs p e i-
ously) be o e social assis ance kicks in. Since he changes (commonly
e e ed o as Ha z e o ms) we e enac ed, unemploymen has be-
come e en mo e s ongly linked o conce ns abou downwa d mobil-
i y and impo e ishmen – and no being able o egain one’s p e ious
s a us, since he ules on wha cons i u es a easonable job o e o
hose on social assis ance a e hei unemploymen bene i s ha e un
ou s ipula e ha o e s o wo k e en below a job seeke ’s le el o skill
and quali ica ion canno be ejec ed wi hou good cause. Fu he -
mo e, he employmen agencies (job cen es) p io i ise placemen in
wo k o e ex ensi e eskilling. In many cases, agmen ed ad hoc
measu es a e all ha is p o ided, a he han mo e wide- anging e-
skilling p og ammes (bläscHe e al. 2017 ) . In ecen imes, ou o
a ound 1.3 million unskilled unemployed indi iduals, ba ely 50,000
pe yea ha e emba ked on a aining p og amme wi h he aim o
ob aining a oca ional quali ica ion. The numbe o indi iduals on
social assis ance ell by nine pe cen be ween 2010 and 2015, bu ex-
pendi u e on u he aining o his g oup was cu by 26 pe cen .
Expe s conside his o be sho -sigh ed, since ecen s udies ha e
shown ha ex ensi e eskilling ce ainly pays o (i inc eases he like-
lihood o inding employmen by 20 pe cen ), hough no o e nigh .
POINT OF CONTROVERSY CURBS
ON DOWNWARD MOBILITY
In iew o digi alisa ion’s po en ial o au oma ion and a ionalisa-
ion, he Commission discussed measu es ha could unc ion as cu bs
on downwa d mobili y:
The planned in oduc ion o a eskilling unemploymen bene i
was b oadly welcomed. This ins umen combines an ex ension o
he pe iod o en i lemen o unemploymen bene i s wi h eskilling,
he eby concei ably o e ing many people he possibili y o e-en e -
ing he labou ma ke (possibly wi h a di e en job).
Despi e in ensi e eskilling e o s, no all hose who become
unemployed will be able o gain a oo hold in he p ima y labou
ma ke s aigh away. An ini ia i e om No h Rhine-Wes phalia is
wo hy o conside a ion. The s a e go e nmen he e has aken up he
ade unions’ call o he es ablishmen o a new social labou ma ke o
he long- e m unemployed.
The idea o in oducing a new o m o sho - ime allowance was
discussed. The IG Bau cons uc ion ade union is seeking o use his
ins umen o secu e he ansi ion in o e i emen o olde wo ke s
wi h heal h p oblems.
Al hough he Commission did no each ag eemen on any pa icu-
la ins umen s, he e was consensus on he need o gi e u gen con-
side a ion o ways o cu bing downwa d mobili y.
PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK
STANDARDS FOR DIVERSITY
47
REVALUING
WORK
INCOME
GUARANTEE
LIVELIHOODS,
REWARD
ACHIEVEMENT
I i would be simplis ic o ega d employmen simply as a means o
ea ning money, i would be naï e o igno e he ac ha people ha e
o secu e he ma e ial necessi ies o li e and he e o e need an in-
come. E en i hey ha e a pa icula skill o quali ica ion ha enables
hem o p o ec he posi ion hey ha e achie ed in he labou ma ke
and in he wo kplace o in he social ne wo ks hey ha e buil up,
hey a e, ne e heless, always dependen on he demand o hei
labou . Consequen ly, he emune a ion o wo k is and will con inue o
be a c ucial ac o in he nego ia ions be ween he pa ies in ol ed.
This applies o dependen employees and he sel -employed alike.
E en eelance s, c owd wo ke s and a is s, who a e usually assumed
o enjoy a e y conside able deg ee o eedom in hei wo k, ha e o
sa egua d hei incomes and p o ec hemsel es by means o con-
ac s, pa en s o usage igh s.
INHERITANCES DETERMINE OPPORTUNITIES. Besides income, weal h
also plays a pa in de e mining he deg ee o inancial eedom an
indi idual enjoys; only o a ce ain sec ion o socie y does he p os-
pec o inhe i ing weal h open up scope o planning o he u u e.
T ans e s o weal h om inhe i ances o alled 38 billion eu os in
2014, wi h a u he 71 billion ans e ed in he o m o gi s. Acco d-
ing o he Ge man Fede al S a is ical O ice, his cons i u ed an in-
c ease o 55 pe cen in he olume o inhe i ed and gi ed weal h o e
he p e ious yea . Business asse s ep esen ed only 45 pe cen o his
inhe i ed weal h, he es being p i a e asse s. The olume o inhe i -
ed weal h is likely o inc ease eno mously in he coming yea s: o
he pe iod 2012–2027, i is pu a 1.45 illion eu os o hose 70 o o e
(s a Is IscHes bundesaM 2015a; g abka/ IeFensee 2017 ) . Indi i-
duals wi h asse s o o e a million eu os a e no only mo e likely o
inhe i bu also o ha e abo e-a e age household incomes.
WHERE
DO WE STAND?

WOMEN HAVE LESS MONEY. The e is gene ally a la ge gap be ween he
sexes: women on a e age ea n less han hei pa ne s. This is due in
mos cases o he di ision o labou wi hin amilies and he amoun
o paid wo k women do. A he same ime, women’s employmen
ends o be concen a ed in hose segmen s o he labou ma ke in
which hou ly wages a e low. Mo eo e , many o he a ailable jobs
o e only a small numbe o hou s’ wo k pe week. Single pa en s a e
he g oup in Ge many a g ea es isk o po e y (Pabs /asMus 2017).1
THE INCOME SPREAD HAS BECOME A POLITICAL ISSUE. The diagno-
sis o a ‘s ong middle’ in Ge many, in which a b eadwinne ’s wage
could suppo a whole amily and he e we e egula collec i ely
ag eed wage inc eases, had been o e aken by eali y by he yea 2000
a he la es . The income gap had been widening cons an ly and p e-
ca i y and inequali y had become pe ennial opics.
Al hough he incomes o p i a e households ose by 12 pe cen in
o al be ween 1991 and 2014, he a ious income
b acke s e ol ed e y di e en ly. Middle income
g oups saw hei ea nings ise by mo e han eigh
pe cen , bu o he highes ea ne s pay inc eased
by mo e han 26 pe cen . In he lowe income
b acke s, on he o he hand, eal wages ac ually de-
clined (g abka/goebel 2017). C oss-Eu opean com-
pa ison shows ha he low-wage sec o in Ge ma-
ny, a 23 pe cen o all employees, is one o he
la ges in he EU. The low-wage sec o 2 is s agna -
ing a a high le el (MÖlle 2016 ).
THE CAUSES OF THE SOCIAL DIVIDE ARE MANY AND VARIOUS. The
easons o he inc eased income inequali y include, among o he
hings, he expansion o employmen ela ionships o e ing less han
ull- ime hou s ( PARTICIPATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK) and he
g ow h o he se ice sec o , whe e wages in some a eas a e signi ican -
ly lowe han in he manu ac u ing indus y. Mo emen s in he labou
ma ke ha e also played a pa : wi hin he a ious indus ies, pay di e -
en ials be ween i ms ha e inc eased, so ha employees a e now di id-
ed be ween be e o poo e paying i ms.
The declining a e o co e age by collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s also
has e ec s. Low pay is no iceably mo e equen ou side o collec i e
ag eemen s; in companies bound by collec i e ag eemen s, mo eo e ,
1 In 2015, he isk o single
pa en s o alling in o po e y was
44 pe cen . Almos 40 pe cen
o single pa en s ecei e social assis-
ance, mos o hem wage supple-
men s because o low pay.
2 Wo ke s in he low-wage sec o
ea n less han wo hi ds o he
median wage.
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
51
he di e ences in pay be ween he a ious g oups a e smalle . How-
e e , low pay and sho wo king hou s ine i ably gene a e cos s o
he s a e in he o m o op-up and bene i paymen s. The numbe o
senio s elying on social assis ance has inc eased om 258,000 in 2003
o 536,000 in 2015.
Social cos s also acc ue: a p eca ious income si ua ion and un-
ce ain employmen p ospec s ha e a nega i e in luence on he deci-
sion o s a a amily o ha e mo e child en (goebel/gIesecke 2009 )
and educa ional in es men s in child en’s u u es a e made mo e
di icul . Wha is mo e, low pay, low le els o educa ion and aining
and a p eca ious employmen s a us a e associa ed
wi h educed li e expec ancy.3
SERVICES UNCOUPLED? Excep o he c isis yea s
o 2008 / 2009, eal wages in he manu ac u ing
sec o had isen signi ican ly since he ea ly 1990s;
in he se ice sec o , howe e , excep o he ICT
indus y, his was no he case a all. Up un il 2007,
wages had ac ually been alling; i was no un il 2014 ha hey s a ed
o ise again sligh ly, albei wi hou eaching he 1991 le els in all
a eas (s a Is IscHes bundesaM 2016d ) .
While i is ue ha g oss hou ly a es o pay a e likely o ise
h oughou he economy, he dynamic does a y om sec o o sec o .
In ag icul u e and many se ice indus ies in pa icula , any wage in-
c eases a e expec ed o be below a e age. Poo ly paid se ice wo k is
mos ly done by women. Thei sha e in he low-wage sec o is almos
70 pe cen . Howe e , he ou sou cing o many ac i i ies om con-
en ional manu ac u ing companies has also elega ed a no incon-
side able numbe o males in o he low-wage sec o .
VALUING WORK JUSTLY IS A KEY SOCIAL POLICY ISSUE. Di e ences
in he emune a ion o wo k a e a con o e sial issue. Al hough di e -
ences in income o di e en quali ica ions and ypes o ac i i y a e
pe cei ed as ai , he si ua ion changes when di e en a es o pay a e
o e ed o he same wo k o o wo k o equal alue.
Ca e wo k is always unde alued. Al hough he economy depends
o i s e y exis ence on such wo k, i was no acknowledged as ‘wo k’
o a long ime. A pa icula ap i ude o ca e wo k was a ibu ed o
women simply by i ue o hei gende . The consequence is a hie a -
chisa ion no only o di e en ypes o wo k bu also o he sexes ha con-
3 cHe y (2016) iden i ies a
di e ence o 15 yea s be ween he
iches and he poo es males in
he USA. Fo Ge many, he Robe
Koch Ins i u e pu s he di e en ial
a 10 yea s ( kI 2017 ).
52 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
inues o shape socie y o he p esen day. The mo e he paid wo k in
ques ion esembles wo k in he home and he mo e women a e em-
ployed in a segmen o he labou ma ke , he lowe wages u n ou
o be. The gende pay gap, which indica es he le el o wage disc im-
in a ion agains women, is 21 pe cen (s a Is I-
scHes bundesaM 2016c ) .4 The esul an di e -
ences in ea nings a e he cause o a pe sis en ly
unequal di ision o domes ic and ca e wo k. They
ac as an incen i e o he pa ne in a couple wi h
he lowe income o educe hei wo king ime o
wi hd aw empo a ily om he labou ma ke .
Men a e becoming inc easingly c i ical o his
p e-s uc u ing o amily decisions.
4 I is s ill 8 pe cen
when indi iduals wi h
he same educa ion,
job and wo king ime
a e compa ed.
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
53
The deba e as o wha deg ee o social inequali y is easonable o
accep able will in ensi y. S udies show ha people e alua e hei
quali y o li e mo e highly in socie ies wi h lowe le els o wage ine-
quali y. Economic p oduc i i y is also highe . Inequali y has he po en-
ial o inhibi g ow h and o be des abilising a he mac oeconomic
le el because low-income households a e unable o a o d in es men
in educa ion and heal h and domes ic demand is hea ily dependen
on disposable income and he income p ospec s o he g ea majo i-
y o he popula ion (beH Inge e al. 2016 ) .
As a esul o inc easing poli ical p essu e, c i e ia ha link awa d-
ing public con ac s o minimum social s anda ds and minimum pay
ha e been inco po a ed, o example, in o he Public P ocu emen
Ac (sack e al. 2016 ) . I collec i ely ag eed wages con inue o be
aised by he same pe cen age o e e ybody, including he lowes in-
come g oups, and i he s a u o y minimum wage con inues o be
aised in p opo ion o hese collec i ely ag eed wage ises, hen he
exis ing inequali y will no be educed. Since low incomes mean low
pensions, income policy decisions may in he long e m also be con-
en ious om a social policy pe spec i e.
SERVICE WORK WILL CONTINUE TO INCREASE. Demog aphic change
and inc easing pa icipa ion a es among women will lead o in-
c eased demand o social se ices. I pay o such wo k emains as low
as i has been o da e, hen p eca ious employmen
and income condi ions a e bound o expand.5 I
he e is no change o di ec ion he e, many people
will emain dependen on mul iple and side jobs
in o de o make ends mee .6 In iew o he in-
c easing demand o labou , in e na ional labou
mig a ion will con inue o inc ease. This means
mainly women who come om o he coun ies o
WHAT SHOULD WE
BE PREPARING FOR?
5 Acco ding o o ecas s, s a ing
equi emen s in he ca e sec o will
ise o one million ull- ime wo ke s
by 2050 (scHulze 2012 ). Howe e ,
wages in his sec o a e 17 pe cen
below he a e age o all employees
(bogaI e al. 2015 ).
6 In 2015, wo million wo ke s
had a leas wo jobs. Since 2011, he
igu e has isen by 15 pe cen (s a-
Is IscHes bundesaM 2017d ).
en child en, and pa icula ly women, o ex end hei wo king imes,
he numbe o genuine all-day schools should be conside ably in-
c eased. Ge man elemen a y schools ha e adi ionally inished a
a ound 1 p.m. (and seconda y schools no much la e ). Many ‘all-day
schools’ do no ex end ins uc ion in o he a e noon bu o e ex a-
cu icula ac i i ies only, wi hou an i on-clad gua an ee ha pupils
will be supe ised un il a ce ain hou , hus equi ing pa en s wo k-
ing ull ime o seek ou day-ca e a e all.
And since an inc ease in p o ision o ca e a he beginning and
end o he day will be una oidable, o eseeable con lic s mus be e-
sol ed. The needs o se ice use s mus be discussed in conjunc ion
wi h he ime p e e ences o se ice p o ide s. An example o such
nego ia ing p ocesses is he local go e nmen p ojec on ‘U ban ime
policies’ (‘Zei en de S ad ’), which aims o ha monise in e es s
(Mückenbe ge 1998 ) ( FRAMEWORK FOR CHANGE).
Secondly, he legisla u e should abolish o phase ou he nume -
ous incen i es o pa - ime wo k and mini-jobs. Un il now, he ‘spli -
ing’ sys em o assessing ma ied couples’ ax liabili y, he ee heal h
insu ance scheme o spouses and dependen child en and he ax
and social secu i y concessions associa ed wi h mini-jobs ha e all
conspi ed o subsidise he seconda y-ea ne model. The consequence
is ha one spouse, usually he woman, emains con ined o he sho -
hou s segmen . This subsidising o mini-jobs is no longe in une
wi h ei he he changes in women’s ca ee aspi a ions o men’s in-
c easing in ol emen in he amily; i is also inconsis en wi h he
e o med law on main enance paymen s, which equi es pa en s o
secu e an independen li elihood a e di o ce.
The Commission p oposes ha income om ma ginal pa - ime and
s anda d employmen should be ea ed equally and ha he ‘spli -
ing’ sys em should be phased ou .
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
61

In addi ion o a e o m o mini-jobs ha seeks o modi y wo ke s’
beha iou , i would also be possible o ackle he supply side, i. e. o
o ganise wo k in such a way as o o e su icien hou s o enable indi-
iduals o ea n a li ing wage. Uncondi ional basic wo king hou s could
be o e ed as an al e na i e o an uncondi ional basic income.
POINT OF CONTROVERSY
A FLOOR ON WORKING HOURS?
Va ious ins umen s a e a ailable o hal he g ow h in wage inequal-
i y, such as a wages policy g ounded in solida i y, disp opo iona ely
high wage inc eases in collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s, a ollback o
p eca ious employmen and changes o wage scales. In addi ion, a
loo on wo king ime could also help o imp o e he si ua ion. This is
no an idea ha has been simply plucked ou o he ai . F ance in o-
duced i in 2014; since hen, a minimum wo king ime o 24 hou s pe
week, 104 hou s pe mon h and 1,102 hou s pe yea has applied o all
new pa - ime employmen con ac s. In Ge many, he collec i e
ag eemen s co e ing he me alwo king and elec ical enginee ing in-
dus y se lowe limi s o weekly wo king imes; as ea ly as 2003,
membe s o he collec i e ba gaining commi ee a he e .di ade
union had demanded a minimum daily wo king ime o ou con-
secu i e hou s and a minimum weekly wo king ime o 20 hou s.
