Ka oun zos, Panagio is; Giannakopoulos, Nikolaos T.; Sakas, Damianos P.; Toudas,
Kanellos
A icle
Beha io al economics in EU: Mea , ESG, mac oeconomics
Economies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ka oun zos, Panagio is; Giannakopoulos, Nikolaos T.; Sakas, Damianos P.;
Toudas, Kanellos (2025) : Beha io al economics in EU: Mea , ESG, mac oeconomics, Economies,
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Ci a ion: Ka oun zos, P.,
Giannakopoulos, N. T., Sakas, D. P., &
Toudas, K. (2025). Beha io al
Economics in EU: Mea , ESG,
Mac oeconomics. Economies,13(6), 146.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
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A icle
Beha io al Economics in EU: Mea , ESG, Mac oeconomics
Panagio is Ka oun zos , Nikolaos T. Giannakopoulos * , Damianos P. Sakas and Kanellos Toudas
BICTEVAC Labo a o y—Business In o ma ion and Communica ion Technologies in Value Chains Labo a o y,
Depa men o Ag ibusiness and Supply Chain Managemen , School o Applied Economics and Social Sciences,
Ag icul u al Uni e si y o A hens, 118 55 A hens, G eece
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This s udy examines he impac o mac oeconomic and ESG (En i onmen al,
Social, and Go e nance) ac o s on mea consump ion in EU coun ies h ough a beha io al
economics amewo k. Using panel da a om 27 EU coun ies (2000–2021), he analysis
applies Fixed E ec s (FE), Random E ec s (RE), and Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions
(GEE) models o iden i y key d i e s o mea consump ion. The esul s e eal ha GDP
PPP (pu chasing powe pa i y) pe capi a, li es ock a ailabili y, and me hane emissions
ha e a signi ican posi i e impac on mea consump ion, e lec ing he ole o economic
p ospe i y and ag icul u al p oduc ion in die a y choices. In con as , unemploymen and
in la ion nega i ely in luence mea consump ion, highligh ing he impo ance o economic
s abili y. The GEE model, which co ec s o au oco ela ion, con i ms ha me hane emis-
sions and GDP PPP pe capi a emain signi ican p edic o s, sugges ing ha economic
g ow h and en i onmen al impac a e c i ical de e minan s o die a y beha io . These
indings unde sco e he complex in e play be ween economic de elopmen , sus ainabili y,
and consume beha io , p o iding aluable insigh s o policymake s aiming o balance
economic g ow h wi h en i onmen al goals in he EU.
Keywo ds: mea consump ion; beha io al economics; ESG ac o s; panel da a analysis;
andom e ec s model; gene alized es ima ing equa ions; EU ood policy
1. In oduc ion
“Le hem ea cake!”—a ph ase amously a ibu ed o Ma ie An oine e—encapsula es
he his o ical disconnec be ween economic eali ies and socie al pe cep ions o well-being
(He be ,2019). In con empo a y economies, mea consump ion has supplan ed cake as
a symbol o p ospe i y, e lec ing no only economic s a us bu also beha io al pa e ns
shaped by inancial and socio-en i onmen al dynamics (M oczek e al.,2022). The p esence
o mea on he daily able se es as mo e han a die a y choice; i unc ions as a beha io al
economic indica o , e ealing unde lying consume p e e ences, economic s abili y, and
social alues (Weibel e al.,2019).
The in e play be ween economic g ow h, ESG (En i onmen al, Social, and Go e -
nance) ac o s, and mea consump ion pa e ns in he EU is complex, e lec ing bo h
en i onmen al impe a i es and economic eali ies. While educing mea consump ion is
essen ial o sus ainabili y and heal h, i poses challenges o economic g ow h, pa icula ly
in he li es ock sec o (Ma ques e al.,2018). Mea consump ion con ibu es posi i ely o
economic g ow h, as e idenced by a s udy o 14 Eu opean high-income coun ies o e
ou decades (Pais e al.,2020). The li es ock sec o is a signi ican economic d i e , and
a educ ion in mea consump ion could h ea en jobs and economic s abili y (Pais e al.,
Economies 2025,13, 146 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13060146
Economies 2025,13, 146 2 o 39
2020). Howe e , s a egies p omo ing plan -based die s can mi iga e nega i e economic
impac s while suppo ing sus ainabili y (Pais e al.,2020).
ESG ac o s a e inc easingly ele an in guiding in es men decisions, wi h s ong
co po a e go e nance linked o be e s ock e u ns in he EU (Ciocî lan e al.,2024). The
EU’s G een Deal emphasizes he need o sus ainable p ac ices, including educed mea
consump ion, o align economic g ow h wi h en i onmen al goals (Cué Rio e al.,2022).
Mea consump ion pa e ns a y signi ican ly ac oss Wes e n Eu opean coun ies,
in luenced by si ua ional ac o s such as meal ype and loca ion (La an,2024). Unde s and-
ing hese pa e ns is c ucial o designing e ec i e in e en ions o p omo e sus ainable
die s (La an,2024).
Mea consump ion is o en linked o economic s abili y; highe mea in ake ypically
co ela es wi h weal hie popula ions. S udies show a high p ice elas ici y o demand
o mea , indica ing ha economic ac o s signi ican ly in luence consump ion pa e ns
(Hes e mann e al.,2020).
The “mea pa adox” illus a es how indi iduals econcile hei empa hy o animals
wi h mea consump ion, o en leading o sel -decep ion abou he e hical implica ions o
hei die a y choices (Hes e mann e al.,2020). Gende ed pe cep ions o mea consump ion
u he complica e his dynamic, wi h mea o en associa ed wi h masculini y and powe ,
while ligh e oods a e linked o eminini y (Van Dyke,2015).
The po ayal o mea as a i al ood sou ce is con es ed, wi h some ad oca ing o
educed consump ion due o heal h and en i onmen al conce ns (Le oy e al.,2023). Con-
sume willingness o pay a p emium o mea pe cei ed as bene icial o wellness highligh s
he in e sec ion o heal h, economic s a us, and die a y choices (Zhang e al.,2024).
Despi e he ex ensi e li e a u e on ood consump ion, he in e sec ion o mac oeco-
nomic and ESG ac o s wi h mea consump ion emains unde explo ed. P e ious s udies
ha e p ima ily ocused on nu i ional and en i onmen al aspec s, o en neglec ing he
b oade economic and social d i e s o die a y beha io . Fo example, while he ela ion-
ship be ween economic g ow h and mea consump ion is well-documen ed (God ay e al.,
2018;Delgado,2003), less a en ion has been gi en o he complex in e ac ions be ween
GDP, unemploymen , in la ion, go e nmen spending, and ESG conside a ions in shaping
mea consump ion pa e ns. This gap in he li e a u e highligh s he need o a mo e
in eg a ed app oach ha conside s bo h economic and sus ainabili y ac o s in analyzing
die a y choices.
This s udy aims o add ess he gap in he li e a u e by examining he impac o mac oe-
conomic and ESG ac o s on mea consump ion in he EU. Speci ically, i in es iga es how
GDP pe capi a, me hane emissions, unemploymen , in la ion, li es ock a ailabili y, and
go e nmen expendi u e in luence mea consump ion ac oss EU coun ies. By in eg a ing
economic indica o s wi h sus ainabili y me ics, his esea ch seeks o p o ide a mo e
comp ehensi e unde s anding o he ac o s ha d i e mea consump ion and hei impli-
ca ions o public policy. This objec i e is pu sued h ough he applica ion o panel da a
models, including Fixed E ec s (FE), Random E ec s (RE), and Gene alized Es ima ing
Equa ions (GEE), which allow o a obus analysis o longi udinal da a, cap u ing bo h
ime-se ies and c oss-sec ional a ia ions.
The p ima y objec i e o his s udy is o assess he ex en o which mac oeconomic and
ESG- ela ed ac o s in luence mea consump ion beha io in EU coun ies. This objec i e
is add essed h ough he applica ion o panel da a models, including Fixed E ec s (FE),
Random E ec s (RE), and Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE), which allow o a
obus analysis o longi udinal da a.
The analysis is based on panel da a om 27 EU coun ies, co e ing he pe iod om
2000 o 2021. The da a we e sou ced om eliable in e na ional da abases, including he
Economies 2025,13, 146 3 o 39
Wo ld Bank and he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion (FAO), ensu ing consis ency and
compa abili y ac oss coun ies. The use o panel da a allows o he iden i ica ion o bo h
ime-se ies and c oss-sec ional a ia ions in mea consump ion, p o iding a mo e nuanced
unde s anding o he ac o s ha in luence die a y beha io .
This s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e by add essing he unde explo ed ela ionship
be ween mac oeconomic indica o s, ESG ac o s, and mea consump ion in he EU. I
p o ides empi ical e idence on how economic g ow h, en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and
social ac o s in e ac o shape die a y choices, o e ing aluable insigh s o policymake s
aiming o balance economic de elopmen wi h sus ainable ood sys ems. Addi ionally, his
esea ch aligns wi h he b oade goals o he EU G een Deal, which emphasizes he need
o sus ainable consump ion pa e ns and educed g eenhouse gas emissions.
This pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2p esen s a comp ehensi e li e a u e
e iew, highligh ing key s udies ela ed o he economic and en i onmen al de e minan s
o mea consump ion. Sec ion 3ou lines he ma e ials and me hods used in he analysis.
Sec ion 4discusses he empi ical indings, while Sec ion 5p o ides a c i ical in e p e a ion
o he esul s. Finally, Sec ion 6p esen s he conclusions, policy implica ions, and po en ial
a enues o u u e esea ch.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Mea Consump ion and Consume Beha io in he EU
Consume beha io in he con ex o mea consump ion is in luenced by a combina ion
o psychological, social, and economic ac o s ha shape die a y choices. F om a beha io al
economics pe spec i e, mea consump ion is no me ely a die a y p e e ence bu a e lec ion
o deepe cogni i e p ocesses, social no ms, and ma ke dynamics.
Consume s o en expe ience cogni i e dissonance when con on ed wi h he e hical
implica ions o ea ing mea while simul aneously aluing animal wel a e (Loughnan
e al.,2014). To esol e his dissonance, indi iduals engage in mo al disengagemen
s a egies, such as pe cei ing mea consump ion as na u al o necessa y (Piazza e al.,2015).
This a ionaliza ion allows consume s o con inue consuming mea wi hou signi ican
psychological dis ess. Mea consump ion is s ongly linked o social iden i y and cul u al
no ms. Rozin e al. (2012) ound ha mea is o en associa ed wi h masculini y, powe ,
and s a us, ein o cing consump ion pa e ns ha align wi h adi ional gende oles.
Addi ionally, socie al adi ions, such as es i e meals and amily ga he ings, con ibu e o
he habi ual na u e o mea consump ion, making i a socially ein o ced beha io .
Consume beha io in mea consump ion is also d i en by economic accessibili y and
pu chasing powe . Ma hu e al. (2021) highligh ha p ice sensi i i y plays a c ucial ole,
whe e consume s in highe -income g oups a e mo e likely o a o d p emium mea p oduc s,
while hose in lowe -income b acke s may op o cheape al e na i es o plan -based
subs i u es. Economic luc ua ions, such as in la ion and unemploymen , can signi ican ly
al e mea consump ion pa e ns. In many socie ies, mea is pe cei ed as a symbol o
weal h and p ospe i y, pa icula ly in eme ging economies whe e ising incomes lead o
inc eased demand o mea p oduc s (Nie enbe g & Mas ny,2005). Ea ing mea is pa
o ou e olu iona y he i age, a symbol o a luence, well-being, and con en men , bu
i also con ibu es o en i onmen al ha m, social un es , and heal h isks (Smil,2002).
