Echoes of Aggression. The Gendered Impact of School Bullying on the Well-Being of Victims and Witnesses

S e es, Till
A icle — Published Ve sion
Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School
Bullying on he Well-Being o Vic ims and Wi nesses
Social Indica o s Resea ch
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: S e es, Till (2025) : Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying
on he Well-Being o Vic ims and Wi nesses, Social Indica o s Resea ch, ISSN 1573-0921, Sp inge
Ne he lands, Do d ech , Vol. 180, Iss. 2, pp. 729-757,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11205-025-03696-6
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Accep ed: 5 Augus 2025 / Published online: 11 Augus 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Till S e es
[email p o ec ed]
1 Ruh -Uni e si y Bochum, Social Sciences, Uni e si ä ss , 150, Bochum 44801, Ge many
Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School
Bullying on he Well-Being o Vic ims and Wi nesses
TillS e es1
Social Indica o s Resea ch (2025) 180:729–757
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11205-025-03696-6
Abs ac
This s udy examines he impac o bullying ic imiza ion and wi nessing class oom bul-
lying on adolescen s’ subjec i e well-being (SWB) and whe he hese e ec s a e indepen-
den o each o he . E ec s o bullying on unin ol ed bys ande s a e ye o be explained in
sociology. The a icle p esen s e idence and explana ion o his e ec o di e en o ms
o bullying, in oducing echo-e ec s o agg essi e beha iou . Using mul ile el eg es-
sion analysis on da a om 121 class ooms, he indings show ha bo h ic imiza ion and
wi nessing bullying signi ican ly ha m SWB, wi h gi ls being mo e a ec ed han boys.
The s udy employs a obus , mul i-dimensional index o measu e SWB, collec ed among
seconda y schools in Ge many. Resul s indica e ha bullying expe iences a y by gende ,
wi h boys acing mo e physical iolence and gi ls mo e o en a ge ed indi ec ly o online,
aligning wi h p io esea ch on he ma e . While pa e ns a y, e ec s seem o be simila .
Signi ican ly nega i e impac on SWB unde sco es he need o e ec i e in e en ions a
he class oom le el o suppo bo h ic ims and wi nesses, highligh ing he impo ance o
add essing he complex dynamics wi hin school en i onmen s and conside ing he dis inc
expe iences o di e en gende g oups.
Keywo ds Bullying · Vic imiza ion · Subjec i e well-being · Pee ela ions · Violence ·
School
1 In oduc ion
Pee ela ionships a e a cen al piece in adolescen li e, p o oundly in luencing hei social
in eg a ion, de elopmen , and subjec i e well-being. An expanding body o esea ch on
pee ela ionships indica es ha as adolescen s g ow, hei ocus shi s inc easingly owa d
in e ac ions ou side he amily, wi h iendships and pee dynamics becoming mo e signi i-
can and in ica e (La son & Richa ds, 1991; Allison e al., 1999; Flynn e al., 2017; Mel on
1 3
T. S e es
e al., 2021). Engaging wi h pee s is o g ea impo ance o iden i y o ma ion (Ede , 1985;
La son & Richa ds, 1991; Swanson e al., 1998; Ragelienė, 2016) and o e all well-being
(B own & La son, 2009; Guhn e al., 2013; Cuad os & Be ge , 2016; Appau e al., 2019).
S udies ha e highligh ed he combined and in e ela ed e ec s o ela ionships wi h bo h
pee s and adul s on a ious well-being and de elopmen al ou comes, such as men al heal h,
esilience, and li e sa is ac ion (Guhn e al., 2013; Obe le, 2018). This in e connec edness
unde sco es he impo ance o unde s anding pee ela ionships’ mul i ace ed ole in adoles-
cen de elopmen and well-being. Since much adolescen social li e akes place in school,
he school clima e plays a pi o al ole in s uden s’ psychological well-being, bo h posi i ely
and nega i ely (Ka san onis e al., 2024; S e es, 2024a).
Bullying is a de imen al aspec o pee ela ions and school li e, which can se e ely unde -
mine well-being. I is dis inc om ypical pee con lic s due o i s pe sis en na u e and he
imbalance o powe be ween he bully and he ic im (Espelage e al., 2013). Unsu p isingly, i
can ha e p o ound and las ing de imen al e ec s on all adolescen s in ol ed, highligh ing he
u gen need o e ec i e in e en ions and suppo sys ems. While he di ec impac o bully-
ing ic imiza ion on an indi idual’s well-being is well-documen ed (Cook e al., 2010; Moo e
e al., 2017; Ka san onis e al., 2024), he ad e se e ec s on bys ande s who wi ness bully-
ing a e also signi ican . Sociological esea ch on bullying mainly ocuses on he ic ims and
pe pe a o s (e.g. S ubbs-Richa dson, 2020), bu psychological li e a u e has unde s ood he
impo ance o conside ing he bys ande s al eady (Midge & Doumas, 2019). The pe spec-
i es on he subjec di e be ween he wo disciplines. Psychology mainly ocuses on indi-
idual and de elopmen al ac o s. Some au ho s o e e olu iona y explana ions, p oposing
bullying as an adap i e s a egy o achie ing dominance and imp o ing social/ ep oduc i e
p ospec s (Volk e al., 2016). Sociology, on he o he hand, ies o unde s and s uc u al and
ins i u ional Fac o s. I mo es beyond indi idualis ic app oaches - bullying is seen as a p od-
uc o social o ces a he han solely indi idual beha iou s (Donoghue, 2022; Donoghue &
Pascoe, 2023). Fo ins ance, powe disad an ages (e.g., younge , emale, low socioeconomic
s a us) align wi h being mo e likely o be ic imized. Hence, powe dynamics on a highe
le el seem o also ickle down o smalle en i onmen s, such as he class oom. Espelage and
De La Rue (2012) b idge sociological and psychological pe spec i es. They employ social-
ecological and social-lea ning amewo ks o conside he in e ac ion o indi idual cha ac e -
is ics wi h amily, pee , and school en i onmen s. Bo h indi idual and sys emic ac o s play
impo an oles. This pe spec i e guides he ollowing esea ch, which examines how bullying
a ec s he subjec i e well-being o s uden s who a e no di ec ly a ge ed. This s udy in es i-
ga es he gende ed impac o school bullying on he well-being o bo h ic ims and wi nesses,
concep ualized as he ‘echoes o agg ession’. The aim is o en ich he sociological li e a u e
wi h quan i a i e e idence on his e ec .