The lowe limi could be se a 20 hou s. This would mean ha
mos o he wo king ime models ypically used o s ike a balance
be ween paid wo k and (unpaid) ca e wo k would al eady comply
wi h he lowe limi . In o de o insu e ha he ins umen o e s
bo h sides su icien lexibili y, excep ions should apply o pensione s
and s uden s and o companies ci ing ‘objec i e easons’. I was also
discussed whe he employees should be able o eques a elaxa ion
o he lowe limi .
The ques ion o he e ec ha his lowe limi migh ha e on
domes ic se ices was igo ously deba ed. I was a gued ha he in-
oduc ion o a lowe limi would p e en households om ec ui -
ing household help, usually employed o less han 20 hou s pe week
in he same household. In esponse, i was a gued ha he lowe lim-
i could be elaxed a he employees’ eques and ha i was in any
case desi able o domes ic wo ke s o be employed by se ice cen es
in s anda d employmen ela ionships a he han being employed
di ec ly by one o mo e p i a e households. Thus he es ablishmen
by local au ho i ies o (possibly pla o m-based) domes ic se ice
agencies could be a measu e aken in suppo o he in oduc ion o
a wo king ime loo .
REVALUE
SOCIAL SERVICES
Acco ding o o ecas s, social se ices will be he la ges g ow h sec-
o in he yea s o come. Fi s ly, he high bi h- a e coho s, he so-
called ‘baby boome s’, a e heading owa ds e i emen age, which
will inc ease he demand o ca e wo ke s. Secondly, wo king pa en s
need ca e o hei child en. These occupa ions (ea ly childhood edu-
ca ion and ca e, heal h and ca e o he elde ly) al eady ha e a labou
ma ke sha e o 18 pe cen . Fo ecas e s a e wo king on he assump-
ion ha his sha e will ise o up o one hi d o all employees. The
sha e o women in his sec o is e y high: in 2015, hey accoun ed o
80 pe cen o all employees in ea ly childhood educa ion and ca e,
81 pe cen in nu sing, eme gency escue se ices and midwi e y and
85 pe cen in ca e o he elde ly (s a Is IscHes bundesaM 2017c ) .
No all social se ices a e unde alued; howe e , all hose ha used
o be p o ided by women wi hou pay a e indeed held cheap (sacH-
e s ändIgenkoMMIssIon 2017; allMendInge /WoWe eI
2015 ) . Since he wo ld o wo k s ands o gain om be e educa ion,
good heal hca e, an e icien bu eauc acy and good a angemen s o
he econcilia ion o paid wo k and amily li e, in es men in and
de elopmen o social se ices con ibu es o inc eased g ow h, in-
c eased employmen , highe p oduc i i y and g ea e p ospe i y.
In ecen yea s he e ha e been se e al a emp s by bo h policy
make s and academics o challenge unidimensional indica o s o eco-
nomic de elopmen such as he g oss domes ic p oduc (GDP). Va i-
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
63
ous commissions and o he ini ia i es ha e g appled wi h al e na i e
app oaches, including, among o he s, he S igli z-Sen-Fi oussi Com-
mission wo king on behal o he F ench go e nmen , he Ge man
Pa liamen ’s s udy commission on ‘G ow h, P ospe i y and Quali y
o Li e’, he New ‘Magic Squa e’ o Inclusi e and Sus ainable Eco-
nomic G ow h (dullIen/ an eeck 2012 ) and he ‘Na ional Wel-
a e Index’ (dIeFenbacHe e al. 2016 ) .
Unde lying all hese app oaches is he no ion ha , in o de o de-
e mine a socie y’s le el o p ospe i y and quali y o li e, a mo e com-
p ehensi e means o e alua ion and measu emen is needed han ha
p o ided by economic policy make s’ cu en p eoccupa ion wi h
GDP. En i onmen al and social cos s and achie emen s a e no ade-
qua ely accoun ed o by a coun y’s GDP. Thus en i onmen al cos s,
social inequali y, gende equali y and inc eases in quali y o li e e-
sul ing om unpaid wo k a e no cap u ed by his indica o .
The p oposals pu o wa d by he S igli z-Sen-Fi oussi Commis-
sion, which also ake accoun o he e ec s on p ospe i y and dis-
ibu ion o weal h o socially necessa y se ices, a e pa icula ly
a - eaching. In hei lis o ecommenda ions, he au ho s a gue ha
income and consump ion a he han p oduc ion should be used as
he basis o measu ing p ospe i y and economic pe o mance. This
would ake be e accoun o he dis ibu ion aspec s. Wha is mo e,
quali y o li e canno be assessed solely in e ms o he ma e ial s and-
a d o li ing bu has o ake accoun o heal h, educa ion, en i onmen-
al condi ions, he ex en o p i a e and social ac i i y and he oppo -
uni ies o e ec i e poli ical ac ion (s IglI z e al. 2010a, 2010b ) .
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
RETHINK PRODUCTIVITY
Wage inc eases a e jus i ied in economic heo y by he combina ion
o p oduc i i y gains, in la ion and a edis ibu i e componen , e en
hough he las ac o has declined in impo ance in ecen yea s.
Howe e , p oduc i i y canno be linked solely o quan i a i e g ow h
and social se ices canno be subjec ed solely o e iciency c i e ia
wi hou hei quali y su e ing. Thus ea ly childhood educa o s
should no be looking a e as many child en as possible. The same
applies o ca e wo k ( he ca ch ph ase he e being ‘ca e agains he
clock’). Public se ices – and pa icula ly social se ices – con ibu e
di ec ly o social wel a e and quali y o li e. Educa ion, childca e and
ca e o he elde ly and o he s in need o m he basis o pa icipa ion
in he labou ma ke and aising omo ow’s wo k o ce.
Fo social se ices, he e o e, p oduc i i y as hi he o concei ed is
no a good benchma k. Wha is needed a e measu emen c i e ia and
indica o s ha a e be e sui ed o he pa icula cha ac e o social se -
ices and ep esen hei alue o socie y and he economy mo e eal-
is ically. A new concep o p oduc i i y would help o b ing he goal o
making he public inances sus ainable in o line wi h he goals o
economic, en i onmen al and social sus ainabili y.
I his new concep is o ha e consequences and o be o use o
labou ma ke policy ac o s as a basis o ad ancing hei a gumen s,
i is ecommended ha i be inco po a ed in o he s a e epo ing
sys em. Fo ha o happen, a new e e ence sys em o cap u ing he
de elopmen o p ospe i y would i s ha e o be in oduced along-
side GDP. I migh , o example, ake he o m o a new annual p os-
pe i y epo o a new ‘magic squa e’. The con ibu ion o social se -
ices could also be made explici in his e e ence sys em.
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
65
FOOD FOR THOUGHT THE STATE AND
THE SOCIAL PARTNERS AS ACTORS IN
ENHANCING THE STATUS OF PROFESSIONAL
CARE WORK
Since ca e se ices a e o undamen al impo ance o socie y, any
a emp o aise hei alue is a ask ha conce ns he whole o socie y
and mus ake in o accoun he dis inc i e cha ac e is ics o such se -
ices and add ess he in e es s and demands o ecogni ion o em-
ployees, pa ien s and clien s alike. This e alua ion will no be
achie ed simply h ough socie y’s willingness o pay mo e. I also e-
qui es a b oad-based unde s anding ha he p o ision o such se -
ices is one o he obliga ions o a unc ioning s a e, which mus lay
he ounda ions o such p o ision h ough i s axa ion policy.
The e a e se e al s a ing poin s:
Ac oss coun ies, co e age by collec i e ba gaining ag eemen has
p o ed i sel o be he key o secu ing highe incomes in he social
se ices sec o . As a esul o he agmen a ion o he collec i e ba -
gaining sys em in his sec o in Ge many and, abo e all, o he in-
c ease in he numbe o p i a e p o ide s (mos o whom do no ad-
he e o collec i e ag eemen s), he link wi h he gene al e olu ion o
pay has been los . Consequen ly, decla ing collec i e ag eemen s gen-
e ally binding could p o ec s anda ds ac oss all p o ide s in he sec-
o (i. e. o public, chu ch and p i a e p o ide s in he ca e sec o )
and p e en wage compe i ion.
The e aluing o social se ices begins wi h he aining condi-
ions. The ac ha people wi h specialis quali ica ions a e employed
in he social se ices is s ill all oo eadily supp essed. To ewa d hose
quali ica ions inancially in an adequa e manne is impo an o se -
ice wo ke s’ p o essional sel -image. An ini ial s ep would be o pu
ainees on an equal oo ing wi h hose in he dual sys em and hus
o pay he ainees’ a es ac oss he sec o .
A he same ime, he low incomes emain a p oblem. E en ull-
ime child ca e wo ke s and nu ses ea n be ween 500 and 1,200 eu os
less han skilled wo ke s employed in ehicle and ehicle componen
manu ac u e. The No dic coun ies could se e as a model he e. A
solida i y wage policy aims, among o he hings, o wage d i adjus -

men clauses in o de o e en ou indus y-speci ic di e ences. In
Sweden, his wages policy led o women’s ea nings inc easing a
wice he a e o men’s o e a i e-yea pe iod.
Wo king imes should also be looked a c i ically. In Ge many,
wo ke s in social occupa ions a e equen ly wo k sho hou s only.
Howe e , some o hem would like o op up hei wo king imes. In he
Commission’s iew, mo e oppo uni ies should be c ea ed o in-
c easing wo king imes on an indi idual basis. A he same ime, he
ac ha many employees do no wish o wo k ull- ime is o en due
o he pa icula p essu es o he job: shi wo k, high wo k in ensi y
and cu backs in in e ac ions (‘ca e agains he clock’) o en mili a e
agains mo i a ion and p o essional s anda ds.
Wo k o ce alloca ion also has a bea ing on his. The insu icien
inc ease in jobs due o es ic i e cos a ge s has led o massi ely in-
c eased wo k loads in heal h and social se ices. An o e bu dened
and wo n-ou wo k o ce is he consequence. Binding s anda ds o
s a ing le els and compulso y and en o ceable heal h and sa e y
s anda ds a e he e o e ecommended.
Many ini ia i es on he u u e o wo k ha e ocused on manu-
ac u ing indus y un il now. I would be desi able o such ini ia -
i es o be a ge ed a public and social se ices as well.
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
67
FOOD FOR THOUGHT MAKE WORKPLACE
ASSESSMENTS MORE GENDER-EQUITABLE
I he pa icula impo ance, unc ion and quali y o ypical ‘ emale
occupa ions’ a e o be ecognised, hen c i e ia o wo kplace assessmen
will ha e o be e iewed. In compa ison wi h o he occupa ions, sig-
ni ican ac i i ies ha a e cha ac e is ic aspec s o hese occupa ional
g oups a e no (su icien ly) aken in o accoun in wo kplace assess-
men s and hence a e igno ed when i comes o wage se ing. Hea y
ca ying and li ing in nu sing and ca e wo k, emo ional and psycho-
social demands as well as social skills a e no gene ally gi en app o-
p ia e conside a ion in he e alua ion p ocedu es cu en ly in use.
Employe s and he social pa ne s should he e o e o e haul hei job
e alua ion ins umen s and include hese c i e ia in hei e alua ions,
he eby es ablishing a basis o nego ia ing non-disc imina o y wages
ha do jus ice o he pa icula demands o hese ac i i ies.
Food o hough on his ques ion is also p o ided by he Ins i u e
o Wo k, Skills and T aining (IAQ) a he Uni e si y o Duisbu g-
Essen, whe e a ‘Compa able Wo h Index’ has been calcula ed ha
iden i ies ac i i ies o equi alen alue on he basis o job desc ip-
ions. Using he so-called eg-check p ocedu e de eloped by Tondo
and Jochmann-Döll, which is based on he analy ical wo kplace as-
sessmen me hod, all occupa ions a e e-e alua ed and gi en a poin
sco e. This makes i possible o compa e di e en jobs mo e ai ly
(and hence also in a mo e gende -equi able way). The esul s can
se e as an ins umen o companies seeking o a oid wage disc im-
ina ion. The human esou ces depa men a Messe Be lin, a leading
ade ai company, has pu his p ocedu e in o p ac ice. Since he
possibili y ha collec i e ag eemen s also disc imina e agains wom-
en canno be excluded, he Ge man Food, Be e ages and Ca e ing
Union (Gewe kscha Nah ung-Genuss-Gas s ä en) is e iewing all
collec i e ag eemen s.
INCOMES IN THE KNOWLEDGE
AND DATA ECONOMY
In he digi al economy, people a e cons an ly gene a ing da a. This
applies o wo k p ocesses as much as o hei p i a e li es. This aises
ques ions abou he p o ec ion o pe sonal da a. The e a e now nu-
me ous ini ia i es in his a ea, such as a ci izens’ ini ia i e in Ge ma-
ny ha has de eloped a p oposal o an EU digi al igh s cha e , one
o he igh s being he abili y o de e mine how one’s da a is used. On
he o he hand, ano he ques ion ha is cons an ly being aised con-
ce ns in ol emen in he exploi a ion o da a. When indi iduals gen-
e a e da a o con en h ough hei c ea i i y, communica ions o
mo emen p o iles om which p o i s can be made, hen he owne -
ship o he da a o con en is a s ake. Wha (s ill) belongs o me? Wha
happens o my da a o con en i i con inues o be used by o he s?
FOOD FOR THOUGHT GUARANTEE
OWNERSHIP OF DATA
Da a a e said o be he aw ma e ial o he u u e. Managemen con-
sul an s Bos on Consul ing call he unde lying p inciple ‘big da a as
a business’. The exploi a ion and sale o use da a al eady o m he
basis o a luc a i e business model o pla o m ope a o s. So a , he
da a has been made a ailable a no cos by cus ome s – in some cases
wi hou hem ac ually being awa e hey a e doing so.
I he exploi a ion o da a is o play an e e g ea e ole in alue
c ea ion, hen he ques ion a ises o who he da a belongs o and how
i migh be possible o gi e ‘da a dono s’ a sha e o he p o i s made
wi h hei da a. The Ge man legal sys em ecognises owne ship o hings
bu no o pe sonal da a. The Commission p oposes ha conside a-
ion should be gi en o e o m o bo h he igh o owne ship in he
Ge man Ci il Code and o he gene al e ms and condi ions o busi-
ness on pla o ms. Such a e o m is al eady being deba ed by lawye s.
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
69
The c ea i e and cul u al indus y, wi h a u no e o some 146 billion
eu os, is one o he s onges g ow h sec o s o he Ge man economy.
I s sha e in he coun y’s o al economic ou pu (g oss alue added) is
2.3 pe cen (bMWI 2017).
The chie cha ac e is ic o wo k in his sec o o he economy is
ha c ea i e ou pu is de eloped, dissemina ed and p ocessed. This in-
clude wo ks, p oduc s and se ices om he wo lds o music, d ama
and a , as well as con en and goods p oduced by he publishing in-
dus y, he ilm, TV and adio indus y, jou nalis s, ad e ising and
design agencies, a chi ec u al p ac ices and so wa e de elope s. The
common co e o all wo k in he sec o is he ac o c ea ion, om
which a ises an o iginal wo k ha can be p o ec ed by copy igh .
The idea o copy igh law is ha a is s should be en i led o an
app op ia e sha e o hei wo k’s economic success. Whe he he law is i
o pu pose in he digi al age is cu en ly in doub . People p oduce
wo k ha can be used and exploi ed digi ally, many ea n hei li ing
his way. The so wa e indus y and he gaming sec o in pa icula
seem o equi e new legal egula ions. In he case o pla o ms, he e
is a need o cla i y whe he and o wha ex en hey should ha e o
comply wi h he p inciples o copy igh in hei use o da a and con-
en . I he bounda y be ween p oduce s and consume s o media be-
comes blu ed ( esea che s speak o p osume s) hen use -gene a ed
con en is p oduced om which he pla o ms ea n money.
Many c ea i e wo ke s ha e o su ende hei igh s o use en i ely
and equen ly in exchange o a lump-sum paymen (k e scH Me
2016 ) . This s uc u al imbalance be ween use s and c ea i e wo ke s
has become e iden in he inc ease in buy-ou s, in which a is s a e
paid a lump sum by he igh s holde s o he un es ic ed use o hei
wo k. The consequence is a winne - ake-all ma ke . In he music in-
dus y, almos 90 pe cen o all e enue is aken by 10 pe cen o he
ma ke pa icipan s; in he wo ld o w i ing and isual a s, he sha e
is abou 50 o 65 pe cen (k e scHMe 2011 ) .
