Cachia, Jean Claude; Ellul, Fab izio; Ha wood, Ma k; Sammu , Ca men
A icle
Mal a and he 2019 EP elec ions: Maximising popula
engagemen wi h "Eu ope"
Re iew o Economics and Poli ical Science (REPS)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Cai o Uni e si y, Cai o
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Cachia, Jean Claude; Ellul, Fab izio; Ha wood, Ma k; Sammu , Ca men (2020) :
Mal a and he 2019 EP elec ions: Maximising popula engagemen wi h "Eu ope", Re iew o
Economics and Poli ical Science (REPS), ISSN 2631-3561, Eme ald, Bingley, Vol. 5, Iss. 4, pp. 305-322,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/REPS-02-2020-0032
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Mal a and he 2019 EP elec ions –
maximising popula engagemen
wi h “Eu ope”
Jean Claude Cachia,Fab izio Ellul,Ma k Ha wood and
Ca men Sammu
Ins i u e o Eu opean S udies, Depa men o In e na ional Rela ions,
Uni e si y o Mal a, Msida, Mal a
Abs ac
Pu pose –The pu pose o his pape is o analyse why Mal a con inues o show he highes le el o u nou
o Eu opean Pa liamen (EP) elec ions in a coun y whe e o ing is no obliga o y. By analysing he Mal ese
EP elec ions om 2004 o 2019, he pape seeks o unde s and why he Mal ese engage wi h a second o de
elec ion o he deg ee ha hey do.
Design/me hodology/app oach –The pape is a combina ion o quali a i e and quan i a i e me hods,
fi s assessing he con ex o he 2019 elec ions, he his o ical ends and hen he ac o s ha help explain
why he Mal ese con inue o engage wi h EP elec ions.
Findings –The pape finds ha he Mal ese poli ical sys em, highly pola ised and domina ed by wo
pa ies, p ima ily gal anises people o engage wi h elec ions, ha i is mo e abou pa y leade ship han
ac ual engagemen wi h Eu ope and ha second o de elec ions in Mal a a e o en un as fi s o de elec ions.
O iginali y/ alue –This pape is he only sys ema ic e alua ion o he 2019 EP elec ions in Mal a,
discusses ca ego ically ha EP elec ions a e a ely abou Eu ope while also showing clea ly ha poli ical
pa ies can make second-o de elec ions appea as fi s -o de elec ions should he s akes be high enough.
Keywo ds Mal a, Small s a es, Eu opean elec ions, Second-o de elec ions, Two-pa y sys ems,
Single ans e able o ing, Fa - igh
Pape ype Resea ch pape
1. In oduc ion
The ou h Eu opean Pa liamen (EP) elec ions in Mal a, held on May 25, 2019, confi med
he coun y’s pos -independence end o poli ics o be a wo-ho se ace. The coun y’s wo
main pa ies, he Social Democ a s, Labou Pa y (Pa i Labu is a; PL) and Ch is ian
Democ a s, he Na ionalis Pa y (Pa i Nazzjonalis a; PN), won o e 92% o he o es cas
and di ided he six sea s a ailable amongs hemsel es (4 o he PL, 2 o he PN). This esul
was in-line wi h he coun y’s s a us as a s able wo-pa y sys em, wi h he wo main pa ies
al e na ing in powe since 1950 and all hi d pa ies elimina ed om pa liamen in 1966 [1].
Unlike mos coun ies in sou he n Eu ope, he e was no h ea o he s abili y o his
a angemen wi h o he pa ies only managing 3% o he o e (Impe ium Eu opa; IE) and
© Jean Claude Cachia, Fab izio Ellul, Ma k Ha wood and Ca men Sammu . Published in Re iew o
Economics and Poli ical Science. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published
unde he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce, dis ibu e,
ansla e and c ea e de i a i e wo ks o his a icle ( o bo h comme cial and non-comme cial
pu poses), subjec o ull a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o his
licence may be seen a h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
Mal a and he
2019 EP
elec ions
305
Recei ed 28 Feb ua y 2020
Re ised 11 May 2020
Accep ed 14 June 2020
Re iew o Economics and Poli ical
Science
Vol. 5 No. 4, 2020
pp. 305-322
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
e-ISSN: 2631-3561
p-ISSN: 2356-9980
DOI 10.1108/REPS-02-2020-0032
The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a :
h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /2631-3561.h m
2% (Democ a ic Pa y (Pa i Demok a iku; PD), well below he 14% quo a needed o secu e
a sea .
This a icle will discuss he ac o s which help explain he high le els o engagemen by
he Mal ese elec o a e in EP elec ions, e en hough he la e a e gene ally aken as second-
o de elec ions (SOE) and he e o e cha ac e ised by lowe u nou . By analysing he con ex
wi hin which he 2019 EP elec ions ook place, he campaigns as well as pos -elec ion
analysis, we will discuss h ee in e ela ed ques ions, namely, whe he Mal a’s EP elec ions
a e SOE, wha Mal a’s expe ience can say abou he SOE model and wha ac o s help
explain why Mal a con inues o show he highes le el o engagemen in Eu opean elec ions
( om a coun y whe e o ing is no compulso y)? Addi ionally, we will also discuss why
non-mains eam pa ies, especially hose on he a - igh , pe o m so poo ly conside ing
how well hey pe o m in o he coun ies du ing EP elec ions.
