Hubba , Jason A.
A icle
Unde s anding and mi iga ing leade ship ea -based
beha io s on employee and o ganiza ional success
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hubba , Jason A. (2024) : Unde s anding and mi iga ing leade ship ea -based
beha io s on employee and o ganiza ional success, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI,
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Ci a ion: Hubba , Jason A. 2024.
Unde s anding and Mi iga ing
Leade ship Fea -Based Beha io s on
Employee and O ganiza ional Success.
Adminis a i e Sciences 14: 225.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci
14090225
Recei ed: 19 June 2024
Re ised: 12 Sep embe 2024
Accep ed: 14 Sep embe 2024
Published: 16 Sep embe 2024
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adminis a i e
sciences
Essay
Unde s anding and Mi iga ing Leade ship Fea -Based Beha io s
on Employee and O ganiza ional Success
Jason A. Hubba 1,2
1
Di ision o Land-G an Engagemen , Da is College o Ag icul u e and Na u al Resou ces, School o Na u al
Resou ces and he En i onmen , Wes Vi ginia Uni e si y, Mo gan own, WV 26506, USA;
[email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +1-304-293-2472
2
Wes Vi ginia Ag icul u e and Fo es y Expe imen S a ion, Da is College o Ag icul u e, Na u al Resou ces
and Design, Wes Vi ginia Uni e si y, Mo gan own, WV 26506, USA
Abs ac : Leade ship beha io p o oundly in luences o ganiza ional cul u e, se ing as a co ne s one
o en i onmen s ha os e sa e y, inno a ion, and employee sa is ac ion. This a icle u ilizes e-
sea ch om he p ima y li e a u e o demons a e how leade s’ ac ions and unde lying ea s in luence
o ganiza ional dynamics and employee ou comes, highligh ing he impo ance o espec , ans-
pa ency, and us . S udies ha e shown ha leade ship s yles shape he wo k en i onmen , d i ing
inno a ion and pe o mance. Howe e , conce ns o e p oduc i i y, e alua ion, and con ol can
lead o poo communica ion, low anspa ency, educed inno a ion, and diminished pe o mance,
c ea ing a cul u e o mis us and anxie y. Au ho i a ian con ol o neglec o employees’ needs
exace ba es hese issues, s i ling c ea i i y. The Pygmalion and Golem e ec s demons a e how
posi i e ein o cemen enhances mo ale, p oduc i i y, and e en ion, while nega i e ein o cemen
is de imen al. Leade s ope a ing unde ea s o ailu e o loss o con ol o poli ical capi al inad-
e en ly c ea e a cul u e o ea and inc easingly se e e eedback loops o educed employee us ,
sa is ac ion, and commi men . Add essing hese ea s os e s open communica ion, psychological
sa e y, anspa ency, and mu ual espec . S a egies o ans o ming leade ship ea s in o posi i e
change include p omo ing open communica ion, decen alizing decision-making, and implemen ing
posi i e ein o cemen mechanisms. Cons uc i e eedback mechanisms encou age bidi ec ional
communica ion and help mi iga e he nega i e impac s o leade ship ea s. Leade s who add ess
hei ea s can s eng hen eam us , enhancing collabo a ion and engagemen . Ul ima ely, managing
leade ship ea s p oac i ely ca alyzes o ganiza ional lea ning and de elopmen , p omo ing a mindse
whe e challenges a e seen as oppo uni ies o g ow h. This app oach enhances adap abili y and
esilience while os e ing con inuous imp o emen . Add essing leade ship ea s and os e ing a
suppo i e cul u e is essen ial o sus ainable p oduc i i y and success, se ing as a s a ing poin o
explo ing s a egies ha suppo employee pe o mance and de elopmen , ul ima ely con ibu ing
o o ganiza ional success.
Keywo ds: o ganiza ional change; o ganiza ional success; o ganiza ional de elopmen ; Golem e ec ;
Pygmalion e ec ; leade ship beha io
1. In oduc ion
Leade ship beha io p o oundly in luences he de elopmen o o ganiza ional cul u e,
se ing as a co ne s one o es ablishing an en i onmen ha os e s sa e y, inno a ion,
and employee sa is ac ion. P e ious s udies highligh ed ha leade ship’s impac ex ends
ac oss he spec um o o ganiza ional ope a ions, om de ining p o ocols wi hin hie a -
chical se ings o cul i a ing an a mosphe e ha encou ages c ea i i y and eam cohesion.
