Not detaching from work during leisure time: A control‐theory perspective on job‐related cognitions

Sonnen ag, Sabine; Wiegelmann, Monika
A icle — Published Ve sion
No de aching om wo k du ing leisu e ime: A con ol‐
heo y pe spec i e on job‐ ela ed cogni ions
Jou nal o O ganiza ional Beha io
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John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Sonnen ag, Sabine; Wiegelmann, Monika (2024) : No de aching om
wo k du ing leisu e ime: A con ol‐ heo y pe spec i e on job‐ ela ed cogni ions, Jou nal o
O ganiza ional Beha io , ISSN 1099-1379, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 45, Iss. 7, pp. 1003-1024,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/job.2792
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
No de aching om wo k du ing leisu e ime: A con ol- heo y
pe spec i e on job- ela ed cogni ions
Sabine Sonnen ag | Monika Wiegelmann
Uni e si y o Mannheim, Mannheim, Ge many
Co espondence
Sabine Sonnen ag, Depa men o Psychology,
School o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o
Mannheim, A5, 6, C104, D-68159 Mannheim,
Ge many.
Email: sabine.sonnen [email protected]
Funding in o ma ion
Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha ,
G an /Awa d Numbe : 408804332
Summa y
Lack o psychological de achmen om wo k du ing leisu e ime is ela ed o un a-
o able a ec i e s a es and poo well-being bu li le is known abou he p ocesses
ha d i e his ela ionship. We p opose ha lack o de achmen om wo k ansla es
in o nex -day nega i e and posi i e a ec by speci ic hough p ocesses. Building on
a con ol- heo y app oach o epe i i e hough and umina ion, we in oduce a
e ined concep ualiza ion o job- ela ed cogni ions du ing leisu e ime ha in eg a es
a alence pe spec i e ( e e ing o nega i e e sus posi i e e en s) wi h a empo al-
di ec ion pe spec i e (backwa d-o ien ed s. o wa d-o ien ed). Using daily-su ey
da a collec ed om 243 employees o e wo wo kweeks, mul ile el pa h analysis
e ealed ha lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s p edic ed backwa d-o ien ed
nega i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking. Lack o de achmen om
posi i e e en s p edic ed backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion and o wa d-
o ien ed goal gene a ion. Only backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion, in u n, p e-
dic ed nex -day nega i e a ec . Neu o icism and ex a e sion mode a ed he ela-
ionships be ween lack o de achmen and job- ela ed cogni ions, esul ing in a
pa icula ly s ong se ial indi ec e ec be ween lack o de achmen om nega i e
e en s and nex -day nega i e a ec o pe sons high in neu o icism. Ou s udy helps
o unde s and why and o whom lack o psychological de achmen om wo k du ing
leisu e ime is pa icula ly ad e se.
KEYWORDS
a ec , con ol heo y, daily su ey, job- ela ed cogni ions, psychological de achmen om wo k,
umina ion
1|INTRODUCTION
Wo k in oday's economy is highly demanding. Due o high cogni i e
and emo ional demands, many employees expe ience ension and
s ess (Ame ican Psychological Associa ion, 2021; Heal h and Sa e y
Execu i e, 2022). High job demands a e ela ed o poo well-being
(Gonzalez-Mulé e al., 2021; Gu hie e al., 2020) and e en may esul
in p ema u e dea h (Gonzalez-Mulé & Cockbu n, 2017). To coun e ac
he nega i e consequences o highly demanding wo k, employees
need o eco e du ing leisu e ime (Benne e al., 2018; Zijls a
e al., 2014). Resea ch has iden i ied leisu e- ime psychological
de achmen om wo k as a c ucial aspec o a success ul eco e y
p ocess (Sonnen ag & F i z, 2015). Psychological de achmen om
wo k e e s o an employee's “sense o being away om he wo k si -
ua ion”(E zion e al., 1998, p. 579). I implies men ally dis ancing one-
sel om one's wo k and o empo a ily o ge abou wo k du ing
Recei ed: 9 Feb ua y 2023 Re ised: 9 Feb ua y 2024 Accep ed: 22 Ma ch 2024
DOI: 10.1002/job.2792
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2024 The Au ho s. Jou nal o O ganiza ional Beha io published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
J O gan Beha . 2024;45:1003–1024. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/job 1003
leisu e ime. Me a-analyses showed ha lack o psychological de ach-
men om wo k is associa ed wi h un a o able a ec i e ou comes
and impai ed well-being (Benne e al., 2018; S eed e al., 2021).
While his line o esea ch has emphasized he o e all downsides
o no de aching om wo k, impo an ques ions emain unanswe ed.
Fi s , he mechanisms unde lying he ela ionship be ween lack o
de achmen and un a o able ou comes a e a om unde s ood. I
emains unclea why s aying men ally connec ed o wo k a e he
end o he wo kday ansla es in o un a o able a ec i e s a es. In
pa icula , he e is a pauci y o esea ch on he speci ic cogni ions ha
d i e he ela ionship be ween lack o de achmen om wo k and
subsequen a ec . Second, while mos esea ch has po ayed de ach-
men om wo k du ing leisu e ime as desi able (Sonnen ag &
F i z, 2015), ini ial e idence, howe e , sugges s ha no de aching
om posi i e aspec s o one's wo k can be bene icial o a ec and
well-being (Sonnen ag & Niessen, 2020; Wendsche & Lohmann-
Haislah, 2017). Thus, he e may be di e ences be ween he mecha-
nisms ha connec lack o de achmen om nega i e e sus posi i e
aspec s o one's wo k o subsequen a ec . Thi d, esea ch has
neglec ed he ole o pe sonali y in eco e y in gene al, and pa icu-
la ly in psychological de achmen (Sonnen ag e al., 2022). This omis-
sion is un o una e because i is well known ha pe sonali y exe s a
c ucial in luence on people's eac ions o wo k- ela ed expe iences
(Iliescu e al., 2017; Lanaj e al., 2016). Wi hou aking pe sonali y in o
accoun , we canno ully unde s and psychological de achmen
because we migh alsely assume ha he consequences o lack o
de achmen a e he same o e e yone.
To o e come he limi a ions o p e ious esea ch and o be e
unde s and he p ocesses ha make lack o psychological de achmen
om wo k de imen al, we pu sue h ee goals in ou s udy: Fi s , we
aim o es he mechanisms ha ansla e lack o de achmen om
wo k in o nega i e a ec and posi i e a ec . We add ess speci ic job-
ela ed cogni ions as explana o y p ocesses ha link psychological
de achmen om wo k o subsequen a ec . To his end, we p esen
a e ined concep ualiza ion o job- ela ed cogni ions based on a
con ol- heo e ical app oach o epe i i e hough and umina ion
(Ca e & Scheie , 1998; Wa kins, 2008). Second, building on ini ial
insigh s ha he bene i s o a ious ypes o de achmen di e
(Sonnen ag & Niessen, 2020; Wendsche & Lohmann-Haislah, 2017),
we examine how lack o psychological de achmen om nega i e e -
sus posi i e e en s ela e o dis inc cogni i e p ocesses and subse-
quen a ec . Thi d, we add ess he ole o pe sonali y in he p ocess
ha links lack o psychological de achmen om wo k o a ec , by
examining neu o icism and ex a e sion as mode a o s. We ocus on
neu o icism and ex a e sion because hese wo pe sonali y dimen-
sions a e highly ele an o cogni i e (Mu is e al., 2005; Wood
e al., 2003) and a ec i e p ocesses (Diene & Lucas, 1999; Oze &
Bene -Ma inez, 2006). Figu e 1shows ou concep ual model.
We aim o make h ee main con ibu ions. Fi s , ou esea ch
helps o be e unde s and why lack o psychological de achmen
om wo k du ing leisu e ime ansla es in o un a o able a ec i e
s a es. We demons a e ha a di e en ia ion is needed be ween psy-
chological de achmen om nega i e e sus posi i e wo k e en s,
going beyond he unidimensional pe spec i e o psychological de ach-
men ha s ill domina es he li e a u e (Head ick e al., 2023). We also
examine he cogni i e mechanisms ha po en ially link lack o de ach-
men om nega i e e sus posi i e e en s o subsequen a ec i e
s a es. A ec i e s a es play an impo an ole in o ganiza ional li e as
hey impac ele an beha io s, including c ea i i y (Amabile e al.,
2005), in e ac ions among cowo ke s (Neshe Shoshan & Venz, 2022),
and coun e p oduc i e wo k beha io (Koopman e al., 2021). By
add essing he cogni i e p ocesses ha ansmi lack o de achmen
in o he nex wo kday, we ad ance eco e y esea ch. Whe eas pas
esea ch has examined i ce ain eco e y expe iences ela e o subse-
quen a ec , we add ess he p ocesses unde lying he ela ionship
be ween psychological de achmen —as a speci ic eco e y
expe ience—and nex -day a ec .