2. Second-o de elec ions and Mal a Eu opean Pa liamen elec ions
Rei and Schmi (1980) pu o wa d he second-o de model he yea a e he fi s di ec EP
elec ion in 1979. The model cen es on he assump ion ha because li le is a s ake in
Eu opean elec ions ha his hen influences o ing beha iou and makes elec ion esul s
di e om fi s -o de elec ions (FOE). In pa icula , hey no ed ha because o hei
pe cei ed lack o impo ance, o e u nou will be lowe han in na ional elec ions wi h
mo e in alid o ing (SOE held soon a e FOE end o see elec o al a igue and lowe
u nou , SOE held owa ds he end o a FOE cycle end o see ela i ely highe u nou ).
Addi ionally, he model pos ula es an impac on pa y choice and elec o al ou comes. In he
fi s case, he SOE a e aken as a e e endum on uling pa ies wi h a endency o
go e ning pa ies o lose o es o o he pa ies. This model applies bu wi h he p o iso o
how nea he SOE is o a FOE. He e he supposi ion is ha should Eu opean elec ions ake
place soon a e na ional elec ions, hen uling pa ies may be p o ec ed om losing o es o
opposi ion pa ies because hey s ill enjoy he “honeymoon”e ec o he FOE. Rela ed o
his, while FOE o e s cas hei ballo s a egically, in EP elec ions he ac ha he ou come
appea s o ha e less di ec impac on o e s’li es means ha people o e less s a egically
and end o o e close o hei ac ual policy p e e ences, om he hea , wi h he esul ha
ca ch-all, mains eam pa ies end o do less well.
While he model has wi hs ood he es o ime, se e al s udies ha e sough o efine i , in
pa icula when EP elec ion esul s ha e de ia ed om he model’s expec a ions while some
ha e ques ioned whe he he EP elec ions a e s ill SOE. G ande and Hu e (2016) and Van
de B ug and De V eese (2016) ou line he ele ance o he SOE model highligh ing how
na ional elec ions a e always expec ed o be mo e impo an o Eu opean ci izens, wi h
mo e in e es s in ol ed, which will esul in a s onge poli ical s uggle be ween he main
poli ical pa ies which will con ibu e o a highe u nou . Van de B ug and De V eese
(2016) belie e ha e en a e ou decades, he Eu opean Elec ions s ill do no ha e a clea
pu pose. They a gue ha while he powe s o he Eu opean Pa liamen ha e inc eased o e
ime, pa icula ly wi h he Lisbon T ea y, he Eu opean Council and Eu opean Commission
a e s ill he dominan ins i u ions wi hin he EU. This leads hem o conclude ha while he
SOE model has i s weakness, i is s ill ele an o oday’s Eu opean Elec ions.
In e ms o he model i sel , Manow (2005) obse ed ha he ime a iable used by Rei
and Schmi was based on he assump ion ha go e nmen s enac unpopula policies in he
fi s yea s o o fice in he hope ha hese will bea ui in he pe iod p io o he nex
elec ion, an assump ion ha his esea ch indica ed could no be confi med. As indica ed by
him, and de eloped u he by Schakel (2015), economic pe o mance (economic g ow h,
infla ion and unemploymen ) appea as be e indica o s o how well uling pa ies will
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pe o m. Schakel (2015) hen goes on o discuss how o e swi ching o o he pa ies is based
on pa y ype (Schakel dis inguishes be ween six pa y ypes) wi h a endency o punish o
ewa d pa ies [wi h Rei (1985) obse ing ha he endency o punish is mo e no iceable in
bipola pa y sys ems]. This la e poin eflec s he ea lie wo k o Eijk e al. (1996) whe e i
was obse ed ha he endency o abs ain in SOE was no uni o m and ha inge pa ies
we e less likely o see o e apa hy om hei suppo e s han he mains eam pa ies, e en
hough o ing decisions emain la gely based on na ional poli ics (Hix and Ma sh, 2007;
Schmi , 2005;Holbol and Wi ock, 2011). In addi ion, Schmi (2005) obse ed ha much
o he SOE li e a u e seemed o apply less o he 2004 accession s a es, hough he e he
obse a ion cen ed on he cen al and eas e n Eu opean coun ies and no Cyp us and
Mal a.
Fu he o his, an addi ional discussion has cen ed on whe he he SOE model s ill
applies o Eu opean Pa liamen elec ions, especially in he ligh o he inc eased ele ance o
he Union in he aus e i y poli ics o he Eu ozone financial c isis pos -2008 as well as he
g ea e p ominence o an empowe ed EP. In pa icula , Schmi and Tepe oglou (2015) no ed
ha he 2014 elec ions had he po en ial o a no able shi in he applica ion o he model, in
pa icula he campaign o he Spi zenkandida en as well as he inc eased salience o
Eu ope in domes ic poli ics wi h g owing Eu oscep icism (Schmi and Tepe oglou, 2015,
p. 288). The la e phenomena is key wi hin he con ex o whe he Eu opean elec ions ha e
become c i ical elec ions, namely, indica i e o changes in he adi ional coali ions be ween
social g oups and hei poli ical agen s, hence necessi a ing ealignmen (Key, 1955). While
his si ua ion may apply o sou he n Eu ope, Mal a has always been an anomaly in he
egion since he economic c isis ailed o each i s sho es, hence he impo ance o discussing
he con ex wi hin which he EP elec ion ook place.