Howa d and Ul e s (2017) emphasized he necessi y o leade ship ai s, such as espec ,
anspa ency, and us , in c ea ing a heal hy o ganiza ional cul u e. Many o he au ho s
iden i ied he in e connec ion be ween leade ship beha io al s yle and o ganiza ional
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14090225 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 2 o 13
cul u e as c i ical, as Je ab and Mab ouk (2023) no e, wi h leade s de ining he wo k en-
i onmen , hey signi ican ly con ibu e o he o ganiza ion’s inno a i e capabili ies and
pe o mance le els. This obse a ion was u he suppo ed by Semo dzi (2018), who in-
es iga ed he media o y ole o leade ship beha io in enhancing job sa is ac ion h ough
posi i e o ganiza ional cul u e wi hin academic ins i u ions. Lee (2022) added o hese ideas
by highligh ing how o ganiza ional cul u e b idges leade ship s yle and o ganiza ional
and employee commi men , unde lining he symbio ic ela ionship be ween a leade ’s
app oach and he esul ing o ganiza ional e hos. Gi en his con ex , i is unsu p ising ha
leade ship ea s o low o ganiza ional p oduc i i y, nega i e e alua ion (poo employee
app o al a ings), o ganiza ional o pe sonal ailu e, and he loss o con ol can p o oundly
impac leade ship beha io and o ganiza ional cul u e, leading o en i onmen s a iously
cha ac e ized by poo communica ion, educed inno a ion, and diminished o e all pe o -
mance. Leade ship s yles ha emphasize au ho i a ian con ol, unp edic abili y, o lack
o conside a ion o employees’ needs can exace ba e hese issues, as hey may os e an
en i onmen o mis us and anxie y, u he en enching ea -based beha io s among
employees (Sa as 2019). Ul ima ely, dys unc ional leade ship beha io s, such as hose
d i en by leade s’ ea s o inadequacy o pe o mance ailu e (o he leade o employee),
can nega i ely impac o ganiza ional cul u e, leading o dec eased employee job sa is-
ac ion, poo e pe o mance, and highe u no e a es (Agil Panji and Lilik 2022). This
“ ea -based” leade ship app oach can diminish employees’ sense o secu i y and belonging
and unde mine hei commi men o he o ganiza ion (Ilham 2018). Thus, add essing lead-
e ship ea s ela ed o leade s’ and employees’ capabili ies and pe cep ions and os e ing
a cul u e o open communica ion, psychological sa e y, anspa ency, and mu ual espec
is c ucial o enhancing o ganiza ional cul u e and achie ing sus ainable o ganiza ional
p oduc i i y and success. Despi e signi ican p og ess, many p e ious au ho s emphasize
he need o syn hesis and u he esea ch o unde s and and mi iga e he nega i e impac s
o ea -based leade ship beha io s on employee engagemen , o ganiza ional ci izenship,
psychological sa e y, and o e all o ganiza ional success (Eina sen e al. 2007;Pelle ie 2010;
Schyns and Schilling 2013;Teppe 2007).
This a icle explo es he impo ance o leade ship app oaches o employee ela ion-
ships, de elopmen , and pe o mance h ough posi i e and nega i e ein o cemen . I
p o ides an o e iew o he implica ions o hese app oaches, some imes called he Pyg-
malion and Golem e ec s, espec i ely. I will be shown ha posi i e ein o cemen can
signi ican ly imp o e employee mo ale, p oduc i i y, and e en ion, which a e i al o
o ganiza ional success in a compe i i e business landscape. The accompanying ci a ions
p o ide an en y poin o he eade wishing o lea n mo e. I is no he in en o p esen all
he a ailable li e a u e o unde s anding o his as subjec , bu o his a icle o se e as a
help ul s a ing poin o p ac i ione s wishing o explo e e ec i e leade ship beha io al
s a egies o suppo ing employee pe o mance and de elopmen leading o long- e m
o ganiza ional success.
2. Common Leade ship Fea s
Common ea s among o ganiza ional leade s, such as ea o ailu e and loss o
employee con ol, signi ican ly impac decision-making, leade ship s yles, and he o e all
o ganiza ional cul u e. Fea o ailu e, which encompasses he app ehension o no mee ing
se goals o expec a ions, can lead o a oidance beha io s, diminishing inno a ion, and
isk- aking wi hin an o ganiza ion (Caccio i e al. 2016;Ma in and Ma sh 2003). This ea
o en o igina es om a deep-sea ed conce n o e pe sonal and o ganiza ional epu a ion
and he po en ial o inancial and social implica ions o ailu e (Kollmann e al. 2017;Wisse
e al. 2019).
Loss o con ol ela es o leade s’ anxie y o e losing hei in luence o g ip on o ga-
niza ional ope a ions, o en esul ing in mic omanagemen and a s i ling o ganiza ional
a mosphe e (Gal o d and D apeau 2003;Ledeen 2004). This con ol- ocused leade ship
app oach can unde mine us and s i le c ea i i y among eam membe s. Fea s o leade -
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 3 o 13
ship o employee incompe ency can o igina e om leade s’ sel -doub abou hei skills
and capabili ies and hose o employees, o en leading o o e compensa ion by leade s
h ough au ho i a ian dic a o ial and di ec i e managemen (Hubba 2024) app oaches o
a oidance o challenging si ua ions ha could expose pe cei ed weaknesses (Meek e al.
