An analysis of the smallholder farmers' cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain through a gender perspective: the case of Dak Lak province, Vietnam

Ao, Xuan Hoa; Trinh Vuong Vu; Le, Khac Dong; Sopin Jirakiattikul; Kuaanan Techato Article An analysis of the smallholder farmers' cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain through a gender perspective: the case of Dak Lak province, Vietnam Cogent Economics & Finance Provided in Cooperation with: Taylor & Francis Group Suggested Citation: Ao, Xuan Hoa; Trinh Vuong Vu; Le, Khac Dong; Sopin Jirakiattikul; Kuaanan Techato (2019) : An analysis of the smallholder farmers' cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain through a gender perspective: the case of Dak Lak province, Vietnam, Cogent Economics & Finance, ISSN 2332-2039, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, Vol. 7, Iss. 1, pp. 1-16, https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/270673 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oaef20 Cogent Economics & Finance ISSN: (Print) 2332-2039 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/oaef20 An analysis of the smallholder farmers’ cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain through a gender perspective: the case of Dak Lak province, Vietnam Xuan Hoa Ao, Trinh Vuong Vu, Khac Dong Le, Sopin Jirakiattikul & Kuaanan Techato | To cite this article: Xuan Hoa Ao, Trinh Vuong Vu, Khac Dong Le, Sopin Jirakiattikul & Kuaanan Techato | (2019) An analysis of the smallholder farmers’ cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain through a gender perspective: the case of Dak Lak province, Vietnam, Cogent Economics & Finance, 7:1, 1645632, DOI: 10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 © 2019 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. Published online: 13 Aug 2019. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 3489 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 2 View citing articles GENERAL & APPLIED ECONOMICS | RESEARCH ARTICLE An analysis of the smallholder farmers’cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) value chain through a gender perspective: the case of Dak Lak province, Vietnam Xuan Hoa Ao 1,2 , Trinh Vuong Vu 2 , Khac Dong Le 1 , Sopin Jirakiattikul 3 and Kuaanan Techato 1 * Abstract: Many rural women, who are faced with the challenges of low rural incomes and gender inequality, improve their role in the farming system based on participation in the agricultural value chain thus enhancing agricultural productivity, household income and sustainable development. This study investigates the factors which affect participation in the production of cassava in Dak Lak Province and decisions in relation to the cassava value chain from a gender perspective. Data were obtained through a questionnaire-based survey of 300 household farmers, in-depth interviews with key informants, and focus group discussions. Probit and ordinary least squares regression models in a two-stage Heckman model were adopted to determine the factors affecting females’decisions to participate in cassava cultivation, their level of participation and their participation in other stages of the cassava value chain. The survey results show that men are prominent in all stages of cassava production but there is a more equal gender dynamic in both cassava production participation decisions and decisions relating to the quantity of cassava to be supplied for commercial purposes. Kuaanan Techato ABOUT THE AUTHORS Asst.Prof.Dr.SopinJirakiattikulobtainedher Ph.D. from the Faculty of Science Economics at Montpellier I University, France. Currently, she is a lecturer as well as a Deputy Dean for Academic Affairs of Faculty in the Faculty of Economics, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand. Her research interests are development economics, political Economics and public Policy Asst. Prof. Dr. Kuaanan Techato obtained his Ph.D. from International Postgraduate Programs of Faculty of Environmental Management, Chulalongkorn University and he did Postdoctoral Research at Innsbruck University, Austria in 2017. At present, he is a Dean, Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand. He is also a reviewer and editor for many journals. His research focuses on waste management, sustainable energy management, renewable energy, economic management, agricultural, environmental economics, and decision-making modelling for the policymaker. PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT For the past decade, gender issues and their relations to the cassava value chain have been generating serious concern in Vietnam. However, there is no study that has yet evaluated the cassava value chain and the role of gender. Therefore, this present study has focused on analyzing the cassava value chain via a gender perspective in Dak Lak Province, Vietnam. Surprisingly, this study reveals that males play a dominant role in the cassava value chain compared to their female counterparts, which is not consistent with previous studies’findings in various other locations around the world. The baseline information from this research will be useful to policymakers in formulating plausible and sustainable policies and will enhance the cassava value chain in Vietnam. Ao