The applica ion o he SOE model o pas EP elec ions in Mal a appea s o con o m o
expec a ions; since 2004, u nou has always been significan ly lowe han na ional elec ions
while he pe cen age o in alid o es has also been highe (Tables 1 and 2). Howe e , in
e ms o uling pa ies being punished o he benefi o opposing pa ies as well as smalle ,
Table 1.
Mal ese EP elec ion
esul s
2004 2009 2014 2019
Numbe o sea s 5 5 6 6
Quo a 40,954 41,362 35,979 37,174
Regis e ed o e s 304,283 322,411 344,356 371,643
Vo es cas 250,691 (82.4%) 254,039 (78.8%) 257,588 (74.8%) 270,022 (72.7%)
Valid o es 245,722 (98%) 248,169 (97.7%) 251,851 (97.8%) 260,212 (96.4%)
In alid o es 4,969 (2%) 5,870 (2.3%) 5,737 (2.2%) 9,810 (3.6%)
Sou ce: Compiled om da a a ailable a he Mal a Elec o al Commission (2019)
Table 2.
Mal ese gene al
elec ion esul s
2008 2013 2017
Regis e ed o e s 315,357 333,072 341,856
Vo es cas 294,214 (93.3%) 309,600 (93%) 314,696 (92.1%)
Valid o es 290,799 (98.8%) 305,556 (98.7%) 310,665 (98.7%)
In alid o es 3,415 (1.2%) 4,044 (1.3%) 4,031 (1.3%)
Sou ce: Compiled om da a a ailable a he Mal a Elec o al Commission (2019)
Mal a and he
2019 EP
elec ions
307
inge pa ies, he pic u e has been mo e mixed. While he model applies o Mal a in 2004
and 2009 wi h he opposi ion PL winning significan ly o e he uling PN, he 2014 elec ions
saw he uling pa y win a significan majo i y o e he opposi ion. This can be explained
by he honeymoon e ec as he PL had only won he na ional elec ions 15 mon hs be o e
(Ca ammia and Pace, 2015, p. 440). In ac , i can be a gued ha he 2004 EP elec ions in
Mal a we e he mos closely complian wi h he SOE model, as non-mains eam pa ies, in
pa icula he G eens (Al e na i a Demok a ika; AD), did significan ly well, gaining nea ly
10% o he o e while he uling pa y was punished (Ha wood, 2005). Since hen, he Mal a
case s udy ends o di e ge in e ms o how well he uling pa y does is-a- is bo h he
opposi ion and non-mains eam pa ies. In ac , as Ca ammia and Pace (2015) no ein e ms
o big pa ies losing o smalle pa ies “while we expec his p edic ion o apply, we also
a gue ha Mal a’s poli ical ins i u ions significan ly limi he magni ude o he e ec ”
(Ca ammia and Pace, 2015, p. 427).
Se e al ac o s can be b ough o wa d o explain his. In pa icula , he Mal ese elec o al
sys em limi s he possibili y o smalle pa ies om winning sea s. While he single
ans e able o ing sys em allows he elec o a e o o e o candida es and no pa ies, i is
la gely h ough an inhe i ance o o es ha a candida e is elec ed. In his way, a e anking
candida es (wi h “1”being he p e e ed candida e), a quo a is es ablished which mus be
me o win a sea . While a ew candida es migh exceed he quo a (wi h hei su plus o es
going o he pe son lis ed as second p e e ence on he ballo shee ) he as majo i y o
candida es a e elec ed hough he elimina ion o hose who pe o m wo s . This has wo
impo an consequences. The fi s is ha he quo a ep esen s a de ac o h eshold o 14 o
16% pe dis ic ( o gene al elec ions Mal a is di ided in o 13 dis ic s wi h fi e sea s
a ailable in each dis ic ; o EP elec ions he coun y is conside ed a single dis ic wi h six
sea s a ailable) and he e o e limi s he possibili y o hi d pa ies om being elec ed and
dissuades o e s om “was ing” hei o es. The second consequence ela es o he ac ha
candida es will only ha e a chance o inhe i ing enough o es o mee he quo a i hey a e in
a pa y lis wi h many o he “simila ”candida es. As e y ew candida es mee he quo a on
he fi s coun hen candida es mus be in a posi ion o inhe i om o he candida es and
only he la ge pa ies p o ide candida e lis s wi h ha po en ial.
Howe e , his elec o al ad an age is only one elemen o he poli ical sys em and he wo
main pa ies ha e, since independence in 1964, consolida ed hei con ol o e he poli ical
landscape. Wi h he absolu e con ol o e go e nmen gi en by a wo-pa y s a e, he uling
pa y enjoys ex ensi e oppo uni ies o pa onage, ein o cing hei powe , hei abili y o
mobilise suppo and he impo ance o fi s -o de elec ions o he gene al popula ion. As
wi h he Wes mins e sys em upon which i is modelled, Mal a is a highly pa isan poli ical
landscape which me ely ein o ces he ad e sa ial na u e o poli ics and unde sco es he
high le els o engagemen wi h na ional elec ions which enjoy u nou s in excess o 90%.
The powe o he pa ies becomes e en mo e p onounced when we ake in o
conside a ion he wo pa y’s con ol o e he media landscape. B oadly, Mal ese media s ill
fi s nea ly wi hin he “pola ized and plu alis ”concep p esen ed by Hallin and Mancini
(2004), al hough he islands we e no included in hei o iginal s udy (Sammu , 2007).
