Zhang, Hua eng; Holden, S ein Te je
Wo king Pape
Dispa i y in school child en's eading skills in 11 A ican
coun ies
Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies Wo king Pape , No. 05/24
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies (CLTS), No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences (NMBU)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zhang, Hua eng; Holden, S ein Te je (2024) : Dispa i y in school child en's
eading skills in 11 A ican coun ies, Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies Wo king Pape , No. 05/24,
ISBN 978-82-7490-327-2, No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences (NMBU), Cen e o Land Tenu e
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Dispa i y in School Child en's Reading Skills in 11 A ican
Coun ies
Hua eng Zhang and S ein T. Holden
1
Dispa i y in School Child en's Reading Skills in 11 A ican Coun ies
Hua eng Zhanga,b* and S ein T. Holdena
a School o Economics and Business, No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, 1432 Ås, No way
b Fa o Ins i u e o Labou and Social Resea ch, Bo gga a 2B, Pos boks 2947, Tøyen. 0608 Oslo, No way
* Co esponding au ho . Email: zhu@ a o.no
Abs ac
To p omo e SDG Goal 4 and "educa ion o all", his s udy in es iga es child en’s basic eading
skills in 11 low-income and lowe -middle-income A ican coun ies, using s anda dized
eading es s om he Mul iple Indica o Clus e Su eys (MICS). Resea ch speci ically
examining child en’s eading skills and dispa i ies ac oss socioeconomic g oups in A ican
con ex s emains sca ce. This s udy add esses a c i ical knowledge gap by p o iding
compa a i e e idence on eading skills dispa i ies ac oss di e se social backg ounds, including
child en wi h disabili ies.
Ou s udy p o ides new e idence on he “Lea ning C isis in he Global Sou h”, e ealing
ala mingly low le els o eading skills bu wi h conside able a ia ion ac oss he 11 A ican
coun ies s udied. Subs an ial eading skills di e ences exis be ween child en om
disad an aged backg ounds— hose wi h disabili ies, li ing in u al a eas, and om poo e , less
educa ed amilies—and hei non-disad an aged pee s. No ably, hese dispa i ies a e o en
mo e p onounced in coun ies wi h highe o e all eading p o iciency.
Mo eo e , he e a e pe sis en gaps be ween child en wi h and wi hou disabili ies ac oss he
coun ies and socioeconomic g oups in his s udy. Encou agingly, child en wi h disabili ies
bene i om imp o ed socioeconomic condi ions jus as much as non-disabled child en. These
indings unde sco e he di e se challenges aced by child en om di e en disad an aged
backg ounds in a ying con ex s.
Keywo ds: A ica, Child en wi h disabili ies (CWD), Educa ional inequali y, Po e y, Reading
skills, Socioeconomic backg ound, U ban- u al dispa i y
JEL codes: I24: Educa ion and Inequali y
2
1. In oduc ion
The UN Sus ainable De elopmen Goal 4 unde sco es he impo ance o achie ing
inclusi e and equi able quali y educa ion o all (UN, 2015; UNESCO, 2016). The e is a
g owing in e es in unde s anding he educa ional ou comes o child en om disad an aged
backg ounds and iden i ying he ac o s ha con ibu e o a ia ions in hese ou comes, which
can in o m he de elopmen o e ec i e educa ional policies (E ans & Mendez Acos a, 2021;
Bashi e al., 2018; Musau, 2018). In ecen yea s, ollowing he deba e on he “Lea ning C isis
in he Global Sou h” (Wo ld Bank, 2018; UNESCO, 2014), eading p o iciency has eme ged
as a c ucial ocus in sub-Saha an A ica, ecognized as a key indica o o lea ning ou comes
and he success o o mal educa ion. The pe cen age o s uden s a aining he minimum
p o iciency le el in eading skills is a key indica o o achie ing SDG Goal 4, gi en he
emphasis on eading skills by he UNESCO Global Educa ion Moni o ing Repo (2014).
P e ious esea ch in de eloped con ex s has emphasized he pe sis en di e ences in
eading skills be ween child en om disad an aged and non-disad an aged backg ounds
(He nandez, 2011; Heckman, Pin o & Sa elye , 2013; Dolean e al., 2019). In de eloping
coun ies, e o s ha e adi ionally cen ed on socioeconomic ac o s such as gende , educa ion,
income, and geog aphical loca ion (Zhang, 2006; Cle cq, 2020; Chmielewski, 2019). Nume ous
c oss-coun y s udies on child en’s eading pe o mance ha e o e ed aluable insigh s in o he
ole o gende , home en i onmen , school socioeconomic s a us, and li e acy in e en ions in
shaping child en’s eading (León e al., 2022; Kim e al., 2020; Pa k 2008; Chiu and McB ide-
Chang 2006, 2010; Shiel and Ei e s 2009). Howe e , hese s udies o en ely on in e na ional
s anda d lea ning assessmen s, such as PIRLS ( he P og ess in In e na ional Reading Li e acy
S udy) and PISA (P og amme o In e na ional S uden Assessmen ). These assessmen s
p ima ily a ge de eloped o OECD coun ies, wi h limi ed pa icipa ion om A ican na ions.
3
O he 102 coun ies ha ha e e e pa icipa ed in PISA, only eigh a e om A ica, including
jus ou om Sub-Saha an A ica. PIRLS has e en ewe A ican pa icipan s.
Due o da a cons ain s, compa a i e s udies on educa ional ou comes in A ican
coun ies end o ocus p ima ily on school en olmen , a endance, and comple ion a e (Wodon
e al., 2018). Resea ch speci ically examining child en’s lea ning pe o mance, such as eading
o nume acy skills, and he dispa i ies in hese ou comes ac oss socioeconomic g oups in
A ican con ex s, emain sca ce. One no able excep ion is Zhang and Holden (2023), who
analysed child en’s nume acy skills ac oss eigh A ican coun ies using MICS da a, wi h a
special ocus on child en wi h disabili ies.