2015;O and Sha i z 1994). Such ea s impac leade s’ e ec i eness and con ibu e o
a cul u e o ea wi hin he o ganiza ion, whe e inno a ion is esis ed, and ailu e is no
seen as a lea ning oppo uni y bu as a h ea o be a oided a all cos s (Mab ouk 2019;
Udo ik 2011).
The impac o ea o ailu e, loss o con ol, and incompe ence on o ganiza ional
leade s’ decision-making and beha io is p o ound and mul i ace ed. These ea s can
signi ican ly skew leade s’ assessmen o isks in decision-making, leading o o e ly cau-
ious o e oneous decision-making ha in luences hei isk pe cep ions, a ec ing hei
openness o en ep eneu ial endea o s and inno a ion (Caccio i e al. 2016;Ne zi 2018).
This ea can esul in decision pa alysis, whe e leade s migh a oid making decisions
al oge he o ci cum en he possibili y o c i icism and ailu e, o i migh p omp hem o
ake unwa an ed isks in a bid o a oid pe cei ed h ea s o hei s a us o powe (Kang
e al. 2019;Wisse e al. 2019). Simila ly, he ea o losing con ol o employees can d i e
leade s o adop a command-and-con ol s yle o managemen , which s i les c ea i i y and
au onomy among eam membe s, po en ially leading o a cul u e o compliance a he han
inno a ion (Ledeen 2004;Udo ik 2011).
3. The T ansmission o Leade ship Fea s o O ganiza ional Cul u e
I is help ul o dis inguish be ween o ganiza ional clima e and cul u e, as hey a e
o en con used bu e e o di e en dimensions o an o ganiza ion. O ganiza ional cul u e
is he deeply embedded alues, belie s, and no ms ha de ine an o ganiza ion’s iden i y
and shape long- e m beha io s and a i udes (Schein 2010). In con as , o ganiza ional
clima e in ol es he mo e immedia e, pe cep ible aspec s o he wo k en i onmen , such
as he “mood,” policies, and p ac ices expe ienced by employees, which can change mo e
equen ly (Schneide e al. 2013). While cul u e is mo e s able and endu ing, clima e
can shi due o ac o s like leade ship changes o new policies. Howe e , clima e and
cul u e a e in e connec ed; a posi i e clima e can ein o ce and s eng hen a desi ed cul u e,
while a nega i e clima e can unde mine and g adually al e an o ganiza ion’s cul u al
alues. Shi s in cul u e can also in luence how he o ganiza ional clima e is pe cei ed
and main ained.
Leade ship ea s a e ansmi ed o o ganiza ional cul u e h ough a ious mech-
anisms, including communica ion s yles, decision-making p ocesses, and es ablishing
o ganiza ional policies. Leade s play a pi o al ole in shaping he o ganiza ional cul u e
by a icula ing a ision and se ing objec i es. Thei beha io s and he ein o cemen
mechanisms hey employ can ei he os e a posi i e cul u e o ansmi hei ea s, he
la e leading o a cul u e cha ac e ized by anxie y and isk a e sion (Geo ge e al. 1999;
Hubba 2023b). Fo example, as p e iously no ed, a leade ship ea o pe sonal ailu e
may lead o a cul u e p io i izing isk a oidance o e inno a ion. This o en leads o he
s i ling o c ea i i y and adap abili y among employees (Yip e al. 2020). Simila ly, leade s’
beha io s d i en by ea s o employee incompe ency o ea o leade s’ loss o con ol
o employees can ansla e in o o ganiza ional no ms ha emphasize s ic compliance,
cen alized decision-making, and a lack o empowe men a lowe le els o he o ganiza-
ion (Tsai 2011). The esul an cul u e may be one whe e employees eel unde alued and
es ic ed, leading o educed job sa is ac ion and dec eased o ganiza ional e ec i eness.
Mo eo e , he in e play be ween leade ship beha io and o ganiza ional cul u e is
bidi ec ional. Said di e en ly, while leade ship ea s can shape cul u al no ms, he p e ail-
ing cul u e can also ein o ce hese ea s, c ea ing a eedback cycle ha is di icul o b eak
(Gibe son e al. 2009;Tsui e al. 2006). Fo example, o ganiza ional cul u es ha a e highly
esis an o change may ampli y leade s’ ea s o losing con ol, leading hem o cling mo e
igh ly o es ablished no ms and esis necessa y e olu ions in s a egy o ope a ions (Khan
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 4 o 13
e al. 2021). Leade ship s yles ha ail o add ess o mi iga e hese cul u al cha ac e is ics
can inad e en ly pe pe ua e an en i onmen whe e ea domina es a he han us and
inno a ion. Add essing his cycle equi es conscious e o om alen ed leade s who can
unde s and and eshape he cul u al no ms ha hei ea s ha e engende ed, p omo ing
alues ha os e esilience, lexibili y, and a mo e inclusi e app oach o decision-making
(Ak as e al. 2016;Klein e al. 2013). This is pa icula ly impo an because misma ches
be ween ac ual and ideal o ganiza ional cul u es ha e been associa ed wi h s ess, sickness,
and s a u no e (Ha on e al. 1999). Fo example, he associa ion be ween o ganiza ional
and wo kplace cul u es in he heal h indus y a ec s pa ien ou comes, wi h posi i e cul-
u es consis en ly associa ed wi h educed mo ali y a es, alls, hospi al-acqui ed in ec ions,
and inc eased pa ien sa is ac ion (B ai hwai e e al. 2017). Simila ly, Ho Dai and Huynh
Tan (2023) showed ha ex e nal-o ien ed lexible, adap i e cul u es signi ican ly d i e
digi al ans o ma ion (DT) and imp o e i m pe o mance, while in e nal-o ien ed cul u e
does no . Thus, ela ionship-o ien ed and pa icipa ion/ ep esen a ion-o ien ed leade ship
posi i ely in luences DT, unlike ask-o ien ed leade ship. Mo eo e , emo ional cul u es
wi hin o ganiza ions play a c ucial ole in shaping employee-o ganiza ion ela ionships,
wi h cul u es o joy and ca e enhancing us , sa is ac ion, and commi men . In con as ,
cul u es o sadness and ea con ibu e o emo ional exhaus ion and s ess, esul ing in
educed employee pe o mance (Hengen and Alpe s 2019;Men and Robinson 2018).