FOOD FOR THOUGHT PROMOTING
COOPERATIVES IN THE DIGITAL AGE
Coope a i es a e based on he dual no ion o sha ing and owning.
Unlike con en ional companies, hey a e commi ed o hei membe s
a he han o p o i making. Membe s ha e a sha e in he en e p ise,
al hough some may ha e a g ea e sha e han o he s, bu hey all ha e
he same o ing igh s. Since membe s a e, on he one hand, owne s
o employe s and, on he o he , use s o employees, wo con lic ing
oles in he ma ke come oge he in he g oups o indi iduals un-
ning coope a i es. Applied o he digi al economy, his means ha
he sha ing does by no means ha e o exclude owning. In o he wo ds,
business models based on he idea o sha ing (such as Ai bnb o
Ube ) could also be o ganised on he basis o collec i e owne ship.
By way o example, p oposals ha e been o mula ed o al e na i e,
coope a i ely-ope a ed pla o ms (‘pla o m coope a i ism’) ha would
be non-p o i -making and o e good wo king condi ions (scHolz
2016a, 2016b ) . Bo h Ube and o he c owd wo k pla o ms such as
Upload could concei ably be ope a ed as coope a i es, since he ech-
nical basis is he same. Ube d i e s o c owd wo ke s would hen be
he pla o m ope a o s.
In many coun ies, ade unions and coope a i es a e closely linked. In
Ge many, he e has appa en ly been some deg ee o eluc ance o
o ge such links, no leas p obably because o a numbe o scandals in
he 1980s. Recen ly, howe e , he e ha e been he i s signs o a ap-
p ochemen . A e all, solida i y and democ acy a e deeply oo ed as
guiding p inciples in bo h o ganisa ions. En e p ises se ing up as o
con e ing hemsel es in o coope a i es and digi al pla o ms ope a -
ed as coope a i es open up a new sphe e o in luence o ade unions.
INCOME
REVALUING WORK
77

GERMANY,
THE TALENT
FACTORY
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
AWAKEN CURIOSITY,
UNLOCK POTENTIAL
Despi e global compe i ion, he label ‘Made in Ge many’ is s ill an
indica ion o he special quali y o he goods and se ices p oduced
he e. Ge many’s economic success is based no on aw ma e ials bu
on he skills and expe ise o i s people. Ideas and inno a ion eme ge ou
o he exchange o expe iences and he in e play o skills. They p o-
ide he basis o Ge many’s economic model, o job secu i y and o
job c ea ion. I does emain o be seen whe he he high sha e o
skilled wo k as a quali y ea u e o he Ge man economy can be sus-
ained a a ime when in o ma ion is exchanged and p ocessed glo-
bally and a ionalisa ion and s anda disa ion p ocesses a e enc oach-
ing e en on highly skilled occupa ions. Howe e , i is becoming
inc easingly clea ha u u e p oduc i i y models will depend o an
e e g ea e ex en on inno a i e ideas ha wo ke s de elop as hey
implemen and in e ac wi h new echnologies.
EDUCATION BECOMES EVEN MORE IMPORTANT. In imes o s uc u al
uphea al, educa ion is he necessa y answe . They lay he ounda ions
ha enable ci izens o lead ma u e li es, exe cise powe s o judgemen ,
unde s and complex in e ac ions and li e as ac i e ci izens in a democ a ic
socie y – and ideally hey p epa e people o en e hei chosen occupa-
ions and o p og ess and make ansi ions o e he cou se o hei
wo king li es. The labou ma ke acqui es lexibili y as a esul . The
ype and ex en o a ge ed aining play an impo an ole in main-
aining economic compe i i eness; aining is i al, no only o secu e
indi iduals’ li elihood bu also o acili a e hei sel - ealisa ion and
pa icipa ion in socie y and o gua an ee hem a high deg ee o sa is-
ac ion in bo h hei wo k and hei li es ou side wo k.
People lea n h oughou hei li es. The mo e dynamic he changes
in hei li ing en i onmen a e, he mo e necessa y lea ning becomes
in o de o c ea e oppo uni ies o sel - ealisa ion and pa icipa ion.
The educa ion and aining sys em suppo s hese lea ning p ocesses,
WHERE
DO WE STAND?
bu also aims o impa he ac ual compe ences and skills ha a e in
demand in he labou ma ke . Quali ica ions and he associa ed ce i -
ica es documen p og ess in lea ning and pe o m a signalling unc-
ion when acancies a e being illed.
In 2016, o he i s ime, he e we e mo e young people in he
dual oca ional aining sys em ha held he uppe seconda y school
ce i ica e (Abi u ) han hose wi h he lowe seconda y school lea -
ing ce i ica e (Haup schulabschluss). A he same ime, many young
people lea e school wi hou any quali ica ions a all. In 2014, his was
ue o 47,000 youngs e s (ca I as 2016 ) , which equa es o a sha e o
almos 6 pe cen . The sha e is e en highe when i comes o oca ion-
al quali ica ions. A o al o 1.2 million young people aged be ween 20
and 29 ha e no oca ional quali ica ion – almos 13 pe cen o his
age g oup (bIbb 2016; IW kÖln 2014 ) .
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IS UNFAIR. Fo all he c edi ha is due o
he educa ion sys em o i s achie emen s, i has been c i icised epea -
edly o i s selec i eness. In ea ly-yea s lea ning and in schools, social
inequali ies a e ep oduced and some imes e en exace ba ed because
child en om educa ionally disad an aged o immig an backg ounds
a e no adequa ely suppo ed o expe ience s igma isa ion.1
EVEN THE DUAL SYSTEM IS SELECTIVE. The dual oca ional aining
sys em s eng hens companies’ inno a i e capaci ies and o ges close
links be ween he educa ion and aining sys em and he labou ma -
ke , ensu ing a success ul ansi ion om aining in o he labou
ma ke . Fo his eason i is alued in e na ionally as an ins umen
o p e en ing you h unemploymen . Howe e ,
he e a e p oblems as well. I is ue ha he e a e
no o mal ba ie s o en y in o he dual sys em,
bu access o young people wi hou a school ce -
i ica e o wi h only a lowe seconda y school ce -
i ica e is di icul . In he na ional app en iceship
exchange o ganised by he Chambe s o Indus y
and Comme ce, wo ou o h ee aining o e s a e closed o young
people wi h lowe seconda y school ce i ica es. The so-called ‘ ansi-
ion sys em’, in which a ound 270,000 young people ound hem-
sel es in 2016, is also p oblema ic. This ansi ion sys em o e s ini ial
aining o young people who ail o en e egula aining immedi-
a ely a e lea ing school. Howe e , no oca ional quali ica ions can
1 On a e age, child en om
socially disad an aged backg ounds
in Ge many ha e a lowe skill le el
han child en om mo e a ou ed
backg ounds (oecd 2016c ).
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
81
be ob ained and he e is a isk o i becoming a long- e m ‘pa king
acili y’ o young people wi hou a aining posi ion (bMbF 2016 ) .
A no iceably la ge numbe o he aining p og ammes in he
heal h and social se ices sec o , which a e chosen pa icula ly by
women, ha e o be unded p i a ely. Mo eo e , pa icipan s in hese
p og ammes ha e he s a us o ‘pupil’, which s ands in sha p con as
o ha o ‘ ainee’ in he dual sys em.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM AS A WHOLE IS UNDERFUNDED. In gene al
e ms, expendi u e on educa ion in Ge many is below a e age. I
amoun s o only 4.2 pe cen o GDP; he a e age o OECD coun ies
is 4.8 pe cen . In es men in e ia y educa ion (which in he OECD
s a is ics also includes u he and con inuing educa ion) is pa icu-
la ly low in Ge many (oecd 2016a ) . This is in s a k con as o he
esolu ions adop ed a he 2008 D esden educa ion summi . On ha
occasion, he ede al go e nmen and he s a es (Lände ) had ag eed
o aise expendi u e on educa ion and esea ch o a leas 10 pe cen
o GDP by 2015 – 7 pe cen o educa ion and 3 pe cen o esea ch.
CONTINUING TRAINING IS NECESSARY BUT ALSO UNDERFUNDED. I
is now almos a pla i ude ha people should con inue o ecei e ain-
ing h oughou hei wo king li es. The impe us o his emana es
om he labou ma ke , whe e he e is a s ong demand o wo ke s
whose compe ences a e in s ep wi h he imes. Besides indi idual
con inuing aining, e. g. in o de o make up o a lack o quali ica-
ions o o enhance p omo ion p ospec s, employe -p o ided con inu-
ing aining is o pa icula signi icance. While indi idual con inuing
aining mos ly akes place on wo ke s’ own ime and is sel - unded,
employe -p o ided con inuing aining (paid o by he company
and on company ime) is aining om which he company i sel
bene i s mo e di ec ly. An analysis o ini ial and con inuing oca ion-
al aining in Ge many ( oggenkaMP 2016 ) shows ha con inuing
aining is p edominan ly p i a ely unded.
TREND REVERSAL IN EMPLOYER-PROVIDED CONTINUING TRAINING?
While public expendi u e on con inuing aining has allen, compa-
ny in es men has begun o ise again a e se e al yea s o s agna ion.
In 2014, 37 pe cen o he popula ion 25 o 64 yea s old ook pa in
employe -p o ided con inuing aining, al hough his igu e also in-
cludes ‘mino ’ aining e en s, sho adap a ion cou ses and he s a -
u o y heal h and sa e y p og ammes (au o eng uPPe bIldungs-
82 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!

be IcH e s a ung 2016 ) . The a e age numbe o hou s’ con inuing
aining unde aken is 36 (26 hou s o employe -p o ided and 75hou s
o indi idual occupa ional aining measu es) (bMbF 2015 ) , which is
a emo ed om mos p og ammes leading o a o mal quali ica-
ion, so ha his employe -p o ided aining o e s li le assis ance o
hose seeking o ad ance hei ca ee s.
BARRIERS TO EMPLOYER-PROVIDED CONTINUING TRAINING. Con-
inuing aining has so a aken place mainly whe e i is al eady an
in eg al pa o he ele an job p o iles. Ta ge ed ‘nudging’ o ake
pa in con inuing aining is usually seen whe e he company also
has a conc e e aining need. The mos impo an eason companies
gi e o hei eluc ance o suppo con inuing aining, in addi ion
o he inancial aspec s, is ha s a ing le els a e oo igh . Cos s a e in-
cu ed, hey a gue, om which no immedia e bene i is de i ed; such
aining is simply no cos -e ec i e, pa icula ly when s a u no e
is high (bI koM esea cH 2016 ) . The e is a high e u n on con inu-
ing aining o employees and employe s in hose companies ha
a e pu suing a s a egic plan and whe e he e is egula dialogue be-
ween human esou ce depa men s and wo ks councils.
WHAT IS THE RIGHT KIND OF CONTINUING TRAINING? The si ua ion
in he con inuing aining ma ke is p o ing o be a cons ain as
well. The e is equen ly a lack o s anda ds and sys ema ic egula-
ions – and in iew o he ising demand, p o ision in many a eas will
be inadequa e o come wi h sha ply ising p ices. A lack o anspa -
ency, inadequa e ad ice and a lack o cla i y ega ding unding all
impede access o aining, pa icula ly o people on low incomes and
wi hou a oca ional aining quali ica ion.
The e a e also o ganisa ional obs acles o con inuing aining. In-
di iduals who a e hea ily in ol ed in hei jobs o en ha e no ime
du ing hei wo king hou s and ha e o schedule hei aining du -
ing hei ime o . Anyone doing ca e wo k on a pe manen basis has
e y li le leeway in hei ee ime. Consequen ly, lea e o absence is
an impo an p econdi ion o inc easing he le el o aining ac i i y.
REPRODUCTION OF INEQUALITY? Acco ding o he Ins i u e o Em-
ploymen Resea ch (IBA), he mo e highly quali ied a pe son is, he
mo e likely hey a e o ake ad an age o aining oppo uni ies.
Women and people wi h a mig an backg ound a e much less likely
o pa icipa e in con inuing aining, pa icula ly in employed-p o-
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
83
ided con inuing aining, because hey a e equen ly employed in
low-skill, pa - ime o p eca ious jobs. So a , he ins umen s used o
p omo e employe -p o ided con inuing aining ha e had no impac
a all on his social imbalance. In he highe segmen o he educa ion
and aining sys em, unding a angemen s as p o ided unde he
e ms o he Ge man Fede al T aining Assis ance Ac (BA öG) a e
a ailable o hose who a e al eady well quali ied and a e unde aking
indi idual u he oca ional aining, such as s udying o he mas e
c a sman’s diploma o a uni e si y deg ee. Many poo ly quali ied
wo ke s, on he o he hand, a e dependen on he con inuing ain-
ing schemes wi hin he Ha z IV sys em. I is ue ha he unemployed
a e o e ed u he aining; howe e , he incen i es o accep such
o e s a e weak, since he measu es p o ided a e sca cely any imp o e-
men o e he a ailable wel a e bene i s. Unde he e ms o he Ac
on he S eng hening o Con inuing T aining, aining has ecen ly
been gi en p io i y o e job placemen o ecipien s o unemploy-
men bene i s. Ne e heless, job cen es equen ly lack he money o
und he demand o u he aining (dIe z/osIande 2014 ) .
The e is inc easing suppo among esea che s on educa ion and
aining o mo e incen i es o e en obliga ions o in es in and p o ide
con inuing aining. Legal schola s (e. g. kocHe /Wel I 2013 ) ecom-
mend ha he e should be a legal en i lemen o con inuing aining
and ha e e ybody should ha e a egula in e iew
o discuss hei op ions o con inuing aining.2
2 In he d a o he ‘Wo k 4.0’
whi e pape published by he Fede al
Minis y o Employmen and
Social A ai s (bMas 2016 ), such
a legal en i lemen is al eady
a decla ed objec i e.
84 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
In a dynamic and globally ne wo ked economy, employmen p ojec-
ions a e a icky business – and o be ea ed wi h cau ion. Howe e ,
i seems likely ha , e en as digi alisa ion p og esses, indi iduals wi h
a oca ional quali ica ion will s ill be able o ely on demand o hei
labou . Howe e , i is equally likely ha demand o people wi hou
such quali ica ions o who al eady oday a e employed in so-called
‘simple’ jobs will decline. I is es ima ed ha , by 2025, he e will be 1.3
million mo e people seeking such jobs han he e a e jobs o be had.
Acco ding o o ecas s, ‘simple’ jobs will emain only whe e au oma-
ion does no pay o o whe e consume s demand o ha e a human
being as hei con ac .
I is also expec ed ha in ce ain occupa ions digi alisa ion will
lead o a de alua ion o skills as wo k becomes inc easingly de ached
om he no ion o he occupa ion (and he assignmen o hose jobs
o he ele an collec i e ba gaining ag eemen will begin o al e ).
On he o he hand, digi alisa ion may also lead o upg ading ce ain
asks wi hin a gi en occupa ion, which would hen need o be e lec -
ed in he ele an collec i e ag eemen s. Whe he o e ain he occu-
pa ion p inciple as a e e ence amewo k o whe he o de elop i
u he in he ligh o new ypes o wo k is a ques ion ha s ill has o
be add essed.
VOCATIONAL TRAINING UNDER PRESSURE TO CHANGE. The s a e, busi-
ness associa ions and ade unions play a ole in planning he es uc-
u ing o aining occupa ions in acco dance wi h he equi emen s
o he wo ld o wo k. Many aining egula ions a e no gea ed o-
wa ds a speci ic echnology, so ha new echnologies can be success-
ully inco po a ed in o he p ac ical aining p o ided by companies.
Fu he mo e, aining p og ammes a e designed o be p ocess and
compe ence-o ien ed. Howe e , o ms o in e disciplina y collabo a-
ion and agile wo king (e. g. design hinking me hods, sys ems enginee -
WHAT SHOULD WE
BE PREPARING FOR?
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
85
ing) ha e o be inco po a ed in o he ea ly phases o he aining so
ha ne wo ked wo king in complex con ex s can be expe ienced.