Th oughou his a icle, I in oduce and use he e m “echo e ec ” o bullying. I is a
concep ual me apho de eloped o his s udy o cap u e he idea ha he impac o bully-
ing e e be a es beyond ic ims o a ec bys ande s. An echo is a phenomenon in which
sound wa es a e e lec ed o a su ace, such as a wall o moun ain, and e u n o he lis ene ,
c ea ing a epe i ion o he o iginal sound. In complex s uc u es, sound is e ac ed in all
possible di ec ions ha he o iginal sou ce migh no ha e in ended ini ially. In a b oade
sense, an echo can also symbolise he linge ing e ec s o e e be a ions o an e en , emo-
ion, o ac ion, much like i s sound coun e pa pe sis s beyond he ini ial occu ence. In his
a icle, echo desc ibes how he ha m caused by bullying ex ends beyond immedia e ic ims,
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
esona ing h ough social dynamics and a ec ing wi nesses o he class oom en i onmen
as a whole.
While psychological li e a u e has ecognised he ha m ul impac o wi nessing bully-
ing on s uden s’ men al heal h, sociological esea ch has la gely o e looked his o m o
indi ec exposu e. Mos sociological s udies on school bullying con inue o ocus p ima ily
on he di ec in e ac ion be ween ic ims and pe pe a o s, lea ing bys ande s and wi nesses
analy ically unde de eloped. This gap is especially p essing because indi ec exposu e o
agg ession can shape pe cep ions o sa e y, belonging, and powe dynamics in he class-
oom—key sociological cons uc s—and may a ec s uden s di e en ly depending on gen-
de and social iden i y. Mo eo e , exis ing esea ch o en elies on sel -iden i ica ion as a
bys ande , which in oduces ecall bias and limi s compa abili y ac oss con ex s. This s udy
add esses hese sho comings by using a no el me hodological app oach: de ining wi nesses
a he class oom le el based on epo ed inciden s a he han indi idual sel -iden i ica ion. I
u he con ibu es by in eg a ing a sociological gende pe spec i e o explo e how indi ec
exposu e may ha e di e en well-being e ec s on boys, gi ls, and gende -di e se s uden s.
D awing on B on enb enne ’s ecological sys ems heo y (1979), pa icula ly he mesosys-
em whe e pee and class oom in e ac ions occu , his s udy p o ides obus e idence o
wha is concep ualised he e as he echo e ec — he s uc u al and emo ional implica ions o
indi ec agg ession in pee cul u es. In sho : “Is he e an echo o agg essi e beha iou on
hose no in ol ed? Does wi nessing bullying in he class oom a ec he subjec i e well-
being o adolescen s?”.
Analyses build on a class oom-based, s anda dised su ey s udy which ook place in
Ge many in 2021 (S e es e al., 2023; S e es, 2024b). A majo s eng h o his da a sou ce
is he use o a mul i-dimensional index o measu e subjec i e well-being, which aligns
wi h es ablished p ac ices in child and adolescen well-being esea ch (Pollock e al., 2018;
Moo e, 2020). This index encompasses six dimensions: sel -es eem, op imism, absence o
sadness, absence o wo ies, body image, and li e sa is ac ion. Each dimension is assessed
h ough h ee s a emen s. In con as , bullying ic imiza ion esea ch, whe he ocusing on
ic ims o bys ande s, o en elies on single-i em analyses (Sand ik e al., 2009; Ka san onis
e al., 2024), which can be suscep ible o andom e o s. Demons a ing signi ican e ec s
o wi nessing bullying on a obus , mul i-dimensional index o subjec i e well-being would
p o ide compelling e idence o he ha m caused o hose indi ec ly in ol ed.
This a icle aims o eplica e and ex end p e ious indings by es ing ou hypo heses,
app oaching he issue om a sociological pe spec i e and add essing esea ch gaps ha
emain unexplo ed in p edominan ly psychological s udies. Following his pa ag aph, he
heo e ical g ounds and hypo heses a e p esen ed, be o e in he nex chap e , me hods and
da a a e discussed. The sample and p e alence o bullying, di e ences be ween boys and
gi ls, as well as co ela ions be ween ypes o bullying a e shown. These igu es a e comple-
men ed by a mul ile el eg ession analysis o subjec i e well-being (SWB) in he subse-
quen chap e . The in luence o social esou ces and bullying on bo h class and indi idual
le els is es ed, and whe he hei e ec s di e be ween gende s.
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T. S e es
2 Theo y & Li e a u e Re iew
2.1 Theo e ical F amewo k: The Echo E ec o Bullying
The echo can be unde s ood om an ecological pe spec i e – oo ed in he amous ecol-
ogy o human de elopmen (B on enb enne , 1979). B on enb enne a gues ha he social
en i onmen su ounding indi iduals a ec s hei well-being and de elopmen (ibid.). He
desc ibes he en i onmen as a concen ic sys em consis ing o in e connec ed sub-sys ems
wi h di ec and indi ec e ec s on he indi idual in he cen e. The i s laye , he mic o-
sys em, has an immedia e impac on he indi idual. I consis s o he pee g oup, amily,
school and communi y. In e ac ions and ela ionships be ween ac o s ac oss he mic osys-
em, ypically among he pa en s o be ween pa en s and eache s, o m he mesosys em.
The b oade social se ings and ins i u ions ha indi ec ly in luence he indi idual, such
as pa en al wo kplaces, communi y policies, o media, o m he exosys em. The mac o-
sys em en ails o e a ching cul u al alues, no ms, laws, and socie al s uc u es ha shape
he o he sys ems and in luence de elopmen . Consequen ly, how socie y, ins i u ions and
ac o s in ol ed in childca e deal wi h he phenomenon o bullying ma e s o adolescen
well-being, which has been shown in ecen esea ch (Ka san onis e al., 2024). On he o he
hand, dys unc ional ela ionships in he pee g oup, and hus in he mesosys em, can lead o
se e e damage (Espelage, 2014).
B on enb enne ’s heo y emphasises ha hese en i onmen al sys ems a e no isola ed;
a he , hey in e ac in complex ways ha shape indi idual de elopmen o e ime. The
mesosys em—whe e class oom pee cul u es a e si ua ed—se es as a c i ical a ena in
which expe iences o inclusion, exclusion, and con lic a e nego ia ed. Impo an ly, he
mac osys em’s cul u al no ms and ins i u ional s uc u es no only shape b oad socie al
esponses o bullying bu also in luence how bullying is de ined, ole a ed, o challenged
wi hin schools. The “echo” o agg ession hus e lec s how he s ess o bullying is socially
ansmi ed wi hin he mesosys em, while being ein o ced o mi iga ed by exosys em and
mac osys em o ces. In his way, he ecological model p o ides a mul i-le el explana ion
o how indi ec exposu e o bullying can ha m adolescen well-being, e en among hose
no di ec ly a ge ed. This mul i-le el dynamic sugges s ha class ooms whe e bullying
occu s may os e clima es o no malised agg ession, esul ing in nega i e consequences o
he well-being o all s uden s.