Acco ding o Papa hanassopoulos (2007), media in sou he n Eu ope sha e common
cha ac e is ics, such as ad ocacy epo ing, he poli ical ins umen alisa ion o p i a ely
owned media, and he poli icisa ion o public b oadcas ing and egula o y amewo ks, as
well as limi ed au onomy and s alled p o essionalism.
In Mal a, pa y newspape s ini ially had s ong ideological leanings, bu om he 1990s
ideologies aded inc emen ally a e he main pa ies adop ed a middle-o - he- oad posi ion,
and hey now hold b oadly simila iews on se e al issues, including social wel a e,
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educa ion, o eign policy, and economic ision. The pa y b and has become inc easingly
blended wi h he image o pa y leade s. Disconnec ed om ideology, elec o al suppo is
mo e dependen on pe suasion s a egies ha a e deli e ed h ough poli ical communica ion
ac ics. In e ms o b oadcas ing, wi h he in oduc ion o plu alism in b oadcas ing in 1991,
he wo main poli ical pa ies as well as he Ca holic chu ch, we e gi en a compe i i e
ad an age. They we e g an ed b oadcas ing licenses be o e anyone else. The plu alis ic
scena io had p omised o inc ease he numbe o comme cial playe s, bu ew we e as
success ul as he pa y-owned media. In his way, he Mal ese sys em has been deemed
idiosync a ic and pola ised bu wi hin a plu alis ic se ing i has some sa ing g aces. The
wo-p onged in o ma ion s eam gua an ees ha dominan messages emana ing om
he s a e and he uling pa y a e con inuously coun e ailed by s ong dissen ing ones om
he opposi ion and non-pa isan media. While poli ical li e a u e in many pa liamen a y
democ acies is now conce ned wi h he weakening o poli ical pa ies, he Mal ese media
emain channels o na ion-wide deba es and ci izen pa icipa ion. Mo eo e , h ough hei
media sub-sys ems Mal ese poli ical pa ies, ade unions and he Chu ch ha e emained
p incipal agen s o public discou se and key in e media ies be ween he public and he s a e.
Agains his backg ound, he possibili y o hi d pa ies succeeding, e en in SOE, is limi ed
and ep esen s a limi a ion in he applica ion o he model o a wo-pa y s a e.
Be o e analysing he 2019 elec ion, a final wo d should be said ega ding he issue o
Eu ope in domes ic poli ics. While Mal a was he only 2004 accession s a e whe e a majo
pa y (PL) and a significan pa o he elec o a e opposed membe ship, he ques ion o
Eu ope has been emo ed om Mal ese poli ics as a di isi e issue. Once he Labou pa y
los he 2003 membe ship e e endum and ensuing gene al elec ion, he pa y inc easingly
came o emb ace membe ship and nei he he Social Democ a s no he Ch is ian Democ a s
ha e an incen i e o poli icise membe ship, a ac ha is eflec ed in he excep ionally high
app o al a ing o he EU amongs he Mal ese, always some o he highes in Eu ope and
always abo e he EU a e age (Ha wood, 2020). The ac ha he Mal ese economy was
ba ely ouched by he financial c isis and con inues o boom while immig a ion [2],a
p ima y conce n amongs he Mal ese, has no been confla ed wi h EU membe ship by he
main pa ies, means ha Eu ope was unlikely o be a di isi e issue in he 2019 EP elec ions.
To add ess ou o iginal esea ch ques ions, his pape is cen ed on a quali a i e discussion
o he poli ical campaigns wi h he poli ical pa ies o ficial mani es os, p omo ional ideos,
billboa ds and social media accoun s used o obse e hei 2019 Eu opean Elec ion
campaigns. In addi ion, and o complemen he main findings om he quali a i e sou ces,
a ious s a is ics on Mal a’s economic pe o mance a e also used. Bo h me hods we e
impo an o p o ide a quan i a i e analysis o he esul s, and o p o ide a discussion o he
applica ion o he SOE model o he Mal ese case s udy and de ailed obse a ions o why
some pa ies a ed be e han o he in he Mal ese Eu opean elec ions.
3. The poli ical con ex o he 2019 elec ions
The Eu opean elec ions ook place in a poli ical landscape inc easingly domina ed by he
Social Democ a s, he PL. The hen P ime Minis e (PM) appea ed o enjoy significan ly
high le els o us amongs he Mal ese, bu his pa y had been unde mined by inc easing
conce ns ega ding he ule o law, especially a e e ela ions ega ding he Panama Pape s
in ol ing one membe o he go e nmen and he PM’s hen Chie o S a and he mu de o
a p ominen jou nalis (Daphne Ca uana Galizia) in 2017 [3]. Inc easingly people ook o he
s ee s exp essing ha conce n bu a p inciple me hod used by he Opposi ion o a ack he
Go e nmen on his issue was h ough he EP wi h Na ionalis MEPs inc easingly pushing
o he go e nmen ’s ac ions o be challenged and he PN spun his as Mal ese MEPs
Mal a and he
2019 EP
elec ions
309
de ending he coun y’s epu a ion; accusa ions o MEPs a nishing Mal a’s epu a ion
would pe ade he 2019 campaign.
Much o he PL’s suppo can be a ibu ed o he coun y’s economic o unes, he
economy con inuing o expand wi h Mal a ha ing one o he highes g ow h a es in he EU.