The sha e o women in he so-called STEM oc-
cupa ions3, which a e ega ded as u u e-p oo and
ela i ely well paid, is s ill oo low. Mo eo e , hei
o -men ioned ‘ aining lead’ equen ly dissipa es
o e he cou se o hei li es because hey ha e
li le access o con inuing aining and upskilling
oppo uni ies once hey go in o pa - ime wo k. I
is p ecisely in hose occupa ional p o iles ha ha e no u he de el-
opmen pa hways buil in ha he p o ision o ad anced aining
p og ammes o p o essional de elopmen and he acquisi ion o ad-
di ional quali ica ions is o pa icula impo ance.
The ques ion o a g owing sho age o skilled wo ke s and un illed
acancies is widely deba ed in Ge many (zIka/MaIe 2015; MaIe
e al. 2016 ). The con ibu o y ac o s a e demog aphic change and he
expansion o uni e si y educa ion on he one hand, and he la ge
numbe o young people who do no manage o make he leap om
school in o aining on he o he . Thus companies seeking o ec ui
new blood ind hemsel es aced wi h he challenge o once again
gi ing g ea e conside a ion o youngs e s wi h jus lowe seconda y
school quali ica ions. The Fede al Employmen Agency has p o ided
some impo an suppo by expanding he ange o aining suppo
measu es o he dual sys em and by in oducing he assis ed aining
scheme.
CHANGE IS BECOMING THE NORM. When occupa ions disappea o
change, employees a e o ced o eskill o e ain. Cu en p og amm es
p omo ing con inuing aining will ha e o be edesigned o his
pu pose. The way mus be smoo hed in o de o keep ic ion cos s
low and o gi e pa icula suppo o indi idual ini ia i e.
E e yone is alking abou a ‘ aining o ensi e’, bu i is also neces-
sa y o cla i y whe he , i s ly, he pe sonnel equi ed o his a e a ail-
able and, secondly, whe he hey a e hemsel es ‘digi ally quali ied’ o
a su icien le el. The e is al eady a sho age o oca ional aining
school eache s and wo k loads in he schools ha e al eady eached
he limi . Thus he ec ui men and con inuing aining o eaching
s a will play a key ole in shaping digi al change.
3 s eM is he umb ella e m
o occupa ions in ol ing science,
echnology, enginee ing and
ma hema ics. The sha e o women
in he ield is, a 15 pe cen , s ill
below a e age (ba 2016b ).
86 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
FOOD FOR THOUGHT COMPETENCE
MONITORING FOR GERMANY
The Commission suppo s he plan o in oduce compe ence moni-
o ing and o ins i u ionalise i . The aim o such moni o ing could be
o iden i y, on he basis o an ex ended de ini ion o compe ence, he
key compe ences ha a e impo an o he wo k o he u u e and
o he compe i i eness o Ge man companies. One should ocus i s
on hose compe ences ha a e g owing in impo ance because o new
echnologies. The impe us o his could be p o ided by a p ojec
unded by he Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch ha is
cu en ly in i s pilo phase. The p ojec is de eloping p ocedu es o
iden i ying and measu ing he compe ences equi ed along he alue
chain ( om basic esea ch o ma ke ing and social accep ance).
This moni o ing should be ca ied ou on a pe manen basis and
could use ully be supplemen ed by he moni o ing o skilled pe son-
nel ha is planned by he ede al go e nmen .
The Commission is well awa e ha such moni o ing is a complex
unde aking and di icul o pu in o p ac ice. Howe e , such an in-
s umen is indispensable in o de o sa egua d oppo uni ies o pa -
icipa e in he wo ld o wo k. Jus as companies obse e hei ma ke s,
so employees – like he educa ion sys em and he social pa ne s–
mus ha e oppo uni ies o p epa e hemsel es in good ime o new
demands.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
93

SUPPORT FROM
THE VERY BEGINNING
The e is sca cely a o um on digi al change ha ails o men ion sup-
po in ea ly childhood. P ima y-school child en a e al eady being
gi en oppo uni ies o amilia ise hemsel es wi h and make use o
new echnologies. The e a e e en a ious ini ia i es o day-ca e cen-
es. T uly in eg a ed app oaches should aim o gi e child en, ega d-
less o hei social backg ound, an oppo uni y o unc ion au ono-
mously in a complex, digi ally ne wo ked wo ld.
The age a which child en migh easonably be expec ed o bene i
om a gi en new echnology is e y much an objec o c i ical deba e
among educa ionis s. I is widely ag eed ha cu iosi y, ac i i y, in e -
ac i e engagemen and a good emo ional clima e a e undamen al
p econdi ions o e ec i e lea ning p ocesses. They also p omo e p e-
cisely hose skills ha a e impo an now and will con inue o be so
in he u u e. Ea ly-yea s educa ion is no panacea o he p e en ion
o social inequali y, bu when combined wi h o he educa ional in-
s umen s and social p o ec ion o he amily i can help o gi e chil-
d en a solid s a in li e (nauMann 2014 ) .
FOOD FOR THOUGHT QUALITY
STANDARDS FOR EARLY-YEARS EDUCATION
Ea ly-yea s ca e and educa ion es ablishmen s make a signi ican con-
ibu ion o an inclusi e socie y. Independen ac i i y, eedom o be
c ea i e, space o sel -de elopmen and ime o ela ionships should
he e o e o m pa o all app oaches o eaching and lea ning. Fo
such app oaches o be implemen ed, adequa e le els o bo h eaching
s a and equipmen a e essen ial.
Conside able e o s ha e been made in ecen yea s o expand
childca e and all-day schools. Howe e , he e is s ill a lo o ca ching
up o do in wes e n Ge many. In he eas e n pa o he coun y, he
p o ision o childca e and all-day schools has adi ionally been
much be e . In he communis sys em, hey we e i al o allowing
bo h pa en s o wo k ull ime, as was expec ed in Eas Ge many.
Besides he quan i a i e expansion, he quali y o p o ision mus
also be a pa icula ocus, pa icula ly in ea ly-yea s educa ion. Na-
ional s anda ds se ing ou he gene al equi emen s o ea ly-yea s
educa ion a e equi ed. These mus include s a ing a ios, g oup size,
he ini ial and con inuing aining o eaching s a and ime o
p epa a ion and ollow-up. These s anda ds mus be applied ega d-
less o who he p o ide is and could be ensh ined in an ‘Ac on Rais-
ing he Quali y o Day Ca e and Ea ly-Yea s Educa ion Es ablishmen s’.
P oposals o app oaches o eaching and lea ning ha seek o
coun e ac he a ious o ms o disad an age can be ound in, o ex-
ample, he ‘Index o Inclusion’ (boo H e al. 2006 ) . Child en and
young people should ake pa in cul u al and social ac i i ies in hei
local educa ional ins i u ions. The basic philosophy is o acknowl-
edge di e si y and o ac espec ully owa ds o he s. The di e ences
be ween child en should be alued as an oppo uni y o sha ed play-
ing and lea ning a he han as a p oblem. In gene al, all ba ie s ha
impede child en’s access and ca ego ise hem as ‘special cases’ should
be b oken down. Child en should lea n oge he and om each o he .
Many people, om employees o he sel -employed o pe sonnel
manage s and managing di ec o s, eel hemsel es o e bu dened by
he complexi y and speed o change. This in u n gene a es ea o loss
and ailu e, leading o a lack o sel -e icacy belie .
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
95
FOOD FOR THOUGHT
STRENGTHENING MINDFULNESS
Technical skills and amilia i y wi h digi al echnologies will no be
su icien o enable indi iduals o deal wi h he inc easing complexi y
and he accele a ing pace o change. And because o dwindling na u-
al esou ces and g owing en i onmen al p oblems, u u e gene a-
ions will also ha e o g apple mo e in ensi ely wi h he ques ion o
sus ainabili y. G ea e a en i eness owa ds onesel and o he s seems
o be equi ed.
One sou ce o inspi a ion o his is he ReSou ce P ojec ca ied
ou by he Max Planck Ins i u e o Human Cogni i e and B ain
Sciences in Leipzig. I showed ha mind ulness aining no only aids
e ec i e s ess educ ion and p omo es indi idual esilience bu also
enhances emo ional in elligence. I is ha dly su p ising ha companies
a e now seizing on such indings, since inc eased employee adap abil-
i y and pe o mance and a educ ion in down ime may be p ecisely
he ou come ha is desi ed.
The educa ion sys em also has a con ibu ion o make. I mus ind
ways in which child en can expe ience sel -e icacy and con idence
and can also be ained in empa hy and in ui ion, sel -awa eness and
cou age, ene gy and sensi i i y.
In discussions o he demands made o he educa ion sys em, eache s
a e o en c i icised o a lack o ini ia i e and ap i ude. Such c i i-
cisms igno e he ac ha good eaching equi es ce ain condi ions
o be ul illed.
FOOD FOR THOUGHT IMPROVE WORKING
CONDITIONS IN THE EDUCATION SECTOR
Wo king condi ions in he educa ion sys em a e he key o he success
o educa ion e o ms. I is he e o e essen ial ha hey be imp o ed.
The esou ces equi ed o mee he high demands placed on edu-
ca ional es ablishmen s should be made a ailable. Adequa e s a ing
le els a e he bes p o ec ion o eache s who ake hei jobs se iously
agains becoming wo n-ou and exhaus ed. In he con inuing ain-
ing sec o in pa icula , he e is a high le el o ixed- e m employ-
men and many jobs a e linked o p ojec s. The s uc u al des abilisa-
ion o ca ee ajec o ies in his a ea has b ough an elemen o
p eca i y in o he educa ion sec o and is unde mining e o s o e-
c ui su icien pe sonnel in his expanding ield.
LIFELONG LEARNING
IS BECOMING THE NORM
Schools, including ea ly-yea s p o ision, lay he ounda ions o
people’s wo king li es. This begins wi h he ques ion o which op-
ions a e opened up o closed by di e en educa ional pa hways.
Sca cely one in e e y wo youngs e s lea ing lowe seconda y school
goes di ec ly om school in o aining. In he na ional app en ice-
ship exchange o ganised by he Chambe s o Indus y and Com-
me ce, wo ou o h ee aining o e s a e om he ou se closed o
young people who hold only lowe seconda y school ce i ica es. A
o al o 270,000 young people a e in one o some 350 p og ammes
p o ided by he ede al go e nmen o he Lände as pa o he ‘ an-
si ion sys em’. (au o eng uPPe bIldungsbe IcH e s a ung 2016 ) .
Mo e han 120,000 young people in each yea g oup ail o ob ain a
aining place (bIbb 2016 ) ; mos o hem a e a isk o long- e m un-
employmen o p eca ious employmen . Resen men and con lic a e
he possible consequences o hese missed oppo uni ies o en e he
aining sys em.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
97
Consequen ly he aim o o e ing young people access o oca ional
aining is and will emain a p io i y. Ac ion is u gen ly needed, pa -
icula ly in egions wi h especially p oblema ic aining ma ke s.
Manda o y quali y assu ance and quali y de elopmen sys ems can also
help o ensu e ha he aining is success ully comple ed.
The decision o o agains oca ional aining is a e y pe sonal
one. I depends on a young pe son’s indi idual in e es s, he aining
condi ions and he ca ee and de elopmen p ospec s. In o he wo ds,
companies hemsel es ha e i in hei powe o keep he dual aining
sys em a ac i e. The igu es show ha hey a e la gely succeeding in
his: o he i s ime, he sha e o ainees in he dual sys em wi h
highe seconda y quali ica ions (28 pe cen ) is g ea e han ha o
ainees wi h jus lowe seconda y quali ica ions (27 pe cen ) (bMbF
2017 ) . This is signi ican because highe seconda y quali ica ions a e
he p e equisi e o a ending uni e si y. T adi ionally, hey we e no
seen as a pa hway o he dual sys em, bu as mo e and mo e pupils a e
ob aining hem, his has begun o change. In some egions, pupils wi h
lowe seconda y quali ica ions eel c owded ou o he dual sys em.
The Ge man dual sys em inds i sel in a pa adoxical si ua ion. In-
e es in i is g owing in e na ionally, because he sys em c ea es a
link be ween he aining sys em and he labou ma ke and in his
way o e s many young people a be e ansi ion in o he wo ld o
wo k. A he same ime, howe e , i is unde p essu e a home, be-
cause he numbe o companies p o iding aining is a an all- ime
low. Since 2009, almos 50,000 companies ha e s opped p o iding
aining places. Only 20 pe cen o all companies now p o ide ain-
ing; in 2007, i was a ound 24 pe cen . Small and e y small en e -
p ises wi h up o nine employees in pa icula a e wi hd awing om
he oca ional aining sys em. A he same ime, he numbe o un-
illed aining places is ising. In 2016 alone, businesses we e unable o
ill a ound 43,500 aining places (bMbF 2017 ) .

FOOD FOR THOUGHT STRENGTHENING
THE DUAL VOCATIONAL TRAINING SYSTEM
The dual oca ional aining sys em s eng hens companies’ powe o
inno a e. The aining p o ided in he dual sys em, gea ed as i is o
companies’ needs, p oduces high-quali y oca ional quali ica ions
and skills, which in u n esul s in high a es o ansi ion in o he
labou ma ke and p e en s high you h unemploymen . Acco ding o
igu es om he Fede al S a is ical O ice, almos hal o each yea
g oup passes h ough he dual aining sys em. In his way, young
people in Ge many a e in eg a ed in o he wo ld o wo k mo e suc-
cess ully han in i ually any o he coun y in Eu ope. Again and
again, a ge s o he expansion o academic educa ion in Ge many
a e being pu o wa d. Those doing so, howe e , a e igno ing he e i-
ciency o he dual sys em and he ac ha many p o essions ha
would equi e a uni e si y educa ion elsewhe e (e. g. nu sing, ea ly-
yea s educa ion) only call o non-academic aining in Ge many.
In o de o make he sys em i o he u u e, he ollowing meas-
u es a e ecommended:
Occupa ional p o iles and aining egula ions should be e iewed
a egula in e als and amended in line wi h changing equi emen s.
The p ocedu es and bodies o he e alua ion o aining egula ions
and s anda d cu icula, in which he social pa ne s a e also in ol ed,
p o ide he basis o his. I appea s necessa y o ex end hese egula-
ions, which a e based on he Voca ional T aining Ac and he T ade
and C a s Code (Handwe kso dnung), o he deg ee p og ammes
combining academic s udies and on- he-job expe ience and o he
echnical schools, which ha e hi he o been egula ed by legisla ion
a he Lände le el.
Voca ional aining should be made mo e pe meable. E en young
people wi h poo educa ional quali ica ions should ha e oppo uni-
ies o access oca ional aining and ob ain a oca ional quali ica-
ion, e. g. h ough he expansion o ‘assis ed aining’. Connec i i y
wi h u he oca ional aining and academic educa ion should be
gua an eed in bo h he company-based and school-based pa o he
aining (e. g. by making addi ional p o ision o ainees).
T aining oppo uni ies o adul s should be expanded and ain-
ing p og ammes adap ed o he needs o adul s who a e emba king
on ini ial aining o comple ing a new aining p og amme.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
99
Ideally, con inuing aining should be included in he design o oc-
cupa ions. In many occupa ions in he dual sys em, con inuing ain-
ing is al eady in place, e. g. in he o m o ad anced o upg ading
aining. E en in many g adua e occupa ions, specialis con inuing
aining is a p e equisi e o main aining egis a ion. Howe e ,
con inuing aining is a om being sys ema ically inco po a ed
in o all occupa ional p o iles. The e is also a lo o ca ching-up o do
a company le el. He e, lea ning sys ems in eg a ed in o wo k s a ions
a e equi ed, oge he wi h a wo king en i onmen ha p omo es lea n-
ing and con inuing aining p o ision ha do e ails wi h employee
de elopmen p og ammes.
POINT OF CONTROVERSY LEGAL
ENTITLEMENT TO FUNDED PART-TIME TRAINING
LEAVE FOR ALL?
The Commission igo ously deba ed he in oduc ion o a legal en i le-
men o all o s a e- unded pa - ime aining lea e (e. g. along he
lines o he Aus ian sys em). Fo some, he in oduc ion o such a
igh seemed o e due, while o he s ques ioned he app op ia eness o
a uni e sal en i lemen . While i was ue ha such a igh would
p esumably igge a g ea deal o e y welcome con inuing aining
ac i i y, a he same ime an ins umen o his kind migh well be
seized on by hose who s a ed hei wo king li es wi h high le els
o educa ional capi al, which would simply ein o ce educa ional in-
equali ies. Financial suppo should a he be a ge ed a hose wi h
low le els o o mal educa ion, o example by imp o ing p o -
g ammes aimed a unskilled wo ke s. The Commission did no each
ag eemen on his issue, bu did s ess he need o discuss indi idual
en i lemen s o con inuing aining as a ma e o u gency.