Second, wi h ou di e en ia ed concep ualiza ion o job- ela ed
cogni ions du ing leisu e ime, we ad ance he li e a u e on job-
ela ed cogni ions in gene al and on job- ela ed umina ion in pa icu-
la (Jimenez e al., 2022; Weigel e al., 2019). Un il now, esea ch on
job- ela ed umina ion has ei he adop ed a unidimensional iew
on umina ion (Pindek e al., 2022; Wang e al., 2013), cap u ed jus
some aspec s o nega i e e sus posi i e umina ion (F i z &
Sonnen ag, 2006; F one, 2015), o used con ounded and ela i ely
unspeci ic measu es o a ious umina ion modes (C opley
FIGURE 1 Concep ual model.
Model shows hypo hesized
pa hs only.
1004 SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN
e al., 2012; see Table S1 o mo e de ails). In ou esea ch, we o e -
come hese limi a ions and p o ide an in eg a i e con ol- heo y pe -
spec i e. This pe spec i e combines he alence dimension wi h a
empo al-di ec ion dimension, mo ing he umina ion li e a u e o -
wa d and helping o imp o e he heo e ical unde s anding o why
lack o de achmen ela es o subsequen a ec . Wi h his app oach,
we demons a e how con ol heo y can be ui ully applied wi hin
eco e y esea ch.
Finally, as ou hi d con ibu ion, we shed ligh on neu o icism
and ex a e sion as po en ially impac ul ac o s in he eco e y p o-
cess. Nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed ha neu o icism and
ex a e sion impac impo an wo k- ela ed ou comes (Judge
e al., 2002; Wilmo e al., 2019). I is impo an o no e ha ex a e -
sion does no only allude o a pe son's endency o be sociable and
asse i e (McC ae & Cos a, 1987) bu also hei endency o be sensi-
i e o ewa ds, enjoy pleasan si ua ions, and expe ience posi i e
a ec (Lucas & Diene , 2001).
Al hough neu o icism and ex a e sion migh no be he only
indi idual-di e ence a iables ha mode a e he p ocess om lack o
de achmen o subsequen a ec , hey should be pa icula ly ele an
mode a o s in ou s udy because hey undamen ally in luence a pe -
son's cogni ions and a ec (Mu is e al., 2005; Robinson, 2007; Wood
e al., 2003). Speci ically, he inclina ion o pe sons high in neu o icism
o ocus on he nega i e (Robinson, 2007) makes hem highly suscep-
ible o cogni ions ha ocus on nega i e e en s, whe eas ex a e s
end o ocus on he posi i e (Robinson, 2007), making hem mo e
p one o engaging in cogni ions ha ocus on posi i e e en s. As a
consequence, he associa ion be ween lack o de achmen om wo k
and nex -day a ec will depend on a pe son's le el o neu o icism and
ex a e sion: Lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s will be mo e
de imen al a highe le els o neu o icism because a high le el o
neu o icism makes i mo e likely ha a pe son emains “ apped”in
nega i e hough s. Lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s will be
mo e bene icial a highe le els o ex a e sion because a high le el o
ex a e sion helps o sa o posi i e hough s.
By showing ha he cogni i e consequences o no de aching
om wo k di e be ween pe sons wi h high e sus low neu o icism
and ex a e sion, espec i ely, ou esea ch illus a es how neu o i-
cism and ex a e sion impac he eco e y p ocess. As he s udy o
pe sonali y has been la gely neglec ed in pas esea ch on eco e y
(Sonnen ag e al., 2022), ou s udy poin s o pe sonali y as a p omising
ac o ha can help o be e unde s and o whom psychological
de achmen om wo k du ing leisu e ime is pa icula ly impo an .
2|PSYCHOLOGICAL DETACHMENT
FROM WORK
E zion e al. (1998) in oduced he concep o psychological de ach-
men om wo k o he o ganiza ional li e a u e. The co e ea u e o
psychological de achmen is he c ea ion o a men al dis ance o wo k
while being physically away om wo k. B oad empi ical e idence
demons a es ha lack o psychological de achmen om wo k du ing
leisu e ime is associa ed wi h un a o able a ec i e ou comes. Fo
ins ance, people who gene ally de ach less om wo k epo highe
le els o impai ed well-being, including nega i e a ec and a igue
(Benne e al., 2018; S eed e al., 2021). S udies using day-le el
designs showed ha on e enings when people de ach less om wo k,
hey expe ience highe le els o nega i e a ec i e s a es (De ks
e al., 2014; Eichbe ge e al., 2021).
Al hough hese indings a e no ewo hy, mos s udies on psycho-
logical de achmen emain su p isingly ague abou he speci ic con-
en om which people need o de ach so ha hey can eco e . To
be e unde s and he implica ions o lack o de achmen om wo k
o subsequen a ec , we di e en ia e be ween lack o de achmen
om nega i e wo k e en s (e.g., compu e b eakdown, a gumen wi h
a ude co-wo ke ) and om posi i e wo k e en s (e.g., posi i e eed-
back om one's boss, g a e ul cus ome ). The gene al idea unde lying
ou esea ch is ha lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s should
be un a o able, esul ing in an inc ease in nega i e a ec , ia nega-
i ely oned cogni ions. Lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s,
howe e , should be mo e benign, esul ing in an inc ease in posi i e
a ec ia posi i ely oned cogni ions.
3|JOB-RELATED COGNITIONS DURING
LEISURE TIME
We p opose ha lack o de achmen om wo k du ing leisu e
ime ela es o subsequen a ec i e s a es ia a ious ypes o job-
ela ed cogni ions. These cogni ions include e lec ions abou wha
has happened a wo k du ing he pas wo kday as well as wo ies and
plans o he u u e (Song e al., 2024). To de elop a di e en ia ed
iew on job- ela ed cogni ions, we build on ea lie concep ualiza ions
o job- ela ed cogni ions du ing leisu e ime (Meie e al., 2016;
Que s e & C opley, 2012) and align hem wi h a con ol- heo y
app oach (Ca e & Scheie , 1998). Speci ically, we build on con ol-
heo y pe spec i es on epe i i e hough and umina ion (Ma in &
Tesse , 1996; Wa kins, 2008).
Wi hin his con ol- heo y app oach, wo dimensions o umina-
i e cogni ions a e impo an . The i s dimension e e s o he
alence o he cogni ion, he second o i s empo al di ec ion. In e ms
o alence, nega i e cogni ions occu as a esponse o nega i e
e en s, o ins ance, when ailing o each an impo an goal o when
no icing a disc epancy be ween he p esen and a desi ed si ua ion
(Ma in & Tesse , 1996). This disc epancy can e en e e o a mis-
ma ch be ween an ac ual and a desi ed a ec i e s a e (La sen, 2000;
Wa kins, 2008). Posi i e cogni ions occu as a esponse o posi i e
e en s, o ins ance, when making un o eseen p og ess owa d a goal.
In e ms o empo al di ec ion, he con ol- heo y pe spec i e implies
ha umina i e cogni ions can ei he ocus on he p esen si ua ion
(i.e., nega i e e en s indica ing a disc epancy be ween he ac ual and
a desi ed s a e and posi i e e en s indica ing he a ainmen o a
desi ed s a e) o on u u e s eps o o e come nega i e e en s
(i.e., educe an ac ual disc epancy) o o ake ad an age o posi i e
e en s (i.e., c ea e a new disc epancy; c . Wa kins, 2008).
SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN 1005
Combining bo h dimensions, nega i e cogni ions occu ing as a
esponse o a nega i e e en can e ol e a ound he e en i sel and
be highly pe se e a i e and backwa d-o ien ed. We call hese nega-
i ely oned cogni ions ocusing on nega i e e en s backwa d-o ien ed
nega i e umina ion. Impo an ly, cogni ions eme ging om a nega i e
e en can also be u u e-o ien ed and add ess possible ways o educ-
ing he disc epancy be ween he ac ual and a desi ed s a e, o
ins ance, by sea ching o ways o sol e a p oblem o lea ing he si u-
a ion. We call hese cogni ions ha eme ge om a nega i e e en and
ocus on o e coming he undesi ed si ua ion o wa d-o ien ed solu ion
seeking.