Na u ally, one migh ques ion whe he leade ship s yle in luences o ganiza ional
cul u e o whe he o ganiza ional cul u e in luences leade ship s yle. Indeed, he dynamic
in e play be ween leade ship s yle, o ganiza ional cul u e, and change managemen is
c i ical o an o ganiza ion’s success, pa icula ly in imes o signi ican ans o ma ion.
Leade ship s yles, such as ans o ma ional, ansac ional, and se an leade ship, in-
luence o ganiza ional cul u e by se ing he one o wo kplace alues, beha io s, and
expec a ions. T ans o ma ional leade s, o example, os e a cul u e o inno a ion and
sha ed ision, encou aging c ea i i y and collabo a ion, whe eas ansac ional leade s
c ea e a cul u e ocused on pe o mance and clea expec a ions (Eagly and Ca li 2003).
Con e sely, o ganiza ional cul u e also a ec s leade ship s yle by se ing no ms ha guide
leade s’ beha io s and decision-making p ocesses. A cul u e emphasizing collabo a ion
may push leade s owa ds a pa icipa i e s yle, while a mo e hie a chical cul u e may
a o au oc a ic leade ship (Ogbonna and Ha is 2000). In luen ial leade s ecognize his
ecip ocal ela ionship and adap hei s yles o align wi h cul u al expec a ions while
os e ing a cul u e ha suppo s o ganiza ional objec i es.
Du ing signi ican o ganiza ional change ini ia i es, leade s mus balance espec ing
exis ing cul u al no ms and d i ing changes aligning wi h s a egic goals. Success ul lead-
e s achie e his by c a ing a compelling ision o change ha esona es wi h co e cul u al
alues, employing anspa en communica ion o build us , and engaging employees as
ac i e pa icipan s in he change p ocess (Hubba 2023a,2023b;Tian and Slocum 2016).
Leade s can educe esis ance, build commi men , and ensu e a smoo he ansi ion by
aligning hei leade ship s yle wi h he o ganiza ional cul u e and in ol ing employees
in decision-making. This app oach enables leade s o main ain cul u al con inui y while
s a egically guiding he o ganiza ion owa d a success ul and sus ainable u u e. I is
easonable o assume ha success ul o ganiza ions a e led by leade s who unde s and he
o ganiza ion’s ajec o y, ma ke dynamics, and needs and ha , based on his unde s and-
ing, hese leade s signi ican ly in luence o ganiza ional cul u e, much like how pa en s se
he one and cul u e o a household. Leade s shape o ganiza ional cul u e by es ablishing
no ms, alues, and p ac ices ha align wi h s a egic goals, using leade ship s yles ha
i he o ganiza ion’s needs, whe he os e ing collabo a ion, encou aging inno a ion, o
main aining a hie a chy (Ogbonna and Ha is 2000). By guiding he cul u e in alignmen
wi h ex e nal demands and in e nal objec i es, leade s ensu e he o ganiza ion’s success
and adap abili y in a changing en i onmen (Eagly and Ca li 2003). This equi es p o i-
cien leade ship. Wi hou deep o ganiza ional unde s anding and s ong leade ship skills,
leade s may inad e en ly con ibu e o poo e employee pe o mance.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 5 o 13
4. The Sel -Ful illing P ophecy o Fea -Based Leade ship
The mechanisms h ough which leade ship ea s become sel - ul illing p ophecies in
o ganiza ional cul u e a e mul i ace ed and deeply in e wo en. Eden (1992) in oduced
he concep o he Pygmalion e ec in o ganiza ions, in which highe expec a ions om
manage s ega ding subo dina e pe o mance can signi ican ly boos subo dina e pe o -
mance. Highe expec a ions o en esul in highe employee sel -pe cep ions, esul ing in
inc eased con idence, pe o mance, and success, some imes called he Gala ea e ec (Eden
1990,1992).