Hypo hesis 1 The a e age SWB is dec eased ac oss s uden s in class ooms whe e bullying
is p e alen .
2.2 P e ious Resea ch on Bys ande s & Wi nesses
The impac o bullying ex ends beyond immedia e ha m, leading o long- e m physical and
psychological issues (Vande bil & Augus yn, 2010; Wolke & Le eya, 2015; Moo e e al.,
2017; B adshaw e al., 2017). Among hem, esea ch ound poo social adjus men and psy-
chosoma ic symp oms o ic imized s uden s (Rigby, 2003; Wolke & Le eya, 2015), as well
as associa ions wi h symp oms o a ec i e diso de , anxie y and dep ession (Romano e al.,
2020). Addi ionally, bullying can en ench a cycle o iolence, wi h ic ims becoming pe -
pe a o s and ice e sa (Wal e s, 2021; Falla e al., 2022; Espino e al., 2023). Ce ain ind-
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
ings e eal pa icula ly ala ming consequences. Kelly e al. (2015) and Galindo-Domínguez
and Losado Iglesias (2023) ound ha bullying ic imiza ion signi ican ly inc eases suicidal
endencies among young people.
Hypo hesis 2 Indi idual expe iences o ic imiza ion a e linked o educed pe sonal SWB.
This hypo hesis is g ounded in he well-es ablished li e a u e demons a ing ha s uden s
who expe ience bullying o en epo lowe le els o well-being (Wolke & Le eya, 2015;
B adshaw e al., 2017). The aim he e is o con i m ha indi idual ic imiza ion co ela es
wi h dec eased SWB, ein o cing he known psychological oll o being bullied (Ri e s &
No e , 2010, 2013).
Wi h o e wo- hi ds o s uden s epo ing ha hey ha e wi nessed bullying a school in
p e ious s udies (B adshaw e al., 2007; Ri e s e al., 2009), unde s anding his phenom-
enon is impe a i e. S uden s, who may in e ene, encou age, o passi ely obse e bully-
ing (Cowie, 2000; Smi h e al., 1999), o en ace signi ican impac s on hei well-being.
Resea ch shows ha s uden s who obse e bullying o en expe ience in e nalising symp-
oms such as anxie y, dep ession, and e en suicidal idea ion (Ri e s e al., 2009; We h e
al., 2015). S udies conduc ed in Canada and Taiwan indica e ha bys ande s, pa icula ly
hose who in e ene, epo highe le els o dep ession and anxie y (Lambe e al., 2017; Wu
e al., 2016). In he UK, indings e eal ha wi nessing bullying is linked o men al heal h
isks independen o being a a ge o pe pe a o , wi h bys ande s epo ing lowe le els o
suicidal idea ion han a ge s bu highe han pe pe a o s and unin ol ed s uden s (Ri e s &
No e , 2010, 2013). These s udies highligh he conside able impac o wi nessing bullying
on s uden s’ o e all well-being, emphasising he need o u he esea ch and in e en ion.
While some esea ch sugges s ha he nega i e impac s o wi nessing bullying a e indepen-
den o being a a ge o pe pe a o (Ri e s & No e , 2010, 2013), mo e s udies a e needed
o con i m hese indings in di e en (cul u al) con ex s, as he phenomenon and i s implica-
ions can di e subs an ially be ween class ooms, schools and e en coun ies (Ka san onis,
2021; Cosma e al., 2022; Ka san onis e al., 2024).
Hypo hesis 3 The occu ence o bullying in he class oom nega i ely a ec s indi idual
SWB, ega dless o pe sonal ic imiza ion.
This hypo hesis add esses whe he simply being in an en i onmen whe e bullying occu s
can ha m a s uden ’s well-being, independen o whe he hey a e a di ec ic im. I es s he
heo y ha he psychological e ec s o bullying ex end beyond hose immedia ely in ol ed,
po en ially a ec ing all s uden s exposed o such a hos ile en i onmen (Ri e s e al., 2009;
Midge & Doumas, 2019). The la en p e alence o agg essi e beha iou is hypo hesised o
c ea e an echo, a ec ing hose who do no epo being ic imized hemsel es.
2.3 Gende Di e ences in Bullying In ol emen and E ec s
The subjec i e well-being o adolescen s a ies no ably be ween gende s, wi h gi ls o en
epo ing lowe le els o well-being compa ed o boys (González-Ca asco e al., 2017;
Knü el e al., 2021; S e es, 2024a; Ka san onis e al., 2024). Likewise, he expe ience o
bullying di e s be ween gende s, likely caused by gende oles and expec a ions eme ging
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T. S e es
du ing adolescence (Hells öm & Beckmann 2020). Male a ge s o bullying ha e been
ound o be less likely o epo bullying ic imiza ion (Ri e s & Smi h, 1994; Cowie, 2000).
Quali y o bullying ic imiza ion and pe pe a ion has also been ound o di e be ween
boys and gi ls, wi h boys being mo e likely o su e om and commi physical iolence
(Schei haue e al., 2006; Iossi Sil a e al., 2013; Cosma e al., 2022) and gi ls being mo e
o en a ge ed indi ec ly (Ri e s & Smi h, 1994) o online (Smi h e al., 2019). Addi ionally,
gi ls a e a ec ed much s onge by sexual dimensions o cybe bullying (Ri e s & Duncan,
2013; Copp e al., 2021), al hough B ody and Vangelis i (2017) ound ha male ic ims o
sexualized bullying expe ience a ge ing based on hei sexual o ien a ion mo e o en. The
ealisa ion ha quee adolescen s a e a acked because o hei iden i y is no new (Espelage
e al., 2008). Plus, acco ding o ecen esea ch (Gowe e al., 2022; Sa es-Jäske e al., 2023;
Wa son e al., 2024), adolescen s ou side o he bina y gende spec um, such as ans emi-
nine o ansmasculine you h, a e e en mo e likely o be ic imized by pee s. Thus, esea ch
dealing wi h bullying in adolescence mus acknowledge and ac o in gende and iden i y in
i s analyses (Espelage e al. 2014).
These pa e ns e lec no only beha iou al di e ences bu deepe gende ed social s uc-
u es, as explained by sociological gende heo y. Connell’s concep o “hegemonic mas-
culini y” (2005) could explain why boys may be mo e likely o unde epo expe iences o
ic imiza ion. Hegemonic masculini y e e s o he dominan cul u al ideal o manhood,
which alues s eng h, con ol, and emo ional es ain while ma ginalising ai s pe cei ed
as weak o ulne able. In class oom se ings, bullying beha iou can se e o ein o ce hese
no ms, posi ioning oughness and emo ional de achmen as ma ke s o accep able mascu-
lini y (Hells öm & Beckmann, 2020; Ri e s & Smi h, 1994). This could also help explain
why boys a e less likely o epo expe iences o social o e bal ic imiza ion: he cul u al
ideal o masculini y may lead hem ei he o a oid disclosing such inciden s, o o in e p e
hem—consciously o unconsciously—as ha mless ban e a he han bullying.