This aligns wi h beha io al economic heo ies sugges ing ha consump ion choices se e
as signals o social and economic s anding. Beha io al s udies also indica e ha mea
consump ion is d i en by emo ional and senso y sa is ac ion. Ea le e al. (2019) ound ha
he hedonic appeal o mea , including as e and ex u e, in luences consume p e e ences,
o en o e iding e hical o heal h conside a ions. The “mea pa adox” illus a es how
Economies 2025,13, 146 4 o 39
indi iduals econcile hei empa hy o animals wi h mea consump ion h ough sel -
decep ion, leading o a complex ela ionship wi h die a y choices (Hes e mann e al.,2020).
The a i ude–beha io gap in mea consump ion p esen s a signi ican challenge
o sus ainabili y e o s, as indi iduals o en exp ess posi i e a i udes owa d educing
mea in ake bu s uggle o ansla e hese in en ions in o ac ion. Li (2024) highligh s he
psychological, social, and con ex ual ac o s ha con ibu e o his disc epancy, including
cogni i e dissonance, habi o ma ion, social no ms, and pe cei ed incon enience. Despi e
inc easing awa eness o he en i onmen al and heal h impac s o mea consump ion, s ong
cul u al a achmen s and economic accessibili y pe pe ua e high consump ion le els. This
aligns wi h b oade beha io al economics li e a u e, which emphasizes he limi a ions
o a ional decision-making in die a y choices and he necessi y o policy in e en ions
ha al e de aul op ions, imp o e a ailabili y o plan -based al e na i es, and le e age
social in luence. Fo ins ance, acco ding o Chan and Zla e ska (2019), indi iduals wi h
low subjec i e socioeconomic s a us p e e mea -based oods due o a desi e o s a us.
Psychological Food In ol emen (PFI) plays a c ucial ole in unde s anding he in en ion
o educe mea consump ion, wi h consume s who use ood o con ol hei public image
being mo e inclined o do so (Cas ellini e al.,2023).
Wi h he heo e ical g oundwo k in place, he discussion now u ns o he p ac ical
e idence, demons a ing how hese ounda ional ideas mani es in ac ual consump ion
beha io s and economic ends.
Global mea consump ion has unde gone signi ican ans o ma ions o e he pas
decades, d i en by economic de elopmen , shi ing die a y pa e ns, and en i onmen al
conce ns. Sans and Comb is (2015) p o ide an o e iew o mea consump ion ends om
1961 o 2011, highligh ing a s eady inc ease in pe capi a mea consump ion, pa icula ly
in eme ging economies. Simila ly, Delgado (2003) desc ibes how ising incomes in de el-
oping coun ies ha e ueled a “ ood e olu ion”, leading o g ea e demand o animal
p o ein. Howe e , V anken e al. (2014) a gue ha global die a y habi s a e expe iencing
a “second nu i ion ansi ion”, whe e inc easing awa eness o heal h and en i onmen al
sus ainabili y is beginning o cu b excessi e mea consump ion in ce ain egions. This shi
aligns wi h indings by God ay e al. (2018), who emphasize he need o educed mea
consump ion due o i s impac on heal h and clima e change. Meanwhile, Speedy (2003)
unde sco es he dispa i ies in mea consump ion be ween high-income and low-income
coun ies, illus a ing how accessibili y and a o dabili y emain key de e minan s. Se e al
coun ies ha e eached peak mea consump ion, bu eme ging-economy coun ies con inue
o inc ease consump ion due o g ea e a o dabili y, while highe income coun ies show
no ela ionship wi h mea consump ion (Whi on e al.,2021).
Mea consump ion pa e ns among olde popula ions in Eu ope e eal signi ican
socioeconomic and demog aphic a ia ions, highligh ing b oade sus ainabili y and heal h
implica ions. Schü z and F anzese (2018) ind ha daily mea consump ion is p e alen
among indi iduals aged 50 and olde ac oss Eu opean coun ies, wi h gende playing a
c ucial ole—men consis en ly consume mo e mea han women. Economic cons ain s
appea o ha e a limi ed impac on die a y choices, as only a small ac ion o esponden s
epo educing mea in ake due o inancial easons. These indings align wi h he b oade
li e a u e on mea consump ion ends, sugges ing ha cul u al and habi ual ac o s may
be s onge de e minan s o die a y beha io han economic a o dabili y alone.
Mea consump ion in he Eu opean Union has shown a g adual inc ease, wi h a
no iceable shi om bee and lamb o poul y, la gely in luenced by consume p e e ences
and economic ac o s (De ine,2003). Employmen s a us also plays a ole, as highe
unemploymen a es o en lead o educed disposable income, which in u n a ec s die a y
choices and mea consump ion pa e ns (Ga cia & Quin ana-Domeque,2006). Addi ionally,
Economies 2025,13, 146 5 o 39
ac o s such as pe capi a income and u baniza ion signi ican ly d i e mea consump ion,
while cul u al and economic elemen s—including Wes e n die a y habi s, eligious belie s,
emale labo pa icipa ion, and globaliza ion—also shape consump ion ends (Mil o d
e al.,2019). No ably, heal h awa eness and p ice inc eases ha e been ound o impac
mea consump ion mo e han en i onmen al o animal wel a e campaigns, wi h some
en i onmen al campaigns e en leading o unin ended inc eases in mea consump ion
(Scalco e al.,2019). These insigh s highligh he in ica e balance be ween economic, social,
and cul u al in luences in shaping mea consump ion pa e ns ac oss he EU.
The EU’s commi men o he G een Deal necessi a es a educ ion in mea consump ion,
pa icula ly ed mea , o mee en i onmen al a ge s and p omo e public heal h. This
ansi ion is in luenced by consume beha io , policy amewo ks, and he ag icul u al
sec o ’s adap abili y. Acco ding o Guillaume e al. (2024) he EAT-Lance ecommenda ions
sugges an 80% educ ion in ed mea consump ion o mi iga e g eenhouse gas emissions,
which could lead o a 9% dec ease in ag icul u al sec o emissions, while shi ing die s
owa ds plan -based p o eins can enhance en i onmen al sus ainabili y, al hough ade
dynamics may o se local bene i s. EU consump ion, pa icula ly mea and dai y p oduc s,
con ibu es o en i onmen al impac s such as acidi ica ion, eu ophica ion, land use, and
wa e use, wi h o al consump ion expendi u es pe EU membe s a e being a key ac o
(Beylo e al.,2019).
Cu en die a y guidelines in he EU ecommend mode a e mea consump ion, ye
ac ual in ake o en exceeds hese ecommenda ions, pa icula ly in ce ain egions (Cocking
e al.,2020). Consume beha io ega ding mea consump ion is in luenced by a ious
psychological, economic, and social ac o s. Apos olidis and McLeay (2016) highligh ha
consume s’ alues and pe cei ed bene i s o mea subs i u es play a c ucial ole in shaping
die a y choices. Thei s udy on Quo n, he la ges manu ac u e o mea subs i u es in he
UK, demons a es ha heal h, sus ainabili y, and li es yle alignmen signi ican ly impac
consume p e e ences. Despi e he pe cep ion o mea subs i u es being mo e expensi e,
many consume s associa e hem wi h posi i e heal h and en i onmen al ou comes, d i en
by alues such as secu i y, bene olence, and uni e salism. Addi ionally, hedonism and
social con o mi y in luence pu chasing decisions, sugges ing ha in e en ions like ad e -
ising, celeb i y endo semen s, and digi al ma ke ing could e ec i ely p omo e mea - ee
al e na i es. These indings sugges ha while policy ecommenda ions encou age e-
duced mea consump ion, beha io al and ma ke -d i en s a egies a e equally essen ial in
os e ing sus ainable die a y habi s in he EU.
Mea consump ion in EU coun ies has been linked o se e al nega i e ou comes,
pa icula ly ega ding en i onmen al impac , human heal h, and economic ulne abili y.
High mea consump ion con ibu es o g eenhouse gas emissions, heal h isks, and en i-
onmen al deg ada ion, while also acing g owing consume and policy sc u iny. Reducing
mea consump ion is seen as a key s a egy o lowe he EU’s en i onmen al oo p in
and help mee clima e goals (González e al.,2020). Mea consump ion is ising glob-
ally, a ec ing heal h and he en i onmen , wi h po en ial heal h isks and en i onmen al
impac s (God ay e al.,2018). A s udy ound a signi ican posi i e associa ion be ween
mea consump ion and inc eased BMI, indica ing a link o obesi y in Eu opean coun ies
(Hasan,2014). EU consume s conside mea educ ion as pa o a heal hy and sus ainable
die , wi h a ying deg ees o suppo ac oss egions (de Boe & Aiking,2022). The e a e
dis inc di e ences in mea consump ion pa e ns ac oss Eu ope, wi h a ia ions in he
ypes o mea consumed, such as ed mea and p ocessed mea , which ha e di e en heal h
implica ions (Linseisen e al.,2002).
Economies 2025,13, 146 6 o 39
2.2. ESG and Mac oeconomic Fac o s in Mea Consump ion in he EU
The ESG (En i onmen al, Social, Go e nance) c i e ia se e as a comp ehensi e ame-
wo k o e alua ing businesses and in es men s based on sus ainabili y, social esponsi-
bili y, and go e nance anspa ency, aligning wi h he 17 goals o he 2030 Agenda o
Sus ainable De elopmen (Poggi,2024). In es ing in ESG di ec s capi al owa d companies
ha p io i ize en i onmen al p o ec ion, social equi y, and e hical go e nance, os e ing a
pa adigm shi om a pu ely p o i -d i en economy o one ha in eg a es jus ice, social
esponsibili y, and sus ainabili y. A he same ime, ESG p inciples a e closely ied o
global e o s o ca bon neu ali y, ecognizing ha consume s play a i al ole in educing
emissions. Wi h he goal o eaching ca bon peak by 2030 and ca bon neu ali y by 2060,
indi iduals mus adop g eene consump ion habi s, e en i his ansi ion en ails highe
cos s and li es yle adjus men s. To suppo his shi , businesses mus enhance economies
o scale and imp o e he a o dabili y and quali y o g een p oduc s, while go e nmen s
should implemen egula o y incen i es, subsidies, and policies ha encou age sus ainable
li ing (CICC Resea ch & CICC Global Ins i u e,2022). Th ough a collec i e e o in ol ing
consume s, businesses, and policymake s, ESG can become he guiding o ce o a mo e
equi able, esilien , and en i onmen ally sus ainable u u e.
The in e ac ion be ween olun a y co po a e ESG ini ia i es and public suppo o
go e nmen egula ion emains a con es ed issue in sus ainabili y discou se. While some
a gue ha co po a e sus ainabili y e o s educe he pe cei ed need o egula o y in e en-
ion by c ea ing an illusion o sel - egula ion, o he s sugges ha such e o s highligh he
u gency o he p oblem, po en ially inc easing public demand o s ic e policies. Kim e al.
(2023) explo e his ension h ough andomized con olled s udies, inding no signi ican e -
idence ha olun a y ESG ac ions ei he s ongly encou age o dissuade public suppo o
go e nmen egula ion. Thei indings sugges ha he e ec s o co po a e ESG ini ia i es
on egula o y a i udes a e highly con ex -dependen , shaped by compe ing mechanisms
such as pe cei ed indus y p og ess e sus he isibili y o un esol ed en i onmen al and
social challenges.