The challenges aced by child en wi h disabili ies (CWD) and hei low lea ning
pe o mance ha e only ecen ly ga ne ed a en ion, pa icula ly ollowing he adop ion o he
Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Righ s o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies (UNCRPD) in 2006 (UN,
2006). Recen s udies ha e made e o s o unde s and he schooling challenges aced by CWD,
ocusing on di e ences in school access, a endance and en olmen in de eloping coun ies
(Filme , 2008; Mizunoya e al., 2018; UNESCO, 2018). Howe e , s udies speci ically
add essing how much CWDs a e alling behind in eading skills lea ning a e a e in he con ex
o de eloping coun ies, wi h only a ew excep ions om indi idual s udies in Asia (Singal e
al., 2020), and none in he A ican con ex .
Based on na ionally ep esen a i e da a ac oss 11 low-income and lowe -middle-income
A ican coun ies, we e alua e he eading skills o child en aged 10 o 14 yea s old and
in es iga e a ia ions in eading skills ac oss u al e sus u ban a eas, be ween child en wi h
disabili ies (CWD) e sus child en wi hou disabili ies (CWOD), as well as be ween child en
om poo and less educa ed amilies e sus be e -o and mo e educa ed amilies. Mo e
speci ically, we assess he ela i e pe o mance o CWD s. CWOD wi hin a ious social
g oups as well as examine how hese dispa i ies a y ac oss di e en A ican coun ies.
4
Ou esea ch aims o answe he ollowing esea ch ques ions: 1) To wha ex en do
child en om disad an aged backg ounds (e.g., child en om poo o less educa ed amilies,
u al a eas, o wi h disabili ies) lag behind hei pee s (child en om mo e a luen o educa ed
amilies, u ban a eas, o wi hou disabili ies) in basic eading skills? 2) Do disad an aged
child en bene i equally om imp o emen s in hei coun y’s o e all eading p o iciency? 3)
Can imp o emen s in mic o-le el social ac o s help mi iga e he lea ning cons ain s aced by
child en wi h disabili ies?
This pape is unique in i s exclusi e ocus on school child en’s eading skills
pe o mance ac oss low-income and lowe -middle-income A ican coun ies, all o which we e
included in he six h ound o Mul iple Indica o Clus e Su eys (MICS) be ween 2017 and
2020. Fi s , we p esen comp ehensi e, na ionally ep esen a i e e idence o he subs an ial
a ia ion in basic eading skills among child en om di e en socioeconomic backg ounds. We
employ consis en , s anda dized es s and measu emen s o eading skills bo h wi hin and ac oss
coun ies. We iden i y subs an ial di e ences in eading skills ac oss he 11 coun ies, as well
as ac oss socioeconomic g oups wi hin each coun y.
Second, we u ilize he s anda dized iden i ica ion o child en wi h disabili ies in he
MICS su ey o assess hei eading skills, using child en wi hou disabili ies in each coun y
as a coun e ac ual. O e all, child en wi h disabili ies lag behind child en wi hou disabili ies.
Howe e , an in e es ing inding is ha child en wi h disabili ies in be e -pe o ming coun ies
ou pe o m child en wi hou disabili ies in o he coun ies. This sugges s ha child en wi h
disabili ies bene i om s ong educa ional sys ems as much as child en wi hou disabili ies in
e ms o imp o ing hei basic eading skills.
2. Concep ual amewo k
Reading skills a e c ucial o he de elopmen o a ious o he academic skills in school and
can g ea ly impac child en's likelihood o epea ing g ades o d opping ou (Reschly, 2010).
5
Se e al social, amilial and indi idual ac o s in luence child en's lea ning, and he mechanisms
h ough which hese ac o s in luence lea ning a e mul i ace ed (Taylo & Yu, 2009). Pace e
al. (2017) iden i y h ee po en ial pa hways by which socioeconomic s a us migh in luence
child en’s language de elopmen , which a e child cha ac e is ics, pa en -child in e ac ion, and
he a ailabili y o lea ning esou ces.
This pape aims o e alua e child en’s eading skills pe o mance among child en who
a e disad an aged in any o he h ee po en ial pa hways as sugges ed by Pace e al. (2017).
Fi s , child en who ha e unc ional challenges in one o he ou main unc ional domains –
ision, hea ing, physical, in ellec ual – o wi h mul iple unc ional challenges. Second, child en
om poo amilies, de ined as hose in he lowes quin ile o he asse index, and child en om
amilies wi hou schooling. These child en qui e o en ha e li le access o c i ical lea ning
esou ces and pa en al engagemen o language de elopmen . Finally, child en li ing in u al
a eas, whe e lea ning esou ces a e cons ained and school quali y is o en lowe .
Families wi h highe social s a us, including be e income and highe educa ion le els,
end o p o ide be e suppo o hei child en's lea ning. Child en om mo e ad an aged
backg ounds o en begin hei lea ning p ocess ea lie han hei pee s om disad an aged
amilies (Lee & Bu kham, 2002). Addi ionally, hey may indi ec ly bene i om esiding in
neighbou hoods wi h highe -quali y schools (Ande son, Case and Lam, 2001). Pa en s wi h
highe social s a us a e also mo e likely o ac i ely engage wi h he school communi y, he eby
con ibu ing o o e all school quali y.