Meanwhile, “doing gende ” (Wes & Zimme man, 1987) highligh s how gi ls may be
mo e equen ly in ol ed in o a ec ed by ela ional and epu a ional agg ession, as hei
social oles a e o en ied o main aining likeabili y and appea ance wi hin pee hie a chies
(Ede , 1985; Espelage e al. 2014). S udies ha e also shown ha gi ls may be mo e will-
ing o epo such expe iences, while boys may supp ess disclosu e because admi ing ic-
imiza ion can con lic wi h masculine ideals and isk s igma isa ion (Cowie, 2000). These
dynamics unde sco e ha bullying is no me ely indi idual de iance, bu a gende ed p o-
cess embedded in class oom s a us sys ems and no ma i e sc ip s (Copp e al., 2021).
This s udy he e o e iews bullying and i s echo e ec s no jus as de elopmen al s ess-
o s bu as exp essions o s uc u al inequali ies ela ed o gende , powe , and social capi-
al. I ex ends exis ing amewo ks by empi ically es ing how hese dynamics e e be a e
h ough he mesosys em, shaping adolescen well-being e en among hose no di ec ly
ic imized.
Hypo hesis 4 The impac o bullying ic imiza ion and class oom bullying on SWB a ies
by gende , wi h gi ls expe iencing a s onge nega i e e ec .
This hypo hesis explo es gende di e ences in esponse o bullying, building on e idence
ha gi ls o en epo lowe SWB and a e di e en ly a ec ed by a ious o ms o bullying
(González-Ca asco e al., 2017; Knü el e al., 2021; S e es, 2024a). The hypo hesis posi s
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
ha bo h di ec ic imiza ion and he gene al p esence o bullying wi hin a class oom a e
likely o ha e mo e se e e nega i e e ec s on gi ls’ well-being compa ed o boys, e lec -
ing he gende ed na u e o bullying expe iences (Hells öm & Beckmann 2020; Copp e al.,
2021).
3 Da a and Me hods
3.1 Da a Sou ce and Va iables
The UWE su ey ins umen , de eloped by he Ruh -Uni e si ä Bochum’s Zen um ü
in e disziplinä e Regional o schung (ZEFIR), ocuses on measu ing he subjec i e well-
being (SWB) o child en and adolescen s wi hin local communi ies and school con ex s.
UWE s ands o “Umwel , Wohlbe inden und En wicklung“ ( = „En i onmen , Well-being
and De elopmen ”).
I s app oach is la gely inspi ed by he ecology o human de elopmen by B on enb enne
(1979). The s udy aims a modelling his ecology o unde s and adolescen li e and deli e
da a ha aids communi ies and schools o acili a e he heal hy upb inging o you h. I e al-
ua es ac o s enhancing and p o ec ing SWB, aiming o p o ide ep esen a i e da a a bo h
ins i u ional (schools) and small-a ea (s a is ical dis ic s) le els. By emphasising subjec-
i e expe iences and local a ia ions, he UWE su ey se es as a comp ehensi e ool o
municipali ies and schools o ailo in e en ions ha p omo e a ou able en i onmen s o
child en and adolescen s.
In i s 2021 wa e, all s uden s in 7 h and 9 h g ades (~ 12-17-yea -olds) in wo medium-
sized Ge man ci ies we e asked o ake pa in he s udy, a emp ing a ull su ey in his
demog aphic. The su ey a ge ed 6,024 adolescen s, wi h 1,770 esponding— esul ing in
an o e all u nou o 29.4% (S e es e al., 2023). Bo h ci ies a e mos ly u ban en i onmen s
wi h high a es o child po e y (see Knü el e al., 2021). Gi en he high esponse a e and
b oad school- ype co e age, he sample is easonably ep esen a i e o his u ban adoles-
cen popula ion in e ms o age, school ype, and egional con ex . Howe e , as is common
in olun a y school su eys, emale esponden s a e sligh ly o e ep esen ed.
The i s ci y enabled coope a ion wi h schools di ec ly; ques ionnai es we e adminis-
e ed digi ally o on pape o g oups o up o 15 s uden s a a ime, ei he in he class oom o
a home in a dis ance-lea ning se ing du ing school hou s. The sample includes all s uden s
in he a ge g oup whose pa en s consen ed o hei child’s pa icipa ion p io o he s udy.
Schools in he second ci y we e no coope a ing in his way, pa ly because o he COVID-
19 pandemic and i s con ac limi a ions. Hence, all esiden s o he own in ha age g oup
we e asked o ake pa in an online su ey, whe e hey also p o ided da a on hei school
and class oom a ilia ion. The in i a ion o he su ey was deli e ed by mail up o h ee
imes o e a pe iod o ou weeks. Con ac in o ma ion was ob ained by he municipal esi-
den s’ egis a ion o ice. F om he o al numbe o esponden s, 1168 cases could be used
o he analyses in his a icle. S e es e al. (2023) p o ide a de ailed epo on he su eys’
conduc in 2021 (open access, in Ge man). The da a is a ailable o eplica ion om S e es
(2023).
The ques ionnai e akes a ound 45 min o answe , and he esul ing da ase con ains
mo e han 200 i ems and a iables. Du ing hese 45 min, a supe iso in oduces he p ojec
1 3
735
T. S e es
and i s ques ionnai e be o e esponden s ask a ew ques ions. The ques ionnai e leng h and
esul ing ime necessa y aises conce ns abou he cogni i e capaci y o answe all ques ions
eliably especially among he younge esponden s. To ensu e comp ehensibili y and age-
app op ia eness, he ques ionnai e was p e es ed in a wo-s ep p ocess in 2019. Fi s , ocus
g oups we e conduc ed wi h s uden s in g ade 6 and g ade 8 a a seconda y school. These
g ades we e selec ed o be jus below he ac ual a ge g ades (7 and 9) in o de o a oid any
p io exposu e o he ques ionnai e among la e pa icipan s. S uden s we e asked o e iew
each ques ion and indica e whe he hey unde s ood i , el unsu e, o could no o did no
wan o answe . I ems lagged by se e al s uden s we e discussed in de ail and e ised o
cla i y and accessibili y. A subsequen p e es in pa allel classes es ed he ull ques ionnai e
o emaining comp ehension issues, iming, and implemen a ion. The a e age comple ion
ime du ing p e es ing ma ched he planned 45-minu e school pe iod, and no majo di icul-
ies emained.