The concep o he sel - ul illing p ophecy (SFP) has i s oo s in G eek my hology.
The ale e ol es a ound Pygmalion, he king o Cyp us, who was enowned
as bo h a sculp o and a misogynis . Pygmalion c a ed an i o y s a ue o a
maiden so exquisi e ha he ell in lo e wi h i . He ea ed he s a ue as i i we e a
li ing being, d essing i in ine clo hes and ado ning i wi h jewels. Mo ed by his
de o ion and pi ying his loneliness, he goddess Aph odi e b ough he s a ue
o li e. Pygmalion’s belie and ea men o he s a ue as i i we e ali e led o i s
ans o ma ion in o a li ing being. The li ing s a ue, named Gala ea, e en ually
became Pygmalion’s wi e.
Conside ed di e en ly, i a manage belie es and beha es as i an employee can
achie e ema kable hings, hey a e likelie o do so. Con e sely, he Golem (o nega i e)
e ec e e s o he nega i e e sion o he Pygmalion o Gala ea e ec , whe e low expec-
a ions lead o a dec ease in pe o mance (Babad e al. 1982;Eden 1990,1992;Edwa ds
e al. 2002;Rowe and O’B ien 2002). Mul iple au ho s de eloped concep ual models o
he Pygmalion e ec (Babad e al. 1982;Eden 1990,1992;Edwa ds e al. 2002;Rowe and
O’B ien 2002). Field (1989) p esen ed he sel - ul illing p ophecy leade , p oposing a model
whe e leade s’ expec a ions can c ea e a g oup social si ua ion o high expec a ions, po en-
ially ans o ming an o ganiza ional cul u e in o one ha is mo e ene gized and posi i e
o , i nega i e, mo e ea ul and cons ained. Figu e 1shows an in eg a ed concep ual
model cap u ing some o he ideas o p e ious au ho s bu ocused on inpu eedback om
leade s o ecep ion and ou comes om subo dina es and he ci cui ous eedback loop
ha can esul in e lec ing posi i e (Pygmalion, Gala ea) o nega i e (Golem) employee
p oduc i i y and o ganiza ional success.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 13
p o icien leade ship. Wi hou deep o ganiza ional unde s anding and s ong leade ship
skills, leade s may inad e en ly con ibu e o poo e employee pe o mance.
4. The Sel -Ful illing P ophecy o Fea -Based Leade ship
The mechanisms h ough which leade ship ea s become sel - ul illing p ophecies in
o ganiza ional cul u e a e mul i ace ed and deeply in e wo en. Eden (1992) in oduced
he concep o he Pygmalion effec in o ganiza ions, in which highe expec a ions om
manage s ega ding subo dina e pe o mance can signi ican ly boos subo dina e pe o -
mance. Highe expec a ions o en esul in highe employee sel -pe cep ions, esul ing in
inc eased con idence, pe o mance, and success, some imes called he Gala ea effec (Eden
1990, 1992).
The concep o he sel - ul illing p ophecy (SFP) has i s oo s in G eek my hol-
ogy. The ale e ol es a ound Pygmalion, he king o Cyp us, who was e-
nowned as bo h a sculp o and a misogynis . Pygmalion c a ed an i o y s a ue
o a maiden so exquisi e ha he ell in lo e wi h i . He ea ed he s a ue as i i
we e a li ing being, d essing i in ine clo hes and ado ning i wi h jewels.
Mo ed by his de o ion and pi ying his loneliness, he goddess Aph odi e
b ough he s a ue o li e. Pygmalion’s belie and ea men o he s a ue as i i
we e ali e led o i s ans o ma ion in o a li ing being. The li ing s a ue, named
Gala ea, e en ually became Pygmalion’s wi e.
Conside ed diffe en ly, i a manage belie es and beha es as i an employee can
achie e ema kable hings, hey a e likelie o do so. Con e sely, he Golem (o nega i e)
effec e e s o he nega i e e sion o he Pygmalion o Gala ea effec , whe e low expec-
a ions lead o a dec ease in pe o mance (Babad e al. 1982; Eden 1990, 1992; Edwa ds e
al. 2002; Rowe and O’B ien 2002). Mul iple au ho s de eloped concep ual models o he
Pygmalion effec (Babad e al. 1982; Eden 1990, 1992; Edwa ds e al. 2002; Rowe and
O’B ien 2002). Field (1989) p esen ed he sel - ul illing p ophecy leade , p oposing a
model whe e leade s’ expec a ions can c ea e a g oup social si ua ion o high expec a ions,
po en ially ans o ming an o ganiza ional cul u e in o one ha is mo e ene gized and
posi i e o , i nega i e, mo e ea ul and cons ained. Figu e 1 shows an in eg a ed con-
cep ual model cap u ing some o he ideas o p e ious au ho s bu ocused on inpu eed-
back om leade s o ecep ion and ou comes om subo dina es and he ci cui ous eed-
back loop ha can esul in e lec ing posi i e (Pygmalion, Gala ea) o nega i e (Golem)
employee p oduc i i y and o ganiza ional success.