Recen discussions on ESG egula ions highligh a g owing di ide be ween egula-
o y ambi ions and economic conce ns. While ESG amewo ks aim o d i e co po a e
accoun abili y and sus ainabili y, hey ha e also aised signi ican deba es abou economic
eedom and inancial ma ke s abili y. McPhe in (2023) c i iques he Eu opean Union’s
p oposed ESG egula ions, a guing ha hey impose bu eauc a ic cons ain s ha could
s i le ee-ma ke p inciples and co po a e au onomy. His analysis sugges s ha hese
policies may cen alize economic powe in sup ana ional ins i u ions, po en ially leading
o inancial es ic ions o businesses ha ail o align wi h ESG s anda ds. This con as s
wi h he li e a u e ha iews ESG egula ion as a necessa y ool o mi iga ing en i on-
men al isks and ensu ing long- e m economic esilience. As he EU mo es owa d s ic e
ESG manda es, he deba e unde sco es he need o a balanced app oach ha econciles
sus ainabili y objec i es wi h economic compe i i eness.
Ha ing es ablished he heo e ical ounda ions, he ocus now shi s o p ac ical
obse a ions, whe e he eal-wo ld da a and empi ical indings b ing con ex and alida ion
o hese abs ac concep s.
The impac o me hane ai pollu ion on mea consump ion pa e ns in he Eu opean
Union is mul i ace ed, encompassing en i onmen al, heal h, and economic dimensions.
Li es ock, pa icula ly uminan s such as ca le, a e signi ican con ibu o s o me hane
emissions, a po en g eenhouse gas ha accele a es clima e change. To add ess his, he
Eu opean G een Deal ad oca es o sus ainable mea consump ion by educing in ake o
lowe g eenhouse gas emissions and imp o e public heal h. S udies indica e ha cu ing
mea consump ion could dec ease o e all g eenhouse gas emissions, including me hane, by
Economies 2025,13, 146 7 o 39
25–40%, while a shi owa d plan -based die s could also educe ni ogen emissions by 40%,
imp o ing ai and wa e quali y (Wes hoek e al.,2014;Hawkes,2014). Policy measu es
like a clima e ax on mea ha e been p oposed o incen i ize educed consump ion, bu
cul u al and economic esis ance emains a signi ican ba ie o widesp ead adop ion
(No dg en,2012).
Me hane emissions a e closely linked o li es ock p oduc ion, as he diges i e p o-
cesses o uminan s a e a majo sou ce o his po en g eenhouse gas. Fo ins ance, me hane
emissions ha e an in e ed U-shaped ela ionship wi h mea consump ion in he USA,
e lec ing he complex dynamics be ween p oduc ion scale and en i onmen al impac
(Sha iullah e al.,2021). In China, li es ock me hane emissions ha e been inc easing due
o apid u baniza ion and ising income le els, which d i e highe mea demand (Du
e al.,2024). In he EU, me hane emissions om en e ic e men a ion a e di ec ly co ela ed
wi h li es ock numbe s and mea consump ion, highligh ing he signi ican ole o his
sec o in g eenhouse gas emissions (Pe o ic e al.,2015). Addi ionally, he EU li es ock
sec o con ibu es subs an ially o global emissions, p oducing be ween 623 and 852 M
CO
2
-equi alen annually, wi h en e ic e men a ion being a p ima y sou ce. This includes
28–29% om bee p oduc ion, 28–30% om cow milk p oduc ion, and 25–27% om po k
p oduc ion, e lec ing he di e si y o li es ock sys ems ac oss he egion (Weiss & Leip,
2012). Fu he mo e, nu ien use e iciency a ies signi ican ly among EU coun ies, in-
luencing he o e all me hane ou pu o he li es ock sec o (Lesschen e al.,2011). These
indings unde sco e he c i ical ela ionship be ween li es ock p oduc ion and me hane
emissions, emphasizing he need o a ge ed in e en ions o educe he ca bon oo p in
o he li es ock indus y.
As shown in he esea ch by Sanchez-Saba e and Saba é (2019), en i onmen al conce ns
a e in luencing a g owing numbe o Wes e n consume s o educe mea consump ion,
al hough hose who ha e al eady made signi ican die a y changes o ecological easons
emain a mino i y. Indi iduals mos likely o adop mea cu ailmen s a egies end
o be young women, en i onmen ally conscious, and mo e commonly eside in Eu ope
and Asia a he han in he U.S. While only a small ac ion has al eady adjus ed hei
die , inc easing awa eness o mea ’s en i onmen al impac con inues o shape consume
beha io . Consume awa eness and in en ion o educe mea consump ion a e o en
hinde ed by adi ional p ac ices and economic ac o s (S ubbs e al.,2018). The concep
o consump ion co ido s p omo es equi able mea consump ion, ensu ing ha die a y
changes do no comp omise social equi y (Cué Rio e al.,2022).
Social in luence plays a c ucial ole in de e mining he sp ead o mea -ea ing beha io s,
wi h indi iduals needing s ong openness o in luences om o he s wi h di e en mea -
ea ing habi s and a weak endency o ein o ce hei cu en beha io when obse ing o he s
in hei social g oup (Ge e al.,2022). As he esea ch o Ho gan e al. (2019) shows, social,
empo al, and si ua ional ac o s in luence mea consump ion in he UK, wi h highe in ake
obse ed when ea ing wi h amily, on Sundays, and in es au an s, compa ed o ea ing
alone o wi h o he companions. Meal ype, day o he week, and loca ion signi ican ly
in luence mea consump ion in Swi ze land, F ance, and he Ne he lands, wi h pa e ns
a ying ac oss coun ies and consume gende (La an,2024).
As he popula ion inc eases, global mea consump ion is p ojec ed o ise by 15% by
2027 (Haddad e al.,2019), a end pa icula ly e iden in he EU, whe e mea consump ion
has nea ly doubled in some coun ies o e he pas ou decades (Bansback,1995). This
g owing demand is linked o highe disposable incomes and shi ing consume habi s
a o ing mea - ich die s, pa icula ly bee and poul y (Haddad e al.,2019). Howe e ,
his ise in consump ion also con ibu es o signi ican en i onmen al conce ns, wi h
he li es ock sec o accoun ing o app oxima ely 30% o o al g eenhouse gas emissions
Economies 2025,13, 146 8 o 39
in Eu ope (Pe o ic e al.,2015). In esponse, he Eu opean G een Deal ad oca es o
sus ainable die a y pa e ns, p omo ing educed mea consump ion o mi iga e ecological
impac s (Cué Rio e al.,2022). While ansi ioning o lowe mea consump ion is essen ial
o sus ainabili y, i also p esen s economic challenges, as he li es ock indus y plays a
c ucial ole in many Eu opean economies (Pais e al.,2020).
Addi ionally, popula ion g ow h is a c i ical d i e o inc eased mea demand, as
highligh ed by Kesha i (2022), who p ojec s a 25% ise in he global popula ion by 2050,
eaching 9.9 billion people. This demog aphic expansion is expec ed o d i e a 60% inc ease
in global mea consump ion, po en ially eaching 460 o 570 million ons annually. Such
apid g ow h in mea p oduc ion and consump ion is associa ed wi h se e e en i onmen al
impac s, including highe g eenhouse gas emissions, de o es a ion, wa e sca ci y, and
biodi e si y loss. These challenges unde sco e he need o die a y shi s and sus ainable
consump ion pa e ns o educe he ecological oo p in o he li es ock sec o .
The li es ock sec o signi ican ly shapes mea consump ion pa e ns in he EU, as
i s scale, p oduc ion me hods, and en i onmen al oo p in di ec ly in luence a ailabili y,
p icing, and die a y choices. Li es ock a ming occupies 28% o he EU’s land su ace
and accoun s o 65% o o al ag icul u al land use, demons a ing i s cen al ole in he
ood sys em (Leip e al.,2015). Wi h he EU p oducing 35 million ons o mea annu-
ally, high demand o odde and g ain sus ains in ensi e animal ag icul u e, ein o cing
he cycle o p oduc ion and consump ion (aan den Too n e al.,2020). Howe e , his
in ensi ica ion also con ibu es o 81% o ag icul u e’s global wa ming impac , exace ba -
ing clima e change, biodi e si y loss, and esou ce deple ion (Leip e al.,2015). While
consume choices d i e li es ock p oduc ion le els, he en i onmen al consequences o
la ge-scale mea p oduc ion aise conce ns abou sus ainabili y. Shi ing owa d mo e
e icien a ming me hods, al e na i e p o ein sou ces, and sus ainable consump ion habi s
could help mi iga e hese challenges while main aining ag icul u al s abili y in he EU
(Leip e al.,2015).
The ela ionship be ween GDP and mea consump ion in he EU is complex, in luenced
by economic de elopmen , income dis ibu ion, and consume p e e ences. As coun ies
expe ience economic g ow h, pa icula ly in he middle-income s age, mea consump ion
ends o inc ease. Howe e , his end may pla eau a highe income le els, sugges ing a
ipping poin a ound USD 40,000 pe capi a, beyond which mea consump ion s abilizes o
declines (Whi on e al.,2021;Sch oede e al.,1996). Coun ies ansi ioning h ough he
middle-income s age see accele a ed mea consump ion due o skewed income dis ibu ion
(Unne eh & Khoju,1991). In high-income na ions, pe capi a mea consump ion emains
ela i ely cons an despi e income g ow h (Sch oede e al.,1996). The EU aims o educe
mea consump ion o mee sus ainabili y goals, necessi a ing s onge go e nance and
consume educa ion on die a y habi s (Cué Rio e al.,2022;Pais e al.,2020). While
educing mea consump ion can mi iga e clima e change, i poses isks o economic g ow h,
highligh ing he need o balanced s a egies ha p omo e bo h sus ainabili y and economic
s abili y (Pais e al.,2020).
Go e nmen expendi u e plays a c ucial ole in shaping mea consump ion pa e ns
in he EU, as iscal policies, subsidies, and public heal h ini ia i es di ec ly in luence
consume beha io and ma ke dynamics. Public subsidies o li es ock a ming ha e
his o ically suppo ed mea p oduc ion, making i mo e a o dable and accessible, hus
d i ing highe consump ion le els (Guillaume e al.,2024). Howe e , as conce ns o e
heal h and en i onmen al sus ainabili y g ow, go e nmen spending is shi ing owa d
p omo ing plan -based die s and sus ainable ood sys ems h ough subsidies, public awa e-
ness campaigns, and axa ion policies (Thies,2023). Heal h- ela ed axa ion on mea has
been p oposed as a s a egy o educe excessi e consump ion and lowe heal hca e cos s
Economies 2025,13, 146 15 o 39
ploymen (UNEMPL), GDP pe capi a (PPP-adjus ed), me hane emissions (METHANE),
go e nmen expendi u e (EXGOV), and popula ion (POP).
Addi ionally, he Wald Chi-Squa e es is conduc ed o assess he join s a is ical sig-
ni icance o all explana o y a iables. Ini ially, he es is pe o med on he ull model o
iden i y s a is ically signi ican p edic o s. Subsequen ly, any a iables ound o be s a is-
ically insigni ican a e emo ed, and he model is e-es ima ed wi h only he signi ican
a iables. The Goodness o Fi (QIC and QICC) es s and Wald Chi-Squa e es a e hen
e- un on he e ined model, and he esul s o he wo models a e compa ed.
The objec i e o his p ocess is o a i e a a inal model wi h he highes p edic i e
powe , con aining only he mos s a is ically ele an a iables. This ensu es ha he
econome ic model is bo h pa simonious and e icien , s iking a balance be ween model
complexi y and explana o y capabili y while main aining obus ness in es ima ing he
de e minan s o mea consump ion in he EU.