The neighbou hood en i onmen can in luence child en's lea ning ou comes. In he
A ican con ex , al hough no ex ensi ely s udied, he e is e idence o u ban- u al dispa i ies in
schooling (Zhang, 2006). Ru al a eas o en ace challenges ela ed o school quali y due o a
lack o in as uc u e, educa ional esou ces, and quali ied eache s. Fu he mo e, in
neighbou hoods cha ac e ized by high le els o po e y in u al a eas, a ious social issues
6
a ec ing disad an aged amilies can be exace ba ed. Child en a e also exposed o he
in luences o hei pee s in he same neighbou hood o school (Le en hal and B ooks-Gunn,
2001).
The challenges ela ed o lea ning eading skills a y g ea ly ac oss di e en disabili y
ypes due o he di e se na u e o unc ional di icul ies (P emeaux, 2001; Anas asiou &
Kau man, 2011). Child en wi h ision disabili ies may ha e he same capabili y o de elop
eading skills as hei pee s, bu he eal challenges o en s em om he a ailabili y o aids, such
as co ec i e lenses, op ical de ices, and glasses (Le Fanu e al., 2022), as well as access o
consul a i e ins uc ional se ices (Co n & Koenig, 2002). Fo child en wi h hea ing
disabili ies, he challenge o lea ning o ead o en a ises om a lack o exposu e o hei i s
language be o e he c i ical pe iod (Kushalnaga e al., 2010). This pu s hem a high isk o
linguis ic dep i a ion (Maybe y, 1994). Child en wi h physical disabili ies may no ace
appa en unc ional challenges in lea ning eading skills, bu hey equen ly expe ience high
a es o school absen eeism due o ac o s like long dis ances o school and lack o
in as uc u e, ma e ials, and suppo (Tanya e al., 2023). Child en wi h in ellec ual disabili ies
s uggle wi h de eloping eading skills due o challenges in a ious abili ies, including
in o ma ion p ocessing, cogni i e abili ies, and a en i e beha iou s (Tola e al., 2016; Chan
& Dally, 2001). Child en wi h mul iple disabili ies a e exposed o highe isks ela ed o se e al
di e en unc ional challenges. Mo eo e , he a ailabili y o app op ia e eaching ma e ials and
pedagogical in e en ions o CWD can enhance hei skill de elopmen .
We se up he i s hypo hesis conce ning he ole o ac o s ela ed o child
cha ac e is ics, pa en -child in e ac ion, and he a ailabili y o lea ning esou ces:
H1. The pe cen ages o school child en aged 10-14 wi h sa is ac o y eading skills
among child en wi h a) amilies in he lowes quin ile o asse index, b) amilies wi hou
schooling, c) u al esidence, d) disabili ies ( ision, hea ing, physical, in ellec ual, and mul iple
7
disabili ies) a e signi ican ly lowe han ha among o he child en wi hou such disad an aged
backg ounds.
Se e al c oss-coun y s udies, ocusing on school en olmen , ha e shown ha
dispa i ies in en ollmen and a endance o disad an aged child en a e mo e p onounced in
coun ies wi h highe o e all en ollmen a es and be e socio-economic de elopmen (Filme ,
2008; Mizunoya e al., 2018; Lewis e al., 2022). We o mula e he second hypo hesis o explo e
whe he disad an aged child en bene i equally om imp o emen s in hei coun y’s o e all
eading p o iciency:
H2. The di e ences in he pe cen age o school child en wi h sa is ac o y basic eading
skills a e mo e p onounced in coun ies wi h highe o e all eading p o iciency, when
compa ing a) poo (child en om amilies in he lowes quin ile o asse index) s. non-poo ,
b) child en om amilies wi hou s. wi h schooling, c) u al s. u ban child en, and d) CWD
s. CWOD.
The undamen al ques ion e ol es a ound whe he CWD, when aised in amilies wi h
a mo e ad an ageous social backg ound (u ban esidence, highe income, highe educa ion),
can success ully b idge he academic pe o mance gap compa ed o CWOD. Can imp o emen s
in mic o-le el social ac o s help mi iga e he lea ning cons ain s aced by child en wi h
disabili ies? We se up he hi d hypo hesis ela ed o he eading skills associa ed wi h
child en's disabili ies ac oss di e en social g oups:
H3. The di e ences in he pe cen age o school child en wi h sa is ac o y basic eading
skills be ween CWD and CWOD a e smalle in a) u ban, b) highe -income, c) mo e educa ed
amilies.
Ou H3a-c hypo heses a e based on he no ion ha amilies wi h ad an ageous
condi ions can be e suppo CWD in o e coming lea ning challenges. Finally, due o da a
14
Based on he o e all eading skills p o iciency o hese coun ies, we can ca ego ize hem in o
h ee g oups: low- eading coun ies, which include he Cen al A ica Republic, Chad,
DRCongo, and The Gambia; mid- eading coun ies, which include Ghana, Madagasca ,
Malawi, and Togo; and high- eading coun ies, which include Leso ho, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe.
4.2 Reading skills ac oss mic o-le el ac o s
In he i s se o eg essions, we un in e se p obabili y weigh ed7 pooled leas squa es
eg ession models by including one o he ou mic o ac o s in each o ou models: 1)
household asse index quin ile, 2) amily membe s’ highes educa ional le el, 3) loca ion ( u al
s. u ban), and 4) disabili y s a us. The inal eg ession, labelled as Model 5, includes all he
mic o-le el ac o a iables and con ol a iables (Table 4).