The dependen a iable in all models conduc ed below is subjec i e well-being, which is
a mul idimensional concep ha is assessed by s a emen s in he six dimensions:
Op imism.
●I eel be e mo e o en han I eel bad.
●I hink I will expe ience mo e good hings han bad.
●In he mo ning I usually hink i ’s going o be a good day.
Sel -es eem.
●Mos o he ime, I like i he way I am.
●I ha e a lo o be p oud o .
●Many hings abou me a e good.
Li e sa is ac ion.
●Mos o he ime, my li e is he way I wan i o be.
●E e y hing is eally good in my li e.
●I am happy wi h my li e.
Wo ies (Recoded o e lec absence o wo ies).
●I’m wo ied abou being eased o annoyed.
●I wo y a lo ha o he people migh no like me.
●I wo y abou wha o he child en migh say abou me.
Body image.
●I usually like he way I look.
●Mos o he ime I am happy wi h my weigh .
●I eel good in my body.
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
ci cles ep esen he “P ac ical Seconda y T ack” which ypically ends a e he 10 h g ade
and p epa es i s s uden s o manual labou o u he oca ional aining, he ack consis s
o “Haup schule” and “Realschule”. These wo ha e been ound o be challenged wi h bul-
lying mo e han o he acks (Fische e al., 2020). (3) The g ey squa e ep esen s he “Com-
p ehensi e Seconda y T ack” which has a holis ic app oach. I allows s uden s o lea e a e
g ade 10 and pu sue oca ional aining o s ay o he “Abi u ” o ea n access o e ia y
educa ion. In his sample, schools we e called ei he “Gesam schule” o “Sekunda schule”.
The dis ibu ion o ic imiza ion ac oss class ooms shows conside able a ia ion, wi h
some class ooms epo ing e y low le els and o he s whe e bullying is mo e pe asi e.
No ably, class ooms wi h highe sha es o ic imized s uden s end o epo lowe a e age
subjec i e well-being, consis en wi h Hypo hesis 1. Howe e , as indica ed by Spea man’s
Rho, hese di e ences a e no signi ican .
The igu es displayed abo e migh gi e he imp ession ha mos s uden s a e no a ec ed
by bullying ic imiza ion, al hough a leas 37.8% o he s uden s in he sample expe ience
a leas one o m o bullying hemsel es (Fig. 3).
Table 2 Co ela ion be ween indi idual-le el o ms o bullying ic imiza ion
Physical Ve bal Social Cybe
Boys Gi ls Boys Gi ls Boys Gi ls Boys Gi ls
Physical 1.00 1.00
p- alue 0.0000 0.0000
Ve bal 0.50 0.33 1.00 1.00
p- alue 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Social 0.35 0.24 0.49 0.50 1.00 1.00
p- alue 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Cybe 0.26 0.15 0.30 0.38 0.33 0.37 1.00 1.00
p- alue 0.0000 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Fig. 3 Dis ibu ion o S uden s by Numbe o Bullying Types Expe ienced a leas mon hly
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743

T. S e es
The eg ession model wi hou any accoun o bullying is shown in Fig. 5. The coe icien
plo displays he e ec o all independen a iables used o explain SWB in he sample. Gen-
de is he s onges p edic o , wi h gi ls epo ing much lowe alues on a e age. The coe i-
cien indica es an a e age di e ence o 0.43 poin s be ween boys and gi ls on a scale o 1–5.
The signi icance le el is indica ed by h ee s a s. Subjec i e weal h, indica ing a sense o
ela i e po e y by hose wi h lowe alues, c ea es a signi ican gap in SWB be ween hose
who pe cei e hemsel es as ela i ely poo o weal hy. SWB is suppo ed by good sleep and
nu i ion, posi i e ela ionships wi h pee s and adul s a home, while close iends and adul s
in school do no ha e a s a is ically signi ican e ec . Close iends a e less impo an o
SWB, when he e a e gene al eelings o belonging o he pee g oup, and you hs a e pa
o a g oup o iends. The school clima e i sel is no as impac ul as eelings o success,
belonging and joy – he pe cep ion o one’s own ole in school li e ma e s mo e han he
ins i u ion in gene al (S e es, 2024a).
Following his, in e ac ion e ms be ween bullying (bo h indi idual and class le el) and
gende a e inco po a ed o explo e whe he he e is an e ec o wi nessing bullying and
i he e ec o bullying on SWB di e s by gende . Eigh models a e p esen ed in Fig. 6.
Bullying is a bina y a iable in he models, indica ing ha esponden s epo ed a leas a
mon hly expe ience o he bullying ype in ques ion. Each model includes ei he indi idual
o class-le el bullying in e ac ed wi h gende , while he o he o m is no in e ac ed wi h,
and he emaining ypes o bullying a e excluded. The coe icien plo only shows he e ec s
o gende , bullying and he in e ac ion e m. All con ols p esen ed in Fig. 5 a e included in
Fig. 4 Sha e o ic imized s uden s in each class oom and a e age subjec i e well-being by school ype
and o m o bullying (Da a: UWE Su ey 2021; n = 119 class ooms)
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
he calcula ion behind Fig. 6 bu no shown he e o be e isibili y. All hidden e ec s a e
obus and do no change signi ican ly be ween models.
Gende emains he s onges p edic o , ega dless o which o m o bullying is added o
he model. Mos o ms o bullying cause a signi ican d op in SWB when s uden s a e a -
ge ed, suppo ing Hypo hesis 2. Physical bullying is an in e es ing excep ion, as i appea s
o mainly cause indi ec ha m – wi nessing is a signi ican ly nega i e in luence, while he
ic imiza ion a iable is insigni ican . Wi nessing physical and e bal bullying signi ican ly
dec eases SWB, suppo ing Hypo hesis 3. The la e e ec disappea s when he in e ac-
ion o wi nessing/gende is added, which educes he e ec o gende as well. This is an
indica ion ha gi ls in his sample su e mo e om e bal bullying in he class oom han
Fig. 6 In e ac ion e ec s o gende wi h bullying ic imiza ion and wi nessing bullying on SWB (Da a:
UWE Su ey 2021; n = 1168 s uden s). (Signi icance: * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001)
Fig. 5 P edic o s o Subjec i e Well-Being (Da a: UWE su ey 2021; n = 1168 s uden s). (Signi icance: *
p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001)
1 3
745
T. S e es
hei male coun e pa s. None o he in e ac ion e ms is signi ican , limi ing he e idence
o Hypo hesis 4. The eg ession esul s indica e ha bo h di ec and indi ec exposu e o
ce ain o ms o bullying a e signi ican ly associa ed wi h lowe subjec i e well-being. The
e ec o wi nessing physical and e bal bullying is pa icula ly p onounced, lending suppo
o Hypo hesis 3. In con as , cybe bullying shows a s onge associa ion wi h di ec ic im-
iza ion han wi h indi ec exposu e.