POINT OF CONTROVERSY
STRENGTHEN THE ROLE OF CODETERMINATION
IN CONTINUING TRAINING?
The Commission also deba ed he ole o code e mina ion in ini ial
aining, e aining and con inuing aining. Employe -p o ided
con inuing aining is acknowledged by all he ac o s in employ-
men policy as he key ac o in s uc u al change; howe e , as al-
eady no ed abo e, ac ual p o ision is selec i e and inadequa e. This
aises he ques ion o whe he wo ks councils ha e su icien ins u-
men s o push h ough he aining equi ed o s uc u al change.
The Wo ks Cons i u ion Ac con e s igh s o code e mina ion in
ini ial and con inuing aining in h ee a eas: job p o ec ion, oca-
ional aining and human esou ces planning. As a as job p o ec-
ion is conce ned, he e is a igh o pu o wa d p oposals and o be
consul ed bu no igh o ini ia i e. I he employe ejec s he wo ks
council’s p oposals, he e is no u he ecou se. Howe e , since e-
aining p og ammes a e oo impo an o decisions o be le up o
one side only, conside a ion should be gi en o inco po a ing genu-
ine code e mina ion in o he Wo ks Cons i u ion Ac .
Code e mina ion igh s ha e also been limi ed in he a eas o
oca ional aining and he implemen a ion o aining measu es.
Acco ding o he Wo ks Cons i u ion Ac , he wo ks council’s igh
o ini ia i e is es ic ed o ini ial and con inuing aining ac i i ies
ha a e al eady unde way. In o de o wo ks councils o be able o
play an ac i e ole in planning o change, a deba e is necessa y on
ex ending hei igh s o include u u e measu es as well.
The esponsibili ies o ini ial and con inuing aining ou lined abo e
can o e bu den many companies, pa icula ly small and medium-
sized en e p ises. The Fede al Employmen Agency p o ides a consul-
ancy se ice, bu i emains di icul o companies o assess wha o
ain employees o . Fo companies o ake ad an age o he ull ange
o pedagogical expe ise, new o ms o collabo a ion a e equi ed.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
GERMANY, THE TALENT FACTORY
101
FOOD FOR THOUGHT MORE INTER-FIRM
COOPERATION ON CONTINUING TRAINING
The Fede al Minis y o Employmen and Social A ai s’ p og amme
‘P o ec ing skilled wo ke s: p omo ing con inuing aining and
equali y’, inanced by he Eu opean Social Fund, p o ides suppo o
he social pa ne s o inc ease employees’ pa icipa ion in con inuing
aining. Suppo is p o ided o , among o he hings, he es ablish-
men o in e connec ed con inuing aining acili ies in small and medium-
sized en e p ises and he implemen a ion o i m-based and in e - i m
con inuing aining measu es.
The Commission u ges companies o ake ad an age o his ini ia-
i e and es ablish mo e aining ne wo ks in o de o add ess he
changing aining equi emen s on a coope a i e basis. This would
be especially ad an ageous in sec o s domina ed by medium-sized
and, in pa icula , small companies.
One example o his is o be ound in he cons uc ion indus y. A
he hea o he model de eloped by he Ge man Cons uc ion, Ag i-
cul u e and En i onmen Union (IG BAU) and he employe s’ asso-
cia ions a e sec o al aining le ies, which ha e o be paid by compa-
nies on he basis o collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s ha ha e been
decla ed binding o he indus y. The monies a e adminis e ed by
sec o al social secu i y o supplemen a y bene i s unds ( un join ly
by hose pa y o he collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s) and a e used
mainly o unding in e - i m aining cen es. These cen es supple-
men he wo k o he oca ional aining schools by aking esponsi-
bili y o pa s o he p ac ical aining. These in e - i m aining cen-
es a e o en subjec o minimum quali y equi emen s, which also
include egula ions on he (digi al) equipmen o be p o ided and
con inuing aining p o ision o aine s. In some pa s o he con-
s uc ion indus y, le ies a e used o und no only ini ial aining bu
also ad anced and con inuing aining p og ammes. As a as ad anced
aining is conce ned, he social secu i y und pays all cos s incu ed
(including eimbu semen o wage cos s) when a ending a aining
cou se, hus o e ing a inancial incen i e o do so. To he Commis-
sion, such o ms o in e - i m coope a ion in ini ial and con inuing
aining seem o be an app op ia e esponse o cu en needs and
could be applied o o he sec o s.
CAPITALIZE ON
THE POSSIBILITIES,
CHANGE
THE PRIORITIES

The e is sca cely a opic ha is deba ed as in ensely as wo king ime. I
is no only be ween employe s and ade unions ha he a gumen s
age, bu also be ween employees in he wo kplace, in wo k eams
and e en in amilies and be ween couples. Who spends how much
ime, when and o wha pu pose (and wi h wha deg ee o ime so -
e eign y) will de e mine income oppo uni ies, he chances o sel -
ealisa ion and employmen biog aphies.
This makes he ime ques ion an issue ha a ec s people’s en i e li es–
and a key issue in collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s, ag eemen s on
he company-le el and wo k o ganisa ion.
Dispu es a ound wo king ime a e as old as wo k i sel . The key
poin a s ake is who has he igh o con ol and wha issues a e
linked o wo king ime. Fo employees, hese a e income, eco e y
ime and oppo uni ies o con inuing aining and p omo ion; o
employe s, hey a e he leeway hey ha e o lexible s a deploymen
and labou cos s.
THE STATUS QUO IS MURKY. Fo many yea s, he ‘male amily b ead-
winne cum housewi e’ model o he amily was dominan in Ge ma-
ny. Today, he ull- ime / pa - ime model p edomina es among wo k-
ing couples, wi h women educing hei wo king imes when hey
s a a amily. A he same ime, wo king- ime p e e ences and eali ies
a e e y di e se: he e is a mo ely collec ion o models o achie ing
some deg ee o wo k/li e balance, women a e mo e gene ally ac i e
in he labou ma ke and emale amily b eadwinne s a e pa o he
new eali y.
People’s p e e ences o s uc u ing hei wo king ime a e e y
di e se. Many young wo ke s who enjoy hei wo k, do no eel o e -
bu dened, ha e a good posi ion in he labou ma ke and as ye no
ca e esponsibili ies a e indi e en o he o mal es ic ion o wo k-
ing ime. They ega d any sepa a ion o e en a s ic di ision be ween
WHERE
DO WE STAND?
wo k and leisu e ime as ou da ed. They wan o wo k in a way ha
sui s hei own needs and ideas abou wo k. In con as , he e a e
hose who wan no hing mo e han o es ic wo king ime. The
easons o his a y conside ably. They ange om unsa is ying wo k
o ca e esponsibili ies, in e es s ou side wo k and o e wo k. I is his
di e si y o needs ha makes he s uc u ing o wo king ime a He -
culean ask.
Social inequali y is e lec ed in he olume o wo king ime. A -
gumen s a ound wo king ime o en ocus on i s dis ibu ion. Com-
panies p e e g ea e o smalle numbe s o hou s o ce ain g oups
o wo ke s. Such lexibili y in s a deploymen no always i s wi h
people’s needs. Low-skill wo ke s o en wan o wo k longe hou s
because hey a e dependen on a ce ain numbe o hou s pe week in
o de o ensu e hei li elihoods ( INCOME), while mo e highly
skilled wo ke s o en wan o wo k less in o de o p ese e hei
heal h o because hey ha e ca e esponsibili ies.
A e age weekly wo king ime in Ge many is 41.4 hou s, which
pu s Ge many in 12 h posi ion among he 28 EU
membe s a es.1 Acco ding o igu es om he
Fede al Ins i u e o Occupa ional Sa e y and
Heal h, ull- ime dependen employees in Ge ma-
ny wo k 43.5 hou s pe week on a e age, which is
ac ually almos i e hou s pe week mo e han he
a e age wo king ime as spelled ou in employ-
men con ac s (baua 2016). Wha is s iking is
he misma ch be ween ime p e e ences and wo king
imes. Acco ding o Socio-Economic Panel2 da a,
39 pe cen o emale and 46 pe cen o male pa -
ime s would like o inc ease hei wo king imes
o pa - ime a angemen wi h longe hou s. A
he same ime, 43 pe cen o emale and 31 pe
cen o male ull- ime employees say ha hey
wo k mo e han hey wan o and han is con ac-
ually ag eed.3 On a e age, wo ke s in Ge many
ha e he highes olume o o e ime in he eu o-
zone. Six een pe cen o hose who wo k o e -
ime pu in mo e han en ex a hou s pe week.
1 I ce ain s a is ics
show sho e wo king
imes han hese da a
om eu os a (2016),
i is because hey include
pa - ime wo ke s. This
quickly gi es ise o
he alse conclusion ha
Ge many is he leisu e
ime wo ld champion.
2 A longi udinal su ey
(panel s udy) o Ge man
households.
3 This disc epancy is
con i med by all s udies
o wo king ime, albei
o a ying deg ees.
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
111
THE VOLUME OF WORK STAYS CONSTANT BUT IS DISTRIBUTED AMONG
MORE PEOPLE. Mo e and mo e people a e ac i e in he labou ma -
ke . The numbe o s anda d employmen ela ionships has also isen
again ecen ly. Howe e , acco ding o he IAB ( he Ins i u e o
Employmen Resea ch, a special o ice o he Fede al Employmen
Agency) he olume o wo k ( ull- ime plus pa - ime jobs including
side jobs) has emained cons an a 50.3 billion hou s pe yea . These
wo s a emen s a e no mu ually con adic o y because he pa - ime
a e in Ge many has isen sha ply since he ea ly 1990s. The inc ease
in he emale pa - ime a e, a 17 pe cen age poin s, signi ican ly ou -
s ips ha in he male pa - ime a e, which is eigh pe cen age poin s.
In 2014, 58 pe cen o economically ac i e women we e wo king e-
duced hou s, compa ed wi h only 21 pe cen o men (Wange 2015;
Hoble e al. 2016 ) . The numbe o wo ke s in ma ginal pa - ime
jobs (so-called ‘mini-jobs’) has also isen ( PARTICIPATING IN THE
WORLD OF WORK). As a esul , he e is a la ge g oup o wo ke s whose
jobs do no p o ide hem wi h an independen li elihood bu a e de-
penden on suppo om o he household membe s o income om
o he sou ces (p i a e asse s, amily suppo , social secu i y bene i s).
WOMEN ARE INTEGRATED ON A PART-TIME BASIS. The ex emely un-
equal di ision o wo king ime be ween he sexes is ega ded as ‘cha -
ac e is ically Ge man’. Men do app oxima ely en hou s’ mo e paid
wo k pe week han women; con e sely, women de o e abou en
hou s mo e pe week o domes ic and amily wo k. Howe e , his
dis ibu ion is no en i ely a e lec ion o indi idual p e e ences. Al-
mos one i h o emale employees would like o do a leas i e mo e
hou s’ paid wo k, whe he o inancial easons, because hey a e con-
ce ned abou being disad an aged in ca ee ad ancemen o simply
because hey ha e a p onounced inclina ion owa ds paid wo k
(seIFe e al. 2016 ) . Pa - ime wo k o en goes hand in hand wi h
low hou ly pay ( INCOME), ew chances o p omo ion and inade-
qua e p o ision o old age.
In o de o a oid hese aps o pa - ime employmen , a binding
igh o e u n o ull- ime wo k is cu en ly being discussed; he Fed-
e al Minis y o Employmen and Social A ai s has published a d a
bill on he ma e . Such a igh would make i easie o decide in a-
ou o educing one’s hou s o amily and ca e wo k. Despi e some
bela ed e o ms o amily policy (such as he expansion o child ca e
112 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
p o ision and he in oduc ion o he pa en al allowance), many
mo he s and a he s eel o n be ween he wo; he wo ld o wo k is
s ill seen as no amily- iendly enough.4 Twen y-
wo pe cen o pa - ime s wo k educed hou s
because he posi ion hey applied o was no o -
e ed on a ull- ime basis. An inc eased supply o
long pa - ime o ull- ime jobs would u he
inc ease women’s pa icipa ion a e, as happened
when childca e p o ision was expanded.
WORK IS INTENSIFYING. You canno alk abou
he olume o wo k wi hou alking abou i s
in ensi y. The educ ion in wo king ime, which was s ill 48 hou s pe
week in he 1950s o ull- ime wo ke s, could be implemen ed only a
he cos o wo k in ensi ica ion. The pace and in ensi y o wo k ha e
inc eased s ill u he ; p oduc i i y in Ge many oday is e y high by
in e na ional s anda ds. Much o his is due o he accele a ion o
wo k p ocesses as a esul o au oma ion and he inc eased use o in-
o ma ion and communica ions echnologies. Acco ding o he Fed-
e al Ins i u e o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h, many wo ke s a -
ibu e he eeling o o e load la gely o inc eased p essu e o wo k
and in ensi ied p ocesses. Consequen ly, he s uc u ing o wo king
ime is inc easingly being seen as pi o al o wo kplace heal h and
sa e y ( WORK ORGANISATION).
WORK OUTSIDE ‘NORMAL’ HOURS IS WIDESPREAD. Dispu es a ound
he scheduling o wo king ime ha e always been igge ed by he ques-
ion o when wo king imes ha employees ega d as undesi able
should a ac addi ional compensa ion. Ce ain p emium paymen s
a e s ipula ed in law. Se en een pe cen o dependen employees
wo k nigh s and/o shi s. Acco ding o census da a, he e has been a
signi ican inc ease in weekend and e ening wo k since he 1990s.
The numbe o people who wo k ‘pe manen ly’ and ‘ egula ly’ a
hese imes has isen by a ound i e pe cen age poin s and he num-
be who do so ‘ e y o en’ o ‘o en’ has inc eased e en mo e (b enke
2016 ). Women pa - ime s and low-wage wo ke s a e pa icula ly
likely o wo k ou side s anda d hou s. Many companies use pa - im-
e s o p o ide lexibili y; many se ice occupa ions (e. g. in ca e ing)
a e associa ed wi h wo king imes ou side he ‘nine o i e’ no m. In
some cases, his sui s some people’s p e e ences, bu in o he cases a
4 The las wo epo s on he
amily published by he ede al
go e nmen ha e e e ed o
hese ime con lic s expe ienced
by pa en s and ca e s (bMFsFJ 2006,
2012 ). See also allMendInge /
d essel 2005.
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
113
con ac o non-s anda d wo king hou s was all ha was on o e .
Al hough wo k ou side he ‘nine o i e’ no m in eme gency and
heal h se ices (police, hospi als) is widely accep ed, he end owa ds
he a ound- he-clock socie y is gi ing ise o conce ns. Resea che s
ha e wa ned ha collec i e leisu e ime is being los , which may in u n
ha e nega i e e ec s on social cohesion.
MORE AND MORE PEOPLE ARE WORKING IRREGULAR HOURS. The sched-
uling o wo king hou s is closely linked o hei dis ibu ion. This has
o be lexible i he olume o wo k luc ua es o e he day, week,
mon h o longe pe iods. Such luc ua ions a e usually managed by
means o wo king ime accoun s which, acco ding o he Fede al Ins i-
u e o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h, a e held by 61 pe cen o all
employees (baua 2016). The e is, howe e , li le alid da a a ailable
on he usage o he nume ous models ha a e heo e ically a ailable.
Mos o e ime o in lieu, bu in some cases he c edi s a e paid o
o used o job p o ec ion.5 Resea ch has e ealed
he o en limi ed con ol ha wo ke s ha e o e
hei wo king hou s and has iden i ied a di ision
wi hin he labou o ce. Wo ke s who a e e y well
posi ioned in he labou ma ke , hose in compa-
nies ha adhe e o collec i e ba gaining ag ee-
men s and hose who a e ep esen ed by a wo ks
council ha e a a g ea e chance o ha ing hei
ime p e e ences aken in o accoun han all o he
g oups in he labou ma ke .6
THE WORKING TIME CONFLICT IS BEING INDIVI-
DUALISED. The EU Wo king Time Di ec i e, na-
ional wo king ime legisla ion, collec i e ba gain-
ing ag eemen s and ag eemen s on he company le el d aw on
esea ch indings o lay down s anda ds o he o ganisa ion o wo k-
ing ime. They a e he me apho ical handholds and gua d ails ha
help employees o asse hei wo king ime p e e ences. This is im-
po an because employe s a e inc easingly expec ing scheduling by
he employees hemsel es, o example when hey a e ee o wo k
when hey wish p o ided hei a ge s a e me wi hin a ce ain ime
ame. Howe e , he e will be only e y limi ed con ol o e wo king
ime i he e is no in luence o e wo k p o cesses, i he a ge s a e se
oo high o i s a ing le els a e oo low ( WORK ORGANISATION).