Posi i e cogni ions ha occu as esponse o posi i e e en s e e
o expe iences o sa o ing (B yan , 2021) and basking (Ma in &
Tesse , 1996). The eby, cogni ions ocus on posi i e hings ha ha e
happened, o ins ance, a e educing he disc epancy be ween an
ac ual and a desi ed s a e o a e exceeding a p e iously se goal
(Ca e , 2004). We call hese posi i ely oned cogni ions wi h a ocus
on wha has happened backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion. Cogni-
ions o igina ing om posi i e e en s can also ake a u u e-o ien ed
pe spec i e. Such cogni ions may no be complacen wi h ha ing
expe ienced a posi i e e en bu may go beyond he s a us quo by
c ea ing a new disc epancy (Phillips e al., 1996; Sche baum &
Vancou e , 2010). We call hese cogni ions eme ging om posi i e
e en s and ocusing on p ospec i e goals and ac i i ies o wa d-
o ien ed goal gene a ion.
Wi hin one's daily li e, backwa d-o ien ed and o wa d-o ien ed
hough s can be highly in e wined: Fo ins ance, when engaging in
backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion, one may easily jump o
o wa d-o ien ed hough s sea ching o a solu ion and hen swi ching
back o backwa d-o ien ed umina ion. Likewise, backwa d-o ien ed
posi i e umina ion can be a s eppings one o o wa d-o ien ed goal
gene a ion, ollowed by backwa d-o ien ed umina ion again.
Al hough he a ious ypes o cogni ions migh be closely connec ed
empi ically, hey need o be di e en ia ed in concep ual e ms.
Impo an ly, job- ela ed cogni ions a e concep ually closely
ela ed o lack o de achmen in ha hey de ail he hough s ha
a ise when people do no de ach om wo k. These cogni ons, he e-
o e, can be seen as speci ic ins an ia ions o no de aching om
wo k. Howe e , hey also concep ually di e om (lack o ) de ach-
men . Whe eas he concep o psychological de achmen emains
a he ague abou wha ac ually happens when no de aching om
wo k, job- ela ed cogni ions, as amed in his pape , a e mo e explici
abou a ious modes o hinking abou wo k by including a backwa d-
o ien ed and o wa d-o ien ed empo al pe spec i e.
4|LACK OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
DETACHMENT FROM WORK AND JOB-
RELATED COGNITIONS
We sugges ha lack o de achmen om nega i e wo k e en s is
ela ed o backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion and o wa d-
o ien ed solu ion seeking. No de aching om nega i e wo k e en s
implies ha hese e en s emain men ally ac i a ed a e wo k. This
men al ac i a ion may, o ins ance, e e o a disc epancy si ua ion
when a ele an ask- ela ed o in e pe sonal goal is no me o when
ac ual emo ional expe iences do no ma ch desi ed emo ional expe i-
ences (La sen, 2000; Wa kins, 2008). Typically, his ac i a ion does
no easily dissipa e (Wang e al., 2013) bu leads o inc eased job-
ela ed cogni ions la e du ing he e ening.
In con ol- heo y e ms, hese job- ela ed cogni ions a e ueled
by a pe sis ing disc epancy be ween an ac ual and desi ed s a e
(Ma in & Tesse , 1996), o ins ance when a nega i e e en occu ed.
These cogni ions a e o en eac i e as hey ocus on nega i e e en s
and hei po en ial causes. Thus, no de aching om nega i e
e en s inc eases he likelihood ha la e du ing he e ening job-
ela ed cogni ions occu and ha hese cogni ions a e domina ed by
nega i e umina i e hough s abou wha has happened and why i
happened.
Acco ding o he con ol- heo y app oach o epe i i e hough
and umina ion, cogni ions cen e ing a ound nega i e e en s will no
only be eac i e in na u e bu can also add ess possible ways o
esol ing he nega i e si ua ion. In con ol- heo y e ms, his means
educing he disc epancy be ween he cu en and a mo e desi able
u u e s a e. Fo ins ance, one migh hink abou how o beha e when
encoun e ing a ude co-wo ke again he nex day. Acco dingly, we
sugges ha employees who do no de ach om nega i e wo k
e en s will no only engage in nega i e eac i e hough s la e du ing
he e ening bu also in o wa d-o ien ed cogni ions wi h he expec a-
ion ha his will help o o e come he nega i e si ua ion and o
a ain posi i e ou comes (Cia occo e al., 2010).
Hypo hesis 1. Lack o de achmen om nega i e
e en s is posi i ely ela ed o (a) backwa d-o ien ed
nega i e umina ion and (b) o wa d-o ien ed solu ion
seeking la e du ing he e ening.
Simila ly, when no de aching om posi i e wo k e en s, hese
e en s s ay men ally ac i a ed a e wo k. Men al ac i a ion o a posi-
i e e en may, o ins ance, e lec majo p og ess owa d a ele an
goal o owa d a desi ed emo ional s a e. When hese posi i e e en s
emain men ally ac i a ed, u he posi i e hough s occu , including
posi i e sel -e alua ions (Gen zle e al., 2016) ha may help in pu su-
ing u u e goals and in con inuing o wo k owa d longe e m goals
(E ez & Judge, 2001). Thus, when no de aching om posi i e e en s,
con inued job- ela ed cogni ions will be domina ed by posi i e con en .
These job- ela ed hough s may no be limi ed o backwa d-
o ien ed cogni ions, such as sa o ing achie emen s, bu may also
poin in o he u u e by delibe a ing on wha needs o be done nex .
Posi i e emo ions and inc eased sel -e icacy esul ing om he men-
al ep esen a ion o posi i e e en s when no de aching om hem
(c ., Sy ine e al., 2019; Zau a e al., 2005) acili a e inc eased le els
o p oac i i y (Pa ke e al., 2010) ha may s a wi h o wa d-
o ien ed hough s du ing he e ening. Mo eo e , posi i e emo ions
and high sel -e icacy p o ide a a o able psychological backg ound,
making i easie o ole a e eelings o unce ain y and an icipa o y
1006 SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN

s ess (F ed ickson, 1998). Acco dingly, we sugges ha when no
de aching om posi i e e en s, employees will engage in backwa d-
o ien ed posi i e umina ion as well as in o wa d-o ien ed goal gen-
e a ion la e du ing he e ening.
Hypo hesis 2. Lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s
is posi i ely ela ed o (a) backwa d-o ien ed posi i e
umina ion and (b) o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion
la e du ing he e ening.
4.1 |Job- ela ed cogni ions and subsequen a ec
We p opose ha job- ela ed cogni ions du ing he e ening p edic
nex -day a ec . Such a ec i e consequences o job- ela ed cogni ions
du ing he e ening will be e lec ed in a ec expe ienced in he mo n-
ing and may pe sis un il he end o he wo kday. Thus, he a ec i e
impac o job- ela ed cogni ions may no be a a he sho -li ed phe-
nomenon bu may colo he en i e wo kday. To po ay p ocesses
occu ing a he day le el, we examine a ec as “ eeling s a es”
(i.e., “in- he-momen , sho - e m a ec i e expe iences”;Ba sade&
Gibson, 2007, p. 37) and di e en ia e be ween nega i e and posi i e
s a es. Because high-a ousal s a es a e pa icula ly ele an in he wo k
con ex (Wa e al., 2014), we ocus on high-a ousal (i.e., high-ac i a-
ion) nega i e and posi i e a ec , which a e qui e independen a ec-
i e expe iences a he day le el (Wa son, 1988). High nega i e a ec
is cha ac e ized by s a es such as dis ess, anxie y, o ange , whe eas
high posi i e a ec is cha ac e ized by s a es such as en husiasm,
ene gy, men al ale ness, o de e mina ion (Wa son, 1988).
We expec ha cogni ions o igina ing om nega i e e en s a e
ela ed o mo ning nega i e a ec . Du ing backwa d-o ien ed nega-
i e umina ion o o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking, he pe son
ocuses on nega i e si ua ions ha ha e happened, on nega i e eel-
ings associa ed wi h wha has happened, and possible nega i e conse-
quences. Impo an ly, hough con en wi h a nega i e alence is
highly salien wi hin hese cogni ions.