Based on he models in he i s ow, ea u ing he in e ac ion e m o bullying ic imiza-
ion and gende , Fig. 7 shows he p edic ed SWB o six g oups: ic imized s uden s, non-
ic imized s uden s who migh wi ness bullying in class, and s uden s wi hou any epo ed
exposu e, wi h each g oup u he so ed by gende . The dashed line in each plo ma ks he
o e all a e age SWB. In e e y model and e e y g oup, gi ls s ill epo a lowe SWB han
boys. Howe e , he di e ence dec eases in class ooms wi hou epo s o e bal and social
bullying. Gi ls epo signi ican ly lowe SWB when being ic imized o wi nessing bully-
ing, o male esponden s, i is no ha s ong and no signi ican o e e y o m. Al hough
he a e age SWB di e s be ween he h ee g oups, he e ec o wi nessing is no signi ican
o social- and cybe bullying. This migh be pa ly caused by boys no epo ing bullying
in he su ey (Ri e s & Smi h, 1994; Cowie, 2000). Cybe bullying has he s onges e ec ,
showing a di e ence o mo e han 20% be ween ic imized gi ls and boys wi hou any
exposu e. These p edic ed alues illus a e he cumula i e nega i e e ec s o bullying expo-
su e, whe he di ec o indi ec . The consis en gende gap in subjec i e well-being pe sis s
ac oss g oups, hough i na ows somewha in class ooms wi h lowe bullying p e alence.
5 Discussion
The s udy in es iga ed he impac o wi nessing school bullying on he subjec i e well-
being (SWB) o adolescen s who a e no di ec a ge s. Using a class oom-based su ey
om Ge many, he esea ch analyses physical, e bal, social, and cybe bullying. Resul s
show ha occu ences o bullying nega i ely a ec SWB ac oss class ooms, wi h di e -
ences no ed be ween gende s. The s udy highligh s he b oade , o en o e looked, impac
o bullying on bys ande s and unde sco es he impo ance o gende -sensi i e app oaches
in add essing bullying’s epe cussions. The indings emphasise he need o comp ehen-
si e in e en ions o suppo all s uden s, no jus di ec ic ims. Coming back o he ini ial
esea ch ques ion o whe he wi nessing school bullying had a signi ican nega i e impac
on he subjec i e well-being o adolescen s who a e no di ec a ge s, his e ec is e iden
ac oss di e en ypes o bullying and a ies be ween gende s, indica ing a need o com-
p ehensi e, gende -sensi i e bullying in e en ions. Ul ima ely, he e is s ong e idence o
he Echo o Agg ession.
Fou hypo heses we e es ed. The i s one is based on he mac o-le el: “The a e age
SWB is dec eased ac oss s uden s in class ooms whe e bullying is p e alen .” The desc ip-
i e s a is ics and in e en ial analysis p o ide mixed e idence ega ding his hypo hesis.
Figu e 4 p o ides h ee ele an indings. Fi s , he e is a su p isingly weak ela ionship
be ween he wo dimensions p esen ed. None o he ypes o bullying seems o be associ-
a ed wi h highe o lowe SWB, as indica ed by he linea i and Spea man’s Rho alues.
Tha can be in e p e ed as an a gumen agains Hypo hesis 1. Second, he ange o a ec ed
s uden s in each class oom a ies widely, sugges ing ha he social dynamic in hese g oups
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
di e s jus as much. Thi d, he school ype does no appea o be a ac o in he dis ibu ion
he e; all ypes a e dis ibu ed andomly ac oss he sca e plo s.
Al hough desc ip i e igu es show a weak ela ionship be ween class oom-le el bullying
ic imiza ion and a e age SWB, he mul ile el eg ession analysis e eals mo e nuanced
insigh s. The low ICC indica es ha only a small p opo ion o he a iance in SWB is due
o di e ences be ween class ooms. This sugges s ha while class oom-le el occu ences o
bullying migh no signi ican ly a ec he o e all SWB, indi idual expe iences wi hin hese
class ooms ha e a mo e subs an ial impac . The a iance in he sha e o a ge ed s uden s
in each class oom hin s a g ea di e si y in he social dynamics o each class oom. The
indings a e e idence o he ine iciency and de iciency in e ms o knowledge gain when
o mula ing hypo heses on he con ex le el.
Hypo hesis 2 aims a he indi idual le el: “Indi idual expe iences o ic imiza ion a e
linked o educed pe sonal SWB.” The analysis obus ly suppo s his hypo hesis. Vic ims
o bullying epo ed signi ican ly lowe SWB ac oss mul iple dimensions, consis en wi h
ex ensi e p e ious esea ch (Espelage 2013; Wolke & Le eya, 2015; Moo e e al., 2017;
B adshaw e al., 2017; Ka san onis e al., 2024). The signi ican nega i e coe icien s o
physical, e bal, social, and cybe bullying in he eg ession models unde sco e he de i-
men al impac o di ec ic imiza ion on indi idual well-being. These indings align wi h
p io s udies highligh ing he ad e se e ec s o bullying on ic ims (Rigby, 2003; Romano
e al., 2020).
Fig. 7 P edic ed subjec i e well-being by gende and exposu e o bullying (Da a: UWE Su ey 2021;
n = 1168 s uden s)
1 3
747
T. S e es
Hypo hesis 3 in oduces he class oom pe spec i e: “The occu ence o bullying in he
class oom nega i ely a ec s indi idual SWB, ega dless o pe sonal ic imiza ion.” The
e idence o his hypo hesis is also compelling. The eg ession analysis shows ha he p es-
ence o bullying in he class oom co ela es wi h lowe SWB among s uden s who a e no
di ec ly ic imized. This aligns wi h psychological li e a u e indica ing signi ican impac s
on bys ande s, who o en expe ience in e nalising symp oms such as anxie y and dep ession
(Ri e s e al., 2009; We h e al., 2015). The inding ha wi nessing bullying can nega i ely
a ec non- a ge ed s uden s is signi ican , emphasising he b oade impac o bullying on he
en i e class oom en i onmen , suppo ing he idea o an Echo o Agg ession.