The ansi ion be ween econome ic models ollows a s uc u ed p og ession aimed
a e ining he accu acy and obus ness o he analysis. The Random E ec s (RE) model
se es as an ini ial amewo k, p o iding a b oad ye in o ma i e pic u e o he key eco-
nomic, en i onmen al, and policy- ela ed ac o s in luencing mea consump ion in he
EU. By allowing o bo h wi hin- and be ween-coun y a ia ion, he RE model enables
a i s -le el hypo hesis es ing while inco po a ing c i ical ESG dimensions, including
economic pe o mance, en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and go e nmen policy. Howe e ,
despi e i s explana o y powe , he p esence o se ial co ela ion in he esiduals aises
conce ns abou he eliabili y o he s anda d e o s, necessi a ing a ansi ion o a mo e
ad anced me hod. To achie e a deepe , mo e p ecise unde s anding o he de e minan s
o mea consump ion, he analysis p oceeds wi h he Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions
(GEE) model, which co ec s o au oco ela ion and p o ides mo e s a is ically obus
es ima es. This me hodological e inemen aligns wi h he s udy’s objec i e o de eloping
an econome ic amewo k ha no only alida es heo e ical hypo heses bu also ensu es
ha he inal model possesses he highes p edic i e powe while main aining pa simony
and s a is ical alidi y.
To ensu e he obus ness o he analysis, i s , he ull model is es ima ed, inco po-
a ing all independen a iables o cap u e he comple e se o economic, and ESG ac o s
in luencing mea consump ion. This ini ial es ima ion allows he s udy o assess he s a-
is ical signi icance o each a iable using he Wald Chi-Squa e es . A e iden i ying
non-signi ican p edic o s (p> 0.05), he analysis p oceeds by es ima ing a e ined model,
which includes only he s a is ically signi ican a iables.
To de e mine which model p o ides a be e i , he analysis compa es hem using he
Goodness o Fi c i e ia:
•Quasi Likelihood unde Independence Model C i e ion (QIC);
•Co ec ed Quasi Likelihood unde Independence Model C i e ion (QICC).
These measu es ollow a “smalle -is-be e ” p inciple, meaning ha lowe alues indi-
ca e a mo e e icien model wi h imp o ed p edic i e powe . I he e ined model exhibi s
lowe QIC and QICC alues, i sugges s ha excluding non-signi ican a iables enhances
model pe o mance. Con e sely, i hese alues inc ease, i implies ha he emo ed
a iables con ibu e o o e all model i , e en i hey a e no indi idually signi ican .
In his case, he ull model ou pe o ms he e ined e sion, as e idenced by i s lowe
QIC and QICC alues. This indica es ha e en he s a is ically non-signi ican a iables
play a ole in explaining mea consump ion pa e ns, possibly by accoun ing o unde lying
ela ionships o mi iga ing omi ed a iable bias. As a esul , he ull model e ains he mos
app op ia e speci ica ion, ensu ing a comp ehensi e and s able econome ic amewo k o
ou analysis.
Economies 2025,13, 146 16 o 39
The decision o e ain he ull model, including bo h s a is ically signi ican and non-
signi ican a iables, is suppo ed by mul iple conside a ions. Fi s , he Goodness o
Fi c i e ia (QIC, QICC) indica e ha he ull model p o ides be e p edic i e accu acy
compa ed o he e ined model, sugges ing ha he excluded a iables, despi e hei lack o
indi idual s a is ical signi icance, con ibu e o he o e all explana o y powe . Second, e en
non-signi ican a iables can help educe omi ed a iable bias, ensu ing ha key p edic o s
a e no mises ima ed due o missing ele an ac o s. Addi ionally, some a iables may
ha e indi ec e ec s o in e ac wi h o he p edic o s, in luencing he dependen a iable
in ways no cap u ed h ough simple signi icance es ing. Re aining all a iables also
allows o a mo e comp ehensi e in e p e a ion, e lec ing he heo e ical amewo k ha
inco po a es economic, en i onmen al, and policy-d i en in luences on mea consump ion.
The e o e, main aining he ull model is he op imal choice, as i p ese es model s abili y,
in e p e abili y, and obus ness while minimizing po en ial biases in es ima ion.
4. STEP 4: Examining Mea Consump ion by Coun y De elopmen Le el
To in es iga e whe he income le el in luences mea consump ion pa e ns, coun ies
we e classi ied in o income g oups based on he Wo ld Bank’s o icial income classi ica ions,
inco po a ed in o he Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE) ull model. Acco ding o
he Wo ld Bank, economies a e ca ego ized in o ou income g oups—low, lowe -middle,
uppe -middle, and high—based on hei G oss Na ional Income (GNI) pe capi a. These
classi ica ions a e upda ed annually on July 1, using con e sion ac o s de i ed om he
A las me hod, which adjus s o exchange a e luc ua ions and aims o p o ide a mo e
s able measu e o income o e ime. Gi en ha he p esen analysis ocuses on EU membe
s a es, he low-income ca ego y is no ep esen ed, esul ing in he ollowing h ee g oups:
lowe -middle-income (1), uppe -middle-income (2), and high-income (3). This app oach
ensu es consis ency wi h in e na ionally ecognized economic amewo ks and e lec s he
a ying le els o economic capaci y wi hin he EU, p o iding a obus basis o examining
he ela ionship be ween na ional income and mea consump ion.
High-income coun ies we e se as he e e ence ca ego y, allowing he s udy o ana-
lyze how mea consump ion di e s in lowe -income g oups ela i e o weal hie economies.
Nex , he s udy in oduced income g oup as a ca ego ical a iable alongside mac oeco-
nomic and ESG p edic o s.
Speci ically, he ollowing h ee hypo heses we e o med:
H9: High-income coun ies consume signi ican ly mo e mea han lowe -income coun ies, sup-
po ing he hypo hesis ha economic p ospe i y inc eases mea demand.
H10: The impac o GDP PPP pe capi a on mea consump ion is s onge in weal hie coun ies
han in de eloping ones, as indica ed by a signi ican in e ac ion e ec be ween GDP PPP pe capi a
and income le el.
H11: Income le el mode a es he ela ionship be ween GDP PPP pe capi a and mea consump ion,
p o iding a be e p edic i e i o he model.
To es hese hypo heses, a Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE) model is es ima ed,
inco po a ing income g oup as a ca ego ical ac o and an in e ac ion e m be ween GDP
PPP pe capi a and income g oup o de e mine i economic de elopmen mode a es he
impac o GDP PPP pe capi a on mea consump ion:
MEAT = β0+β1GDP PPP CAPITA + β2INCOME GROUP + β3(GDP PPP CAPITA ×INCOME GROUP) + ∑βixi+ε
Economies 2025,13, 146 17 o 39
whe e
•β1
measu es he e ec o GDP PPP pe capi a on mea consump ion in high-income
coun ies. Since he e e ence g oup is high-income,
β1
measu es how GDP pe capi a
a ec s mea consump ion only in high-income coun ies.
•β2
cap u es he di ec e ec o being in a lowe -income g oup. Since he e e ence ca e-
go y is high-income, he coe icien
β2
ep esen s he di e ence in mea consump ion
be ween lowe - and uppe -middle-income g oups ela i e o high-income.
•β3
de e mines whe he he impac o GDP on mea consump ion a ies by income le el.
β3
ells us whe he he impac o GDP pe capi a on mea consump ion is di e en o
lowe and uppe -middle-income coun ies compa ed o high-income coun ies.
•Xiincludes o he economic and ESG a iables.
To e alua e he model, he analysis applies he ollowing s a is ical es s:
•Wald Chi-Squa e es o assess he join signi icance o he p edic o s.
•
Goodness o Fi measu es (QIC, QICC) o compa e he pe o mance o models wi h
and wi hou he in e ac ion e m.
This s ep enhances he unde s anding o how economic de elopmen shapes die a y
choices, con ibu ing o he b oade discussion on income-d i en ood consump ion pa -
e ns in he EU.
Finally, in o de o enhance he eliabili y and obus ness o he econome ic analysis,
addi ional s a is ical checks we e conduc ed beyond he s anda d diagnos ics. Speci ically,
a es o c oss-sec ional dependence among he panel uni s (coun ies) was pe o med o
e i y he independence o e o s uc u es, a c i ical assump ion in panel da a analysis.
This was achie ed h ough pai wise co ela ion analysis o he esiduals, which indica ed
ha he majo i y o coun y pai s exhibi non-signi ican co ela ions (p> 0.05), suppo ing
he assump ion o independen e o s uc u es. In addi ion, Clus e ed S anda d E o s
(CSEs) we e applied o add ess po en ial wi hin-g oup co ela ion, p o iding mo e accu a e
and eliable s anda d e o es ima es. This app oach ensu es ha he es ima ed coe icien s
a e obus o wi hin-coun y he e oskedas ici y and c oss-sec ional dependence, enhancing
he c edibili y o he indings.
4. Resul s
4.1. Desc ip i e S a is ics
Be o e p esen ing he econome ic esul s, an o e iew o he desc ip i e s a is ics
o he da ase is p o ided. This s ep allows o a clea e in e p e a ion o he empi ical
indings by es ablishing he basic cha ac e is ics o he da a, including he dis ibu ion,
mean, s anda d de ia ion, and ange o each a iable, ensu ing ha he subsequen analysis
is app op ia ely con ex ualized.
The desc ip i e s a is ics in Table 2 e eal a wide ange o alues ac oss a iables,
e lec ing he economic and s uc u al di e si y wi hin he EU. Key economic indica o s
such as GDP, go e nmen expendi u e (EXGOV), in la ion (INFL), and GDP PPP pe capi a
demons a e a ying le els o skewness and ku osis, indica i e o bo h he economic
he e ogenei y and he unique de elopmen al ajec o ies o EU membe s a es. Fo ins ance,
he GDP dis ibu ion, wi h a skewness o 4.837 and a ku osis o 22.861, cap u es he
subs an ial economic di e ences be ween la ge and smalle economies, while he INFL
a iable, wi h a ku osis o 70.087, e lec s pe iods o signi ican economic ola ili y. Despi e
hese obse ed dis ibu ional a ia ions, he ull da ase was e ained o p ese e he
ep esen a i eness o he analysis, ensu ing ha he models accu a ely e lec he complex
economic landscape o he EU. This app oach minimizes he isk o selec ion bias ha
Economies 2025,13, 146 18 o 39
could a ise om he exclusion o in luen ial obse a ions, he eby main aining he ex e nal
alidi y o he indings.
Table 2. Desc ip i e s a is ics.
N Minimum Maximum Mean S d. De ia ion Skewness Ku osis
S a is ic S a is ic S a is ic S a is ic S a is ic S a is ic S d.
E o S a is ic S d.
E o
YEAR 594 2000 2021 2010.50 6350 0.000 0.100 −1.205 0.200
GDP 594 5710.959 4,335,626.321 191,824.425 638,312.584 4.837 0.100 22.861 0.200
MEAT 594 35.08 119.22 77,366 13,807 −0.198 0.100 0.186 0.200
LIVESTOCK 594 61.82 188.44 101,292 13,170 1.861 0.100 7.971 0.200
INFL 594 −4447 45,666 2494 3254 6.468 0.100 70.087 0.200
UNEMPL 594 1805 27,686 8572 4327 1.473 0.100 2.545 0.200
GROWTH 594 −16,040 24,615 2513 3989 −0.274 0.100 4.249 0.200
GDP PPP 594
12,000,204,588.848
5,227,703,792,777.606
748,951,991,358.287
1,115,963,342,274.728
2.245 0.100 4.323 0.200
POPULATION 594 390,087 83,196,078 16,301,355.99 21,433,474.944 1.818 0.100 2.159 0.200
GDP PPP
CAPITA 594 12,548.285 137,821.419 45,068.262 21,854.282 2.032 0.100 5.680 0.200
METHANE 594 0.0518 52.675 9.367 12.064 1.912 0.100 3.004 0.200
EXGOV 580 22,003 99,032 39,814 9141 2.969 0.101 15.003 0.203
POP 594 −3.847 3.931 0.221 0.867 0.140 0.100 1.948 0.200
Addi ionally, he obus ness checks con i med he s abili y o he eg ession esul s.