Figu e 1. A eedback sys em illus a ing leade eedback o ecep ion and ou comes o subo dina es
esul ing in posi i e o nega i e employee p oduc i i y.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 6 o 13
The esea ch o e whelmingly unde sco es he impo ance o leade ship in shaping
o ganiza ional cul u e h ough he expec a ions hey se and he beha io s hey model. As
no ed, leade s who ope a e unde he shadow o hei ea s, such as he ea o ailu e o loss
o con ol, can inad e en ly ins ill a cul u e o ea , educing us , sa is ac ion, and commi -
men among employees (Hengen and Alpe s 2019;Men and Robinson 2018). The e idence
is clea ha leade ship ea s signi ican ly in luence o ganiza ional iden i y and lea ning,
wi h ego de enses, like denial and a ionaliza ion, main aining collec i e sel -es eem bu
o en a he expense o necessa y change and adap a ion (B own and S a key 2000). These
dynamics illus a e he sel - ul illing na u e o leade ship ea s, whe e leade s’ nega i e
expec a ions can lead o beha io s and o ganiza ional no ms ha ein o ce hose ea s,
ul ima ely nega i ely impac ing employee mo ale, c ea i i y, and p oduc i i y. Leade
beha io s a e c i ical in his ega d because when leade s ha bo nega i e expec a ions, hey
can inad e en ly communica e a lack o con idence in hei employees, unde mining hei
pe cei ed capabili ies and educing hei sel -e icacy and mo i a ion o pe o m. Thus,
he dynamics ( eedback) be ween leade ship expec a ions and employee pe o mance is
no only abou comple ing asks bu ex ends o he b oade psychological impac s on
employees, including hei sense o sel -wo h and belonging wi hin an o ganiza ion (Eden
1992;Field 1989). Resea ch by Manz (1986) on sel -leade ship and by Eden (1984) on he
sel - ul illing p ophecy highligh ed how employees’ sel -pe cep ion and mo i a ion a e
signi ican ly shaped by he cues hey ecei e om hei en i onmen , pa icula ly leade -
ship. Nega i e expec a ions can diminish employees’ in insic mo i a ion and c ea i i y by
os e ing an en i onmen ha lacks psychological sa e y, whe e ea o ailu e o e shadows
he pu sui o inno a ion and isk- aking (B own and S a key 2000;Men and Robinson
2018). Mo eo e , he pe pe ua ion o a ea -based cul u e impac s cu en employee pe o -
mance. I can impede he o ganiza ion’s abili y o a ac and e ain alen , as po en ial and
cu en employees a e de e ed by an en i onmen ha s i les g ow h and de elopmen
(Hengen and Alpe s 2019). The agg ega e e ec o hese dynamics unde sco es he c i ical
impo ance o alen ed leade ship in unde s anding o ganiza ional de elopmen , cul i a -
ing posi i e expec a ions, and os e ing an o ganiza ional cul u e ha champions esilience,
adap abili y, and psychological sa e y (Agil Panji and Lilik 2022;Hubba 2023a).
5. Assessing he Impac o Leade ship Beha io
Assessing he impac o leade ship ea s on o ganiza ional cul u e equi es a nuanced
app oach ha combines quali a i e and quan i a i e me hodologies o cap u e he b ead h
and dep h o his in luence. Tools ha e been de eloped ha can assis in his endea o .
Fo example, he O ganiza ional Cul u e Assessmen Ins umen (OCAI) acili a es e al-
ua ing he p e ailing cul u e wi hin an o ganiza ion and iden i ying disc epancies ha
may be a ibu ed o leade ship beha io s and ea s (Quinn 2011). Addi ionally, leade ship
sel -assessmen ools ha measu e aspec s like emo ional in elligence, ans o ma ional
leade ship quali ies, and sel -e icacy can p o ide insigh s in o leade s’ awa eness o hei
ea s and hei po en ial impac on he o ganiza ion (Bass and A olio 2004;Goleman 1998).
Su eys and ques ionnai es designed o gauge employees’ pe cep ions o leade ship be-
ha io s, such as he Mul i ac o Leade ship Ques ionnai e (MLQ), can also yield aluable
da a on how leade ship ea s a e mani es ed and pe cei ed wi hin a gi en o ganiza ion
(Bass and A olio 2004). In addi ion, quali a i e me hods, like in e iews, ocus g oups, and
employee ad oca es, may o e a pla o m o employees o a icula e hei expe iences and
obse a ions ega ding leade ship’s in luence on he o ganiza ional cul u e. E hnog aphic
s udies wi hin o ganiza ions can unco e he na a i es and s o ies ha encapsula e lead-
e ship ea s and hei cul u al ami ica ions (Van Maanen 2011). Social ne wo k analysis
can illumina e how leade ship beha io s in luence communica ion pa e ns and ela ion-
ships wi hin he o ganiza ion, a ec ing he low o in o ma ion and employee engagemen
(Bo ga i and Halgin 2011). By employing a combina ion o ools and me hodologies,
o ganiza ions can de elop a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he impac o leade ship
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 7 o 13
beha io s on o ganiza ional cul u e and s a egize o in e en ion ac ics ha os e a
posi i e and suppo i e cul u e.