Hypo hesis 4 is mo e complex han he o me , as i aims o ind di e ences in he e ec s
desc ibed be o e based on gende : “The impac o bullying ic imiza ion and class oom
bullying on SWB a ies by gende , wi h gi ls expe iencing a s onge nega i e e ec .” The
analysis p o ides pa ial suppo o his hypo hesis. Gende di e ences in SWB and expe i-
ences o bullying we e e iden , wi h gi ls epo ing lowe o e all well-being and di e en
ypes o bullying expe iences compa ed o boys. Speci ically, gi ls expe ienced mo e social
and cybe bullying, whe eas boys epo ed mo e physical ic imiza ion. In line wi h p e i-
ous esea ch (Ri e s & Smi h, 1994; Schei haue e al., 2006; Iossi Sil a e al., 2013; Cosma
e al., 2022), boys ha e epo ed mo e physical ic imiza ion, while gi ls ha e been ic im
o all o he kinds mo e o en, al hough cybe bullying and e bal ic imiza ion do no di e
subs an ially, con adic ing p e ious esea ch (Smi h e al., 2019). This aligns wi h exis -
ing esea ch sugges ing gende -speci ic pa e ns in bullying and wi h sociological gende
heo ies. Fo example, he s onge impac o social and cybe bullying on gi ls e lec s how
ela ional agg ession a ge s social oles ied o appea ance and likabili y (Wes & Zimme -
man, 1987; Ede , 1985). Meanwhile, he mu ed in e ac ion e ec s be ween gende and bul-
lying on SWB may pa ly e lec boys’ unde epo ing, shaped by hegemonic masculini y
no ms ha discou age displays o ulne abili y (Connell, 2005; Hells öm & Beckmann,
2020). Howe e , he in e ac ion e ec s be ween gende and bullying on SWB we e no as
p onounced, indica ing ha while he ypes o bullying and o e all well-being le els di e
by gende , he nega i e impac s o bullying ic imiza ion and wi nessing bullying a e sig-
ni ican o bo h boys and gi ls.
The s udy’s indings esona e wi h a subs an ial body o li e a u e on he impac s o bul-
lying on adolescen s’ well-being. The e idence suppo ing Hypo hesis 2 aligns wi h well-
documen ed nega i e e ec s o di ec ic imiza ion on men al heal h and social ou comes.
The esul s also ein o ce he no ion ha bullying’s impac ex ends beyond immedia e ic-
ims, a ec ing bys ande s signi ican ly (Ri e s & No e , 2010, 2013). This inding aligns
wi h he ecological unde s anding o how in e ac ions in he mesosys em indi ec ly a ec
well-being (B on enb enne , 1979). Bullying ope a es as a s esso wi hin he mesosys em,
whe e pee dynamics and class oom clima e in e ac o shape indi idual well-being. The
echo-e ec obse ed he e e lec s how ha m ul pee in e ac ions e e be a e h ough he
social en i onmen , indi ec ly a ec ing hose no di ec ly a ge ed. Fu he mo e, he ole o
mac osys em-le el no ms, such as gende ed expec a ions o oughness o likabili y, helps
explain why ce ain s uden s may be mo e ulne able o hese indi ec e ec s.
The pa ial suppo o Hypo hesis 1 sugges s ha while he o e all class oom clima e
migh no be d as ically al e ed by bullying, indi idual expe iences wi hin hese class ooms
play a c ucial ole. This is consis en wi h indings ha indi idual pe cep ions and in e ac-
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Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
ions a e mo e impac ul on SWB han b oade en i onmen al ac o s (Guhn e al., 2013;
Obe le, 2018; S e es, 2024a).
Gende di e ences in bullying expe iences and hei impac on SWB a e also co obo-
a ed by p e ious esea ch (Ri e s & Smi h, 1994; Schei haue e al., 2006). The s udy’s
inding ha gi ls expe ience lowe SWB and a e mo e a ec ed by social and cybe bullying
aligns wi h he no ion ha gende oles and expec a ions signi ican ly in luence adolescen
expe iences o bullying (Hells öm & Beckmann, 2020). Un o una ely, due o he small
g oup o gende -di e se you hs in he sample ( h ee esponden s iden i ied as “di e se”),
an e alua ion o e ec s on you h ou side o he bina y gende spec um could no be made
in his a icle. Since we know ha hey a e a ge ed e en mo e o en han cis-gende you h
(Sa es-Jäske e al., 2023), he echo e ec be s onge among hem as well. Fu u e esea ch
should in es iga e his and make su e o adjus hei assessmen o gende in ques ionnai e
acco dingly (Gowe e al., 2022). The su ey his s udy is based on is no excep ion o his.
Limi a ions o his s udy include i s ocus on one speci ic cul u al con ex (Ge many),
i s eliance on sel - epo ed da a and he c oss-sec ional design. While he s udy’s sample
is limi ed o a speci ic cul u al con ex , which may no cap u e he ull ange o expe iences
and e ec s o bullying in di e en cul u al o geog aphical se ings, i is s ill a alid con-
ibu ion o he puzzle o bullying e ec s on bys ande s. The s udy’s c oss-sec ional design
limi s he abili y o d aw causal in e ences. Longi udinal s udies a e needed o es ablish
he di ec ionali y o he ela ionship be ween bullying and SWB and o examine how hese
e ec s e ol e o e ime. I should also be no ed ha da a o his s udy we e collec ed du -
ing he COVID-19 pandemic, a pe iod ha may ha e in luenced pee in e ac ions, exposu e
o bullying, and adolescen s’ well-being in unique ways. While his s udy aimed o p o ide
gene alizable insigh s, u u e esea ch could u he explo e how pandemic- ela ed dis up-
ions mode a ed he echo e ec o agg ession.
Al hough age di e ences we e no a p ima y ocus o his analysis, i is impo an o con-
side how de elopmen al s age may in luence adolescen s’ esponses o indi ec exposu e
o bullying. As pee ela ionships ake on g ea e impo ance du ing adolescence, younge
s uden s may be mo e suscep ible o he emo ional impac o wi nessing agg ession, gi en
heigh ened sensi i i y o pee accep ance and belonging du ing ea ly s ages o adolescence
(Ede , 1985; La son & Richa ds, 1991; Swanson e al., 1998). Olde adolescen s may pos-
sess mo e ad anced coping s a egies, ye also ace in ensi ied challenges ela ed o iden-
i y o ma ion and social posi ioning (B own & La son, 2009; Guhn e al., 2013). These
de elopmen al conside a ions sugges ha he echo-e ec o bullying could a y ac oss age
g oups, an a ea ha wa an s deepe explo a ion in u u e esea ch. Fu u e esea ch should
include mo e di e se popula ions o enhance he gene alizabili y o he indings. Quan-
i a i e su eys would bene i om g ea e e o s o no only include bu also ep esen
adolescen s om e hnic, eligious and sexual mino i ies. The eliance on sel - epo ed da a
in oduces po en ial biases, such as social desi abili y bias o ecall bias. Pa icipan s migh
unde epo o o e epo hei expe iences wi h bullying and hei subjec i e well-being.