Empi ical esea ch showed ha nega i e hough con en is
ela ed o subsequen nega i e a ec i e s a es (M. Wang e al., 2013;
Wes e mann e al., 1996). Fo ins ance, in a daily-su ey s udy using a
b oad concep ualiza ion o nega i e wo k e lec ion, Meie
e al. (2016, S udy 2) epo ed ha nega i e hough s abou one's
wo k du ing he e ening we e associa ed wi h subsequen ang y
mood. Using an expe imen al design, Sonnen ag and Niessen (2020)
ound ha induced nega i e hough s abou wo k p edic ed an
inc ease in nega i e a ec . Because nega i e con en is highly salien
wi hin backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed
solu ion seeking, we expec ha hese ypes o job- ela ed cogni ion
a e posi i ely ela ed o subsequen nega i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 3. (a) Backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina-
ion and (b) o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking du ing
he e ening p edic mo ning nega i e a ec .
Bo h backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion and o wa d-
o ien ed solu ion seeking cen e a ound nega i e hough con en .
Howe e , hese wo ypes o job- ela ed cogni ions emphasize di e -
en empo al di ec ions. In con as o backwa d-o ien ed nega i e
umina ion, o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking p omises an imp o ed
u u e si ua ion wha should dampen nega i e a ec (Chishima
e al., 2021). Mo eo e , ocusing on a po en ial solu ion o a
p oblem—a co e ea u e o o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking—should
alle ia e nega i e a ec (G an , 2012). Acco dingly, compa ed wi h he
ela ionship be ween backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion and sub-
sequen nega i e a ec , he ela ionship be ween o wa d-o ien ed
solu ion seeking and subsequen nega i e a ec should be weake .
Hypo hesis 3c. The ela ionship be ween backwa d-
o ien ed nega i e umina ion du ing he e ening and
mo ning nega i e a ec is s onge han he ela ionship
be ween o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking du ing he
e ening and mo ning nega i e a ec .
We expec ha job- ela ed cogni ions du ing leisu e ime no only
p edic mo ning a ec bu also a ec expe ienced la e ha day.
Because a ec i e s a es show some deg ee o s abili y o e he
cou se o he day (Sonnen ag & S a zyk, 2015), nega i e umina ion
and nega i ely oned solu ion seeking should be ela ed o end-
o -wo k nega i e a ec ia mo ning nega i e a ec . In addi ion,
mo ning nega i e a ec may s imula e maladap i e beha io s
(Ro hba d & Wilk, 2011) ha , in u n, con ibu e o u he nega i e
a ec (Sco & Ba nes, 2011). Because lack o de achmen om nega-
i e e en s should be posi i ely ela ed o backwa d-o ien ed
nega i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking, which in
u n should be ela ed o end-o -wo k nega i e a ec ia mo ning
nega i e a ec , we sugges a se ial indi ec ela ionship be ween lack
o de achmen om nega i e e en s and end-o -wo k nega i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 4. Lack o de achmen om nega i e
e en s shows a se ial indi ec posi i e ela ionship wi h
end-o -wo k nega i e a ec , ia (a) backwa d-o ien ed
nega i e umina ion and mo ning nega i e a ec and
ia (b) o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking and mo ning
nega i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 3c s a es ha he ela ionship be ween backwa d-
o ien ed nega i e umina ion and mo ning nega i e a ec will be
s onge han he ela ionship be ween o wa d-o ien ed solu ion
seeking and mo ning nega i e a ec . Acco dingly, we expec he se ial
indi ec ela ionship be ween lack o de achmen om nega i e
e en s and end-o -wo k nega i e a ec o be s onge ia backwa d-
o ien ed nega i e cogni ions and mo ning nega i e a ec han ia
o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking and mo ning nega i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 4c. The se ial indi ec posi i e ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s and
end-o -wo k nega i e a ec ia backwa d-o ien ed
SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN 1007
nega i e umina ion and mo ning nega i e a ec is
s onge han he se ial indi ec posi i e ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s and
end-o -wo k nega i e a ec ia o wa d-o ien ed solu-
ion seeking and mo ning nega i e a ec .
Cogni ions ha o igina e om posi i e e en s should be ela ed
o mo ning posi i e a ec . Du ing backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina-
ion and o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion, a pe son's ocus is on posi-
i e si ua ions and posi i e eelings abou hese si ua ions. Du ing
o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion, he pe son may hink abou possi-
ble u u e ac ions o a ain a desi able highe o de goal. Thus,
hough con en wi h a posi i e alence is highly salien wi hin hese
cogni ions. Empi ical esea ch has shown ha posi i e hough con-
en p edic s posi i e a ec i e s a es (Meie e al., 2016; Wes e mann
e al., 1996). Fo ins ance, elying on a b oad measu e o posi i e
e aming and o he cogni i e-coping beha io s, Eichbe ge e al.
(2021) ound ha hese posi i e hough s we e s ongly ela ed o
day-le el posi i e a ec . Taken oge he , because posi i e con en is
highly salien wi hin backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion and
o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion, we expec ha hese ypes o job-
ela ed cogni ion a e posi i ely ela ed o subsequen posi i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 5. (a) Backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina-
ion and (b) o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion du ing he
e ening p edic mo ning posi i e a ec .
Despi e he high salience o posi i e hough s in bo h backwa d-
o ien ed posi i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion,
hese ypes o job- ela ed cogni ions di e in one impo an aspec .
Backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion ocuses on sa o ing and capi-
alizing on wha has al eady been achie ed (B yan , 2021). Fo wa d-
o ien ed goal gene a ion, in con as , migh inc ease one's awa eness
o u u e p oblems, which migh dis ac om he posi i e expe ience
and dampen posi i e a ec (Quoidbach e al., 2010). Thus, al hough
o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion will be posi i ely ela ed o posi i e
a ec because i is oo ed in posi i e e en s (Mo is, 1989) and aligns
wi h desi able goals (J. F. Wang & Milya skaya, 2020), posi i e a ec-
i e consequences will be lowe han when di ec ing one's ull a en-
ion o an al eady expe ienced posi i e si ua ion as is he case du ing
backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion. Acco dingly, compa ed wi h
he ela ionship be ween backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion and
subsequen posi i e a ec , he ela ionship be ween o wa d-o ien ed
goal gene a ion and subsequen posi i e a ec should be weake .
Hypo hesis 5c. The ela ionship be ween backwa d-
o ien ed posi i e umina ion du ing he e ening and
mo ning posi i e a ec is s onge han he ela ionship
be ween o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion du ing he
e ening and mo ning posi i e a ec .
We expec job- ela ed cogni ions du ing leisu e ime o be ela ed
o end-o -wo k posi i e a ec as well. Speci ically, backwa d-o ien ed
posi i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion should be
ela ed o end-o -wo k posi i e a ec ia mo ning posi i e a ec . As
wi h nega i e a ec , posi i e a ec shows some deg ee o s abili y
o e he cou se o he day (Sonnen ag & S a zyk, 2015). In addi ion,
mo ning posi i e a ec acili a es a o able beha io s and expe iences
(Hu e al., 2020), which in u n inc ease posi i e a ec (Neshe
Shoshan & Venz, 2022). Because lack o de achmen om posi i e
e en s should be posi i ely ela ed o backwa d-o ien ed
posi i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion, which in
u n should ha e posi i e ela ionships wi h end-o -wo k posi i e
a ec ia mo ning posi i e a ec , we sugges a se ial indi ec ela ion-
ship be ween lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s and end-
o -wo k posi i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 6. Lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s
shows a se ial indi ec posi i e ela ionship wi h end-
o -wo k posi i e a ec , ia (a) backwa d-o ien ed posi-
i e umina ion and mo ning posi i e a ec and ia
(b) o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion and mo ning posi-
i e a ec .
Again, he s eng h o he se ial indi ec e ec should depend on
he empo al di ec ion o he cogni ions. As hypo hesized abo e, he
ela ionship be ween backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion and
mo ning posi i e a ec should be s onge han he ela ionship
be ween o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion and mo ning posi i e
a ec . Thus, he se ial indi ec ela ionship be ween lack o de ach-
men om posi i e e en s and end-o -wo k posi i e a ec should also
be s onge ia backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion cogni ions and
mo ning posi i e a ec han ia o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion
and mo ning posi i e a ec .