6. The Impo ance o T anspa ency and Communica ion
Feedback loops play a pi o al ole in illumina ing and mi iga ing he e ec s o leade -
ship beha io s on o ganiza ional cul u e. These eedback o ms can unc ion as diagnos ic
and co ec i e mechanisms, highligh ing a eas whe e leade ship beha io s, d i en by
unde lying ea s, nega i ely impac o ganiza ional e hos and p o ide pa hways o change.
Fo example, Edmondson (1999) emphasized psychological sa e y, c ucial in c ea ing an
en i onmen whe e eedback is encou aged and ac ed upon cons uc i ely. These ind-
ings align wi h he wo k o Kahn (1990), who discussed engagemen and disengagemen ,
sugges ing ha eedback mechanisms can help leade s unde s and how hei beha io s
in luence employee engagemen le els, di ec ly e lec ing he o ganiza ional cul u e. Mo e-
o e , London and Smi he (2002) p esen ed he impo ance o a eedback-o ien ed cul u e
in os e ing long- e m pe o mance managemen , indica ing how s uc u ed eedback
p ocesses can help leade s align expec a ions wi h o ganiza ional eali ies, educing he
gap be ween ea -d i en pe cep ions and ac ual employee capabili ies. Conside ing he
discussion o he Pygmalion and Golem ela ionship p esen ed ea lie , one can imagine a
spec um o posi i e o nega i e leade ship beha io s leading o indi idual and o ganiza-
ional success (Figu e 2).
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 13
communica ion pa e ns and ela ionships wi hin he o ganiza ion, affec ing he low o
in o ma ion and employee engagemen (Bo ga i and Halgin 2011). By employing a com-
bina ion o ools and me hodologies, o ganiza ions can de elop a comp ehensi e unde -
s anding o he impac o leade ship beha io s on o ganiza ional cul u e and s a egize
o in e en ion ac ics ha os e a posi i e and suppo i e cul u e.
6. The Impo ance o T anspa ency and Communica ion
Feedback loops play a pi o al ole in illumina ing and mi iga ing he effec s o lead-
e ship beha io s on o ganiza ional cul u e. These eedback o ms can unc ion as diag-
nos ic and co ec i e mechanisms, highligh ing a eas whe e leade ship beha io s, d i en
by unde lying ea s, nega i ely impac o ganiza ional e hos and p o ide pa hways o
change. Fo example, Edmondson (1999) emphasized psychological sa e y, c ucial in c e-
a ing an en i onmen whe e eedback is encou aged and ac ed upon cons uc i ely. These
indings align wi h he wo k o Kahn (1990), who discussed engagemen and disengage-
men , sugges ing ha eedback mechanisms can help leade s unde s and how hei be-
ha io s in luence employee engagemen le els, di ec ly e lec ing he o ganiza ional cul-
u e. Mo eo e , London and Smi he (2002) p esen ed he impo ance o a eedback-o i-
en ed cul u e in os e ing long- e m pe o mance managemen , indica ing how s uc u ed
eedback p ocesses can help leade s align expec a ions wi h o ganiza ional eali ies, e-
ducing he gap be ween ea -d i en pe cep ions and ac ual employee capabili ies. Con-
side ing he discussion o he Pygmalion and Golem ela ionship p esen ed ea lie , one
can imagine a spec um o posi i e o nega i e leade ship beha io s leading o indi idual
and o ganiza ional success (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. The upwa d (Pygmalion) and downwa d (Golem) spi al o posi i e and nega i e leade -
ship beha io s, espec i ely, whe e a single loop co esponds o he eedback sys ems illus a ed in
Figu e 1, and subsequen loops build on he cumula i e impac s o he p e ious.
Adop ing s uc u ed eedback mechanisms, such as 360-deg ee eedback sys ems, as
highligh ed by London and Smi he (2002), can offe leade s comp ehensi e insigh s in o
he impac o hei beha io s on employees and he b oade o ganiza ional cul u e. In so
doing, leade s can adjus , i no e e se, hei beha io s o be e ensu e posi i e employee
Figu e 2. The upwa d (Pygmalion) and downwa d (Golem) spi al o posi i e and nega i e leade ship
beha io s, espec i ely, whe e a single loop co esponds o he eedback sys ems illus a ed in
Figu e 1, and subsequen loops build on he cumula i e impac s o he p e ious.
Adop ing s uc u ed eedback mechanisms, such as 360-deg ee eedback sys ems,
as highligh ed by London and Smi he (2002), can o e leade s comp ehensi e insigh s
in o he impac o hei beha io s on employees and he b oade o ganiza ional cul u e.