et al., Cogent Economics & Finance (2019), 7: 1645632 https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 © 2019 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. Received: 15 April 2019 Accepted: 16 July 2019 First Published: 13 August 2019 *Corresponding author: Kuaanan Techato, Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand, Songkhla 90110, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]om Reviewing editor: Robert Read, Economics, University of Lancaster, United kingdom Additional information is available at the end of the article Page 1 of 16 This article draws attention to the continuing role challenges of female smallholder farmers, but also shows how women’s empowerment is contingent on equity dynamics in the household as well as social norms in the community and wider society. Subjects: Gender & Development; Sustainable Development; Rural Development; Economics and Development; Economics Keywords: cassava value chain; female; gender equality; male; smallholder farmer 1. Introduction Agriculture is an important component of a national economy (Singh-Peterson & Iranacolaivalu, 2018) including the Vietnamese economy, contributing to the latter approximately 18% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and 47% of total employment (Ho, Nguyen, Adhikari, Miles, & Bonney, 2017). Women play an undeniably important role in the agriculture sector (Sell & Minot, 2018), and constitute 43% of the agricultural labour force in developing countries (FAO, 2011). In the case of Vietnam, farming and other agricultural activities constitute the principal sustainable livelihood of most Vietnamese people (Kerkvliet &Porter,1995). Among the cash crops important in Vietnamese agriculture, cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) production plays an important role in ensuring poor people’s livelihood (Ho et al., 2017). The whole country has an area of approximately 535 thousand hectares planted to cassava (GSO, 2018a), with cassava yield growing by 9.94 million tonnes in 2018 (GSO, 2018b). Some recent studies have suggested that there are differences in male and female perceptions relating to many issues in society worldwide. Men are prominent in relation to both basic human rights and strength of voice in their households and communities (World Bank, 2012). Hence, men have more opportunity to access knowledge as well as markets and have an advantage over women who are generally more vulnerable. As a result, men are more involved in cash-crop activities, which gives them the advantage of higher income (Sell & Minot, 2018). However, evidence from studies shows that the role of women who attend to the welfare of the household can be improved by both men and women making decisions (Sell & Minot, 2018) rather than just the men. Thus, the value chain approach to agricultural products can be applied to deal with intrahousehold gender inequality (Masamha, Thebe, & Uzokwe, 2018a). Additionally, many studies that have considered gender have focused exclusively on modern value chains because they examined agriculture value chains in high-value cash crops, for example, tomatoes, cashew nuts, cocoa and avocado (Jeckoniah, Mdoe, & Nombo, 2013;Oduoletal.,2013). Therefore, there has been little analysis of the effect of the traditional roles of genders such as the relationship between male and female roles in the cassava chain at the household level (Masamha et al., 2018a). Both McNulty and Oparinde (2015)and Olukunle (2013) asserted that farmers receive fewer profits than other actors in the cassava chain. Moreover, Dolan (2001) found that there was discrimination against female farmers in contract farming patterns compared to men in the gardening export sector in Kenya and exploitation of female farm workers in African horticulture was also reported by (Barrientos, Dolan, & Tallontire, 2003,2001). However, Maertens and Swinnen (2009) reported that women in Senegal have substantial influence and play an important role in modern supply value chains. Agricultural economists in both developed and developing countries have been concerned about resources in agricultural supply chains for a long time (Goetz, 1992). Gender inequality in agriculture reflects a complex set of problems relating to control over resources, control over decision making, labour, and support from kin (Kerr, 2005). A previous study found that 53% of the labour force in the agricultural sector of developing countries is made up of women, who play an indispensable role in agricultural production (Apata, 2013). Therefore, the gender gap is closing and this may be because women’s participation in economic activities is more active than before. Furthermore, Sarkar, Sahoo, and Klasen (2019) suggested that for a woman to decide whether or not to work is a complex issue that involves social norms, educational attainment, and responsibilities to care for dependents such as children and the elderly. However, Garikipati (2009)arguedthatwomenseemto be involved in agriculture whenever possible. In a project in Southeast Asia, conducted by the Netherlands Development Organisation in 2015 to promote inclusive business for the sustainable growth of cassava by smallholders, the gender-related aspects of the cassava value chain were examined