Hypo hesis 6c. The se ial indi ec posi i e ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s and
end-o -wo k posi i e a ec ia backwa d-o ien ed posi-
i e umina ion cogni ions and mo ning posi i e a ec is
s onge han he se ial indi ec posi i e ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s wi h
end-o -wo k posi i e a ec ia o wa d-o ien ed goal
gene a ion and mo ning posi i e a ec .
5|THEROLEOFNEUROTICISMAND
EXTRAVERSION
People di e in hei eac ions o wo k expe iences. Among he b oad
ange o indi idual-di e ence a iables ha con ibu e o people's di -
e en ial eac ions, neu o icism and ex a e sion a e pa icula ly in lu-
en ial because hey ep esen undamen al pe sonali y dimensions
ha egula e cogni ion, a ec , and beha io (Ca e , 2013; Ellio &
Th ash, 2002). In gene al, esea ch has shown ha a e si e expe i-
ences a wo k a e mos ha m ul o pe sons high on neu o icism and
low on ex a e sion (Iliescu e al., 2017; Johnson e al., 2014). Building
1008 SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN
on his ea lie esea ch, we p opose ha he s eng h o ela ionships
be ween lack o de achmen om wo k and job- ela ed cogni ions
du ing leisu e ime depend on a pe son's le el o neu o icism and
ex a e sion.
Neu o icism is he disposi ion owa d expe iencing nega i e
a ec i e s a es such as anxie y, hos ili y, guil , and wo y (Cos a &
McC ae, 1980). Pe sons high in neu o icism ocus mo e on nega i e
s imuli (Hampson, 2012) and espond mo e nega i ely o
nega i e e en s (Bolge & Zucke man, 1995; Zau a e al., 2005). They
end o engage mo e in nega i e hough p ocesses (Mu is
e al., 2005; Roelo s e al., 2008), pa icula ly a e nega i e expe i-
ences (Pa ani e al., 2017). Acco dingly, pe sons high in neu o icism
will con inue o ocus mo e in ensely on nega i e hough s when hey
do no de ach om he nega i e e en s. Thus, o hem i is mo e
likely ha lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s ansla es in o
backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion.
In addi ion, neu o icism should also s eng hen he ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s and o wa d-
o ien ed solu ion seeking. Al hough neu o icism is associa ed wi h
low p oblem-sol ing beha io (Conno -Smi h & Flachsba , 2007) and
a passi e and a oidan beha io al s yle owa d p oblems (D'Zu illa
e al., 2011), i has been ound o be posi i ely ela ed o p oblem-
sol ing ponde ing, a umina i e s yle ha aims a sol ing p oblems
(Hamesch e al., 2014; Weigel e al., 2019). Thus, al hough pe sons
high in neu o icism may end o no show ac ual p oblem-sol ing
beha io , hey a e inclined o umina e abou how hey could sol e
p oblems. Acco dingly, when no de aching om nega i e e en s hey
will engage mo e in o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking.
Hypo hesis 7. Neu o icism in luences he ela ionships
be ween lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s and
(a) backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion
and (b) o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking du ing he
e ening. The highe he neu o icism le el, he s onge
he posi i e ela ionship be ween lack o de achmen
om nega i e e en s and (a) backwa d-o ien ed nega-
i e umina ion and (b) o wa d-o ien ed solu ion
seeking.
Ex a e sion is he disposi ion o expe ience posi i e emo ions
and o be wa m, asse i e, ac i e, and g ega ious (Cos a &
McC ae, 1988). Pe sons high in ex a e sion a e mo e likely o expe i-
ence posi i e a ec i e s a es (Cos a & McC ae, 1980). They a e mo e
sensi i e o ewa ds (Lucas e al., 2000) and eac mo e s ongly o
posi i e e en s (La sen & Ke elaa , 1989; Zau a e al., 2005). Because
hey a e highly sensi i e o ewa ds and end o sa o posi i e expe i-
ences (Wood e al., 2003), pe sons high in ex a e sion will pay pa ic-
ula a en ion o he posi i e sides o hei wo k when hey do no
de ach om wo k du ing leisu e ime. Acco dingly, i is mo e likely o
ex a e s ha lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s ansla es in o
backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion.
In addi ion, ex a e sion should also s eng hen he ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s and o wa d-
o ien ed goal gene a ion, ha is, cogni ions ha add ess nex ac ion
s eps esul ing om posi i e e en s and expe iences. Pe sons high in
ex a e sion a e mo e p omo ion- ocused, engage mo e in goal se -
ing, and ha e a highe sel -e icacy (Wilmo e al., 2019), cons i u ing
impo an mo i a ional p e equisi es o add essing u u e challenges
and being p oac i e (To nau & F ese, 2013). Acco dingly, when ex a-
e ed pe sons do no de ach om posi i e e en s, hey can use he
men al p esence o hese posi i e e en s as mo i a ional d i e s o
u u e ac ions, o ins ance, by placing g ea e alue on u u e posi i e
expe iences (Smillie, 2013). The e o e, ex a e s' lack o de achmen
om posi i e e en s will also mani es i sel in o wa d-o ien ed goal
gene a ion.
Hypo hesis 8. Ex a e sion in luences he ela ionships
be ween o lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s
and (a) backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion and
(b) o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion du ing he e ening.
The highe he ex a e sion le el, he s onge he posi-
i e ela ionship be ween lack o de achmen om
posi i e e en s and (a) backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umi-
na ion and (b) o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion.
6|METHOD
6.1 |S udy p ocedu e
This s udy was pa o a la ge s udy on eco e y p ocesses.
1
We
ec ui ed pa icipan s in Ge man-speaking coun ies ia ad e ise-
men s on social-media si es (e.g., Xing, Facebook). Eligibili y c i e ia
included wo king a leas 20 h and a leas 4 days pe week, no doing
shi wo k o being sel -employed, and being a leas 18 yea s old.
Depending on hei indi idual compliance a es, pa icipan s ecei ed
up o 35 Eu o as incen i e. The E hics Re iew Boa d o he Uni e si y
o Mannheim app o ed he s udy p o ocol (numbe : 10/2019).
Pa icipan s i s comple ed an en ance su ey ha assessed
neu o icism, ex a e sion, and demog aphic da a. Upon comple ion o
his en ance su ey, we asked pa icipan s o comple e h ee daily
su eys, o e a pe iod o 2 weeks (i.e., up o 10 wo kdays). We sen
E-mail links o he daily su eys a h ee ime poin s (mo ning, end-o -
wo k, e ening), ailo ed o pa icipan s' indi idual wo k schedules. A
o al o 302 pe sons comple ed he en ance su ey, o whom
291 con inued wi h he daily-su ey assessmen .
To ensu e high da a quali y, we excluded daily su ey da a ha
showed signs o ca eless esponding (e.g., longs ing; Meade & C aig,
2012) o noncompliance wi h he speci ic ins uc ions abou when o
comple e he su eys. Speci ically, we excluded mo ning su eys no
comple ed wi hin 1 h a e s a ing wo k, end-o -wo k su eys
no comple ed 1 h be o e and 2 h a e he end o he wo k, and e e-
ning su eys comple ed oo ea ly (i.e., no a leas 1 h a e he end o
1
The s udy by Wiegelmann e al. (2023) is based on he same da a collec ion, wi hou
a iable o e lap.
SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN 1009
wo k and no a leas 30 min a e comple ion o he end-o -wo k su -
ey). We chose hese ailo ed compliance c i e ia so ha he ac ual
su ey comple ion imes would be close enough o he op imal com-
ple ion imes (e.g., when beginning and inishing wo k) and ha would
s ill allow some leeway due o un o eseen cons ain s du ing daily li e
(e.g., las -minu e du ies a wo k, ca ching public anspo ). In addi ion,
because ou analysis equi ed wi hin-pe son a ia ion on he ele an
cons uc s, we disca ded daily su eys om pa icipan s who com-
ple ed he espec i e ype o daily su ey on only one day.