5 In he 2008/2009 economic
c isis, hese ins umen s p o ed
hei wo h as companies we e
no o ced o dismiss hei
employees and jobs we e sa ed.
6 Mo eo e , he legal en i lemen
o ask o wo k pa - ime applies
only o companies wi h mo e han
15 employees, which disad an ages
hose wo king in smalle o ganisa-
ions.
114 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!

Wo king ime dispu es spa ked by new o ms o wo k a e no longe
played ou solely be ween employe s and employees o wi hin wo k
eams bu also wi hin indi idual employees hemsel es (dunkel/
k a ze 2016; Hand IcH e al. 2016 ). Time s ess and o e load can
be he consequences. A emp s a inding a solu ion a e o en in end-
ed no o elimina e s uc u al p oblems (such as inadequa e s a ing
le els o poo wo k o ganisa ion) bu a he o op imise indi idual
ime managemen skills. Thus lexible wo king ime does no au o-
ma ically mean a be e wo k-li e balance. I can only lead o solu-
ions ha sa is y he in e es s o bo h sides i wo king imes can be
scheduled in ad ance and employee con ol o e wo king ime is ac-
ually gua an eed (i. e. is s ipula ed in law, in collec i e ba gaining
ag eemen s o in employmen con ac s).7
CORPORATE CULTURE AS A SOLUTION? G ea e sig-
ni icance is o en a ibu ed o a company’s mode
o wo k o ganisa ion and i s ime cul u e han o
o mal ag eemen s. The e a e nume ous examples
o sus ainable human esou ces policies in com-
panies, bu he ex en o which indi idual ime
p e e ences a e ealised a ies conside ably depending on employees’
s a us wi hin he company and hei labou ma ke posi ion (klen-
ne /lo 2016). Many wo king a he s s ill bemoan employe s’ e-
luc ance o ag ee o educed wo king hou s. The igh s o lea e o
absence o olun ee wo k o o ca e o amily membe s is no exe -
cised in many companies. E en o highly skilled wo ke s, he e a e
ba ie s: equen ly he e is a ailu e o ealise ha managemen posi-
ions can also be di ided o ca ied ou by pa - ime s ( WORK
ORGANISATION).
7 Only 38 pe cen o
employees a e la gely
able o de e mine hei
s a and inish imes
(baua 2016 ).
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
115
People’s wo king ime p e e ences a e likely o become u he di e -
en ia ed in he yea s o come. Many wo ke s will ha e amily mem-
be s o ca e o , which will gi e ise o u he demands o lexibili y.
I con inuing aining is o become a no mal pa o he li e cou se,
epea ed ime-ou pe iods will ha e o be g an ed. Some people will
con inue o wo k ull- ime wi hou in e up ion o he whole o
hei wo king li es, bu hey will be mainly women wi hou child en
and men. A he same ime, howe e , o he models will gain accep -
ance and become widesp ead. Managemen and wo ks councils will
be equi ed o ind c ea i e solu ions o his.
FLEXIBILITY REMAINS CONTRADICTORY. Many companies lea e he
o ganisa ion o wo king ime o hei employees. In hese cases, many
employees s a wo k ea ly in he mo ning, hen ake a numbe o
b eaks and some imes comple e hei asks la e in he e ening. The
ad ances in in o ma ion and communica ions echnologies ha e
made mobile wo king possible. Fo many, his lexibili y is jus wha
hey a e looking o . A he same ime, esea ch on sleep and heal h
has shown he nega i e e ec s o a wo king day wi hou a de ini e
end (c a y 2014). Mo eo e , when people esume wo k o a b ie
pe iod, hey o en do no coun ha ime as wo king ime, which can
lead o a c eeping expansion o o al wo king ime. Ye om a echnical
s andpoin , i has ne e been easie o eco d wo king hou s accu a e-
ly. I would also be possible o place a limi on wo king ime by mak-
ing use o ‘digi al shi wo k’, in which globally ne wo ked wo ke s
o ganise hemsel es in o job-sha e pai s.
IS TIME LOSING ITS IMPORTANCE AS A YARDSTICK? Fo a long ime,
employe s ha e managed hei employees’ e o by means o pe o -
mance a ge s a he han wo king ime. This end will con inue, in
high-skill jobs and beyond. Thus he egula o y equi emen s con-
ce n no only he ques ion o wo king ime bu also pe o mance
WHAT SHOULD WE
BE PREPARING FOR?
expec a ions. This is a pa icula challenge in In e ne -based c owd
wo k. A he same ime, howe e , he wide- anging public deba e on
excessi e demands a wo k and exhaus ion is pa o an obse able
end owa ds ‘limi ing he emo al o limi s’. The younge gene a-
ion in pa icula (‘Gene a ion Z’ o he ‘pos -millenials’) is ‘always
on’, bu ne e heless (o maybe p ecisely o ha eason) seems o
wan a clea di ision be ween wo k and leisu e ime (scHolz 2014 ) .
WORKING TIME POLICY MUST KEEP PACE WITH CHANGED REALITIES.
I men and women become equally in ol ed in paid wo k, he p es-
su e on amilies’ ime planning can only inc ease. I he p oblem o
making wo king ime su icien ly lexible o mee he demands o
amilies is no esol ed, he e a e likely o be nega i e e ec s on am-
ily li e, couples’ decisions on s a ing a amily o ha ing mo e chil-
d en and on wo ke s’ heal h. Fu he mo e, i is al eady e iden ha
p edominan ly indi idualised solu ions o ce unwan ed lexibili y on
o he s, e. g. ca e wo ke s. Demand o suppo se ices ises, which in
u n leads o an inc ease in wo k ou side he ‘nine o i e’ no m and
on weekends. Thus he op ions o socially accep able and collec i e
leisu e ime in he wide socie y emain o a la ge ex en dependen
on he ex en o which solu ions o he changing ime equi emen s
can be ound in he wo kplace.
WILL GENERAL WORKING TIME REDUCTIONS MAKE A COMEBACK?
A e gene alised linea educ ions in wo king ime s alled, he a i-
ous scena ios o digi al change and i s po en ial o a ionalisa ion
ha e a che ed up he deba e on wo king ime. Fo many people,
echnical change has awakened hopes o a new age o ‘ empo al a lu-
ence’. The no ion o a solida is ic edis ibu ion o he olume o
wo k in o de o p e en job losses is gaining inc easing accep ance.
A he same ime, he cu en wo king ime no m is coming unde
p essu e because o women’s inc easing pa icipa ion in he labou
ma ke . How can ull- ime wo k be de ined and o ganised in such a
way ha i ecognises amily and ca e wo k as socially necessa y
wo k? Many o he deba es and p oposals on how o econcile paid
wo k and ca e wo k, how o slow down he so-called ‘ ush hou o
li e’ (i. e. he phase in which mos o li e’s majo asks a e concen a -
ed) and how o change he amily di ision o labou a e aimed a
sa egua ding li elihoods and oppo uni ies o pa icipa ion (e. g. in
aining) o hose wo king less han ull- ime.
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
117
WHERE
CAN WE BEGIN?
The deba e on wo king ime policy ouches on he cen al ques ion
o he weigh ing o in e es s o p e e ences. How can lexibili y se e he
needs o business and he economy while a he same ime being o -
ganised in a socially accep able way ha a o ds wo ke s ime so e -
eign y? In iew o he p essing p oblems ha a ise when i comes o
econciling paid wo k and ca e wo k and he heal h isks o em-
ployees, which gene a e massi e cos s o a socie y based on he p in-
ciple o mu ual solida i y, i is essen ial ha a balance be s uck be-
ween con lic ing in e es s. An ageing socie y, he ise in women’s
labou ma ke pa icipa ion and, no leas , he inc eased demand o
aining make he ime ques ion one o he key issues in managing
digi al change.
PLURALITY IS
THE NEW NORMALITY
In he wake o women’s inc easing in ol emen in he labou ma ke
bu abo e all because o he cu en di e si y o employmen o ms,
he dis inc ion be ween ‘s anda d wo king ime’ and ‘ lexible’ o ‘a yp-
ical’ wo king ime is becoming inc easingly obsole e ( PARTICI-
PATING IN THE WORLD OF WORK). Women a e e y much in demand
in he labou ma ke and need lexible wo king ime models in o de
o be able o balance paid wo k and amily esponsibili ies; men oo
no longe adhe e o he igid no m o ull- ime employmen h ough-
ou he whole o hei wo king li es. Howe e , despi e he ob ious
di e si y o o ms o wo king ime, he old mechanisms o a ‘ ic i-
ious’ no mali y con inue o exe an in luence. Anybody who educ-
es hei wo king ime, whe he occasionally, in he in e es s o lexi-
POINT OF CONTROVERSY COMPENSATE
FOR LACK OF TIME SOVEREIGNTY
Howe e much he p oposal o ules o p ocedu e is mo i a ed by a
desi e o c ea e a egula o y amewo k o lexibili y ha wo ks in
he in e es s o employees, i is o eseeable ha in ce ain a eas he e
a e ewe possible op ions o wo king ime so e eign y, pa icula ly
o hose who egula ly wo k shi s and a e employed in o ganisa-
ions ha ope a e 24/7.
Consequen ly, e o s should be made o ind ways in which em-
ploye s migh compensa e employees whose jobs o e li le i any
scope o lexibili y wi h ega d o he place o wo k and he schedul-
ing o wo king ime. Such compensa ion can be jus i ied, i s ly by
he nega i e heal h implica ions o shi wo k, o example, and
second ly om he poin o iew o ai ness.
Some companies ha e al eady in oduced collec i ely ag eed
measu es ha o e poin e s as o how such compensa ion migh be
o ganised. Deu sche Telekom’s cus ome se ice di ision, o exam-
ple, o e s employees who wo k weekends and o he non-s anda d
imes compensa ion in he o m o a wo king ime educ ion in he
ollowing mon h. Ex a ime o would also be a concei able o m o
compensa ion in si ua ions in which con ol o e wo king ime is
no o canno be g an ed. While la ge companies a e mo e easily able
o manage such compensa ion, his is no necessa ily he case in small
companies, pa icula ly in sec o s in which lexible wo king imes a e
no possible o he majo i y o he wo k o ce.
Consequen ly, he possibili y o go e nmen suppo , e. g. by (pa -
ially) o se ing he addi ional cos s o model wo king ime a ange-
men s in SMEs, should be conside ed (e en hough his sugges ion
was a con o e sial one wi hin he Commission).
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
125

FOOD FOR THOUGHT RESTRICT
THE SPREAD OF WORK ON DEMAND
The diame ical opposi e o ime so e eign y is capaci y-o ien ed a -
iable wo king ime. This wo k ‘on demand’ p io i ises ope a ional
equi emen s in a comple ely unaccep able way. Ne e heless, acco d-
ing o he IAB, 13 pe cen o companies wi h mo e han en employ-
ees use his o m o lexibili y, which is pe mi ed by he Pa -Time
and Tempo a y Employmen Ac . The ( echnically) sel -employed se -
ice p o ide s who ecei e wo k ia online pla o ms (e. g. cou ie
se ices) also wo k on his p inciple.
People engaged in his o m o wo k a e usually poo ly paid be-
cause he ime be ween jobs is no emune a ed, in con as o being
on-call o s and-by. They also ha e o accep conside able es ic ions
on planning hei li es and o ganizing hei ee ime. Is ue ha
he e is a s a u o y pe iod o p io no ice ( ou days), bu in p ac ice
his is mo e o less igno ed. Such a one-sided a angemen , de e -
mined solely by he employe , is ega ded as con a bonos mo es in
Aus ia. In Swi ze land, he law a leas s ipula es ha s and-by ime
mus be emune a ed. Thus §12 o he Pa -Time and Tempo a y Em-
ploymen Ac , which pe mi s wo k on demand, could simply be
s uck ou , which would lea e he isk o luc ua ions in wo kload
squa ely wi h he employe . Ano he op ion would be o ollow he
Swiss example and ensu e ha s and-by ime was emune a ed.
I is also impo an o con inue o ejec ze o-hou s con ac s, as
used in he UK o example. Wo ke s on hese con ac s a e paid only
o he hou s ac ually wo ked and he employe is no obliged o
p o ide any minimum wo king hou s.
WORKING TIME
LIMITED
Ge many is ega ded as he eu ozone’s o e ime ‘champion’. I ull-
ime employees cons an ly exceed hei con ac ual wo king hou s,
his is no only damaging o hei heal h bu can also gi e ise o cos s
due o illness, wo kplace acciden s and ea ly e i emen . O e ime is
also a ac o in he econcilabili y o paid wo k and ca e wo k, since
anyone who is cons an ly wo king o e ime is ha dly in a posi ion o
ake on any ca e wo k o o suppo amily membe s and / o pa ne s
who do so.
In he deba e on es ic ing o e ime, i is a gued ime and ime
again ha hese ex a hou s a e wo ked by employees o whom no
subs i u es a e a ailable. In ac , howe e , esea ch has shown ha i is
absolu ely no jus skilled wo ke s in sho supply who do o e ime.
O e ime is wo ked ac oss a whole ange o sec o s by employees o
di e en s a uses and skill le els. In a su ey conduc ed by he Fede al
Ins i u e o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h, 18 pe cen o espond-
en s ga e enjoymen o hei wo k as a eason o wo king o e ime,
while 6 pe cen decla ed ha hey wo ked he ex a hou s o p i a e
easons (e. g. o ea n ex a money). The es o he esponden s (76 pe
cen ) ci ed ope a ional equi emen s (baua 2016 ) .
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
127
FOOD FOR THOUGHT RETURN
TO AGREED WORKING TIMES
In o de be e o p o ec employees’ heal h and o pe manen ly
s eng hen employabili y, he mo o mus be: ‘The con ac ual wo k-
ing ime is he ac ual wo king ime’. The e should be incen i es o
a oid excessi ely long wo king imes and addi ional hou s. Fo heal h
easons, all hou s wo ked in excess o he con ac ually ag eed limi
should be compensa ed o as quickly as possible wi h ime o in
lieu. Those shaping wo king ime policy a e called on o pu his
p inciple in o ope a ion and b ing ac ual wo king imes close o he
con ac ually ag eed limi s again. Wo ks councils need a le e in o -
de o be able o call o inc eased s a ing le els i he ag eed wo king
ime is exceeded egula ly ( WORK ORGANISATION). T anspa ency in
planning and o ganising wo king ime a company le el and dialogue
abou app op ia e wo king imes a e impo an basic p inciples o his.
POINT OF CONTROVERSY MORE
RIGOROUS RECORDING OF WORKING TIME?
How a e he ag eed wo king imes o be success ully adhe ed o i
employe s e use esponsibili y o delega e i o employees – and
when i is o en employees hemsel es who, o wha e e easons, ail
o eco d he hou s hey wo k?
The Commission igo ously deba ed p oposing a s a u o y obliga-
ion o eco d wo king imes. Suppo e s see his as a possible way o
limi he c eeping de alua ion o wo k. Fu he mo e, he echnical
means o eco ding wo king ime a e be e han hey ha e e e been
in he pas and in no way amoun o he bu eauc a isa ion o wo k
(and hence o a u he demand on employees). Technological change
has p oduced sophis ica ed ins umen s (e. g. apps) ha can e o -
lessly eco d he hou s ac ually wo ked, making hem isible o com-
panies and o employees hemsel es. Na u ally, da a p o ec ion and
code e mina ion igh s will ha e o be espec ed in he p ocess. Da a
dele ion ou ines could be o assis ance he e; s anda dised digi al
sys ems o use ac oss en i e indus ies, de eloped wi h inpu om
he pa ies o collec i e ba gaining, should also be p omo ed.
On he o he side o he a gumen , he e we e doub s ha eco d-
ing wo king imes in he digi al age was in he employees’ in e es .
The e we e said o be pa icula ly s ong objec ions among highly
skilled employees o any obliga ion o documen wo king imes.
Mo eo e , eco ding wo king imes was no he igh way o add ess
he en i ely jus i ied conce n o s op wo king ime om ge ing ou o
hand. Wha was needed ins ead was a good wo king ime cul u e in
he wo kplace and ealis ic s a ing le els ( WORK ORGANISATION).