Howe e , despi e Mal a’s success a numbe o conce ns s a ed o eme ge by he end o 2018.
The op conce ns o he Mal ese popula ion we e Mig a ion (50%), Housing (29%),
en i onmen /ene gy and clima e issues (28%) and cos o li ing/infla ion (19%)
(Eu oba ome e , 2019), wi h popula ion g ow h one o he highes in Eu ope, in a coun y
al eady one o he mos densely popula ed places in he wo ld (Eu os a , 2019).
Wi h landslide ic o ies o he Social Democ a s in he gene al elec ions o 2013 and
2017, he Ch is ian Democ a s ha e been unde mined by in e nal p oblems, including
financial ins abili y and an inc easingly di ided pa y on social issues. When he pa y
los he 2017 elec ions he leade (Simon Busu il) esigned and was eplaced by a pa y
unknown, Ad ian Delia. Howe e , a he ime o he 2019 EP elec ions, he PN appea ed
mo e spli han e e , spli on ideology and spli on loyal y wi h he accusa ion ha he
o me leade s ill led a ac ion wi hin he pa y which sough o unde mine he new
leade [4].
The e o e, Mal a wen in o he 2019 elec ions acing he eali y ha he PL seemed
unassailable, ha he PN had no esol ed i s in e nal p oblems, unce ain y eigned as o
how he PD would pe o m when no in alliance wi h he PN and conce n o e how
success ul he a - igh would be in ga ne ing o es as xenophobic sen imen con inued o
g ow, p ima ily online. Economically, he coun y had ne e had i so good hough i was
clea ha a lack o egula ion p e ailed (conce ns o e s anda ds in he cons uc ion
indus y we e no helped by he collapse o a numbe o buildings in ea ly 2019, culmina ing
in a mo a o ium on exca a ions soon a e he elec ions) and acial ensions we e moun ing,
especially a e he mu de o an A ican immig an wi h he accused being soldie s om
he A med Fo ces.
4. The candida es and he elec o a e
By he ime o he o ficial launch o he campaigns in Ap il 2019, he lis o candida es
numbe ed 41, he la ges numbe o candida es o e e con es a Mal ese elec ion in a single
dis ic . The uling Labou Pa y fielded 14 candida es (including wo incumben s wi h one
si ing MEP choosing no o un), he Na ionalis s fielded en (including all h ee
incumben s) wi h he Democ a ic Pa y fielding ou candida es (including one si ing MP).
The AD, Alleanza Bidla (AB) and Mo imen Pa ijo i Mal in (MPM) all fielded wo
candida es, while he emaining wo pa ies (B ains no Ego and Impe ium Eu opa)fielded a
single candida e wi h he emaining fi e candida es unning as independen s, including a
membe o he G een Pa y who op ed ou o his pa y lis mid-campaign.
In addi ion o he elec ions being con es ed by he la ges numbe o candida es e e , i
was also o no e o he significan inc ease in hose eligible o o e; in addi ion o he
egis e ed Mal ese, he elec ion also allowed EU ci izens he igh o o e. Acco ding o he
Elec o al Commission hese amoun ed o 18,375 o e s (TVM, 2019). The 2019 elec ions
we e also he fi s elec ion a e he adop ion o new elec o al laws, passed in Ma ch 2018,
which lowe ed he o ing age o 16 o na ional and EP elec ions ( he o ing age had been
lowe ed o local council elec ions in 2015). Mal a is now he second EU coun y (a e
Aus ia) o ex end he anchise o his age g oup. In his way, he EP elec ions ha e seen a
s eady inc ease in eligible o e s, as can be seen in Tables 1 and 2, and while he numbe o
o es cas con inued o inc ease, 2019 ep esen ed a sligh decline in ela i e u nou
compa ed o 2014.
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5. The campaigns (and he ele ance o “Eu ope”)
The elec ion campaigns began in ea nes in he hi d and ou h week o Ap il. The Labou
Pa y launched i s campaign unde he slogan, Mal a in ou Hea s, much o he annoyance
o he PD which had issued i s slogan, Ou Coun y in ou Hea s, in Janua y. The
Na ionalis s wen wi h Toge he o ou Coun y, while he AD wen wi h Vo e G een, Vo e
Clean. The slogans unde lined a majo heme o he elec ions, a ia ions on he heme o
pa io ism.
5.1 The mains eam pa ies
The wo main pa ies ocused hei campaigns on billboa ds, slo s and social media. Fo
Labou , a dual campaign was un, ocusing on upbea messages and pledges o u u e
p ospe i y wi h ocused, nega i e messages agains he opposi ion, in pa icula accusing
PN MEPs o unde mining Mal a’s posi ion in B ussels and being disloyal [loyal y being a
key concep in Mal ese socie y (Mi chell, 2003)]. Pa icula a en ion was aken o a ack
Ad ian Delia and o me pa y leade , Simon Busu il, claiming ha he old leade was s ill
calling he sho s. The ac ha he campaigns we e o become highly pe sonal was clea
om he fi s when he P ime Minis e (PM) concluded he launch o his pa y’s campaign
by s a ing ha “you can call me a socialis [...] a Eu opean. Bu call me Mal ese fi s and
o emos ”and wen on o ask ha he elec o a e compa e him wi h he opposi ion leade and
decide who was bes placed o p epa e o he u u e (Mal aToday, 2019a). In ac , only a ew
candida es would ea u e in bo h he PN and PL campaigns wi h much o he message
cen ing on he pa y leade s. As wi h he launch, he PM ended he campaign by making
clea ha his was an issue o us and confidence in who could bes lead he coun y wi h
his concluding ema k being ha “i ’s ei he Ad ian Delia o me”(Mal aToday, 2019b). Fo
he PN, he campaign was p ima ily nega i e, wi h ew p oposals gi en majo a en ion and
he ocus o he campaign being squa ely on a acking he P ime Minis e and hose a ound
him implica ed in he Panama Pape s. This nega i e campaign p oceeded o backfi e
consis en ly wi h he pa y going in o he elec ion on a cons an back oo .