A e excluding ca eless esponses, daily su eys no comple ed
a he assigned ime poin s, and single-day esponses, we e ained
2200 mo ning su eys (comple ed on a e age a 7:16 AM) om
266 pe sons, 1538 end-o -wo k su eys (comple ed on a e age a
4:50 p.m.) om 245 pe sons, and 1815 e ening su eys (comple ed
on a e age a 8:20 PM) om 241 pe sons. Fo da a analyses, we
ma ched e ening da a om day d (p o iding lack-o -de achmen da a),
mo ning da a om day d +1 (p o iding e ening-cogni ion and
mo ning-a ec da a), and end-o -wo k da a om day d +1 (p o iding
end-o -wo k a ec da a and con ol a iables). We allowed missing
alues in he end-o -wo k and e ening su eys. Because on Monday
mo nings no job- ela ed cogni ion measu es e e ing o he p e ious
e ening we e a ailable, we e ained a maximum o eigh day-le el
da a se s pe pa icipan , esul ing in an o e all da a se o 1699 days
om 243 pa icipan s (6.99 days pe pa icipan ).
6.2 |Sample
Wi hin he inal sample o 243 pe sons (63.8% emale), he mean age
was 36.5 yea s (SD =9.2). Mean job enu e was 4.7 yea s (SD =5.7).
Mos pa icipan s (70.4%) wo ked be ween 36 and 45 h pe week.
O e all, pa icipan s we e highly educa ed wi h 71.6% holding a uni-
e si y deg ee. Pa icipan s we e employed in a b oad ange o di e -
en jobs, pa icula ly wi hin managemen (26.0%), o ice
adminis a ion (21.2%), in o ma ion echnology, enginee ing, and
ela ed ields (20.2%), as well as se ice (9.7%).
We compa ed he 243 pa icipan s whose daily-su ey da a we e
included in he analysis wi h he 59 pe sons who comple ed he
en ance su ey bu did no p o ide usable daily-su ey da a. Pa ici-
pan s included in he analysis did no di e om pe sons who
d opped ou a e comple ing he en ance su ey wi h espec o age
(M=37.3, SD =9.1 s. M=36.5, SD =9.2, =0.621, d =300,
p=0.541), enu e (M=4.9, SD =6.0 s. M=4.7, SD =5.7,
=0.345, d =300, p=0.730), o educa ion (71.6% s. 71.2% wi h
uni e si y deg ee, χ
2
=0.004, d =1, p=.949). Howe e , women
ended o be mo e likely o be included in he inal da a se han men
(63.8% women in inal sample s. 57.6% women among d opou s,
χ
2
=4.661, d =1, p=.097).
We planned ou sample size based on A end and Schä e 's (2019)
simula ion esea ch. Thei esul s sugges ha a sample size o
200 pe sons wi h 7 days pe pe son is su icien o de ec ing e en
small e ec s a Le el 1 and o de ec ing medium-sized c oss-le el
in e ac ion e ec s when he andom slope a iance is la ge o o
de ec ing la ge c oss-le el in e ac ion e ec s when he andom slope
a iance is medium-sized.
6.3 |Measu es
We adminis e ed all i ems in Ge man. Fo i ems ha we e no a ail-
able in Ge man, we applied a ansla ion-back ansla ion p ocedu e
(B islin, 1970). Unless epo ed o he wise, pa icipan s esponded o
all i ems on a 5-poin scale anging om 1 =s ongly disag ee o 5 =-
s ongly ag ee. Table 1 epo s means, s anda d de ia ions, in aclass
co ela ions, and ze o-o de co ela ions o ou s udy a iables. All
eigh i ems assessing lack o de achmen om wo k and all 12 i ems
assessing job- ela ed cogni ions a e displayed in he Suppo ing
In o ma ion.
To empo ally sepa a e he assessmen s o lack o a e -wo k psy-
chological de achmen om wo k and e ening job- ela ed cogni ions,
we measu ed lack o psychological de achmen in he e ening su ey
on day d and job- ela ed cogni ions e e ing o he p e ious e ening
in he mo ning su ey on day d +1. In he mo ning su ey on day d
+1, we also assessed mo ning nega i e and posi i e a ec . Finally,
we assessed end-o -wo k nega i e and posi i e a ec in he end-
o -wo k su ey on day d +1, along wi h nega i e and posi i e wo k
e en s on day d +1.
6.3.1 | Pe sonali y ai s (assessed in he en ance
su ey)
We assessed neu o icism and ex a e sion wi h six i ems each om
he Ge man sho e sion (Kö ne e al., 2008) o he NEO Fi e-Fac o
In en o y (NEO-FFI; Cos a & McC ae, 1992) ha co ela es highly
wi h he NEO-FFI long e sion (Kö ne e al., 2008). Bo h scales
showed good eliabili y in he p esen da a se , wi h C onbach's
α=.88 and .75 o neu o icism and ex a e sion, espec i ely.
6.3.2 | Lack o psychological de achmen om wo k
(assessed in e ening su ey on day d)
To assess lack o a e -wo k psychological de achmen om nega i e
wo k e en s and lack o a e -wo k psychological de achmen om
posi i e wo k e en s, we adjus ed i ems om Sonnen ag and F i z
(2007). Speci ically, we added e e ences o posi i e e sus nega i e
aspec s o he o iginal i ems (sample i ems: “A e wo k oday, I o go
abou nega i e e en s o he wo king day,”“A e wo k oday, I
o go abou posi i e e en s o he wo king day”). Simila o Lu e al.
(2022), we e e se-coded he i em sco es o cap u e lack o psycho-
logical de achmen om nega i e (wi hin-pe son ω=.81, be ween-
pe son =.98) and posi i e e en s (wi hin-pe son ω=.75, be ween-
pe son =.95) wi h ou i ems each.
1010 SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN
e ec , ende ing he empi ical associa ions be ween ou co e s udy
a iables spu ious. To ule ou his possibili y, in an addi ional analy-
sis, we con olled o end-o -wo k nega i e and posi i e a ec on
he p e ious day. In de ail, we speci ied pa hs om pe son-mean
cen e ed p e ious-day end-o -wo k a ec on lack o de achmen ,
job- ela ed cogni ions, nex -day mo ning a ec , nex -day wo k
e en s, and nex -day end-o -wo k a ec . As Tables S7 o S9 show,
end-o -wo k a ec on he p e ious day indeed p edic ed lack o
de achmen om wo k, job- ela ed cogni ions, mo ning a ec , and
wo k e en s, mos ly in a alence-cong uen way. Impo an ly, how-
e e , indings om ou main analyses did no change, wi h one
excep ion: The in e ac ion e ec be ween neu o icism and lack o
de achmen om nega i e e en s on o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seek-
ing became nonsigni ican . Despi e his nonsigni ican in e ac ion
e ec , o e all, he addi ional analysis sugges s ha p io a ec can-
no explain ou co e s udy indings.
FIGURE 2 Mode a o e ec s o neu o icism and ex a e sion.
SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN 1017

8|DISCUSSION
Ou s udy examined he cogni i e mechanisms ha ansla e lack o
de achmen om wo k in o un a o able a ec i e s a es he nex day.
Building on con ol heo y, we ound ha lack o de achmen om
nega i e and posi i e e en s p edic ed job- ela ed backwa d- and
o wa d-o ien ed cogni ions du ing he e ening in a alence-
cong uen manne . Backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion du ing he
e ening was posi i ely ela ed o mo ning nega i e a ec and showed
an indi ec posi i e e ec wi h end-o -wo k nega i e a ec ia mo n-
ing nega i e a ec . Howe e , none o he o he ypes o job- ela ed
cogni ions was ela ed o subsequen a ec . The ela ionships
be ween de achmen om nega i e e en s and backwa d-o ien ed
nega i e umina ion as well as o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking we e
s onge o pe sons high on neu o icism, whe eas he ela ionships
be ween lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s and backwa d-
o ien ed posi i e umina ion as well as o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a-
ion we e s onge o pe sons high on ex a e sion.