Table 4 He e
Table 4 indica es la ge di e ences in he sha e o school child en wi h sa is ac o y
eading skills ac oss a ious g oups. Child en om he weal hies quin ile o he asse index
ou pe o m hose om he poo es quin ile by 37 pe cen age poin s (Model 1). Child en in
amilies wi h p ima y educa ion show a 6 pe cen age-poin ad an age o e hose om amilies
wi hou any schooling, while hose om amilies wi h a membe has comple ed junio
seconda y educa ion o highe achie e 21 pe cen age-poin ad an age (Model 2). In he ull
model inco po a ing all ac o s, he coe icien s o weal h and educa ion om Models 1 and 2
a e educed, likely e lec ing a co ela ion be ween hese ac o s.
U ban child en ou pe o m hei u al coun e pa s by 23 pe cen age poin s in
sa is ac o y eading skills be o e accoun ing o mic o-le el ac o s (Model 3) and by 9
pe cen age poin s a e hese ac o s a e con olled o (Model 5).
7 The ou pu s o he i s s age o selec ion model a e p esen ed in Appendix I.
15
Compa ed o CWOD, child en wi h hea ing disabili ies (15 pe cen age poin s lowe ),
in ellec ual disabili y (16 pe cen age poin s lowe ) and mul iple disabili ies (17 pe cen age
poin s lowe ) exhibi lowe p o iciency a es (Model 4). The inding emains consis en wi h o
wi hou con olling o o he ac o s (Model 4 and 5).
4.3 Dispa i ies in eading skills ac oss 11 A ican coun ies
To es hypo hesis H2, we include coun y-speci ic dummy a iables and in e ac ion
e ms be ween mic o-le el ac o s and indi idual coun ies. Figu e 1 p esen s he es ima ed
p opo ion o 14-yea -old child en wi h sa is ac o y eading skills ac oss a ious disad an aged
g oups: u al child en, child en wi h disabili ies (CWD), child en om poo amilies in he
lowes quin ile o he asse index, and child en om amilies wi hou schooling. The igu e also
includes da a on child en who do no belong o hese disad an aged g oups, o e ing a
compa a i e analysis ac oss he 11 A ican coun ies in ou sample.
Figu e 1 He e
Dispa i ies in eading skills be ween child en om poo and non-poo amilies a e
signi ican ly la ge in coun ies wi h mid-le el eading p o iciency, such as Ghana (23
pe cen age poin s), Madagasca (23 pe cen age poin s), Togo (15 pe cen age poin s), and
Zimbabwe (14 pe cen age poin s), and Leso ho (10 pe cen age poin s). In con as , hese
dispa i ies a e much smalle in coun ies wi h low eading p o iciencies, such as Chad (8
pe cen age poin s) and DRCongo (6 pe cen age poin s), o e en no signi ican dispa i ies, such
as in he Cen al A ica Republic and The Gambia. In Tunisia, whe e mos child en ha e high
basic eading p o iciency, he di e ences a e also insigni ican . An excep ion is Malawi, which,
despi e ha ing mid-le el eading p o iciency, shows no signi ican dispa i y be ween poo and
non-poo child en. Dispa i ies in eading skills be ween child en om amilies wi h and wi hou
16
schooling ha e la gely mi o ed hose be ween poo and non-poo child en, wi h much lowe
dispa i ies in coun ies wi h o e all low eading p o iciency.
U ban- u al dispa i ies in eading skills a e he mos p onounced in Ghana (24
pe cen age poin s), Togo (22 pe cen age poin s) and Zimbabwe (21 pe cen age poin s), while
hey a e signi ican bu small in DRCongo (12 pe cen age poin s), Leso ho (12 pe cen age
poin s), and Madagasca (8 pe cen age poin s). Fo o he coun ies, he u ban- u al dispa i ies
a e no signi ican . Dispa i ies in eading skills o child en wi h disabili ies (CWD) a e
signi ican ac oss all 11 A ican coun ies, anging om 7 o 22 pe cen age poin s. The la ges
dispa i y is obse ed in he Gambia, while coun ies wi h lowe eading p o iciency show
smalle di e ences.
The sample size o CWD is qui e limi ed in se e al coun ies, esul ing in a la ge
a iance in he es ima ed ou comes o CWD. Consequen ly, we u he analyze he da a ac oss
he h ee coun y g oups de ined in Sec ion 4.1 (Fig 2). The esul s om g oup-le el analysis
a e simila o hose om he coun y-le el analysis. Dispa i ies in eading skills be ween
child en om poo and non-poo amilies and be ween child en om amilies wi h and wi hou
schooling a e no signi ican in low- eading coun ies bu a e much la ge in mid- eading and
high- eading coun ies. The u ban- u al dispa i y is especially high in he high- eading
coun ies. Howe e , dispa i ies be ween CWD and CWOD emain consis en ly signi ican
ac oss coun ies wi h di e en le els o eading p o iciency.
Fig 2 He e
4.4 Dispa i ies in eading skills ela ed o disabili ies
To es hypo hesis H3, we include all mic o-le el indica o s, as well as he in e ac ion e ms
be ween disabili y s a us and o he mic o-le el indica o s (u ban/ u al esidence, weal h index,
17
and amily's highes educa ional le el) in he coun y ixed e ec model. The eg ession esul s
a a ious cu o poin s a e p esen ed in Appendix II.
Figu e 3 displays he es ima ed p opo ion o 14-yea -old child en wi h sa is ac o y
eading skills. These p edic ions a e made wi h co a ia es se a hei means o bo h CWD and
CWOD in di e en social g oups (u ban s. u al, high s. low socio-economic s a us, mo e s.
less educa ed amilies). These dispa i ies in eading skills be ween CWD and CWOD in schools
a e isually ep esen ed as lines connec ing wo es ima ed eading skill p o iciency a es in
a ious social g oups. A s eepe incline in he line indica es a highe dispa i y be ween CWD
and CWOD, while a la e line sugges s a smalle dispa i y.