Ou side he gene al i al y o he pa ies and he ading o insul s [Mal a had he hi d
highes nega i e campaign o he 28 membe s a es (No elli and Johansson, 2019, p. 22)] wo
issues came o domina e he deba e wi h abo ion and ax ha monisa ion becoming a cen al
plank o he Opposi ion’s campaign and launched as a esul o he Socialis and Democ a s
(S&D) mani es o and Spi zenkandida . This was o in e es because Eu ope figu ed in
almos no elemen o he campaign o he han hose o he smalle pa ies wi h he AD being
conspicuous in i s posi i e e e ences o Eu ope and he IE and MPM in hei nega i e
e e ences o Eu ope (No elli and Johansson, 2019, p. 186). Ha dly any o he EP g oup
mani es oes we e e e enced, none o hei logos used no ocus gi en o he
Spi zenkandida , wi h bo h Man ed Webe (EPP) and F ans Timme mans (S&D) isi ing
he islands bu only appea ing in he con ex o he PN’s campaign on abo ion and ax
ha monisa ion.
The opic o abo ion was always going o be a sensi i e one wi h he issue en e ing he
Mal ese poli ical space in he pas wo yea s, especially a e he app o al o he mo ning-
a e pill in 2016, and while all pa ies, including he G eens, emain commi ed o he ban on
abo ion, he issue inc easingly ose o p ominence, in he ligh o he S&D mani es o pledge
o “e e y indi idual ( o ha e) access o hei ull sexual and ep oduc i e igh s (and) he
igh o decide o e hei own body”(S&D 2019). By May he issue had en e ed cen e s age
wi h Ad ian Delia s a ing, on 12 May, ha a o e o Labou was a o e o abo ion and ha
he elec ions we e a e e endum on he in oduc ion o abo ion in Mal a. Billboa ds we e
e ec ed o a newbo n baby wi h he slogan “Li e: i is my igh ”. Howe e , he PN was soon
Mal a and he
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on he back oo once again and ha ing o de end i s campaign, s a ing ha i was du y
bound o le he elec o a e know ha bo h he S&D and G eens we e in a ou o abo ion
igh s e en hough he Labou Pa y had ei e a ed i s s and agains abo ion. One o he
mos impo an consequences o he deba e was he exi o A nold Cassola om he G eens
as he la e e used o disassocia e i sel om he commen s o one o i s candida es ha
he e should be a sa e space in which o deba e abo ion. Wi h his shock exi , he AD los i s
las ounding membe and i s mos p ominen public ace. Mo e se iously, “ he PN’s quixo ic
campaign on abo ion was ed wha li le ene gy and desi e exis ed o a posi i e,
p eposi ional campaign”(Pace and Ca ammia, 2019, p. 200).
The o he majo heme ha came o domina e he PN’s campaign was conce ns o e ax
ha monisa ion ollowing he S&D’s pledge o “s op downwa d co po a e ax compe i ion”
(S&D 2019) and F ans Timme mans commi men o he same. Repea ed e e ence was made
h oughou he closing week o he campaign o he issue wi h he majo pa ies ading
accusa ions ha he coun y’s epu a ion was unde h ea . In his way, while Eu ope did
no ea u e in a p ominen ligh , i was used as a eac i e elemen in he PN campaign
hough nei he issue gained much ac ion, and his could be o se e al easons, including
he ac ha no pa y was ad oca ing in a ou o abo ion while co po a e ax
ha monisa ion, a alid conce n, migh ha e been di ficul o sell o he gene al public.
Ul ima ely, beyond he mud-slinging and accusa ions o disloyal y o Mal a, he issue o
us seemed o domina e; us o de end Mal a’s in e es s and us o de end he Mal ese
Go e nmen . In a su ey published on 12 h May, he bigges ac o ci ed o suppo ing
candida es was hei abili y o “de end Mal a”s name’; o PL o e s his was a key issue
(36%) bu less so o PN suppo e s (14%) (Mal aToday, 2019c). Fo PL suppo e s, he
second impo an issue was “showing suppo o go e nmen ” ollowed by illegal
immig a ion. Fo he PN i was, secondly, “capable MEPs”and hen he en i onmen and
comba ing en i onmen al des uc ion (Mal aToday, 2019c).