8.1 |Theo e ical implica ions
Ou s udy b ings he eco e y li e a u e o a be e unde s anding o
he mechanisms ha link lack o psychological de achmen om wo k
o impai ed well-being. We ound ha on days when employees do
no de ach om wo k a he end o he wo kday, hey ha e mo e job-
ela ed cogni ions la e du ing he e ening. Maybe unsu p isingly, lack
o de achmen om nega i e e en s mainly p edic ed nega i e cogni-
ions and lack o de achmen om posi i e e en s mainly p edic ed
posi i e cogni ions. In e es ingly, howe e , lack o de achmen om
posi i e e en s also p edic ed cogni ions abou how o o e come a
nega i e si ua ion (i.e., o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking). I seems
ha he men al ac i a ion o mo e posi i e con en caused by a lack
o de achmen om posi i e e en s in used a mo e posi i e ou look
on an ini ially nega i e si ua ion and he e o e os e ed hough s
abou how o o e come such a si ua ion. Thus, no de aching om
posi i e e en s migh help o see a nega i e si ua ion in a mo e posi-
i e ligh .
P e ious esea ch on job- ela ed cogni ions and umina ion du -
ing leisu e ime has ei he di e en ia ed be ween nega i e e sus
posi i e alence (Meie e al., 2016) o be ween a ious umina ion
modes (Que s e & C opley, 2012). In ou s udy, we in eg a ed he
alence pe spec i e wi h a empo al-di ec ion pe spec i e and ound
ha ou ypes o job- ela ed cogni ions can be clea ly di e en ia ed.
This di e en ia ion allowed us o examine in mo e de ail he ype o
job- ela ed cogni ion ha is mos ha m ul o nex -day a ec . Only
backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion was ela ed o mo ning and
end-o -wo k nega i e a ec and se ed as he linking mechanism
be ween lack o de achmen and nex -day a ec . This inding sug-
ges s ha lack o de achmen om wo k exe s i s in luence on un a-
o able a ec i e s a es by elici ing nega i e hough s ha cen e
a ound wha has happened and ha keep he pe son men ally apped
in he pas . When es ing he ou cogni ion ypes in sepa a e models
(see Foo no es 7 and 8), all we e signi ican alence-cong uen p edic-
o s o nega i e and posi i e a ec , espec i ely, sugges ing ha all
ou cogni ion ypes play a ole when examined in isola ion. In he
o e all analyses wi h all ou ypes o job- ela ed cogni ions,
backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion ou pe o med he p edic i e
powe o he o he job- ela ed cogni ions. I migh be ha his ype o
job- ela ed cogni ion immedia ely inc eases nega i e a ec (Hu zige
e al., 2012) and na ows a en ion (Whi me & Go lib, 2013), which
makes his ype o hough pa icula ly pe sis en and powe ul, o e -
iding he impac o he o he ypes o job- ela ed hough s.
In e es ingly, lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s was an
equally s ong p edic o o backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion
and o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking. This is a no ewo hy inding
o con ol heo y as cogni i e a emp s o educe he disc epancy
be ween a desi ed and he ac ual s a e (i.e., o wa d-o ien ed solu ion
seeking) we e no mo e likely han dwelling on he disc epancy
(i.e., backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion). Thus, he p inciple o
disc epancy educ ion migh be less p e alen in employees' daily li e
han o iginally s a ed wi hin con ol heo y (Ca e & Scheie , 1998).
Ou pa e n o indings also implies ha job- ela ed cogni ions
ha ocus on posi i e con en a e a he ine ec i e in os e ing posi-
i e a ec when join ly examined wi h backwa d-o ien ed nega i e
umina ion. O no e, we assessed a he speci ic posi i e hough con-
en ha was oo ed in he pas wo kday. P e ious s udies ha ound
ha posi i ely oned job- ela ed cogni ions p edic nex -day s a es
used a he b oad measu es o job- ela ed cogni ions, e e ing o
posi i e e lec ions abou one's wo k in gene al (Meie e al., 2016;
Sonnen ag e al., 2021). Thus, b oad measu es o posi i e job- ela ed
cogni ions migh be mo e e ec i e in p edic ing nex -day posi i e
s a es han mo e na ow measu es.
Finally, ou s udy showed ha pe sonali y in luences he s eng h
o he ela ionship be ween lack o de achmen and job- ela ed cogni-
ions, in addi ion o s ong main e ec s o neu o icism and ex a e -
sion.
11
These indings sugges ha pe sonali y in luences he
downs eam consequences o lack o psychological de achmen om
wo k on nega i e a ec . Wi h hese indings, ou s udy adds o pe -
sonali y esea ch wi hin o ganiza ional beha io . I demons a es ha
pe sonali y is no only impo an by in luencing p ocesses happening
a wo k (Judge e al., 2002; Wilmo e al., 2019) bu also by in luenc-
ing p ocesses happening o wo k when employees should eco e
and eplenish hei ene ge ic and a ec i e esou ces.
Al hough we unco e ed signi ican mode a o e ec s o neu o i-
cism and ex a e sion, we need o no e ha he e ec sizes we e
small. Main e ec s o he pe sonali y ai s, pa icula ly o neu o i-
cism, we e subs an ially la ge . Thus, ou indings a e in e es ing in
he ligh o ai -ac i a ion heo y (Te e al., 2021). This heo y
desc ibes ha speci ic ai s become pa icula ly ele an and exe
hei in luence in speci ic si ua ions, implying ha neu o icism is
11
S anda dized e ec sizes o neu o icism's main e ec on backwa d-o ien ed nega i e
umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed solu ion seeking we e 0.233, 95% [0.165, 0.301] and 0.195,
95% [0.122, 0.269], espec i ely. S anda dized e ec sizes o ex a e sion's main e ec on
backwa d-o ien ed posi i e umina ion and o wa d-o ien ed goal gene a ion we e 0.107,
95% [0.026, 0.187] and 0.122, 95% [0.036, 0.203], espec i ely.
1018 SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN
ac i a ed in nega i e-e en si ua ions ha po en ially cons i u e a
h ea (DeYoung, 2015) and ex a e sion is ac i a ed in posi i e
e en -si ua ions ha inco po a e oppo uni ies o psychological
ewa ds (DeYoung, 2015). The signi ican in e ac ion e ec s pa ly
e lec his ai -ac i a ion pe spec i e, bu he main e ec s sugges
ha neu o icism and ex a e sion a e mo e powe ul in di ec ly shap-
ing job- ela ed cogni ions.
8.2 |Limi a ions and di ec ions o u u e esea ch
As is he case wi h many daily-su ey s udies (Gab iel e al., 2019), we
used sel - epo measu es wha migh ha e caused common me hod
bias (Podsako e al., 2003). We ook coun e measu es o minimize
his bias. Fi s , we implemen ed h ee measu emen occasions pe day
so ha we sepa a ed he assessmen o mos o he cons uc s and,
hus, educed he likelihood o in la ed empi ical ela ionships
be ween a iables. Second, we used di e en esponse o ma s o
a iables we assessed a he same poin in ime (job- ela ed cogni ions
and mo ning a ec ). Thi d, we pe son-mean cen e ed ou day-le el
a iables, emo ing all be ween-pe son a iance om hese a iables.
Thus, pe son-speci ic esponse endencies ha o en con ibu e o
in la ed ela ionships be ween a iables (Podsako e al., 2003) can-
no explain he indings. Finally, we should no e ha mos o ou con-
s uc s e e o s a es and p ocesses ha can be bes cap u ed ia
sel - epo (i.e., cogni ions, a ec s).
We assessed job- ela ed cogni ions e ospec i ely in he nex
mo ning, which migh ha e esul ed in some ecall bias. Wi h his
delibe a e choice, howe e , we ollowed o he s udies ha used simi-
la designs (Chawla e al., 2020; Lanaj e al., 2014). Impo an ly, we
used mo ning assessmen s o job- ela ed cogni ions o empo ally
sepa a e he assessmen o hese cogni ions om he assessmen o
lack o de achmen . Assessing bo h lack o de achmen and job-
ela ed cogni ions in he e ening migh ha e led o in la ed ela ion-
ships be ween he wo se s o cons uc s. Mo eo e , e ening assess-
men s o job- ela ed cogni ions migh ha e missed cogni ions ha
occu ed la e in he e ening, including cogni ions occu ing sho ly
be o e alling asleep. Finally, e ening assessmen s migh ha e e en
led o some measu emen eac i i y by igge ing job- ela ed
cogni ions.
As ou da a a e co ela ional, s ong conclusions abou causali y
a e no possible. The addi ional analysis, howe e , demons a ed ha
co e indings emained obus when con olling o p io a ec ,
ha is, when aking in o accoun ha p io a ec in luenced some o
he s udy a iables. O no e, hese addi ional indings sugges ha
a ec , lack o de achmen om wo k, and job- ela ed cogni ions du -
ing he e ening migh show a ecip ocal ela ionship ha po en ially
ein o ce each o he .