The analysis o c oss-sec ional dependence indica ed ha mos coun y pai s do no exhibi
s a is ically signi ican esidual co ela ions, alida ing he assump ion o independen e o
s uc u es ac oss he EU panel. Fu he mo e, he applica ion o clus e ed s anda d e o s
esul ed in consis en and s a is ically signi ican coe icien s o key a iables, including
GDP, me hane emissions, and go e nmen expendi u e, e en a e co ec ing o po en ial
wi hin-g oup co ela ion. These esul s ein o ce he obus ness o he model and p o ide
con idence in he obse ed ela ionships be ween mea consump ion and he selec ed
mac oeconomic and ESG ac o s.
4.2. Hausman Tes Be ween Fixed E ec s (FE) and Random E ec s (RE) Models
In o de o decide on he app op ia e econome ic model o analyzing he de e mi-
nan s o mea consump ion in he EU, he Fixed E ec s (FE) model is i s es ima ed, by
inco po a ing coun y-speci ic dummy a iables o con ol o unobse ed he e ogenei y
ac oss 27 EU coun ies (Table 3).
In he Fixed E ec s (FE) model (Table 3), coun y-speci ic dummy a iables o 27 EU
coun ies a e included, omi ing G eece o a oid he dummy a iable ap—a si ua ion
whe e pe ec mul icollinea i y a ises i all ca ego ies a e included. By excluding G eece, i
se es as he e e ence ca ego y, meaning ha he coe icien s o he o he coun y dummies
indica e how mea consump ion in each coun y de ia es ela i e o G eece. A posi i e
and signi ican coe icien sugges s highe mea consump ion compa ed o G eece, while
a nega i e coe icien indica es lowe consump ion. The choice o G eece as he baseline
may ha e been a bi a y o based on i s economic and die a y cha ac e is ics, p o iding a
meaning ul poin o compa ison ac oss EU coun ies.
Economies 2025,13, 146 19 o 39
Table 3. Coe icien s o Fixed E ec s model.
Va iable
Uns anda dized
Coe icien s
S anda dized
Coe icien s
Sig.
Collinea i y
S a is ics
B S d. E o Be a
Tole ance
VIF
(Cons an ) 78.664 5.695 - 13.812 0.000 - -
GDP −5.357 ×10−60.000 −0.261 −1.734 0.083 0.020 49.059
LIVESTOCK 0.100 0.030 0.100 3.315 0.001 0.509 1.963
INFL −0.238 0.107 −0.059 −2.230 0.026 0.663 1.508
UNEMPL −0.971 0.110 −0.315 −8.815 0.000 0.363 2.758
GDP PPP CAPITA 0.000 0.000 −0.195 −1.889 0.059 0.044 22.920
METHANE 1.559 0.492 1.405 3.167 0.002 0.002 425.262
EXGOV 0.022 0.049 0.015 0.454 0.650 0.411 2.433
POP −0.926 0.696 −0.060 −1.330 0.184 0.225 4.445
DUMMY = Aus ia 5.699 2.595 0.082 2.196 0.028 0.329 3.039
DUMMY = Belgium −15.300 2.844 −0.221 −5.379 0.000 0.274 3.651
DUMMY = Bulga ia −27.936 3.056 −0.404 −9.141 0.000 0.237 4.215
DUMMY = C oa ia −13.112 2.784 −0.190 −4.709 0.000 0.286 3.499
DUMMY = Cyp us 1.276 3.438 0.018 0.371 0.711 0.187 5.334
DUMMY = Czechia −4.180 2.638 −0.060 −1.585 0.114 0.318 3.140
DUMMY = Denma k −9.028 2.891 −0.131 −3.122 0.002 0.265 3.773
DUMMY = Es onia −12.584 3.076 −0.182 −4.090 0.000 0.234 4.272
DUMMY = Finland −5.191 2.458 −0.075 −2.111 0.035 0.367 2.728
DUMMY = F ance −59.470 21.921 −0.860 −2.713 0.007 0.005 216.882
DUMMY = Ge many −51.589 17.235 −0.746 −2.993 0.003 0.007 134.064
DUMMY = Hunga y 15.193 10.665 0.220 1.425 0.155 0.019 51.336
DUMMY = I eland −8.019 6.564 −0.116 −1.222 0.222 0.051 19.443
DUMMY = I aly −25.743 8.961 −0.372 −2.873 0.004 0.028 36.244
DUMMY = La ia −15.226 2.995 −0.220 −5.084 0.000 0.247 4.049
DUMMY = Li huania −7.115 2.801 −0.103 −2.540 0.011 0.282 3.541
DUMMY = Luxembou g 27.103 5.590 0.392 4.849 0.000 0.071 14.102
DUMMY = Mal a 0.260 3.382 0.004 0.077 0.939 0.194 5.161
DUMMY = Ne he lands −21.873 5.034 −0.316 −4.345 0.000 0.087 11.438
DUMMY = Poland −25.893 7.341 −0.374 −3.527 0.000 0.041 24.324
DUMMY = Po ugal 7.075 2.202 0.102 3.213 0.001 0.457 2.189
DUMMY = Romania −32.472 3.594 −0.469 −9.036 0.000 0.172 5.828
DUMMY = Slo akia −20.345 2.904 −0.294 −7.006 0.000 0.263 3.805
DUMMY = Slo enia −2.100 2.824 −0.029 −0.743 0.458 0.304 3.285
DUMMY = Spain −8.566 11.470 −0.084 −0.747 0.455 0.036 27.569
DUMMY = Sweden −4.318 2.584 −0.062 −1.671 0.095 0.332 3.013
The coun y-le el coe icien s p esen ed in Table 3 e lec he ela i e di e ences in
mea consump ion ac oss EU membe s a es, wi h G eece se ing as he baseline ca ego y.
Posi i e coe icien s o coun ies such as Aus ia (5.699), Luxembou g (27.103), Po ugal
(7.075), and Hunga y (15.193) indica e highe a e age mea consump ion compa ed o
G eece. This likely e lec s di e ences in economic p ospe i y, die a y p e e ences, and li e-
s ock p oduc ion capaci y. In con as , coun ies like Bulga ia (
−
27.936), F ance (
−
59.470),
Ge many (
−
51.589), I aly (
−
25.743), Poland (
−
25.893), and Romania (
−
32.472) ha e sig-
ni ican ly nega i e coe icien s, sugges ing lowe mea consump ion ela i e o G eece.
These nega i e coe icien s may be associa ed wi h ac o s such as economic s uc u e,
cul u al die a y habi s, o s onge en i onmen al awa eness, which can in luence mea
consump ion pa e ns. The la ge nega i e coe icien s o F ance and Ge many, o ins ance,
could e lec he impac o ma u e economies wi h well-es ablished sus ainabili y ini ia i es
and a highe awa eness o he en i onmen al consequences o mea consump ion. The
Economies 2025,13, 146 20 o 39
a ia ion in hese coe icien s highligh s he impo ance o accoun ing o coun y-speci ic
ac o s when analyzing mea consump ion wi hin he EU.
In he Fixed E ec s model (Table 3), he esul s indica e ha ce ain mac oeconomic
and en i onmen al a iables signi ican ly in luence mea consump ion in he EU. Speci -
ically, LIVESTOCK (li es ock a ailabili y) shows a posi i e and s a is ically signi ican
ela ionship (
β
= 0.100, p= 0.001), con i ming ha inc eased mea p oduc ion is associa ed
wi h highe consump ion. Simila ly, METHANE emissions (
β
= 1.405, p= 0.002) ha e a
s ong posi i e co ela ion, highligh ing he en i onmen al implica ions o mea p oduc-
ion. In con as , unemploymen (UNEMPL) has a nega i e and highly signi ican e ec
(
β
=
−
0.315, p= 0.000), sugges ing ha economic di icul ies, which come om unemploy-
men , cons ain mea consump ion. In la ion (INFL) also nega i ely impac s consump ion
(
β
=
−
0.059, p= 0.026), as ising p ices educe consume pu chasing powe . Meanwhile,
GDP and GDP PPP CAPITA do no exhibi s a is ically signi ican ela ionships, which
may be due o in e nal di e ences among EU membe s a es. Howe e , he high le els
o mul icollinea i y (VIF) in ce ain a iables, such as METHANE (VIF = 425.262) and
GDP (VIF = 49.059), sugges possible in e dependencies among independen a iables,
po en ially a ec ing he accu acy o he es ima es.
The es ima ed coe icien s om he FE model we e
βFE = (GDP, LIVESTOCK, INFL, UNEMPL, GDP PPP CAPITA, METHANE,
EXGOV, POP) = (−5.357 ×10−6, 0.100, −0.238, −0.971, 0.000, 1.559, 0.022, −0.926) (1)
Nex , he Random E ec s (RE) model is es ima ed, unde he assump ion ha coun y-
speci ic di e ences a e andom and unco ela ed wi h he explana o y a iables (Table 4).
Table 4. Coe icien s o Random E ec s (RE) model.
Va iables
Uns anda dized
Coe icien s
S anda dized
Coe icien s
Sig.
Collinea i y
S a is ics
B S d. E o Be a
Tole ance
VIF
(Cons an ) 50.496 4.297 - 11.751 0.000 - -
GDP 3.063 ×10−60.000 0.149 4.521 0.000 0.951 1.052
LIVESTOCK 0.080 0.034 0.080 2.342 0.020 0.895 1.118
INFL −0.311 0.140 −0.077 −2.219 0.027 0.866 1.155
UNEMPL −0.287 0.115 −0.093 −2.488 0.013 0.741 1.350
GDP PPP CAPITA 0.000 0.000 0.297 6.804 0.000 0.547 1.828
METHANE 0.386 0.037 0.348 10.554 0.000 0.957 1.045
EXGOV 0.217 0.049 0.150 4.406 0.000 0.898 1.114
POP 2.952 0.650 0.192 4.544 0.000 0.580 1.724
The esul s in Table 4p o ide he coe icien s om he Random E ec s (RE) model,
o e ing a complemen a y pe spec i e o he Fixed E ec s (FE) esul s in Table 3. While
he FE model isola es wi hin-coun y a ia ions, con olling o unobse ed he e ogenei y
by assigning a unique in e cep o each coun y, he RE model cap u es bo h wi hin- and
be ween-coun y e ec s, assuming ha coun y-speci ic e ec s a e unco ela ed wi h he
independen a iables. This b oade pe spec i e can lead o di e ences in coe icien es i-
ma es, as seen in he sligh ly al e ed signi icance le els and magni udes o a iables such
as GDP PPP CAPITA and METHANE. Fo ins ance, while LIVESTOCK emains posi i ely
associa ed wi h mea consump ion in bo h models, he in luence o o he mac oeconomic
ac o s a ies, e lec ing he di e en assump ions unde lying each model. This compa ison
is essen ial, as i highligh s he po en ial impac o model selec ion on he in e p e a ion
o ela ionships, emphasizing he need o ca e ul conside a ion when choosing he mos
Economies 2025,13, 146 21 o 39
app op ia e speci ica ion. The subsequen Hausman es p o ides a o mal assessmen o
whe he he FE o RE model is mo e sui able o his analysis, ensu ing ha he chosen
model accu a ely cap u es he ue na u e o he da a.