As a esul o digi al change, he ques ion o he numbe o hou s
wo ked has become mo e opical han e e . I mo e people a e no
longe employed by jus one company bu a e wo king o se e al
clien s, hen his pu s a comple ely di e en slan on he whole issue
o wo king ime. Al hough, acco ding o FucHs e al. (2016), only
8 pe cen o wo ke s held mul iple jobs in 2016 (wi h a high deg ee
o unde epo ing), hei employmen si ua ion and wo kloads can-
no be igno ed, since he cos s ha a ise a e bo ne by socie y as a
whole i he consequences a e illness, incapaci y o wo k o he aban-
donmen o any plans o s a o expand a amily.
Technological p og ess has made mobile wo king possible in new
ways. Wo ke s now ha e he op ion o wo king om home o in
comple ely di e en places (mobile elewo king). Wo king om
home and o he o ms o digi ally media ed mobile wo king o e
wo ke s – pa icula ly he g owing numbe wi h long commu es –
he possibili y o a oiding a el ime, he eby con ibu ing o a be -
e wo k-li e balance. Wo king om home can also mean ewe dis-
u bances han in open-plan o ices, o example.
Acco ding o he Ge man Ins i u e o Economic Resea ch (DIW),
8 pe cen o dependen employees cu en ly mainly o occasionally
wo k om home. Because o hei job p o iles, 58 pe cen o employees
a e excluded om mobile wo king. Al hough 61 pe cen o employees
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
129
who cu en ly do no wo k om home do no aspi e o do so in he
u u e ei he , one hi d would like o, a leas occasionally. Despi e he
ongoing deba e on mobile wo king, he sha e o people wo king om
home has no isen since 2013. Only one hi d o companies cu en ly
o e employees he op ion o wo king om home (dIW 2016 ) .
Howe e , acco ding o a epo on ‘Mobile wo king / Wo king
wi hou limi s’ published by he Fede al Minis y o Employmen
and Social A ai s, employe s’ expec a ions o hei employees’ a ailabili y
ha e inc eased (bMas 2015 ) . Only in 16 pe cen o cases is wo king
om home ac ually con ac ually egula ed. The consequence is ha
56 pe cen o employees who wo k om home wi hou such egula-
ion wo k ou side he s anda d ag eed wo king ime. Se en y- h ee
pe cen ecei e no compensa ion o o e ime. Employees wo king
om home pu in 43.5 hou s pe week on a e age, which is longe
han p o ided o in hei con ac s.
Mobile wo king enables employees o sa e ime and gain some
eedom, bu i also has i s da k side. Desk sha ing models, which a e
linked o wo king om home and a e in ended, o example, o sa e
o ice cos s ( en , ene gy, cleaning) and o ha eason do no p o ide
su icien wo k space a he company’s p emises, may ha e a nega i e
impac on wo k quali y. No only can an a i icial sho age o o ice
wo k s a ions lead o people playing a so o ‘musical chai s’ a ound
he building o eeling ‘homeless’ a wo k bu delibe a e unde equip-
ping o his so can also igge eelings o pe manen insecu i y
abou one’s job.

FOOD FOR THOUGHT MAKE
MOBILE WORKING POSSIBLE
Expe iences o da e show he e is a need o o malise digi al mobile
wo king so ha i s ad an ages can be ealised and he isks mini-
mised.
Since mobile wo king equi es a high- us cul u e and espon-
sible beha iou on he pa o manage s and employees, he Commis-
sion ecommends ha guidelines should be laid down o he o gani-
sa ion o home wo king (al e na ing elewo king: wo king bo h
om home and a he o ice) and mobile elewo king.
The Commission also ecommends ha a (condi ional) legal
en i lemen o mobile wo king should be in oduced. In p inciple, all
employees should ha e he igh o mobile wo king, whe he om
home o elsewhe e. I should be incumben on he employe o jus i y a
e usal. Fu he mo e, he igh o indi iduals o de e mine he sched-
uling o hei own wo king ime should be s eng hened.
Nobody should be o ced o wo k om home. I mobile wo k-
ing is no equi ed o ope a ional easons, i should be olun a y. I is
impo an ha employees should no be pu ing hemsel es a a dis-
ad an age i hey do no wan he op ion o wo king om home.
Wo king om home equi es no only a cul u e o us bu also
in o ma ion managemen . The in eg a ion o colleagues wo king om
home will be an inc easingly impo an pa o managemen ’s emi
in he u u e. Expec a ion managemen is also impo an . Clea ules
a e equi ed o de e mine when home wo ke s may be con ac ed.
The ime spen on mobile wo king mus be ime on he clock.
Mobile wo king aises ques ions o da a p o ec ion. The e mus be
gua an ees ha mobile wo ke s will no be subjec ed o su eillance.
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
131
SUPPORT TIME
FOR CARE WORK
A leas since he Fede al S a is ical O ice’s ime budge su ey con-
i med he economic impo ance o ca e wo k, i s social signi icance
and economic alue ha e been highligh ed a and wide. Fo a long
ime, i was possible o emune a e his wo k only indi ec ly, ia he
adi ional amily di ision o labou and single b eadwinne wages.
This op ion, howe e , has been inc easingly weakened. Changing
gende oles, he changes in spousal main enance ollowing di o ce
and he e olu ion o ea nings ha e ea en away a he ounda ions o
his model. Consequen ly, he policy o some yea s has been o p o-
essionalise ca e wo k, o expand he in as uc u e and inc ease he
oppo uni ies o employees wi h ca e esponsibili ies o ake lea e.
The ace o make up o los ime in pu ing in place an emancipa o y
amily policy has been success ul o he ex en ha he e a e now a
numbe o ins umen s ha can be used o suppo wo ke s in hei
esponsibili ies. The main ones a e he pa en al allowance (El e ngeld)
and i s ex ension, he so-called El e ngeldPlus o ‘pa ne ship bonus’
(in ended o make i easie o mo he s and a he s o combine child-
ca e and pa - ime wo k), ca e lea e and he ecen p oposal o ami-
ly lea e, in which couples would be gi en incen i es o bo h pa ne s
o educe hei wo king ime, wi h pa ial wage compensa ion.
Howe e , e alua ions show ha no all hese ins umen s ha e ye
aken ull e ec o ha no all a e ul illing he needs hey seek o
add ess (Jü gens/FeH 2016 ) . Fo example, when a need o elde
ca e a ises, employees end o use hei holiday en i lemen s ins ead
o claiming he s a u o y lea e. The issue seems o be aboo, especially
in small and medium-sized en e p ises ( euyss e al. 2014 ) . I is s ill
less common o men o ake on elde ca e wo k. Acco ding o e-
po s om he heal h insu e s, a ound wo hi ds o p i a ely p o id-
ed elde ca e wo k is done by women.
FOOD FOR THOUGHT A FLEXIBLE
TIME BUDGET FOR ELDER CARE
The in oduc ion o he ca e allowance ( o hose ca ing o ela i es
ull ime) and o amily ca e lea e has c ea ed op ions o combining
paid wo k and elde ca e esponsibili ies. Ne e heless, ake-up e-
mains limi ed, wi h men in pa icula eluc an o make use o hese
ins umen s.
This is due, i s ly, o he inadequa e le el o wage eplacemen and,
secondly, o he ac ha ca e lea e is s ill oo in lexible. Ca egi e s do
no usually need a ixed educ ion in hei wo king ime bu a he a
numbe o hou s o hey can ake as and when hey need hem. As
many e alua ions now s ess, lea e g an ed wi hin he amewo k o
a ime budge would be e mee he needs o bo h ca egi e s and
hose hey ca e o . Thus a budge o 1,000 hou s, o example, could
be es ablished and hen d awn down as equi ed o e a longe pe iod
o ime. P ocedu es mus be pu in place ha gi e ca egi e s as much
lexibili y as possible bu also gi e employe s a ce ain deg ee o plan-
ning ce ain y. The in oduc ion o a ca e lea e budge ha could be
d awn down as equi ed would ha e he ad an age o bo h employ-
e s and employees o making wo king ime educ ions (and hence
educ ions in income as well) o comple e wi hd awal om he la-
bou ma ke unnecessa y.
Despi e he a ious ins umen s ha exis o help wo ke s s ike a
be e balance be ween paid wo k and ca e esponsibili ies, he eali-
y on he g ound is sobe ing. Many wo ke s unwillingly qui hei
jobs o ha e o educe hei hou s conside ably in o de o ca e o
amily membe s ( eIcHe 2013 ) . This has se ious consequences o
hei abili y o secu e hei li elihoods and o he de elopmen o
he Ge man labou o ce o i s ull po en ial. Po e y in old age and a
sho age o skilled wo ke s a e he ad e se side e ec s ha a e al eady
making hemsel es el .
While demands o imp o emen s o he in as uc u e, addi ional
amily policy ins umen s and lexible wo king imes a e common-
WORKING TIME
TIME SOVEREIGNTY IS THE SOLUTION
133
place, i is less acknowledged ha income also ep esen s a signi ican
hu dle. Unde he cu en ci cums ances, many couples ha e no
choice bu o adop he adi ional di ision o labou . Men’s incomes
a e on a e age highe han women’s. Thus na owing he gende pay
gap is a undamen al p econdi ion o ca e lea e and a mo e equi able
dis ibu ion o i ( INCOME).
FOOD FOR THOUGHT A WAGE
REPLACEMENT BENEFIT FOR CARE WORK
To be able o do ca e wo k, many employees need o see a educ ion in
hei wo king ime. Howe e , o many people in he lowe income
b acke s, a educ ion in wo king ime is a se e e economic blow. Fo
inancial easons, many couples ha e no al e na i e o he adi ional
amily di ision o labou o e en wo ull- ime jobs. The Commission
conside s such a si ua ion o be behind he imes. I is nei he consis -
en wi h he no ion o pa icipa ion no does i cons i u e a mo e
owa ds g ea e gende equali y. Consequen ly, a d i e o implemen
pay equi y is essen ial ( INCOME). A he same ime, howe e , i is
incumben upon socie y o suppo empo a y wo king ime educ-
ions o hose wi h ca e esponsibili ies, bo h inancially and in
e ms o wo king ime a angemen s. The social pa ne s canno e-
sol e his issue on hei own.
The Commission p oposes, he e o e, ha wo ke s should be g an -
ed pe iods o educed wo king ime in o de o p o ide ca e and ha
hey should be paid a wage eplacemen bene i (highe in pe cen age
e ms o hose wi h low pay). I is a ma e o discussion whe he
he e should a simila bene i o highe ea ne s as well, albei one
ha is lowe in pe cen age e ms. One a gumen in a ou is ha i is
impo an ha people wi h manage ial esponsibili ies, who can ac
as ole models, should also educe hei wo king ime in o de o do
ca e wo k. Expe ience wi h he pa en al allowance has shown ha
inancial incen i es a e equi ed o his. I men also educe hei
wo king ime and assume esponsibili y o ca e wo k, women will
be eed o he bu den o amily wo k and will be able o en e he
labou ma ke . Howe e , abo e a ce ain income le el, wo king ime
CONSERVE STRENGTH,
DEVELOP CREATIVITY

1 In 2015, each wo king
pe son wo ked 1372 hou s
on a e age, 0.5 pe cen
mo e han in he p e ious
yea . In he same yea , labou
p o duc i i yin he Ge man
eco nomy ose by 0.9 pe
cen . This equa es o a 0.5 pe
cen inc ease in labou p o-
duc i i ype hou wo ked
(s a Is IscHes bun desaM
2016a ).
2 Back pain domina es he
lis o a lic ions: 64 pe cen
o all wo king women and
40 pe cen o all men complain
o pain in hei backs / necks,
usually caused by poo pos u e
(baua 2015 ).
Wo k o ganisa ion and job con en ha e mo ed in o he spo ligh . I
is om he mo i a ion and c ea i i y o hei employees ha compa-
nies d aw he e y po en ial ha is becoming mo e and mo e impo -
an o inno a i e p ocesses and high labou p oduc i i y in he age o
digi alisa ion. Employees in u n a e demanding o be ecognised as
‘ci izens in he wo kplace’ (Mückenbe ge 2015 ) and o hei pe -
sonal de elopmen needs o be aken in o accoun .
PRODUCTIVITY IS DEMANDING. A coun y’s economic success depends
la gely on he capabili ies and c ea i i y o i s wo king popula ion.
Ge many is known in e na ionally o i s high labou p oduc i i y,
which in ecen decades has gone hand in hand wi h a ma ked in en-
si ica ion and accele a ion o wo k p ocesses.1 In hei
posi i e e alua ion o Ge many’s labou p oduc i i y
o he lexibili y o i s companies’ wo k sys ems, he
playe s in labou policy a e o en close o each o he
han is commonly assumed. F om he poin o iew o
labou esea ch, howe e , he e iciency o Ge many’s
wo ke s, as e lec ed in hei high le el o p oduc i i-
y, is dependen on ce ain condi ions, p incipally he
mo i a ion, skills and good heal h o he wo king popula-
ion, which can be gua an eed only i he wo k is
p ope ly adap ed o he people who ca y i ou .
WORK CAN POTENTIALLY WEAR PEOPLE OUT. Physical
a lic ions ha e been s udied ex ensi ely. While i is
ue ha many o he isks associa ed wi h haza dous
subs ances o un a ou able wo king condi ions ha e
been educed, o he s ha e inc eased.2 The shi owa ds
a wo ld o wo k based on he p ocessing o in o ma-
ion and da a b ings wi h i no ewe bu di e en
o ms o s ess and s ain.
WHERE
DO WE STAND?
3 A job sa is ac ion c isis
can occu i wo ke s pe ma -
nen ly un hemsel esin o
he g ound wi hou hei
e o s being ecognised
(posi i e eedback, sala y).
Acu e s ess eac ions may
esul (sIeg Is 2005 ).
4 Acco ding o he BKK
(Fede al Associa ion
o Company Heal h
Insu ance Funds) Heal h
Repo o 2015, he
sha e o men al diso de s
has isen om 2 pe cen
o 15 pe cen o e he
las 40 yea s (knIePs/
PFaFF 2015 ).
Pa icula a en ion has been paid since he beginning o he new
millennium o sick days because o men al exhaus ion. The cos s in
e ms o los wo k ime and ehabili a ion o 2011 we e pu a 16 bil-
lion eu os by one o Ge many’s heal h insu ance companies. The Fed-
e al Ins i u e o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h assumes ha he
cos s o 2030 will be wice as high. Since he beginning o he deba e,
he e ha e been epea ed exp essions o scep icism abou whe he he
causes o men al heal h p oblems eally do lie in he wo ld o wo k.
Howe e , in e na ional compa a i e s udies ha e es ablished a link.
Acco ding o hese s udies, pe sis en ime, pe o mance and compe -
i i e p essu es, excessi ely low s a ing le els, unachie able a ge s, a
lack o employee disc e ion and an absence o ec-
ogni ion in he wo k p ocess3 a e ega ded as he
p ima y causes o men al o e load ( an de Wel
e al. 2015; d agano e al. 2016).
These a e u he compounded by in e up-
ions and dis up ions caused by he communica-
ion echnologies, highe expec a ions o employ-
ee a ailabili y and p oblems wi h he echnical
in as uc u e. Unce ain employmen p ospec s
and a lack o p omo ion oppo uni ies also ha e a nega i e e ec . The
inc ease in he numbe o people su e ing om men al heal h p ob-
lems should no , howe e , blind us o he ac ha he o al numbe
o hou s’ wo k los h ough physical illnesses is s ill signi ican ly
g ea e han he losses caused by men al heal h
p oblems,4 al hough a clea dis inc ion be ween
he wo is no always possible, since men al diso -
de s can ha e se ious e ec s on physical heal h.
Men al and / o physical o e load can a ec any-
one. Wo ke s ha e di e en op ions a hei dis-
posal o ob aining sa is ac o y wo king condi-
ions o hemsel es. Anyone who has an exclusi e
skill, o one ha is in sho supply, has a good
chance, ega dless o age, gende o e hnic o igin,
no only o ob aining a highe income bu also o
being able o se hei own labou s anda ds – and many o hose in
his ca ego y ha e he skills equi ed o such nego ia ions (Ma Mo
e al. 1991; Head e al. 2002 ) . Fo his eason, esea che s ha e high-
WORK ORGANISATION
PEOPLE TAKE CENTRE STAGE
143
ligh ed a social di ision ha exis s abo e and beyond he ques ion o in-
come: he mo e senio hei posi ion wi hin he i m and he mo e
highly quali ied employees a e, he mo e likely hey a e o wo k in
condi ions conduci e o main aining good heal h, p o iding ecogni-
ion and opening up space o employee disc e ion. And ye e en em-
ployees in o mally secu e posi ions equen ly expe ience hei si u-
a ion as s ess ul i hey a e subjec ed o high pe o mance and compe i i e
p essu es. Employee disc e ion can become a sou ce o s ess o e load
i he esou ces o i a e no p ope ly allowed o .