Beyond he wo main pa ies, he AD and he PD an less conspicuous campaigns hough
PD candida es we e o no e o hei inno a i e use o social media, he candida e Camilla
Appleg en being especially ac i e online. Fo he AD, i decided o ocus i s ene gy on he
Local Council elec ions, which we e held simul aneously wi h he EP elec ions. In ac , AD’s
mani es o “G een is he answe ”combined bo h he Eu opean and Local Elec ions; he logo
designed o his campaign we e abs ac geome ic shapes (AD, 2019). The end esul was a
lacklus e campaign and AD’s wo s elec o al esul in i s 30-yea his o y. Fo he PD, mos
o he campaign was based on na ional issues wi h he pa y highligh ing he lack o good
go e nance in Mal a and he damage he Labou adminis a ion was doing o he
en i onmen . The campaign was c i ical o bo h he Labou and Na ionalis Pa ies, ye i
was no jus ocused on he c i icism owa ds hem, since i also highligh ed he wo k he
pa y would do o he sake o he coun y. One o he main weaknesses o he ac ual
campaign was ha no poli ical mani es o was published by he pa y. In addi ion, and as in
he case o all he pa ies, he symbol o he ALDE g oup was a ely p esen on p omo ional
ma e ial.
5.2 The non-Mains eam pa ies
No man Lowell, IE’s ounding membe , was IE’s only candida e o he 2019 EP elec ions.
His image ea u ed in leafle s, pos e s and public in o ma ion ideo clips, his eccen ici y
making him a celeb i y o so s. O en in i ed on o small cable TV channels and
p og ammes o cou con o e sy, his was amplified by a “shocked”mains eam media
c ea ing in en ionally o unin en ionally a media cycle o discussion a ound him, e en
hough he main Mal ese TV s a ions e used o gi e No man Lowell ai space. S ylis ically
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Fu he , Mal a’s poli ical sys em emains highly p agma ic wi h bo h main pa ies
shi ing ideology h ough he yea s, e aining ce ain flexibili y wi hin i s anks. Thei
abili y o change posi ion makes hem also highly unlikely o implode as can be ypical in
o he EU MS. Thei ins inc o poli ical su i al is ema kable. The 2019 Eu oba ome e
su ey highligh ed how us in he go e nmen was a 63% compa ed o he EU a e age o
35%. In addi ion, while us in Mal a’s poli ical pa ies s ood a 36%, i was s ill double he
EU a e age o 18%. This means ha he elec o a e did no eel he need o shi hei suppo
owa ds o he pa ies and eflec s his p agma ic and flexible pa y sys em.
On op o his, he gene al con en quali y o he Fa -Righ pa y campaigning was
pa icula ly poo . IE is dependen on No man Lowell –who has been on and o he poli ical
scene since 2004 –an eccen ic indi idual ha cou s en e aining con o e sy. I is di ficul
o see how IE and he Fa -Righ could ha e ga ne ed mo e suppo based on hei EP
Elec ions campaign when a Eu opean Commission su ey in 2019 e ealed ha Mal ese
ci izens use ele ision s a ions (63%), websi es (43%), social media (36%) and adio (31%) o
ga he in o ma ion on he Eu opean Union (Eu oba ome e , 2019). These a - igh poli ical
pa ies a e s ill no able o compe e wi h he es ablished poli ical pa ies due o he ac ha
he la e ha e hei own adio and ele ision channels.
8. Conclusion
In conclusion, we can say ha he Mal ese EP elec ions confi m many o he obse a ions
p edic ed by he SOE model bu ha he e a e impo an limi a ions, p ima ily cen ed on
he ac ha he STV sys em coupled wi h he s ong, ad e sa ial na u e o Mal ese poli ics
and dominance o he wo main pa ies means ha he e a e ew incen i es o o e o non-
mains eam pa ies and ha , in his espec , he dynamic expec ed in e ms o suppo o
uling and non- uling pa ies will be skewed, especially when opposi ion pa ies make i
di ficul o he elec o a e o o e o hem. Wi h no incen i es o o e o hi d pa ies and
negligible expec a ions o ha suppo being e ec i e, o e s end o be co alled in o
be ing on a wo-ho se ace. The 2019 elec ions saw a no able win o he PL, winning ou o
he six sea s a ailable, and while some smalle pa ies did pe o m be e unde he SOE, he
s abili y o he wo-pa y sys em in Mal a emains and appea s o ex end om FOE o SOE
elec ions, ein o cing he pe cep ion o he pa ies’unassailable dominance o pos -
independence Mal ese poli ics and socie y Tha said, while he Fa -Righ did no ob ain a
ela i e high amoun o o es, hei oxic he o ic (o en an i-immig an ) ends o be
“adop ed”by he Opposi ion pa y o he day who see “populis ” he o ic as a way o ap in o
ce ain conce ns, indica ing a po en ial o inge poli ics o infil a e he mains eam.
Howe e , he Mal a case also confi ms he obse a ion o Manow (2005) and Schakel
(2015) ha he ime a iable o he o iginal SOE model is no a p ecise p edica o o how
mains eam pa ies pe o m and ha a mo e eliable indica o is economic pe o mance.
Wi h his efinemen o he o iginal model, he esul s seen in Mal a, which can appea
anomalous, appea o con o m o he model mo e p ecisely and while ce ain s uc u al
eali ies o he Mal ese poli ical sys em limi he ex ension o he discussion o he
punishmen / ewa d dynamic exp essed by Schakel (2015), i does indica e ha he SOE
model is mo e applicable when economic pe o mance eplace ime as he a iable.