In so doing, leade s can adjus , i no e e se, hei beha io s o be e ensu e posi i e
employee pe cep ions (o leade ship and he o ganiza ion) and imp o e p oduc i i y and
o ganiza ional ou comes. The Mul i ac o Leade ship Ques ionnai e (MLQ), desc ibed by
Bass and A olio (2004), simila ly p o ides a s uc u ed app oach o assess leade ship s yles
and hei e ec s on o ganiza ional ou comes, including he ex en o which leade ship
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 225 8 o 13
beha io s mani es in daily ope a ions. These ools, combined wi h a commi men o
sel -leade ship and sel -awa eness (Manz 1986), enable leade s o iden i y and add ess
he oo causes o hei ea s, os e ing a cul u e o openness, inno a ion, and esilience.
Implemen ing e ec i e eedback loops equi es no only he collec ion o eedback bu also
a willingness o engage in e lec i e p ac ices and ac based on he insigh s gained, he eby
b eaking nega i e cycles and po en ially nega i e impac s on o ganiza ional cul u e.
7. Building a Cul u e o T us : Empowe ing Employees
Building an o ganiza ion’s us cul u e is essen ial o os e ing a p oduc i e, inno a-
i e, and esilien wo k o ce (Hubba 2023a,2023b,2024). Leade s play a c ucial ole in
es ablishing his cul u e by empowe ing employees and decen alizing decision-making.
Empowe men begins wi h us in employees’ capabili ies and judgmen , encou aging
au onomy and accoun abili y. Leade s can acili a e his by se ing clea goals and expec-
a ions and p o iding he esou ces and suppo needed o employees o achie e hese
goals independen ly (Sp ei ze 1995). This app oach boos s employees’ con idence in hei
abili ies and ein o ces hei sense o owne ship and commi men o he o ganiza ion’s
success. P omo ing a pa icipa i e leade ship s yle whe e employees a e encou aged o
con ibu e ideas and eedback can u he enhance us and empowe men (Pea ce and
Conge 2003).
Decen alizing decision-making is a s a egy leade s can use o build a cul u e o
us . By in ol ing employees in he decision-making p ocess, leade s demons a e us
in hei eam’s expe ise and judgmen , which, in u n, os e s a sense o belonging and
signi icance among employees (Ca meli e al. 2009). This inclusion imp o es he quali y o
decisions h ough di e se pe spec i es and speeds up decision-making as decisions a e
made close o he poin o ac ion (Ba na d 1968). Fu he mo e, decen alized decision-
making encou ages a lea ning en i onmen whe e mis akes a e iewed as oppo uni ies
o g ow h a he han ailu es, p omo ing inno a ion, adap abili y, and acili a ing g ow h
(Edmondson 1999).
To e ec i ely implemen hese s a egies, leade s mus be commi ed o de eloping
a suppo i e and anspa en communica ion en i onmen . Open and e ec i e com-
munica ion allows o he ee low o in o ma ion and eedback, which is essen ial o
empowe men and e ec i e decen alized decision-making (Maye e al. 1995;Schein 2010).
Addi ionally, leade s should model he us and openness hey wish o see wi hin hei
o ganiza ion, as leade ship beha io signi ican ly in luences o ganiza ional cul u e (Schein
2010). By embodying hese p inciples, leade s can cul i a e a cul u e o us ha empowe s
employees, enhances o ganiza ional pe o mance, and d i es posi i e change.
8. Case S udies o T ans o ma ion and S a egies Employed
O ganiza ions ha e ec i ely add ess and ans o m leade ship ea -based beha io s
in o posi i e ou comes o en engage in ans o ma i e leade ship ini ia i es ha lead
o p ac ices ha os e a cul u e o psychological sa e y. Fo example, companies like
Pixa ha e been celeb a ed o hei cul u e, which encou ages isk- aking and alues
anspa ency, allowing o he ee exchange o ideas and eedback a all le els. This cul u e
is unde pinned by leade ship p ac ices ha ac i ely seek o lea n om ailu e a he han
punish i , hus ans o ming po en ial leade ship ea s ha may o he wise s i le inno a ion
and c ea i i y in o pilla s o o ganiza ional success (Ca mull 2008;Edmondson 1999).
Simila ly, Google’s P ojec A is o le, which aimed o unde s and he dynamics o e ec i e
eams, desc ibed psychological sa e y as a c i ical componen o high-pe o ming g oups.
Leade s a Google ha e since wo ked o cul i a e an en i onmen whe e employees eel
sa e o exp ess doub s and conce ns, di ec ly add essing po en ial leade ship ea s abou
pe o mance and compe i ion and le e aging hese conce ns o s eng hen eam cohesion
and inno a ion (Duhigg 2016). The p ima y li e a u e e eals ha leade ship s a egies ha
ecognize and add ess ea -based beha io s, emphasizing open communica ion, us , and
he alue o mis akes as lea ning oppo uni ies, can ans o m po en ial ad e se ou comes