Figu e 3 He e
Figu e 3 sugges s ha dispa i ies in eading skills p o iciency be ween CWD and
CWOD do no a y signi ican ly ac oss di e en social g oups. These dispa i ies emain
ela i ely cons an a a ound 15 pe cen age poin s in a ious g oups. The mos signi ican
dispa i ies a e obse ed in u ban a eas (19 pe cen age poin s) and among amilies wi hou any
schooling (21 pe cen age poin s).
Fu he mo e, i is no ewo hy ha CWD in social g oups wi h ad an aged backg ounds
(u ban, ich and mo e-educa ed amilies) ha e achie ed simila le els o eading skill
p o iciency as hei CWOD pee s in social g oups wi h disad an aged backg ounds ( u al,
economically disad an aged, and less-educa ed amilies).
5. Discussion and s udy limi a ions
5.1 Discussion
In his sec ion, we will discuss he indings ela ed o he key hypo heses. We will also discuss
impo an limi a ions o ou s udy and p o ide some sugges ions o u u e esea ch.
18
U ilizing a s anda dized eading es , he pape e eals pa icula ly low o e all eading
skills and conside able a ia ions among school child en ac oss he 11 A ican coun ies. The
p opo ion o school child en a aining sa is ac o y eading skills anges widely, om 18
pe cen in he Cen al A ica Republic o 88 pe cen in Tunisia. In ou combined sample om
hese 11 coun ies, less han hal (45 pe cen ) o he school child en ha e eached a sa is ac o y
eading le el, namely, hey a e able o ead he basic ex p ope ly. I is impo an o no e ha
he e is subs an ial a ia ion in he le el o school a endance ac oss hese coun ies, wi h a es
anging om 43 pe cen in Chad o 69 pe cen in Madagasca , and eaching as high as 95
pe cen in Leso ho, Malawi, and Tunisia. Since we expec a much lowe eading skill le el o
child en no en olled in school, he o e all eading skill le el and ac ual gap in lea ning ac oss
hese coun ies is likely highe when di e ences in school a endance a e conside ed. Fo
ins ance, while he a e age eading skill p o iciency a e is 21 pe cen among schoolchild en in
Chad, school a endance is only 43 pe cen .
The i s se o models suppo hypo hesis H1, showing ha child en om 1a)
impo e ished backg ounds, 1b) less-educa ed households, and 1c) u al a eas, exhibi
signi ican ly lowe eading skills han hei pee s om a luen amilies, mo e educa ed
households, o u ban a eas. Hypo hesis H1d) is only pa ially suppo ed: he pe cen age o
school child en wi h sa is ac o y eading skills is signi ican ly lowe among hose wi h hea ing,
in ellec ual, and mul iple disabili ies8 compa ed o hei CWOD pee s. Howe e , i is impo an
o no e ha child en wi h ision o physical disabili ies do no signi ican ly lag behind, and he
conclusion ega ding child en wi h hea ing disabili ies does no emain s a is ically signi ican
when all con ol a iables a e included in he analysis.
8 The coe icien o child en wi h mul iple disabili ies become insigni ican when mo e con ol
a iables included. The sample size is qui e limi ed due o he e y low school a endance in his g oup
o child en, which may lead o high s anda d e o .
19
As demons a ed by nume ous s udies in de eloped con ex s (Pace, e c., 2017), child en
om disad an aged backg ounds end o lag behind in eading abili ies. No ably, ou analysis
shows ha amily po e y has he s onges co ela ion wi h child en's eading skills. The
p opo ion o school child en in he iches quin ile g oup who ha e achie ed sa is ac o y
eading skills is app oxima ely 24-35 pe cen age poin s highe han hose in he poo es quin ile
g oup.
Wha is pa icula ly no able in ou s udy is he obse a ion ha a subs an ial p opo ion
o school child en ob ain ex eme alues in hei eading es sco es, ei he e y low o e y
high sco es. The conce n he e is p ima ily o school child en who, a hei cu en age, con inue
o achie e e y low sco es in basic eading es s. This unde sco es he subs an ial challenges
hey may ha e encoun e ed in de eloping p o icien eading skills in he long u u e. Child en
om disad an aged backg ounds a e pa icula ly ep esen a i e.
Fu he mo e, ou s udy indica es ha school child en wi h ision and physical
disabili ies do no exhibi signi ican di e ences in hei eading skills compa ed o he non-
disabled child en. I is plausible ha hey ha e managed adequa ely wi h basic eading skills.
Howe e , i mo e comp ehensi e eading es s we e o be in oduced, hese child en migh also
encoun e challenges and po en ial di icul ies in mee ing ad anced eading skill equi emen s.
Ou indings suppo Hypo hesis H2a, H2b, and H2c, indica ing ha dispa i ies in
eading p o iciency a es ac oss socioeconomic g oups and u ban- u al dispa i ies a e mo e
p onounced in coun ies wi h highe o e all eading p o iciency. In coun ies wi h e y low
eading p o iciency, such as he Cen al A ican Republic (a e age eading skills sco e o 18
pe cen ), Chad (21pe cen ), and DRCongo (19 pe cen ), dispa i ies in eading skills ac oss
socioeconomic g oups a e ei he insigni ican o much smalle compa ed o o he coun ies.
The la ges dispa i ies ac oss socioeconomic g oups a e obse ed in coun ies wi h mid-
le el eading p o iciency, such as Ghana (47 pe cen ), Madagasca (51 pe cen ), Togo (38
20
pe cen ), and Zimbabwe (56 pe cen ). U ban- u al dispa i ies a e also mos p onounced in
coun ies wi h ela i ely high eading p o iciency. Howe e , in Tunisia, which boas s he
highes le el o socio-economic de elopmen and he highes eading p o iciency (88 pe cen )
among he 11 coun ies, no signi ican dispa i ies in eading skills a e ound among child en
om di e en disad an aged backg ounds.