The es ima ed coe icien s om he RE model we e
βRE = (GDP, LIVESTOCK, INFL, UNEMPL, GDP PPP CAPITA, METHANE,
EXGOV, POP) = (3.063 ×10−6, 0.080, −0.311, −0.287, 0.000, 0.386, 0.217, 2.952) (2)
To o mally es whe he he FE o RE model is mo e app op ia e, he Hausman es is
conduc ed, which e alua es whe he he di e ences in coe icien s be ween he wo models
a e sys ema ic. The es s a is ic is compu ed as ollows:
H=(βFE −βRE)−[Va (βFE)−Va (βRE)]−1(βFE −βRE)
whe e
•βFE
and
βRE
ep esen he coe icien ec o s om he FE and RE models, espec i ely.
•
Va (
βFE
) and Va (
βRE
) deno e he a iance–co a iance ma ices o he espec-
i e models.
Based on he esul s o he Hausman es , he Random E ec s (RE) model is he
p e e ed choice o e he Fixed E ec s (FE) model. The es indica es ha he e is no
s a is ically signi ican di e ence be ween he es ima o s o he wo models, implying
ha he assump ions o he Random E ec s app oach hold. Speci ically, he absence o
co ela ion be ween he indi idual-speci ic e ec s and he independen a iables ensu es
ha he RE model emains bo h consis en and e icien . Fu he mo e, he RE model allows
o he es ima ion o ime-in a ian a iables and p o ides g ea e gene alizabili y beyond
he sampled uni s. Gi en hese ad an ages and he e iciency o he RE app oach, i is
deemed he mos app op ia e model o his analysis.
The selec ion o he Random E ec s (RE) model o e he Fixed E ec s (FE) model is
jus i ied based on bo h he Hausman es esul s and he assessmen o mul icollinea i y
using Va iance In la ion Fac o (VIF) alues. The VIF alues indica e ha he FE model
su e s om ex eme mul icollinea i y, pa icula ly wi h GDP (VIF= 49.059), GDP PPP
CAPITA (VIF = 22.920), and METHANE (VIF = 425.262), making coe icien es ima es
highly un eliable. Addi ionally, UNEMPL (VIF = 2.758) and POP (VIF = 4.445) u he
sugges a p oblema ic co ela ion among p edic o s. In con as , he RE model exhibi s
signi ican ly lowe VIF alues, wi h GDP PPP CAPITA (VIF = 1.828) and POP (VIF = 1.724)
s aying wi hin accep able h esholds, wi h o he a iables such as GDP (VIF = 1.052),
METHANE (VIF = 1.045), and LIVESTOCK (VIF = 1.118) showing minimal collinea i y. The
RE model is also mo e s a is ically e icien , as i does no emo e ime-in a ian a iables,
ensu ing ha aluable in o ma ion is e ained. Since he Hausman es does no indica e a
signi ican co ela ion be ween indi idual e ec s and eg esso s, he RE model is p e e ed
o i s g ea e e iciency, s abili y, and b oade gene aliza ion po en ial. Consequen ly, he
RE model is he op imal choice, p o iding mo e eliable coe icien es ima es and a mo e
meaning ul in e p e a ion o he da a.
4.3. Analysis o Random E ec s Model
The esul s o he Random E ec s (RE) model e eal impo an insigh s in o he de e -
minan s o mea consump ion in he EU. The s a is ical signi icance (Sig.) and s anda dized
coe icien s (Be a) help assess he ela i e s eng h and di ec ion o each a iable’s impac ,
allowing us o e alua e he esea ch hypo heses.
Me hane emissions ha e he s onges posi i e e ec on mea consump ion (Be a = 0.348,
p= 0.000), con i ming H4, which hypo hesized a di ec ela ionship be ween li es ock
Economies 2025,13, 146 22 o 39
p oduc ion and en i onmen al impac . This esul sugges s ha inc eased mea consump-
ion is closely linked o me hane emissions, ein o cing he en i onmen al consequences
o die a y choices. Simila ly, GDP pe capi a (PPP-adjus ed) has a s ong and signi ican
posi i e e ec (Be a = 0.297, p= 0.000), suppo ing H2, as highe income le els enhance
consume s’ abili y o a o d mea p oduc s. Popula ion g ow h also exe s a mode a e bu
signi ican posi i e e ec (Be a = 0.192, p= 0.000), alida ing H8, which expec ed a di ec
link be ween demog aphic expansion and highe mea demand.
Go e nmen expendi u e on public se ices (EXGOV) has a mode a e posi i e impac
on mea consump ion (Be a = 0.150, p= 0.000), con i ming H6, as iscal policies and
subsidies can in luence ood a o dabili y and ag icul u al p oduc ion. Simila ly, GDP
exhibi s a mode a e bu s a is ically signi ican posi i e ela ionship wi h mea consump ion
(Be a = 0.149, p= 0.000), suppo ing H1, which an icipa ed ha economic g ow h would
d i e highe consump ion. Howe e , i s e ec is sligh ly weake han GDP pe capi a,
indica ing ha indi idual pu chasing powe plays a mo e di ec ole han agg ega e
economic expansion.
Li es ock a ailabili y has a weake bu s ill posi i e e ec (Be a = 0.080, p= 0.020),
p o iding pa ial suppo o H5, which expec ed a s ong ela ionship be ween li es ock
p oduc ion and mea consump ion. While signi ican , he ela i ely small Be a sugges s
ha ac o s such as ma ke demand, economic condi ions, and ade dynamics may play a
la ge ole in de e mining mea consump ion le els han me e li es ock a ailabili y.
In con as , unemploymen exe s a nega i e and signi ican e ec on mea consump-
ion (Be a =
−
0.093, p= 0.013), alida ing H3, as highe unemploymen educes household
pu chasing powe and limi s expendi u es on mo e expensi e ood i ems. In la ion also
has a nega i e and s a is ically signi ican impac (Be a =
−
0.077, p= 0.027), con i ming
H7, as ising p ices e ode consume a o dabili y and shi consump ion owa d al e na-
i e p o ein sou ces. Howe e , he ela i ely weak coe icien s o unemploymen and
in la ion sugges ha , while impo an , hese economic condi ions do no domina e mea
consump ion ends in he EU.
O e all, he indings p o ide s ong empi ical suppo o all he esea ch hypo he-
ses. The mos in luen ial ac o s d i ing mea consump ion a e me hane emissions, GDP
pe capi a, and popula ion g ow h, while go e nmen expendi u e and GDP also play
impo an oles. The nega i e e ec s o in la ion and unemploymen align wi h heo e ical
expec a ions bu appea o exe a weake in luence han income- ela ed and demog aphic
ac o s. These esul s highligh he complex in e play be ween economic de elopmen ,
en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and policy in e en ions in shaping die a y pa e ns ac oss
he EU.
The ANOVA esul s (Table 5) p o ide a s a is ical assessmen o he o e all explana o y
powe o he Random E ec s (RE) model.
Table 5. ANOVA analysis o Random E ec s (RE) model.
Sum o Squa es d Mean Squa e F Sig.
Reg ession 41,166.745 8 5145.843 48.890 0.000
Residual 60,100.276 571 105.254
To al 101,267.021 579
The eg ession sum o squa es (41,166.745) ep esen s he a ia ion in mea consump-
ion explained by he model’s independen a iables, while he esidual sum o squa es
(60,100.276) accoun s o he unexplained a iance. The o al a ia ion in mea consump ion,
cap u ed by he o al sum o squa es (10,267.021), indica es how well he model accoun s
o di e ences in consump ion ac oss EU coun ies. The F-s a is ic (48,890, p= 0.000)
Economies 2025,13, 146 23 o 39
con i ms ha he independen a iables collec i ely ha e a s a is ically signi ican e ec
on mea consump ion a a highly signi ican le el (p< 0.01). This s ong signi icance
indica es ha a leas one o he p edic o a iables has a meaning ul in luence on he
dependen a iable, ein o cing he alidi y o he model. The deg ees o eedom (d = 8
o eg ession and 571 o esiduals) u he alida e he model’s s uc u e, con i ming ha
i accoun s o he app op ia e numbe o explana o y ac o s while p ese ing su icien
a iabili y o eliable in e ence. The high F- alue sugges s ha he model pe o ms well in
explaining a ia ions in mea consump ion, jus i ying i s use o u he in e p e a ion and
policy analysis.
The model summa y (Table 6) p o ides an o e all e alua ion o he Random E ec s
(RE) model in explaining mea consump ion in he EU. The R- alue (0.638) indica es
a mode a e co ela ion be ween he dependen a iable (MEAT) and he independen
a iables included in he model. The R-Squa e (0.407) sugges s ha 40.7% o he a ia ion
in mea consump ion is explained by he model, indica ing easonable bu no excep ionally
s ong explana o y powe . The Adjus ed R-Squa e (0.398), which accoun s o he numbe
o p edic o s in he model, is sligh ly lowe , e lec ing some educ ion in explana o y powe
when adjus ed o he deg ees o eedom.
Table 6. Model summa y o Random E ec s (RE) model.
R R Squa e Adjus ed R
Squa e
S d. E o o he
Es ima e Du bin–Wa son
0.638 0.407 0.398 10.259 0.331
A key diagnos ic measu e in he able is he Du bin–Wa son s a is ic (0.331), which
assesses au oco ela ion in he esiduals. A Du bin–Wa son alue signi ican ly below 2.0,
pa icula ly close o 0, indica es s ong posi i e au oco ela ion, meaning ha e o s in
one pe iod a e highly co ela ed wi h e o s in he nex . This iola es he assump ion
o independen esiduals, leading o ine icien es ima es and po en ial o e s a emen o
s a is ical signi icance. The p esence o se ial co ela ion in panel da a sugges s ha he
model’s s anda d e o s a e likely biased, educing he eliabili y o he conclusions d awn
om he eg ession.
Gi en his issue, he Random E ec s model is no ully adequa e, and a mo e e ined
app oach is equi ed o co ec o au oco ela ion. The Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions
(GEE) model is app op ia e o handling such dependencies by explici ly accoun ing
o wi hin-panel co ela ion and ensu ing mo e e icien s anda d e o s. By using an
au o eg essi e (AR1) co ela ion s uc u e, he GEE model co ec s o he ime-dependen
na u e o he esiduals, p oducing unbiased and eliable es ima es. The e o e, based on
he e idence o se ial co ela ion, we p oceed wi h he GEE model as he nex s ep in he
analysis o imp o e he obus ness and accu acy o he esul s.
4.4. Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE) Model
This sec ion p esen s he indings o he Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE)
model, which e ines he analysis by co ec ing o au oco ela ion and ensu ing obus
s anda d e o s. A e iden i ying s a is ically signi ican p edic o s in he Random E ec s
(RE) model, he GEE model is applied o p o ide a mo e p ecise es ima ion o he ela ion-
ships be ween economic, ESG ac o s and mea consump ion in he EU. The esul s a e
assessed h ough Goodness o Fi measu es (QIC, QICC) and Wald Chi-Squa e es s, allow-
ing o a compa a i e e alua ion o model pe o mance. The ollowing ables summa ize
he es ima ed coe icien s, s a is ical signi icance, and o e all model i .
Economies 2025,13, 146 24 o 39
The Goodness o Fi esul s (QIC, QICC) p o ide a basis o e alua ing he adequacy o
he GEE model. Since hese c i e ia ollow a “smalle -is-be e ” ule, lowe alues indica e
a be e model i . I he QIC and QICC alues a e ela i ely high, i sugges s ha he
model may con ain edundan a iables, necessi a ing u he e inemen by emo ing
non-signi ican p edic o s. Compa ing hese alues be ween he ull model and he educed
model (wi h only s a is ically signi ican a iables) will de e mine whe he simpli ica ion
imp o es p edic i e accu acy.