In addi ion o hese gene al obse a ions abou SOE elec ions in Mal a, EP elec ions in
Mal a show high le els o engagemen because hey a e seen as an ex ension o domes ic
poli ics. Wi h he majo pa ies alloca ing esou ces as hough figh ing a fi s o de elec ion
and pa y loyal y being an in eg al pa o a wo-pa y poli ical sys em, he Mal ese a e
made o eel ha hese elec ions ma e . Howe e , he con ex in which hey a e ough is a
domes ic one and Eu ope does no ea u e p ominen ly and whe e i does, as wi h he non-
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mains eam pa ies, engagemen is minimal. While he EP and i s poli ical g oups ha e ied
o deli e he message ha “Eu ope”ma e s and ha EP elec ions a e c i ical, he Mal ese
case s udy indica es ha i is a ely abou Eu ope and always abou na ional poli ics.
No es
1. In he 2017 gene al elec ion, a hi d pa y en e ed pa liamen , he Democ a ic Pa y (Pa i
Demok a iku; PD), bu as pa o an elec o al coali ion wi h he Ch is ian Democ a s.
2. The conce n on immig a ion has ypically been on he numbe o i egula disemba ka ion ha
Mal a expe ienced om Libya since 2002, amoun ing o o e 25,000 indi iduals (mainly om
sub-Saha an coun ies) being escued and b ough o Mal a. Fo he pas ew yea s, Mal a has
also expe ienced an inc ease o EU and non-EU na ionals a ac ed by Mal a’s economic g ow h
and low unemploymen a es, which also added o he poli ical discou se on mig a ion.
3. These issues we e he basis o popula dissen owa ds he end o 2019 which o ced he P ime
Minis e , D Joseph Musca , o announce his esigna ion which became effec i e om Janua y
2020. He was eplaced as pa y leade and P ime Minis e by D Robe Abela.
4. Simon Busu il esigned his sea in Mal a’s Pa liamen in Janua y 2020 o become Sec e a y
Gene al o he Eu opean People’s Pa y wi hin he Eu opean Pa liamen .
5. Appelg en was o no e o pushing a s ong g een agenda and o endo sing abo ion in he
closing days o he elec ion, leading o a ac u e be ween he and he pa y.
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Fu he eading
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Abou he au ho s
D Jean Claude Cachia has been an academic wi h he Ins i u e o Eu opean S udies since Oc obe
2015. He eaches modules in small s a es, Eu opean Secu i y, esea ch me hods and poli ical pa ies.
He is cu en ly he Ou each Coo dina o o he Ins i u e. Jean Claude ob ained a Mas e o A s in
Diploma ic S udies in 2009 om he Medi e anean Academy o Diploma ic S udies and a Mas e o
A s in Resea ch Me hods in Poli ics and In e na ional Rela ions om he Uni e si y o Sheffield in
2010. He was awa ded a PhD in Poli ics om he Uni e si y o Lincoln in 2014 wi h a doc o al
disse a ion based on he Impac o Eu opeanisa ion on Mal a’s Poli ical Pa ies and Pa y Sys ems.
Fab izio Ellul is a Visi ing Lec u e a he Uni e si y o Mal a, eaching in he Depa men o
In e na ional Rela ions. Since 2010 he has also been a Public In o ma ion Associa e wi hin UNHCR in
Mal a. In e ms o his esponsibili ies wi h UNHCR, he es ablished he Public In o ma ion Uni in
Mal a and is UNHCR Mal a spokespe son.
D Ma k Ha wood is he Di ec o o he Ins i u e o Eu opean S udies and a Senio Lec u e in
Eu opean Compa a i e Poli ics a he Uni e si y o Mal a. He has been an academic a he Uni e si y
o Mal a since 2003, ha ing p e iously wo ked o he Eu opean Commission. He won an EU- unded
schola ship o s udy o he Mas e s in Con empo a y Eu opean S udies a he Uni e si y o Sussex
in he UK om 1996 o 1997 and in 2009, he comple ed his Doc o al hesis in Public Managemen
wi h a s udy on he Eu opeanisa ion o he Mal ese Public Adminis a ion, published in 2014 by
Ashga e as “Mal a in he Eu opean Union”. In addi ion o being Di ec o o he Ins i u e o Eu opean
S udies, D Ha wood si s on he Uni e si y’s Admissions Boa d. Ma k Ha wood is he co esponding
au ho and can be con ac ed a : [email p o ec ed]
P o esso Ca men Sammu is P o Rec o o S uden and S affAffai s and Ou each a he
Uni e si y o Mal a. She lec u es in he Depa men o In e na ional Rela ions (Facul y o A s) whe e
she also se ed as Head o Depa men . She holds a PhD in Media and Communica ions om
Goldsmi hs College, Uni e si y o London. She ob ained he Mas e s (cum laude), a Pos G adua e
Ce ifica e in Educa ion (PGCE) and a BA Deg ee om he Uni e si y o Mal a. She cu en ly eaches
and w i es abou jou nalism, in e na ional communica ions, poli ical communica ion and issues o
cul u e in in e na ional affai s. A he Uni e si y o Mal a, she also eaches jou nalism wi hin he
Facul y o Media and Knowledge Sciences (MAKS). Ca men Sammu is a long-expe ienced
b oadcas e and egula ly appea s as an analys discussing cu en e en s on Mal ese media.
Fo ins uc ions on how o o de ep in s o his a icle, please isi ou websi e:
www.eme aldg ouppublishing.com/licensing/ ep in s.h m
O con ac us o u he de ails: [email p o ec ed]
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