Ou indings do no suppo Hypo hesis H2d, which posi s ha dispa i ies in eading
p o iciency a es be ween child en wi h and wi hou disabili ies a e mo e p onounced in
coun ies wi h highe o e all eading p o iciency. Meanwhile, Tunisia, he coun y wi h he
highes eading p o iciency (88 pe cen ), exhibi s ela i ely high dispa i ies in eading skills
be ween CWD and CWOD. Howe e , a close examina ion shows ha he gap o 20 pe cen age
poin s, when conside ed in p opo ion o he o e all p o iciency le el, is no la ge compa ed
o he 7-12 pe cen age poin s gaps obse ed in coun ies wi h signi ican ly lowe eading
p o iciency, such as he Cen al A ican Republic, Chad, and DRCongo (wi h o e all
p o iciency le els anging om 18 o 21 pe cen ). In coun ies wi h mid-le el eading
p o iciency (35-58 pe cen ), dispa i ies be ween CWD and CWOD ange om 12 o 25
pe cen age poin s, u he sugges ing ha disabili y- ela ed dispa i ies a e no signi ican ly
di e en ac oss coun ies wi h di e en eading p o iciency.
Ou indings do no suppo Hypo hesis H3 ha dispa i ies in he pe cen age o school
child en wi h sa is ac o y eading skills be ween CWD and CWOD would be less p onounced
in households wi h mo e ad an aged backg ounds. Ins ead, hese dispa i ies ha e emained
ela i ely cons an ac oss di e en social g oups. I is wo h emphasizing ha hese esul s a e
based on child en who a e cu en ly en olled in school. When we conside ou -o -school
child en, ecognising he o e ep esen a ion o CWD in his g oup, i becomes appa en ha
dispa i ies in social g oups wi h disad an aged backg ounds may ha e been unde es ima ed.
21
Howe e , as long as child en a e en olled in school, a consis en gap be ween CWD and CWOD
appea s o pe sis .
5.2 S udy limi a ions
Se e al limi a ions should be conside ed when in e p e ing he indings o his s udy.
Fi s , he eading es used in he MICS su ey is ela i ely basic. Gi en he age ange o
child en es ed (10-14 yea s), i may no comp ehensi ely assess mo e ad anced eading skills.
Howe e , e en wi h he basic es , he p e alence o sa is ac o y eading skills among child en
aged 10-14 in mos o hese coun ies is no ably low, indica ing limi ed eading abili ies ac oss
many A ican coun ies. In oducing a mo e comp ehensi e eading es could po en ially e eal
e en g ea e di icul ies, especially among child en om disad an aged backg ounds, and is
likely o expose e en la ge dispa i ies in eading p o iciency.
Second, i is c ucial o ecognize ha his s udy exclusi ely ocuses on child en cu en ly
en olled in school. Many child en no a ending school and he e o e no aking he eading es
a e disp opo iona ely om disad an aged backg ounds. As a esul , he dispa i ies es ima ed
in his g oup may ha e been unde es ima ed.
Mo eo e , he e is subs an ial a ia ion in school a endance a es ac oss he coun ies
s udied. Ca e ul conside a ion is needed when analysing coun ies wi h low school en olmen .
I is impo an o emphasize ha he conclusions d awn in his pape a e applicable exclusi ely
o child en en olled in school and canno be gene alized o encompass all child en in hese
coun ies.
Thi d, he selec ion o coun ies in his s udy was no guided by s ic p ede ined c i e ia
bu was a he cons ained by da a a ailabili y. I is essen ial o in e p e he es ima ed
dispa i ies cau iously due o he inhe en andomness associa ed wi h he selec ion o coun ies
in his pape .
22
6. Conclusion
Ou s udy p o ides new e idence on he eading p o iciency o school child en aged 10-14
ac oss 11 A ican coun ies, d awing om unique na ionally ep esen a i e da a. Th ough a
s anda dized eading es , he pape unco e s no ably low o e all eading skills and signi ican
dispa i ies among school child en ac oss 11 A ican coun ies. By examining he co ela ions
be ween di e se egional, amilial, and indi idual ac o s, we aimed o unco e impo an
ac o s ha may in luence school child en's acqui ed eading skills. Bene i ing om he la ge
sample size om coun y-pooled da a in he MICS s anda dized da a, his s udy emphasizes he
he e ogeneous disabili y e ec on child en’s eading skills ela ed o disabili y ype, which has
been o e looked by many s udies due o sample size limi s.
A compa a i e analysis ac oss 11 A ican coun ies sugges s ha dispa i ies in eading
skills among child en om disad an aged backg ounds a e non-exis en o minimal in coun ies
wi h low o e all eading p o iciency. In con as , hese dispa i ies a e mo e p onounced in some
coun ies wi h mid-le el eading p o iciency. No ably, despi e ha ing he highes o e all
eading p o iciency, Tunisia shows no signi ican di e ences in eading skills ac oss he social
g oups examined. On he o he hand, gi en he basic na u e o he eading es in his s udy, we
can only conclude ha he e a e no signi ican dispa i ies in basic eading skills among
disad an aged child en in Tunisia. Howe e , la ge dispa i ies may eme ge i mo e
comp ehensi e eading skills a e assessed.