The Goodness o Fi esul s p o ide an assessmen o how well he Gene alized
Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE) model explains mea consump ion. The key indica o s used a e
•Quasi Likelihood unde Independence Model C i e ion (QIC) = 65,751.291;
•
Co ec ed Quasi Likelihood unde Independence Model C i e ion (QICC) = 65,689.971.
Since bo h QIC and QICC ollow a “smalle -is-be e ” ule, lowe alues indica e a
be e - i ing model. Howe e , hese alues alone do no p o ide an absolu e measu e o
Goodness o Fi — hey a e mos use ul when compa ing di e en model speci ica ions.
In his case, he ela i ely high QIC/QICC alues sugges ha he model may con ain
non-signi ican p edic o s ha do no con ibu e meaning ully o explaining mea con-
sump ion. To imp o e he model’s p edic i e accu acy, he nex s ep in ol es analyzing
he s a is ical signi icance o each independen a iable in Table 7. Va iables ha a e no
s a is ically signi ican (p> 0.05 in he Wald Chi-Squa e es ) will be emo ed, and he
model will be e-es ima ed o assess whe he a educed e sion p o ides a be e i .
Table 7. Goodness o Fi ini ial model including all he a iables.
C i e ion Value
Quasi Likelihood unde Independence Model C i e ion (QIC) 65,751.291
Co ec ed Quasi Likelihood unde Independence Model
C i e ion (QICC) 65,689.971
The compa ison o QIC and QICC alues be ween he ull and e ined models will
de e mine whe he excluding non-signi ican a iables enhances he model’s e iciency and
p edic i e powe . I he alues dec ease a e e inemen , i would con i m ha he educed
model pe o ms be e by elimina ing unnecessa y p edic o s.
The pa ame e es ima es (Table 8) p o ide insigh s in o he signi icance o each inde-
penden a iable in explaining mea consump ion in he Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions
(GEE) model. The Wald Chi-Squa e es is used o de e mine whe he each p edic o has a
s a is ically signi ican e ec , while he p- alue (Sig.) indica es whe he we can ejec he
null hypo hesis (i.e., whe he he a iable has no e ec ).
S a is ically Signi ican Va iables (p< 0.05): To Be Re ained.
The ollowing a iables a e s a is ically signi ican and will be e ained in he nex s ep
o he analysis:
•
GDP (p= 0.000, Wald Chi-Squa e = 20.173): highly signi ican , con i ming i s s ong
e ec on mea consump ion.
•
LIVESTOCK (p= 0.032, Wald Chi-Squa e = 4.618): s a is ically signi ican , indica ing
ha li es ock a ailabili y in luences mea consump ion.
•
UNEMPL (p= 0.032, Wald Chi-Squa e = 4.575): signi ican nega i e e ec , sugges ing
ha highe unemploymen educes mea consump ion.
•
GDP PPP CAPITA (p= 0.002, Wald Chi-Squa e = 9.439): s ongly signi ican , con i m-
ing i s ole in explaining consump ion pa e ns.
•
METHANE (p= 0.000, Wald Chi-Squa e = 21.372): highly signi ican , ein o cing he
link be ween mea consump ion and en i onmen al impac .
Economies 2025,13, 146 31 o 39
abili y conside a ions. These insigh s ein o ce he need o policies ha balance economic
g ow h wi h public heal h and en i onmen al sus ainabili y, pa icula ly in guiding ood
consump ion pa e ns in bo h high- and low-income se ings.
The in eg a ion o ESG c i e ia and he ci cula economy (CE) amewo k se es as
a key d i e o sus ainabili y in he ag i- ood sec o , as bo h app oaches aim o educe
en i onmen al impac and p omo e esponsible business p ac ices. Howe e , as highligh ed
by Kha ami e al. (2024), he implemen a ion o ci cula economy p ac ices emains low in
many Eu opean coun ies due o insu icien policies and limi ed in es men in enewable
ene gy. A he same ime, he p esen s udy emphasizes he ole o consume s, go e nmen
incen i es, and co po a e esponsibili y in os e ing sus ainable consump ion pa e ns.
The e o e, achie ing meaning ul p og ess in he sec o equi es a mul i-le el app oach ha
combines ESG policies wi h ci cula business models o d i e long- e m sus ainabili y.
The inc easing emphasis on ESG epo ing and en i onmen al impac disclosu e is
ans o ming he ag i- ood sec o , aligning wi h bo h consume expec a ions and egula o y
p essu es. While ESG p inciples ad oca e o sus ainable business p ac ices, he ise o
en i onmen al impac epo ing, as highligh ed by Deconinck e al. (2023), unde sco es he
complexi y o implemen ing s anda dized me hodologies ac oss global ood supply chains.
The shi owa d quan i ied en i onmen al me ics, such as ca bon oo p in assessmen s
and li e-cycle analyses, can enhance anspa ency and d i e mo e sus ainable consump ion
pa e ns. Howe e , bo h s udies ecognize he isks o agmen ed me hodologies and he
po en ial o disp opo iona ely highe cos s o p oduce s in low- and middle-income
coun ies. Add essing hese challenges equi es a coo dina ed policy app oach ha in e-
g a es ESG amewo ks wi h obus , science-based en i onmen al epo ing s anda ds o
ensu e consis ency, educe compliance bu dens, and p omo e ai ade p ac ices.
This s udy iden i ies a s ong posi i e co ela ion be ween me hane emissions and
mea consump ion, indica ing ha inc eased demand o mea is di ec ly linked o highe
me hane emissions due o in ensi ied li es ock p oduc ion. This inding is consis en
wi h p e ious esea ch examining he en i onmen al consequences o mea consump ion.
S ein eld e al. (2006) highligh ha he li es ock sec o is a majo con ibu o o global
me hane emissions, p ima ily h ough en e ic e men a ion in uminan animals. Thei
s udy unde sco es ha as mea consump ion ises, pa icula ly in egions expe iencing
economic g ow h, me hane emissions also inc ease due o expanded li es ock a ming. This
aligns wi h he s udy’s esul s, ein o cing he no ion ha die a y choices ha e signi ican
en i onmen al implica ions. The g owing awa eness o me hane’s ole in clima e change
has led o calls o policy in e en ions aimed a educing mea consump ion and p omo ing
sus ainable al e na i es. The indings suppo hese discussions, emphasizing he need o
in eg a ed s a egies ha add ess bo h economic and en i onmen al conce ns in shaping
u u e ood consump ion pa e ns.
The ela ionship be ween mea consump ion and popula ion g ow h is complex and
in luenced by mul iple economic and social ac o s. While i migh be expec ed ha
la ge popula ions consume mo e mea in absolu e e ms, pe capi a mea consump ion
is shaped by a iables beyond demog aphic expansion alone. P e ious esea ch sugges s
ha economic g ow h, u baniza ion, and die a y ansi ions play a mo e subs an ial ole in
de e mining mea consump ion pa e ns han popula ion size i sel . Delgado e al. (2001)
a gue ha ising incomes and u baniza ion a e he p ima y d i e s o inc eased demand o
animal p oduc s, while me e popula ion g ow h does no necessa ily lead o p opo ional
inc eases in mea consump ion. This aligns wi h ou indings, indica ing ha he s uc u al
ac o s unde lying ood consump ion pa e ns a e mo e c i ical han demog aphic expan-
sion alone. The esul s emphasize he need o conside b oade economic and cul u al
Economies 2025,13, 146 32 o 39
de e minan s when analyzing die a y shi s, pa icula ly in he con ex o sus ainable ood
sys ems and global nu i ion policies.
This s udy e ealed some unexpec ed indings, pa icula ly he lack o a s a is ically
signi ican impac o in la ion and go e nmen expendi u e on mea consump ion in he
EU. While economic heo y sugges s ha ising p ices should educe demand due o
dec eased pu chasing powe , he esul s indica e ha mea consump ion emains ela i ely
inelas ic o in la ion luc ua ions. Possible explana ions include he s abili y o demand
o s aple die a y choices o consume s’ abili y o adjus hei pu chases by op ing o
cheape mea al e na i es. Simila ly, he absence o a signi ican ela ionship be ween
go e nmen expendi u e and mea consump ion may sugges ha public policies do no
di ec ly in luence die a y choices o ha subsidies a e e enly dis ibu ed be ween he mea
indus y and al e na i e p o ein sou ces, he eby neu alizing any impac .
While he inclusion o income classi ica ion imp o ed model i , he indi idual coe i-
cien s o lowe -middle-income and uppe -middle-income coun ies we e no s a is ically
signi ican , sugges ing ha b oad income ca ego ies alone do no s ongly de e mine mea
consump ion. Ins ead, mac oeconomic ac o s such as GDP pe capi a (p= 0.000), GDP
PPP pe capi a (p= 0.004), and unemploymen (p= 0.040) eme ged as s onge p edic o s.
This indica es ha ela i e economic condi ions wi hin coun ies in luence die a y choices
mo e han ca ego ical income le els. Addi ionally, he lack o signi icance could be due o
shi ing die a y ends in high-income na ions, whe e en i onmen al conce ns and heal h
awa eness a e educing mea consump ion despi e economic p ospe i y. The esul s sug-
ges ha policymake s should ocus on a ge ed iscal measu es, ood p icing s a egies,
and sus ainabili y policies, a he han assuming ha economic g ow h alone will dic a e
consump ion ends.
Fu he mo e, he small sample size o lowe -middle-income coun ies (N = 13) and
uppe -middle-income coun ies (N = 99) (Table 10) may ha e limi ed he s a is ical powe
o he analysis, a ec ing he abili y o d aw de ini i e conclusions abou he ela ionship
be ween income le els and mea consump ion. The Eu opean Union p ima ily consis s o
high-income coun ies, wi h mos membe s a es classi ied in he uppe -income b acke
based on global economic s anda ds. While some na ions his o ically ell in o uppe -
middle-income classi ica ions, economic con e gence wi hin he EU has led o a g adual
alignmen owa ds high-income s a us. S uc u al unding, economic in eg a ion, and
policies such as he EU Single Ma ke and Eu ozone s abili y mechanisms ha e acili a ed
economic g ow h and educed income dispa i ies among membe s a es. As a esul , e en
coun ies ha p e iously had lowe income le els, such as some Eas e n Eu opean na ions,
ha e expe ienced signi ican economic de elopmen , pushing hem close o he high-
income ca ego y. The e o e, he EU’s economic s uc u e is p edominan ly cha ac e ized by
high-income economies o coun ies con e ging owa ds ha le el.
Fu u e esea ch could apply ou compa a i e me hodology on income g oups a
a global scale o assess whe he he obse ed ela ionships be ween economic ac o s
and mea consump ion hold beyond he Eu opean con ex . Gi en ha he EU p ima ily
consis s o high-income coun ies o na ions con e ging owa d his s a us, ou indings
may no ully cap u e he a ia ions p esen in lowe -income egions. Expanding he
analysis o include a mo e di e se se o economies—pa icula ly hose in low- and lowe -
middle-income ca ego ies—would p o ide deepe insigh s in o how income dispa i ies
shape die a y pa e ns wo ldwide and whe he economic de elopmen consis en ly d i es
inc eased mea consump ion ac oss di e en socioeconomic con ex s.