Ou esea ch poin s o addi ional a enues o u u e esea ch.
Fi s , because ou s udy ocused on p ocesses ope a ing a he day
le el, i canno speak o he po en ial longe e m p ocesses o eac -
ing o lack o de achmen wi h speci ic ypes o job- ela ed cogni ions.
Fo ins ance, people who consis en ly espond o a lack o
de achmen om nega i e e en s wi h nega i ely oned cogni ions
migh expe ience a decline in job sa is ac ion o e ime, whe eas peo-
ple who only spo adically show his nega i e eac ion migh be able o
uphold hei job sa is ac ion. Mo eo e , al hough o wa d-o ien ed
solu ion seeking and posi i ely oned cogni ions did no p edic sub-
sequen a ec when examined in a join model, hese cogni ions could
ha e an impac o e a longe pe iod. Again, consis ency o cogni ions
ac oss ime migh play a ole. Regula posi i ely oned
cogni ions migh esul in highe job in ol emen , whe eas spo adi-
cally occu ing posi i ely oned cogni ions migh no ha e his e ec .
Second, i would be impo an o add ess he ques ion o wha
can dis up he p ocess om backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion
o mo ning nega i e a ec . Resea ch has shown ha delibe a e posi-
i e sel - e lec ion and sel -compassion exe cises in he mo ning can
se a posi i e one o he upcoming wo kday (Lanaj e al., 2019;
Schab am & Heng, 2022). Acco dingly, i would be in e es ing o
examine i hese exe cises a e also e ec i e in bu e ing he de imen-
al impac o e ening nega i e job- ela ed cogni ions on nex -mo ning
nega i e a ec .
Thi d, ou s udy showed ha neu o icism and ex a e sion in lu-
ence job- ela ed cogni ions when no de aching om wo k. Fu u e
esea ch migh wan o s udy he ele ance o pe sonali y o o he
aspec s o he eco e y p ocess. Fo ins ance, neu o icism and ex a-
e sion migh play an e en s onge ole in he link be ween job
e en s and lack o de achmen and hey migh shape longe e m
eac ions o lack o de achmen om wo k on heal h and well-being.
Fu u e esea ch may also examine o he indi idual-di e ence a i-
ables as mode a o s in he ela ionship be ween lack o de achmen
and job- ela ed cogni ions. Fo ins ance, sel -e icacy migh be pa ic-
ula ly ele an o engaging in o wa d-o ien ed e sus backwa d-
o ien ed hinking a e no ha ing de ached om wo k.
Fou h, as we ocused on a ec as ou come o lack o de ach-
men and job- ela ed cogni ions, i would be in e es ing o es in
u u e esea ch i pa icula ly o wa d-o ien ed cogni ions ac ually
ansla e in o any p oblem-sol ing o goal-gene a ion beha io o
e en in o p oac i e and c ea i e beha io . Conside ing pe sonali y as
a mode a o , his migh be pa icula ly he case when employees ha e
a highly p oac i e pe sonali y (C an , 1995).
In addi ion, i would be in e es ing o examine which speci ic
wo k e en s hinde e sus help psychological de achmen and subse-
quen job- ela ed cogni ions. Acco ding o con ol heo y, e en s
poin ing o goal disc epancies e sus goal a ainmen should be pa ic-
ula ly ele an and cons ual le el o he e en s could play a ole as
well (Wa kins, 2008). Wi h ou a he gene al assessmen o wo k
e en s, we could no add ess he ole o speci ic e en ea u es bu
encou age o he esea che s o do so.
Finally, ou pa e n o indings is impo an o esea ch p ac ice
when add essing simila esea ch ques ions. When es ing he ou
ypes o job- ela ed cogni ions in sepa a e models, all we e signi ican
p edic o s o nega i e and posi i e a ec , espec i ely. In one o e all
model, howe e , only backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion p e-
dic ed mo ning nega i e a ec . These esul s highligh ha s udies
including only posi i ely amed a iables, wi hou also aking
SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN 1019
nega i ely amed a iables in o accoun , migh o e es ima e he ole
o posi i ely amed a iables. Simila ly, in o he cases, s udies ha
include only nega i ely amed a iables, while omi ing posi i ely
amed ones, migh esul in simila ly biased indings. Acco dingly, ou
s udy showed ha i is impo an o simul aneously ake nega i ely
amed and posi i ely amed s udy cons uc s in o accoun .
8.3 |P ac ical implica ions
Ou esea ch o e s some p ac ical implica ions. Fi s and o emos , i
is impo an o psychologically de ach om nega i e wo k e en s a
he end o he wo kday. Whe eas he majo i y o pas in e en ion
s udies ocused on o e all de achmen om wo k (Ka abinski
e al., 2021), ou s udy highligh s he impo ance o de aching om
he nega i e. Fo ins ance, his could be done h ough delibe a e
bounda y managemen be ween wo k and nonwo k li e (e.g., by
explici ly planning o leisu e ime; Haun e al., 2022). When i comes
o posi i e e en s, ull de achmen is no desi able, and employees
could bene i om delibe a ely ecalling posi i e e en s and sha ing
hem wi h o he s (Ilies e al., 2024; Smi h e al., 2014).
Conside ing he de imen al impac o nega i e a ec in o ganiza-
ional li e (Ma a e al., 2014), i is impo an o a oid nega i e umina-
ion and o educe he possibili y ha nega i e umina ion ansla es
in o nega i e a ec in he mo ning and h oughou he wo kday. Fo
ins ance, delibe a e dis ac ion and engagemen in leisu e ac i i ies
ha elici posi i e a ec may help o educe he likelihood o
backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion. In addi ion, daily ou ines and
p ac ices ha se a posi i e one o he day may be e ec i e in o e -
coming he un a o able impac o backwa d-o ien ed nega i e
umina ion.
9|CONCLUSION
O e all, ou s udy showed ha lack o de achmen om nega i e
wo k e en s and lack o de achmen om posi i e wo k e en s a e
associa ed wi h dis inc job- ela ed cogni ions and ha only
backwa d-o ien ed nega i e umina ion ansla es lack o de achmen
om nega i e e en s in o nex -day nega i e a ec . This ype o job-
ela ed cogni ion is pa icula ly powe ul in shaping subsequen nega-
i e a ec . Neu o icism and ex a e sion play a ole in he ela ionship
be ween lack o de achmen om wo k and job- ela ed cogni ions,
wi h pe sons high on neu o icism showing he mos ad e se ajec o y
om lack o de achmen om nega i e e en s o nex -day nega i e
a ec .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This esea ch was suppo ed by a g an om he Ge man Resea ch
Founda ion (No. 408804332). This g an is g a e ully acknowledged.
We hank Annika Fu ch, Zoe Geo giadis, and Fabienne Pa sch o
hei suppo du ing da a collec ion. Open Access unding enabled
and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The e is no con lic o in e es .
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Da a will be a ailable om he i s au ho upon eques .
ORCID
Sabine Sonnen ag h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9464-4653
Monika Wiegelmann h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2044-7251
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Sabine Sonnen ag is a ull p o esso o Wo k & O ganiza ional
Psychology a he Uni e si y o Mannheim, Ge many. She is
in e es ed in how indi iduals can s ay well, heal hy, and engaged
a wo k, e en unde ad e se ci cums ances. She s udies job s ess
and job-s ess eco e y, heal h beha io (ea ing, physical exe -
cise), and a ious aspec s o sel - egula ion, including habi
change.
Monika Wiegelmann is a junio consul an a he Bos on Consul -
ing G oup. She ecei ed he PhD om he Uni e si y o Mann-
heim, Ge many, in 2023. He esea ch ocuses on he in e play o
sleep and wo k wi h an emphasis o ad anced s a is ical me hods
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Addi ional suppo ing in o ma ion can be ound online in he Suppo -
ing In o ma ion sec ion a he end o his a icle.
How o ci e his a icle: Sonnen ag, S., & Wiegelmann, M.
(2024). No de aching om wo k du ing leisu e ime: A
con ol- heo y pe spec i e on job- ela ed cogni ions. Jou nal
o O ganiza ional Beha io ,45(7), 1003–1024. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1002/job.2792
1024 SONNENTAG and WIEGELMANN