Ano he unique con ibu ion o ou s udy lies in i s indings ela ed o child en wi h
disabili ies (CWD), a opic ha has ecei ed ela i ely li le a en ion in ecen li e a u e, likely
due o da a limi a ions. Ou s udy highligh s a pe sis en gap in eading skills be ween CWD
and CWOD ac oss coun ies and a ious social g oups, unde sco ing he unique challenges
CWD aces. In e es ingly, imp o emen s in mic o-le el condi ions ha e no impac ed hese
23
gaps. None heless, i is encou aging o no e ha he p opo ion o CWD wi h adequa e eading
skills inc eases simila ly o CWOD in esponse o imp o ed condi ions.
This pape unde sco es he c i ical ole o mic o-le el socioeconomic ac o s in
add essing challenges aced by ulne able popula ions and enhancing eading skills o all.
Howe e , ce ain ulne able g oups, such as CWD, encoun e unique challenges in acqui ing
eading skills. While CWD can make simila gains o CWOD when school quali y and
socioeconomic condi ions imp o e, a pe sis en gap be ween hese g oups emains. Fu he
a ge ed and in-dep h esea ch is essen ial o unde s and he unde lying dynamics and iden i y
ailo ed in e en ions, which ex end beyond he scope o his pape .
30
Figu e 3 Es ima ed p opo ion o 14-yea -old child en wi h sa is ac o y eading skills o CWD
and CWOD ac oss a ious social g oups (Coun y FE), wi h 95% con idence in e als.
No e: The p edic ions a e calcula ed a he means o co a ia es ac oss all coun ies, wi h sepa a e p edic ions o a ious social g oups ela ed
o u al and u ban esidences, amily weal h index, and he highes educa ional le el among household membe s.
31
Appendix
Appendix I
Reg ession esul s om i s s age o selec ion model o each coun y
Va iable
Cen al
A ica R.
Chad
DRCongo
Ghana
Leso ho
Madagasc
a
Malawi
The
Gambia
Togo
Tunisia
Zimbab
we
Disabled
-0.292*
-0.07
-0.592***
-0.440***
-0.389*
-0.16
-0.309***
-0.714**
0.045
-0.305
0.078
Loca ion (base ca ego y: u ban)
-0.280**
-0.253**
-0.197**
-0.290***
-0.169
0.038
-0.130*
-0.212
-0.24
0.189
0.378
Weal h index (base ca ego y=Poo es )
Second quin ile
0.12
0.239*
0.033
0.014
0.251*
0.268**
0.156**
-0.184
0.09
-0.166
0.155
Middle
0.102
0.354**
0.253***
0.208
0.353**
0.367***
0.272***
-0.231
0.068
0.169
0.167
Fou h quin ile
0.300*
0.323**
0.490***
0.304*
0.282*
0.455***
0.383***
-0.28
0.117
0.288
0.747**
Riches
0.343*
0.507***
0.811***
0.256
0.573***
0.334**
0.539***
0.096
0.14
0.233
0.664*
Highes Educa ional le el in he household (base ca ego y=No school)
P ima y
-0.08
0.007
-0.055
-0.104
0.227*
0.105
0.155**
0.148
0.061
-0.109
0.244
Junio High
0.066
0.138
0.066
0.023
0.074
0.11
0.366***
0.159
-0.094
-0.128
0.28
Senio High+
0.047
0.085
0.066
0.185
-0.148
0.047
0.568***
-0.038
-0.001
-0.119
0.795
Age (Base ca ego y=10)
11
-0.018
0.021
0.053
0.098
0.202
0.12
0.196***
0.172
0.137
-0.175
0.111
e12
-0.057
0.094
0.166*
0.273**
0.134
0.125
0.303***
0.254
-0.086
-0.045
0.085
age13
0.056
0.077
0.323***
0.349***
0.157
0.261**
0.430***
0.492**
0.034
-0.167
0.117
age14
0.116
0.203
0.495***
0.631***
0.176
0.336***
0.571***
0.512***
0.241
-0.223
0.222
Gende (Base
ca ego y: Boys)
-0.167*
0.063
-0.091
-0.099
0.290***
0.058
0.258***
0.222*
-0.066
-0.019
0.371**
*
Cons an
1.133***
0.790***
0.889***
1.704***
0.458
0.29
-0.131
1.068**
1.934***
1.681***
-0.08
Sample size
1458
1910
3468
3159
1823
2972
6332
1355
1663
1669
2144
Appendix II
Sensi i i y es o he selec ion o di e en cu o h esholds o he ou come a iable o eading p o iciency.
Reg ession esul s o he i s hypo hesis wi h cu o poin s a 80% and 90% a e p esen ed in Table II.1 and Table
II.2. Reg ession esul s o he second hypo hesis wi h cu o poin s a 80%, 85%, and 90% a e p esen ed in Table
II.3. Reg ession esul s o he hi d hypo hesis wi h cu o poin s a 80%, 85%, and 90% a e p esen ed in Table
II.4. No la ge sensi i i y o he selec ion o di e en cu o h esholds is de ec ed.