O e all, he indings con i m ha economic g ow h and li es ock a ailabili y a e p i-
ma y d i e s o mea consump ion, while unemploymen and me hane emissions also play
signi ican oles. Howe e , in la ion, go e nmen spending, and popula ion g ow h appea
Economies 2025,13, 146 33 o 39
o ha e limi ed di ec impac . While income classi ica ion enhances model pe o mance, i s
ole in shaping mea demand is mo e nuanced han ini ially expec ed.
Finally, he s udy o Thom e al. (2024) examines he s uc u al ulne abili ies o EU
ag icul u e unde an impo s op scena io, e ealing how ade dis up ions, pa icula ly
he es ic ion o soy impo s, could lead o inc eased p oduc ion cos s, en i onmen al
bu dens, and changes in mea p oduc ion and consump ion. Bo h s udies highligh ac o s
in luencing mea consump ion in he EU bu om di e en pe spec i es. While he p esen
beha io al s udy emphasizes consume -d i en changes in esponse o economic condi ions,
he ade policy s udy illus a es supply-d i en cons ain s ha a ec ma ke dynamics
and consump ion pa e ns. Bo h s udies demons a e ha shi s in mea consump ion in
he EU a e in luenced by economic condi ions and ade dependencies. While consume
beha io esponds o a o dabili y cons ain s du ing economic down u ns, supply-side
dis up ions, such as an impo s op on soy, eshape a ailabili y and p icing. Despi e
hese di e en pa hways, he ou come emains simila —a educ ion in mea consump ion
d i en by ex e nal p essu es. This highligh s he need o a dual app oach in policy design,
add essing bo h economic incen i es o sus ainable die s and ade esilience o ensu e a
s able and adap able ood sys em.
6. Conclusions
This s udy aimed o examine he ex en o which mac oeconomic and ESG (En i-
onmen al, Social, and Go e nance) ac o s in luence mea consump ion pa e ns in he
EU, p o iding a comp ehensi e analysis h ough Random E ec s (RE) and Gene alized
Es ima ing Equa ions (GEE) models. By in eg a ing beha io al economics wi h econome ic
modeling, he esea ch sough o unco e he economic, en i onmen al, and policy-d i en
mechanisms ha shape die a y choices ac oss EU na ions.
The indings highligh ha economic p ospe i y is a key d i e o mea consump-
ion, wi h GDP pe capi a and GDP PPP pe capi a posi i ely in luencing die a y choices.
Con e sely, highe unemploymen leads o educed mea in ake, sugges ing inancial con-
s ain s limi access o mea p oduc s. Unexpec edly, in la ion does no signi ican ly impac
consump ion ends, indica ing ha p ice luc ua ions alone do no al e consume beha io .
On he en i onmen al side, me hane emissions co ela e posi i ely wi h mea consump-
ion, ein o cing he link be ween li es ock p oduc ion and en i onmen al impac , while
li es ock a ailabili y signi ican ly a ec s demand. Howe e , go e nmen expendi u e and
popula ion g ow h appea o ha e no di ec in luence on mea consump ion pa e ns.
This s udy’s indings ha e impo an policy implica ions o balancing economic
g ow h wi h sus ainabili y goals. Gi en he s ong link be ween mea consump ion and
me hane emissions, policymake s should conside a ge ed in e en ions such as incen i es
o sus ainable li es ock a ming, ca bon axes on emissions, and p omo ing plan -based al-
e na i es. Addi ionally, as unemploymen signi ican ly educes mea consump ion, social
policies suppo ing income s abili y and job c ea ion could mi iga e economic dispa i ies
in die a y access. Since in la ion does no di ec ly a ec mea consump ion, ood policy
should ocus mo e on s uc u al economic condi ions a he han sho - e m p ice con ols.
These esul s emphasize he need o in eg a ed policies ha align economic de elopmen
wi h sus ainable ood sys ems, ensu ing bo h en i onmen al p o ec ion and ood secu i y
in he EU.
Mo eo e , gi en ha GDP pe capi a and GDP PPP pe capi a a e s ong posi i e
de e minan s o mea consump ion, while coun y’s income anking does no signi ican ly
impac die a y choices, policymake s should conside a ge ed economic and ood policies
a he han elying solely on b oad income classi ica ions. Since highe GDP le els inc ease
mea demand, sus ainabili y s a egies should be in eg a ed in o economic g ow h models,
Economies 2025,13, 146 34 o 39
such as implemen ing incen i es o sus ainable li es ock a ming, in es ing in al e na i e
p o ein sou ces, and p omo ing consume educa ion on en i onmen ally iendly die s. Ad-
di ionally, p og essi e axa ion on high-emission ood p oduc s o subsidies o plan -based
al e na i es could help balance economic p ospe i y wi h en i onmen al esponsibili y.
Gi en ha income anking does no independen ly d i e consump ion, policies should
ocus on ensu ing he a o dabili y and accessibili y o di e se p o ein sou ces ac oss all in-
come g oups, a he han assuming ha high-income coun ies will au oma ically consume
mo e mea . Encou aging economic g ow h s a egies ha inco po a e sus ainabili y, job
secu i y, and equi able ood policies can help mi iga e he en i onmen al impac o ising
mea demand while main aining economic s abili y.
This s udy con ibu es o he g owing body o li e a u e on he ela ionship be ween
mac oeconomic ac o s, ESG indica o s, and consume beha io , speci ically ocusing
on mea consump ion wi hin he Eu opean Union. By in eg a ing mul iple econome ic
models, including Fixed E ec s, Random E ec s, and Gene alized Es ima ing Equa ions
(GEE), his esea ch p o ides a comp ehensi e analysis o he economic and en i onmen al
d i e s o die a y choices ac oss 27 EU membe s a es.
A key con ibu ion o his s udy is he examina ion o how economic a iables, such
as GDP, GDP pe capi a, and unemploymen , in e ac wi h en i onmen al ac o s like
me hane emissions o in luence mea consump ion pa e ns. This app oach goes beyond
adi ional economic analyses by inco po a ing sus ainabili y me ics, o e ing a mo e
holis ic unde s anding o consume beha io in he con ex o clima e change and eco-
nomic de elopmen .
Mo eo e , his esea ch add esses a c i ical gap in he li e a u e by explici ly con-
side ing he impac o income g oup classi ica ions, based on Wo ld Bank s anda ds, on
die a y choices. This pe spec i e allows o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o how eco-
nomic de elopmen in luences consume beha io , highligh ing he impo ance o ailo ed
policy in e en ions.
Finally, his s udy con ibu es o he ongoing deba e on he ole o economic s abili y
and en i onmen al sus ainabili y in shaping consume p e e ences, p o iding aluable
insigh s o policymake s seeking o balance economic g ow h wi h clima e goals in he EU.
While his s udy p o ides aluable insigh s, u u e esea ch should explo e he ole
o psychological and cul u al ac o s in shaping mea consump ion pa e ns, as well as
e alua e he long- e m e ec i eness o EU sus ainabili y policies. In es iga ing a ia ions
ac oss di e en ypes o mea , egional di e ences, and u ban e sus u al die a y beha io s
would u he enhance unde s anding.
The e a e some limi a ions o conside . The eliance on na ional-le el da a may
o e look egional dispa i ies, and while ou models es ablish s ong associa ions, hey
do no p o e causali y. Addi ionally, beha io al in luences such as e hical conce ns and
die a y ends we e no explici ly measu ed, hough hey likely play a ole in consume
decision-making.
One limi a ion o his s udy is he po en ial in luence o ou lie s on he empi ical
esul s. Al hough e o s we e made o iden i y and add ess hese ou lie s in he da a
p epa a ion phase, hei p esence can s ill in oduce bias and a ec he obus ness o he
model es ima es. Fu u e esea ch could bene i om he applica ion o mo e ad anced
ou lie de ec ion and ea men me hods, such as obus eg ession echniques o machine
lea ning-based anomaly de ec ion, o u he minimize he impac o ex eme alues and
enhance he accu acy o he indings.
Fu he mo e, a c i ical limi a ion is he use o agg ega e in la ion as a mac oeconomic
indica o . Al hough his app oach cap u es gene al p ice ends, i does no di e en ia e
be ween o e all in la ion and ood-speci ic in la ion, which may ha e a mo e di ec impac
Economies 2025,13, 146 35 o 39
on mea consump ion. Fu u e esea ch could bene i om inco po a ing mo e a ge ed
measu es, such as he Food P ice Index (FPI), o isola e he speci ic in luence o ood
p ice dynamics.
Addi ionally, he analysis does no accoun o po en ial lagged e ec s in he ela-
ionship be ween economic ac o s and mea consump ion, despi e he ac ha consume
beha io o en esponds o economic changes o e ime. To add ess his, u u e s ud-
ies could employ dynamic panel models such as he A ellano–Bond es ima o , which is
speci ically designed o handle ime-dependen e ec s and au oco ela ion in panel da a.
Mo eo e , while he cu en income classi ica ion app oach based on he Wo ld Bank
ca ego ies p o ides a s anda dized amewo k, i may o e simpli y he di e se economic
con ex s wi hin he EU. Mo e sophis ica ed clus e ing me hods o a mo e g anula income
classi ica ion could o e deepe insigh s in o he impac o economic de elopmen on
die a y beha io .
Finally, his s udy’s empi ical s a egy elies on c oss-sec ional and ime-se ies da a
ha may no ully cap u e he complex, mul i-dimensional na u e o consume beha io .
Fu u e wo k should conside in eg a ing beha io al and psychological ac o s o p o ide a
mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o he d i e s o mea consump ion.
Despi e hese limi a ions, his s udy o e s a obus empi ical ounda ion o un-
de s anding he in e play be ween economic g ow h, en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and
consume beha io . Policymake s should le e age hese insigh s o de elop a ge ed s a e-
gies ha p omo e sus ainable die a y shi s while conside ing bo h economic easibili y
and social accep ance.
In conclusion, his s udy sheds ligh on he complex ela ionship be ween economic,
en i onmen al, and policy ac o s in shaping mea consump ion ends ac oss he EU. As
die a y choices con inue o e ol e in esponse o economic g ow h and sus ainabili y con-
ce ns, policymake s mus s ike a balance be ween p omo ing en i onmen al esponsibili y
and ensu ing economic s abili y. While s uc u al ac o s such as income and ma ke supply
play dominan oles, shi ing consume beha io h ough awa eness and policy incen i es
emains c ucial. Fu u e e o s should build upon hese indings o c ea e a mo e sus ain-
able and esilien ood sys em ha aligns economic de elopmen wi h en i onmen al and
public heal h goals.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; me hodology, P.K., N.T.G.,
D.P.S. and K.T.; so wa e, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; alida ion, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; o mal
analysis, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; in es iga ion, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; esou ces, P.K.,
N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; da a cu a ion, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion,
P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; isualiza ion,
P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; supe ision, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; p ojec adminis a ion, P.K.,
N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T.; unding acquisi ion, P.K., N.T.G., D.P.S. and K.T. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a suppo ing epo ed esul s and analyses can be ound a
KAROUNTZOS, PANAGIOTIS (2025), “Un eiling Beha io al Economics h ough mea consump-
ion in he EU by examining mac oeconomic and ESG Fac o s wi h mul iple econome ic mod-
els”, Mendeley Da a, V1, h ps://doi.o g/10.17632/pnhx25 m9s.1. Addi ionally, da a can be
downloaded om he ollowing da a bases: h ps://da a.wo ldbank.o g/ (accessed on 2 Feb u-
a y 2025), and h ps://ou wo ldinda a.o g/g aphe /mea -consump ion- s-gdp-pe -capi a? ab=
able& ime=1990&coun y=~BEL& bclid=IwY2xjawI-jLlleHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHQ 1gbQDATXP2
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