in order to propose plausible strategies in Cambodia (SNV Cambodia, 2015). Ao et al., Cogent Economics & Finance (2019), 7: 1645632 https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 Page 2 of 16 As yet, there has been no empirical research analyzing the role of gender in the cassava value chain in Vietnam. Most studies of the cassava value chain have focused on the cost and benefit dimensions of cassava (Son, Lam, Fahrney, Thi, & Thuy, 2016). Other research has examined the relationship between cassava production and consumption as well as the relationships among the actors in the cassava value chain, in which middlemen play a vital role (Viet, Quoc, Gia, Van, & Van, 2013). Moreover, Son et al. (2016) noted that the incomes of rural households that are derived from cassava plays a vital role in the livelihood of the farmer. However, the findings reported in the present paper are fundamentally different from those of previous related studies since they highlight the contribution of rural women to food security and natural resource management in spite of inequality and discrimination (Doss, Meinzen-dick, Quisumbing, & Theis, 2018). The present study contributes to the existing literature in a number of ways and shows that many factors are involved in determining the dynamics of the participation of women in the labour force. The main aim of the study is to assess the factors which affect women’s decisions to participate in cassava cultivation and the level of that participation. In addition, this study seeks to determine what factors influence the participation of farmers in the market and the level of their participation in the cassava value chain. This paper will contribute important information for implementing well-informed policies relating to the cultivation of cassava in Vietnam as well as in relation to the role of gender in sustainable farming systems in rural areas. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area and data collection The study described in this paper was conducted in Dak Lak Province (Figure 1), which is situated in the Central Highlands of Vietnam, and has an area of over 13,125 square kilometers. The area’s climate can be separated into two sub-regions. The climate in the southeast is cool and pleasant but in the north-west, the climate is quite hot and dry. The region grows various crops but the climate is not suitable for high-value crops and many solutions have been put forward to overcome this problem. Cassava cultivation has been found to be one of the best choices. The study was conducted in three districts, Krong Bong, Ea H’leo and Ea Kar, where cassava production is dominant compared to other crops. Cassava is the main source of income of the local households. Figure 1. The location of the study area. Ao et al., Cogent Economics & Finance (2019), 7: 1645632 https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 Page 3 of 16 Data collection was conducted using structured questionnaires. Data relating to the characteristics of individual households were obtained through a survey of households. In order to meet the research objectives, suitable measures were designed based on a cross-sectional methodology (Kothari, 2004; Masamha, Uzokwe, Ntagwabira, Gabagambi, & Mario, 2017). Key informants’in-depth interviews were held with local authorities and extension officers. Moreover, focus group discussions (FGDs) with heads of household of cassava farmers were conducted in each commune. All in all, we conducted 7 FGDs with a total of 70 farmers who were randomly selected from the list of households. Through FGDs the vital information was elicited to assist in identifying major cassava production, processing, and marketing issues within each area under study. Moreover, 14 participants including local authority as leader of village, extension officers and commune officer also attended these discussions. The three districts selected for the study, Krong Bong, Ea Kar and Ea H’leo, were surveyed based on a multi-stage sampling method. In each district, communes were selected randomly based on the aims of the study. A total of seven communes were thus selected in each commune; a survey was conducted based on household visits using the structured questionnaire, in order to collect pertinent data. The total sample size was 300 households, all of whom were engaged in the cultivation of cassava. 2.2. Analytical methods Quantitative data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS Statistics 20.0 software package using probit and ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models (Arega et al., 2007; Masamha, Thebe, & Uzokwe, 2018b; Sebatta, Mugisha, Katungi, Kashaaru, & Kyomugisha, 2014). A two-stage Heckman model was adopted as an appropriate model to test decision-making associated with the cassava value chain and was used to determine the factors affecting females’decisions to participate (Sebatta et al., 2014) and their level of participation in cassava production and the cassava market (Masamha et al., 2018b). The model employed a two-step process consisting of analyzing: (1) woman’s decisions about whether or not to participate in cassava cultivation and the cassava market; (2) The level of farmers’participation in cassava farming and the cassava market (Zamasiya, Nelson, Kefasi, & Shephard, 2014). In the Heckman model, the first stage equation of the model adopted a probit model to estimate the effect of the factors influencing the decision about whether or not to participate, as well as the extent of market participation (Masamha et al., 2018b; Sebatta et al., 2014; Zamasiya et al., 2014). The female farmers’ participation in both production and marketing were adopted as the dependent variables based on a dichotomous measure of 1 if a woman was willing to engage in cassava cultivation; and 0 otherwise. The equation used for the probit model was proposed by (Masamha et al., 2018b), as follows. Y¼β0þβiXiþμ(1) Following Sebatta et al. (2014), the Heckman model was calculated as: y1i¼0ifQi0 y1i¼1ifQi0(2) where y1is the binary response and Qiis the quantity of cassava cultivated by a woman. The participation equation was then rewritten in the following form: Y 1¼β1iX1iþε1i(3) where Y 1is a latent variable, which is the utility a farmer gets from participating in the market. The dichotomous model was stated as: Y¼1;if farmer sell any cassava 0;otherwise (4) In the case of the probit model in the first step, the estimation was conducted as follows: Pr Y1 ðÞ¼fx 1;x2;x3...::eðÞ (5) Ao et al., Cogent Economics & Finance (2019), 7: 1645632 https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 Page 4 of 16 where Pr Y1 ðÞis the probability of a farmer making a decision to sell cassava into a market or not; xietc. are the variables; and e the normally distributed error term. In the second stage Heckman model, the levels of participation were calculated using OLS and estimated to test the effect of the hypothesized factors based on the amount of cassava cultivated or harvested. The theoretical model can be presented as: Qi¼fy 1;y2y3............yn ðÞ (6) where Qiis the volume of cassava produced; yndenotes independent variables. The variance inflation factor (VIF) indicator was calculated to check for multicollinearity between the independent variables in the empirical estimation procedure and the Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisberg method was used to test the heteroscedasticity of the model (Greene, 2002). 3. Results 3.1. The production stage of the cassava value Chain 3.1.1. Factors affecting women’s decisions to participate in the production stage of the cassava value Chain Table 1showstheresultsoftheprobitmodelanalysisofthefactorsaffectingwomen’s decisions to participate in the cassava value chain. The goodness of fit of the model was assessed using McFadden pseudo R 2 ,whichwas0.515.Ascanbeseen,theheadofhouseholdhadtheresponsibilityformakingthe decision relating to cassava cultivation. Moreover, various factors were found to significantly affect the head of household’s decisions relating to cassava cultivation, these consisting of the level of education of the farmer (EDU) and the education squared (EDU_Sq), the area of residential land squared (LAN_Sq), and the inverse of the square root of the farmers’loans (1/LOA_Sqrt) (p < 0.05). The results of the probit Table 1. Probit model estimates for women’s decisions to participate in the production stage of the cassava value chain Variables Coefficient S.E. COM 0.328 (1.04) 0.204 AGE 0.024 (0.36) 0.07 U18 1.446 (5.24) 1.028 M.HH 0.058 (1.82) 0.356 MAL −0.762 (2.64) 0.518 LAN 4.443 (26.04) 5.106 CAS.QUA 0.104* (0.32) 0.062 SEL.PRI 0.001 (0.01) 0.001 EXP.CUL 0.138* (0.40) 0.079 VAR −0.672 (2.74) 0.537 LOA −0.009 (0.04) 0.007 HOU.ARE 0.005 (0.03) 0.005 INT 0.569 (4.01) 0.787 LO.TRA −0.45 (6.80) 1.334 U18_Sq −0.478* (1.29) 0.252 1/LOA_Sqrt −30.940** (76.96) 15.09 EDU_Sq 2.290** (5.57) 1.093 LAN_Sq −3.937** (8.17) 1.602 -2 Log Likelihood = 33.6 McFadden pseudo R 2 = 0.515; Cox and Snell R 2 = 0.510 and Nagelkerke pseudo R 2 = 0.680 *P < 0.10; **P < 0.05; ***P < 0.01; Values in parentheses show SD. Ao et al., Cogent Economics & Finance (2019), 7: 1645632 https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 Page 5 of 16 regression model presented in Table 1were not according to initial expectations, since the land area squared variable (LAN_Sq) and the 1/LOA_Sqrt variable were found to have the highest negative effect based on significance coefficients of both p < 0.05, whereas the original expectation was that the area of residential land (LAN) and the farmers’loans (LOA) would be positively related to decisions to cultivate cassava. The effect of these variables was therefore apparently influenced by the decision of women to participate in the cassava value chain. However, there is a contradiction, which is that the original variables such as the area of land (LAN) had positively related to deciding the cassava production of women. This is due to the farmer having various options and cassava cultivation not being a priority when they had a large area of their own land. Hence, the women’s decision is negative in such a case. Furthermore, both the quantity of cassava (CAS.QUA) and the farmer’s experience in cassava farming (EXP.CUL) variables were found to positively affect the participation of women in cassava cultivation and were significant at the p < 0.10 level. 