On he o he hand, in he case o he mo e easily eplaceable un-
skilled and semi-skilled wo ke s, se e al nega i e ac o s coincide,
including job insecu i y, low pay, high p essu e o wo k ha de , lack
o pa icipa ion and inadequa e ecogni ion. Wo ks councils, which
could en o ce compliance wi h s anda ds, a e ew and a be ween in
segmen s o he labou ma ke s uc u ed in his way. I le un-
changed, p oblema ic condi ions o his kind can lead o educed pe -
o mance o , e en ually, ea ly e i emen . In 2015, 16 pe cen o hose
aking hei pensions did so on heal h g ounds; one in wo o hese
ea ly e i ees we e su e ing om men al heal h p oblems (deu scHe
en en e sIcHe ung 2016 ) . Pa alysing e ec s a e one possible con-
sequence: i people pe cei e no only he wo ld o wo k bu also hei
en i e exis ence as unp edic able and agile, hey usually expec li le
good o happen in he u u e, adop a scep ical a i ude owa ds
change and he unknown and dis ance hemsel es om e p esen a i e
bodies, poli ics and he s a e.
THE HEALTH-PROMOTING EFFECT OF WORK IS UNDERESTIMATED. I is
only in ecen yea s ha s udies poin ing o he po en ial o wo k design
ha e a ac ed inc easing a en ion, e en hough his is an app oach
ha has a ich adi ion in Ge many. I s a ed wi h he esea ch p o-
g amme on he ‘Humanisa ion o Wo king Li e’ (1974–79) and was
u he de eloped by i s successo s. I has been known o a long ime
ha wo k is mo e han a means o ea ning a li elihood and acqui ing
s a us. Wo k c ea es iden i y and os e s social a ilia ion. Conse-
quen ly, people a e able o ind meaning in and dedica e hemsel es
o wo k ha o o he s appea s o be mono onous and meaningless.
Rep esen a i e s udies ha e e ealed he conside able in luence ha
wo k con en and condi ions ha e on people’s sa is ac ion. The young
gene a ion in pa icula links gain ul employmen o he goal o
144 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
5 In job sa is ac ion su eys
conduc ed among young people,
i is ue ha ‘job secu i y’ is
anked in i s place; howe e ,
oppo uni ies o b ing one’s own
ideas o one’s wo k is anked nex
(albe e al. 2015 ).
sel - ealisa ion. They wan o ‘enjoy hei wo k’
5.
O e all, o mos Ge mans, wo k is pa o a ul-
illing li e (dIe zeI e al. 2016). Many people hope
ha echnological change will ee hem om dis-
ag eeable asks and o open up new oppo uni ies
o sel -de elopmen a he same ime.
MAINTAINING GOOD HEALTH SHOULD NOT BE LEFT
TO CHANCE. In iew o he ageing o socie y, no only employees bu
also employe s and he wide socie y ha e an in e es in designing
wo k in such a way ha s esses and s ains a e educed, he abili y o
wo k emains unimpai ed and labou is used sus ainably. Conse-
quen ly, many companies ha a e dependen on speci ic skills en-
dea ou o main ain hei employees’ heal h o e he long e m and
o make wo k a ac i e. The pe o mance equi emen s, he beha iou o
supe iso s and manage s, ealis ic pe sonnel capaci y planning and a
wo k en i onmen ha encou ages c ea i i y a e ega ded as he mos
impo an ac o s in p omo ing good heal h.
Howe e , hese same ac o s a e subjec ed only o limi ed e iew
and a e only pa ially go e ned by ules. In consequence, e o s o
keep employees in good heal h a e le o chance and end o be de-
cided on di ec ly be ween employees and hei supe iso s (HeIden/
Jü gens 2013). I is ue ha he amewo k is clea ly de ined by leg-
isla ion on heal h and sa e y a wo k and wo king ime and by labou
law mo e gene ally, bu many companies a e no complying wi h he
law, o ha e done so only pa ially (aHle s 2016).
CREATIVITY NEEDS GOOD WORKING CONDITIONS. Good heal h and
he abili y o wo k, wo k ha has meaning and wo k ha gi es pleas-
u e all in luence people’s mo i a ion and c ea i i y – and hence hei
company’s success as well (badu a/s eInke 2011; b yson e al.
2015). Mos employees adap eadily o new si ua ions and can also be
mo i a ed unde ad e se ci cums ances. On he o he hand, i people’s
capaci y o wo k and c ea i i y a e o be sa egua ded o e he long
e m, hen ce ain p inciples ha e o be ollowed: a oidance o pe sis -
en o e load, ealis ic wo k planning; ecogni ion o indi iduals, p o-
ec ion om disc imina ion and su eillance, access o aining and
p ospec s o ca ee ad ancemen . The posi i e e ec s p oduced by
holis ic job p o iles and anspa ency in co po a e decision-making
p ocesses a e pa icula ly well subs an ia ed.
WORK ORGANISATION
PEOPLE TAKE CENTRE STAGE
145
Digi alisa ion aises ques ions abou he kind o wo k o ganisa ion
ha migh ensu e ha companies and employees bene i equally om
he inno a ions. The e is b oad ag eemen ha wo k is becoming in-
c easingly complex and ha new o ms o coope a ion a e equi ed
and made easible by he ad en o digi alisa ion. Cu en hie a chies
a e being called in o ques ion; scope o sel -de e mina ion o bo h
indi iduals and g oups will open up i companies wan o achie e
g ea e lexibili y and emain o become capable o inno a ion.
Agile o ganisa ional s uc u es a e on he inc ease as mo e and mo e
i ms seek o gain compe i i e ad an ages om hem.6 Such s uc u es
a e also being demanded by employees seeking g ea e
in ol emen – and who a e in a posi ion o make such
demands i hei pa icula skills and quali ica ions
mean ha al e na i e employe s a e no in sho supply.
The e is emendous po en ial o employee emanci-
pa ion he e; howe e , i is deba able whe he wha is
pos ula ed as he ‘new unde s anding o leade ship’
and he ‘democ a ic company’7 has been pu in o p ac-
ice al eady. C i ics bemoan he ac ha only hose
decision-making powe s ha se e o aise pe o -
mance ha e been elinquished and eg e he absence
o a p ope ly sa egua ded igh o pa icipa ion. Con-
sequen ly, he use o he e m ‘democ a ic’ is mislead-
ing, he c i ics say.
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT CAN RELIEVE PRES-
SURE AND ENHANCE THE STATUS OF WORK. The new
human-machine in e ac ions and mo e complex ask
designs a e making i possible o imp o e he quali y
o wo k. In he bes case, echnological change is mak-
ing lea ning an in eg al pa o wo k and u he o-
WHAT SHOULD WE
BE PREPARING FOR?
6 ‘Agile’ companies a e
companies ha aspi e o he
highes possible le el o
lexibili y in o de o be able
o eac quickly o changes
in socie y, echno logy and
cus ome demand. The key
p econdi ion o his is
he con e sion o hie a chical
s uc u es in o demand-
o ien ed,sel - o ganised p ojec
and ne wo k s uc u es
(a Mu a e al. 2016 ).
7 Taking accoun o di e si y
and a new oice o he
‘co po a e ci izen’ a e he key
ideas behind his app oach
(sa elbe ge e al. 2015 ).

ca ional aining is becoming an impo an esou ce ha can con ib-
u e o he expansion o oppo uni ies o sel -de elopmen and sel -
ealisa ion. Physically s enuous wo k and mono onous jobs can be
educed. This li ing o bu dens will c ea e mo e scope o he ex-
change o ideas, inc eased oppo uni ies o mobile wo king will e-
duce commu ing ime (MascHke e al. 2014 ) . The p oblems ypically
encoun e ed in ying o econcile paid wo k and amily li e can be
add essed p oac i ely i digi al echnologies a e used in e e yday am-
ily li e o suppo coo dina ion, e. g. o household- ela ed se ices.
DIGITALISATION CAN ALSO MEAN PRESSURE AND STRESS. Human-
machine in e ac ions may also eplace p e ious human-human col-
labo a ion, which is likely o challenge wo ke s’ occupa ional e hos,
pa icula ly in se ice wo k. Coope a ion o ‘pee lea ning’ may dis-
appea as a esul o au oma ion and s anda disa ion. This in u n
may lead o a new o m o psychological s ess caused by echnology-
induced deskilling and hence o he de aluing o skills and a na -
owed scope o human ac ion (PFeIFFe 2016 ) . O e all, wo k p o-
cesses will be in ensi ied and accele a ed. Pe o mance can be mo e
ex ensi ely moni o ed, pe sonal da a can be sys ema ically e alua ed
and wo k asks speci ied igh down o he inies s eps. In he case o
mobile wo king, i s ill has o be asce ained how occupa ional heal h
and sa e y egula ions can be applied and how company ag eemen s
a e o ensu e ha heal h p o ec ion s anda ds a e obse ed when
companies a e no longe a spa ial bu simply a unc ional and o gan-
isa ional e e ence poin . As a as c owd wo ke s a e conce ned, he
deba e is only jus ge ing unde way.
The lack o cla i y su ounding digi alisa ion’s po en ial o a io n-
alisa ion is c ea ing anxie y abou job losses. The mo e own judges his
o he skills o be eplaceable, he mo e likely skipping es pe iods
and exhaus ion become, which in u n has a nega i e e ec on heal h
(sIeg Is 2015 ) . Al eady oday, indi iduals a e le oo much o hei
own de ices as hey y o cope wi h changing wo k equi emen s
and condi ions.
IT IS NOT TECHNOLOGY BUT WORK ORGANISATION THAT MATTERS
MOST. Fo all he allusions o he oppo uni ies and isks o echno-
logical p og ess, we ha e o ealise ha i is no he echnology i sel
bu a he he way i is used by people ha gi es ise o ce ain e ec s.
Thus he decisi e ac o s a e he objec i es being pu sued h ough
WORK ORGANISATION
PEOPLE TAKE CENTRE STAGE
147
echnological p og ess and he deg ee o au onomy employees a e
g an ed in mee ing hose objec i es. As is well known, hese ques-
ions a e linked o opposing in e es s. Fu he mo e, i is s iking ha
many o he op ions canno ye be used because he digi al echnolo-
gies a e no su icien ly widely di used. The In e ne , e-mails and
sma phones a e ubiqui ous, bu he use o sma digi al echnolo-
gies in p i a e households and he wo kplace is s ill in i s in ancy. In
o he wo ds: he p ocess can s ill be shaped.
GERMAN PARTICULARITIES. One Ge man pa icula i y is he high
sha e o skilled wo ke s. This makes i easie o pu in place decen a-
lised o ms o wo k o ganisa ion, in con as , o example, o he p o-
duc ion sys ems ypically ound in he English-speaking coun ies
wi h hei pola isa ion be ween semi-skilled and highly skilled wo k-
e s. Ge many is con on ed simul aneously by wo o he phenomena
ha ha e a e y di ec e ec on wo k o ganisa ion: demog aphic change
and he issue o econciling wo k and amily, which has no ye been
ully esol ed. The ageing o he popula ion will cause he numbe o
days los o sickness o ise in he o eseeable u u e. Olde wo ke s
do no su e mo e illness bu do need longe eco e y
imes be o e hey a e i o e u n o wo k.8
8 Acco ding o he 2016
epo on sickness absence by
AOK, one la ge Ge man heal h
insu ance company, 45 pe cen
o all days los o sickness a e
a ibu ed o long- e m illnesses,
i. e. absences las ing mo e han
42 days. The du a ion o illnesses
ises wi h age (badu a e
al. 2016 )
148 LET'S TRANSFORM WORK!
In an economy ha depends on inno a ion and high p oduc i i y,
he demands being made o companies’ app oaches o wo k o gani-
sa ion a e becoming inc easingly ough. Solu ions mus be ound in
o de o p epa e o dynamic, globalised ma ke s, an inc easingly
complex, ne wo ked economy and changes in consump ion pa e ns.
Technological p og ess is inc easing he pace o wo k. In hese ci -
cums ances, o ganisa ions and hose wo king in hem ace new chal-
lenges e e y day. They ha e o de ise lexible wo k s uc u es bu in
doing so canno dis ega d c ea i i y and he p e equisi es o c ea i e
wo king. Wo king condi ions ha no only a oid physical wea and
ea and men al exhaus ion bu also open up space o employees o
exe cise disc e ion and o expe ience sel -e icacy a e now ecognised
as p e equisi es o economic success and s eng h in inno a ion. The
ask now is o d aw he igh conclusions om his.
PLAN HUMAN RESOURCES
REALISTICALLY
S a ing le els a e di ec ly ela ed o phenomena such as psychological
and physical o e load and p essu e ha poses a isk o heal h. Re-
sea che s ha e long c i icised excessi e ime and pe o mance p es-
su es, a ibu ing hem o he ac ha s a ing le els a e o en calcu-
la ed oo igh ly. E en jus a no mal le el o sickness o en c ea es a
need o o e ime and wo k in ensi ica ion. I indi iduals o e en
se e al employees a a ime wan o educe hei wo king ime, cu
back on o e ime o ake ime ou , hen con lic s a e ine i able. O en
in such si ua ions, he ac ual s uc u al p oblem o inadequa e s a -
ing le els is cons ued – by supe iso s, in eams o e en by hose
WHERE
CAN WE BEGIN?
WORK ORGANISATION
PEOPLE TAKE CENTRE STAGE
149
a ec ed hemsel es – as a p oblem caused by employees. As a esul ,
impo an conce ns such as wo k / li e balance, e aining o main-
aining good heal h a e dis ega ded. Thus pe sonnel planning s a s
o clash wi h objec i es ha a e also bene icial o he company, such
as main aining e iciency, high wo k mo i a ion and low le els o
con lic wi hin wo k eams.
Wo ks councils ega d s a ing le els commensu a e wi h he ac ual
olume o wo k equi ed as he mos p essing issue hey ha e o deal
wi h (74 pe cen ), ollowed by es ic ing wo k in ensi y (70 pe cen )
(aHle s 2016b ) . A he same ime, he e is a majo disc epancy be-
ween he impo ance o he issue and he ole i plays in wo kplace
nego ia ions.
FOOD FOR THOUGHT COLLECTIVE
AGREEMENTS ON STAFFING LEVELS
The calcula ion o s a ing le els should become subjec o collec i e
ba gaining. This does no mean me iculously calcula ing ime uni s
o indi idual p ocesses bu a he s ipula ing igh s o (long- e m) wo k-
o ce planning p ocedu es in collec i e ag eemen s. In addi ion, mech-
anisms should be es ablished o how o p oceed in he e en o em-
ployee o e load and s a sho ages.
The collec i e ba gaining ag eemen on ‘Occupa ional heal h and de-
mog aphy’ concluded in Ap il 2016 by e .di, he Ge man se ices
ade union, and he managemen o he Cha i é hospi al in Be lin,
could se e as a model. This ag eemen was p eceded by a cou deci-
sion on he ques ion o he ela ionship be ween en ep eneu ial
eedom and he heal h o he wo k o ce as a good o be p o ec ed. The
ac ha he cou came down on he side o employees’ heal h is, in
he Commission’s iew, g ound-b eaking.
The collec i e ag eemen de ines o e load indica o s, such as a de-
pa men ’s c i ical age s uc u e, inadequa e depa men al, di isional
o wa d managemen , he olume o o e ime wo ked and he num-
be o haza dous inciden epo s and complain s. In he case o nu s-
ing se ices and o -wa d unc ional uni s, minimum s anda ds o s a -
ing le els we e speci ied ha we e linked o ules o p ocedu e. They se
ERWERBSTÄTIGKEIT
STANDARDS FÜR DIE VIELFALT
3

THE WORLD OF WORK
WILL CHANGE FUNDAMENTALLY
IN THE COMING DECADES.
Wha o ces a e a wo k in he labou ma ke ? Wha changes
a e o be expec ed? And wha does his mean o he ac o s
in labou ma ke policy? This inal epo by he Wo k o he
Fu u e Commission, whose membe s included academics,
p ac i ione s and ep esen a i es om businesses and he ade
unions, o e s a diagnosis o he p esen si ua ion and a ange
o iews on he u u e o wo k. Abo e all, howe e , he Commis-
sion p o ides ood o hough on how socie y migh manage
he whi lwind o change in such a way ha wo k in he digi al
economy will gua an ee e e yone mo e han jus hei li e-
lihood, namely social pa icipa ion and p ospec s o he u u e.