Response beha iou migh di e be ween gende s, wi h boys being mo e likely o unde -
epo , causing models based on biased esul s o unde es ima e di e ences in SWB. Inco -
po a ing mul iple da a sou ces, such as eache epo s o pee assessmen s, could p o ide a
mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding. Addi ionally, in ecen yea s, he Ge man educa ional
sys em has inc easingly employed social wo ke s o psycho he apis s in schools. Thei pe -
spec i es on he ma e o indi ec e ec s o bullying would be a wo hy addi ion o u u e
1 3
749
T. S e es
esea ch. Also, i would be wo hwhile o di e en ia e be ween wi nessing bys ande s, non-
wi nessing bys ande s and in e ening bys ande s. A p omising app oach could be he use
o igne es, as p oposed by Wachs e al. (2020).
The empi ical suppo o he echo e ec aligns wi h ecological and sociological models
ha emphasise he sha ed social en i onmen as a key de e minan o adolescen well-being.
I highligh s ha ha m is no con ined o di ec ic ims bu is embedded in he collec i e
expe ience o he class oom. The indings unde sco e he impo ance o os e ing suppo -
i e and inclusi e school en i onmen s o mi iga e he de imen al e ec s o bullying on all
s uden s, helping o dampen he Echo o Agg ession. In e en ions should include s a egies
o dis up he no malisa ion o agg ession and suppo bys ande s, ecognising ha indi ec
exposu e can be as ha m ul as di ec ic imiza ion. They mus also ecognise he s uc u al
embeddedness o bullying in a b oade socie al con ex , such as gende -speci ic pa e ns and
school clima es whe e agg ession can be a no m. Fu u e esea ch should u he in es iga e
he mechanisms by which he echo e ec ope a es and how hese may di e ac oss con ex s
o cul u al se ings. Possible mechanisms include ea o becoming a a ge , educed eel-
ings o sa e y, o in e nalisa ion o agg essi e no ms.
Appendix
Table A1 a: psychome ics o scales and indices (Dependen Va iable)
Va iable I em Fac o
loading
(s d.)
A g. in e -i em
co ela ion
C on-
bach’s
Alpha
(α)
No. o
Fac o s
Rayko ’s
Rho (ρ)
Dependen
Va iable1
Subjec i e
Well-Being
0.449 0.935 2 0.497
Subscales o Subjec i e Well-Being1
Op imism 0.555 0.787 1 0.792
I eel be e mo e o en han I
eel bad.
0.778
I hink I will expe ience mo e
good hings han bad.
0.732
In he mo ning I usually hink
i ’s going o be a good day
0.729
Sel Es eem 0.627 0.833 1 0.535
Mos o he ime, I like i he
way I am.
0.828
I ha e a lo o be p oud o . 0.724
Many hings abou me a e
good.
0.813
Li e
Sa is ac ion
0.662 0.854 1 0.856
Mos o he ime, my li e is
he way I wan i o be.
0.756
E e y hing is eally good in
my li e.
0.823
1 3
750
Echoes o Agg ession. The Gende ed Impac o School Bullying on he…
Table A1 a: psychome ics o scales and indices (Dependen Va iable)
Va iable I em Fac o
loading
(s d.)
A g. in e -i em
co ela ion
C on-
bach’s
Alpha
(α)
No. o
Fac o s
Rayko ’s
Rho (ρ)
I am happy wi h my li e. 0.858
(Absence o )
Wo ies
0.599 0.818 1 0.83
I’m wo ied abou being
eased o annoyed.
0.660
I wo y a lo ha o he people
migh no like me.
0.845
I wo y abou wha o he chil-
d en migh say abou me.
0.831
(Absence o )
Sadness
0.590 0.810 1 0.818
I o en eel unhappy. 0.698
I am o en sad. 0.865
Mos o he ime I eel alone. 0.759
Body Image 0.738 0.891 1 0.893
I usually like he way I look. 0.849
Mos o he ime I am happy
wi h my weigh .
0.811
I eel good in my body. 0.920
Table A1 b psychome ics o scales and indices (Independen a iables I)
Va iable I em Fac o
loading
(s d.)
A g. in e -i em
co ela ion
C on-
bach’s
Alpha
(α)
No. o
Fac o s
Rayko ’s
Rho (ρ)
Con ol
Va iables2
Family:
A luence
0.442 0.700 1 0.703
My amily can a o d many
hings
0.810
My amily o en has o sa e
money ( ecoded).
0.630
I can o en do hings wi h my
iends ha cos money.
0.565
Rela ionships: Adul s a school - The e is an
adul a school…
0.540 0.820 1 0.822
who eally ca es abou me. 0.737
who belie es ha I will be
success ul.
0.765
who lis ens o me when I ha e
some hing o say.
0.727
wi h whom I can alk abou my
p oblems.
0.713
Rela ionships: Adul s a home - The e is an
adul a home…
0.603 0.847 1 0.872
who eally ca es abou me. 0.686
1 3
751
T. S e es
Table A1 b psychome ics o scales and indices (Independen a iables I)
Va iable I em Fac o
loading
(s d.)
A g. in e -i em
co ela ion
C on-
bach’s
Alpha
(α)
No. o
Fac o s
Rayko ’s
Rho (ρ)
who belie es ha I will be
success ul.
0.671
who lis ens o me when I ha e
some hing o say.
0.908
wi h whom I can alk abou my
p oblems.
0.831
Rela ion-
ships: Pee s
0.508 0.755 1 0.757
I am pa o a g oup o iends. 0.634
I hink I usually i in wi h he
child en I’m dealing wi h.
0.759
When I’m wi h o he child en my
age, I eel like I belong.
0.747
Rela ion-
ships:
F iends
0.677 0.862 1 0.864
I ha e a leas one good iend
who I can alk o i some hing is
bo he ing me.
0.856
I ha e a iend who I can ell
e e y hing o.
0.853
The e is someone my age who
eally unde s ands me.
0.765
Table A1 c psychome ics o scales and indices (Independen a iables II)
Va iable I em Fac o
loading
(s d.)
A g. in e -i em
co ela ion
C on-
bach’s
Alpha
(α)
No. o
Fac o s
Rayko ’s
Rho (ρ)
School: Subjec i e success 0.558 0.789 1 0.794
I am su e ha I will manage his
school yea .
0.624
I I ha e enough ime, I can do
all my homewo k well.
0.769
E en i some hings a e di icul
a school, I can lea n hem.
0.857
School:
Clima e
0.593 0.853 1 0.856
A my school, eache s and pupils
ea each o he wi h espec .
0.681
A my school, pupils ea each
o he wi h espec .
0.768
In his school, people look a e
each o he .
0.859
The pupils in his school help
each o he , e en i hey a e no
iends.
0.776
1 3
752