3.1.2. The level of women’s and men’s participation in the production stage of the cassava value Chain The quantity of cassava produced was the dependent variable in the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models for men and women, and was logarithm transformed (Table 2). Similarly, for women, the independent variables of people under 18 years old in household (U18), total members in household (M.HH), total males in household (MAL), and the area of cassava cultivation (CAS. ARE), were also logarithm transformed. The cassava farming experience (EXP.CUL) variable was square-root transformed and for men the independent variables of age of household head (AGE), U18, MAL, LAN and the household area (HOU.ARE) were logarithm transformed. In both the female and male cases, the backward selection method was applied in order to eliminate unwanted variables from the OLS model at each successive stage (Masamha et al., 2018b). After the OLS regression was conducted, the best fitting models were chosen. For women, these indicated goodness of fit coefficient R 2 of 0.55, indicating that 55% of the variance in the quantity of Table 2. Ordinary least square estimate for the quantity of cassava produced by women and men in Dak Lak province (the level of women’s participation in production) Model Variable Coefficients S.E. Model 1 (Constant) 2.668*** (4.73) 0.376 Female INT −0.086 (1.32) 0.105 R 2 = 0.55 LO.TRA −0.076 (1.03) 0.082 N = 158 Ln_U18 0.095 (0.96) 0.076 Ln_M.HH 0.169 (2.45) 0.195 Ln_MAL −0.117 (1.92) 0.153 Ln_CAS.ARE 1.017*** (0.98) 0.078 SEL.PRI −0.0002** (0.00) 0.000 Sqrt_EXP.CUL 0.122*** (0.59) 0.047 Model 2 (Constant) 1.689** (9.76) 0.822 Male MBIKE −0.147 (1.21) 0.102 R 2 = 0.67 LO.TRA −0.126 (1.01) 0.085 N = 141 Ln_AGE 0.431** (2.01) 0.169 Ln_U18 0.159** (0.85) 0.072 Ln_MAL −0.283** (1.28) 0.108 Ln_LAN 1.160*** (0.91) 0.077 SEL.PRI 0.0002 (0.00) 0.000 Ln_HOU.ARE −0.136 (1.01) 0.085 *P < 0.10; **P < 0.05; ***P < 0.01; Values in parentheses show SD Ao et al., Cogent Economics & Finance (2019), 7: 1645632 https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2019.1645632 Page 6 of 16 cassava harvested could be explained by the model. For men, the R 2 was 0.67, indicating that 67% of the variance in the amount of cassava harvested could be explained by the model. The natural log transformation of the area under cassava cultivation (Ln_CAS_ARE) was a significant (p < 0.001) positive predictor at the 99% confidence level affecting the volume of cassava that was cultivated by women. This shows that the area of cassava strongly affects the level of women’s participation in the market. This situation can be explained by the fact that arable land is available, not only for the cultivation of cassava but also for many other crops. In addition, cassava is often a marginal crop and there is no priority to grow it. Therefore, farmers, particularly women may decide to cultivate cassava if the household owns more land. (Household group discussion, in Cukty commune, 2018). 3.2. The supply to market stage of the cassava value Chain 3.2.1. The main factors affecting the quantity of cassava sold on the market by the farmers Table 3shows that the area of residential land of the household (LAN) and the years of cassava cultivation experience of the farmer (EXP.CUL) were positively and significantly affected by the decision to participate in the cassava market (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05) respectively. It also shows that the availability of the internet to the farmer (INT) was negatively and moderately strongly associated with their decision to participate in the cassava market as suppliers (p < 0.10). The models’goodness of fit coefficients were judged to be adequate based on McFadden, Nagelkerke and Cox, and Snell pseudo R 2 values of 0.406; 0.464 and 0.174 respectively. The farmers will shift from cassava to other crops if they have better information about the cassava market as well as the prevalence of cassava-specific diseases in a particular year, rather than engaging in continuous cassava cultivation. If the price of cassava is low that would affect the farmers’income derived from the cultivation of cassava. These findings were borne out by the group discussions with farmers (household group discussion in Ea Sar commune,2018).ThevariablesLAN,EXP.CULandfarmer has access to internet or not (INT) were found to be significant factors at the 90 to 99% levels in the probit linear regression model. Most farmers participated in the cassava market based on local markets, as well as through farm-gate sales. Other variables had either positive or negative effects on the farmers’ market decisions, although their effects were not found to be significant in the regression model. For instance, the total female in household (FEM), farmer owns local transport or not (LO.TRA) and farmer owns motorbike or not (MBIKE) variables were positive but not significant. On the other hand, AGE and SEL.PRI had negative but not significant effects on the farmers’decisions about whether or not to participate in the market. Overall, the pattern of influence could be explained by the farmers not being able to control the price of cassava since it is dependent on the relationship between supply and demand Table 3. Probit model estimates for farmer’s decision to participate in the market Variables Coefficient S.E. 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