Table II.1 IPW leas squa es eg essions by mic o-le el ac o s (ou come a iable cu o a 80%)
Model1
Model2
Model3
Model4
Model5
Weal h index (base ca ego y=Poo es )
Second quin ile
0.057***
0.042***
(0.010)
(0.010)
Middle
0.112***
0.080***
(0.009)
(0.010)
Fou h quin ile
0.208***
0.146***
(0.010)
(0.011)
Riches
0.372***
0.265***
(0.010)
(0.012)
Highes Educa ional le el in he household (base ca ego y=No school)
P ima y
0.058***
0.031***
(0.009)
(0.009)
Junio seconda y
0.208***
0.094***
(0.010)
(0.010)
Senio seconda y o highe
0.211***
0.082***
(0.011)
(0.011)
Loca ion (base ca ego y: u ban)
-0.225***
-0.087***
(0.008)
(0.009)
Disabili y s a us (base ca ego y: non-disabled)
Vision disabili y
0.032
0.022
(0.036)
(0.036)
Hea ing disabili y
-0.137**
-0.096*
(0.050)
(0.047)
Physical disabili y
0.028
0.064
(0.035)
(0.035)
In ellec ual disabili y
-0.165***
-0.158***
(0.016)
(0.016)
32
Mul iple disabili ies
-0.167***
-0.119*
(0.050)
(0.050)
Gende (Base ca ego y: Men)
0.037***
0.042***
0.040***
0.043***
0.035***
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
Age (Base ca ego y=10)
age11
0.064***
0.067***
0.065***
0.073***
0.063***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age12
0.117***
0.121***
0.116***
0.120***
0.115***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age13
0.170***
0.176***
0.171***
0.175***
0.170***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age14
0.216***
0.227***
0.222***
0.229***
0.215***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
Coun y (Base ca ego y=Cen al A ica R.)
Chad
0.039*
0.077***
0.082***
0.033
0.065***
(0.016)
(0.018)
(0.018)
(0.018)
(0.017)
DRCongo
0.092***
-0.021
0.045**
0.002
0.064***
(0.014)
(0.016)
(0.015)
(0.016)
(0.015)
Ghana
0.348***
0.292***
0.310***
0.300***
0.338***
(0.015)
(0.017)
(0.016)
(0.019)
(0.015)
Leso ho
0.490***
0.439***
0.470***
0.409***
0.492***
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.018)
(0.018)
(0.017)
Madagasca
0.416***
0.400***
0.424***
0.373***
0.429***
(0.016)
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.018)
(0.016)
Malawi
0.378***
0.370***
0.426***
0.334***
0.407***
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.015)
The Gambia
0.239***
0.227***
0.173***
0.164***
0.238***
(0.018)
(0.019)
(0.019)
(0.020)
(0.018)
Togo
0.276***
0.243***
0.259***
0.216***
0.284***
(0.018)
(0.019)
(0.019)
(0.020)
(0.017)
Tunisia
0.772***
0.716***
0.686***
0.716***
0.736***
(0.013)
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.014)
Zimbabwe
0.440***
0.369***
0.440***
0.385***
0.431***
(0.015)
(0.017)
(0.016)
(0.018)
(0.015)
Cons an
-0.177***
-0.107***
0.123***
0.017
-0.116***
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.015)
(0.019)
Sample size
23591
23572
23591
23591
23572
R2
0.225
0.186
0.199
0.163
0.237
Table II.2 IPW leas squa es eg essions by mic o-le el ac o s (ou come a iable cu o a 90%)
Model1
Model2
Model3
Model4
Model5
Weal h index (base ca ego y=Poo es )
Second quin ile
0.055***
0.042***
(0.009)
(0.009)
Middle
0.101***
0.073***
(0.009)
(0.009)
Fou h quin ile
0.186***
0.131***
(0.009)
(0.010)
Riches
0.337***
0.240***
(0.010)
(0.012)
Highes Educa ional le el in he household (base ca ego y=No school)
P ima y
0.046***
0.022**
(0.008)
(0.008)
Junio seconda y
0.185***
0.083***
(0.009)
(0.009)
Senio seconda y o highe
0.190***
0.075***
(0.011)
(0.011)
Loca ion (base ca ego y: u ban)
-0.203***
-0.078***
(0.008)
(0.009)
Disabili y s a us (base ca ego y: non-disabled)
Vision disabili y
0.022
0.013
(0.036)
(0.036)
Hea ing disabili y
-0.127**
-0.090*
(0.047)
(0.045)
Physical disabili y
0.038
0.071
(0.036)
(0.036)
In ellec ual disabili y
-0.148***
-0.141***
(0.015)
(0.014)
33
Mul iple disabili ies
-0.142**
-0.099*
(0.048)
(0.048)
Gende (Base ca ego y: Men)
0.034***
0.038***
0.037***
0.040***
0.032***
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
Age (Base ca ego y=10)
age11
0.054***
0.057***
0.055***
0.063***
0.053***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age12
0.093***
0.096***
0.092***
0.096***
0.091***
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
age13
0.135***
0.139***
0.135***
0.140***
0.135***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age14
0.173***
0.183***
0.178***
0.185***
0.172***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.009)
Coun y (Base ca ego y=Cen al A ica R.)
Chad
0.040**
0.074***
0.079***
0.035*
0.062***
(0.015)
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.015)
DRCongo
0.073***
-0.030*
0.031*
-0.008
0.046***
(0.013)
(0.014)
(0.013)
(0.014)
(0.013)
Ghana
0.283***
0.232***
0.248***
0.239***
0.273***
(0.014)
(0.016)
(0.015)
(0.017)
(0.014)
Leso ho
0.361***
0.316***
0.342***
0.288***
0.363***
(0.017)
(0.018)
(0.018)
(0.019)
(0.017)
Madagasca
0.290***
0.277***
0.298***
0.252***
0.303***
(0.015)
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.017)
(0.015)
Malawi
0.258***
0.251***
0.301***
0.218***
0.284***
(0.013)
(0.013)
(0.014)
(0.014)
(0.014)
The Gambia
0.196***
0.183***
0.137***
0.128***
0.193***
(0.016)
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.018)
(0.016)
Togo
0.204***
0.174***
0.189***
0.150***
0.211***
(0.015)
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.017)
(0.015)
Tunisia
0.680***
0.630***
0.602***
0.629***
0.647***
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.015)
Zimbabwe
0.428***
0.365***
0.428***
0.379***
0.420***
(0.015)
(0.017)
(0.016)
(0.017)
(0.015)
Cons an
-0.178***
-0.111***
0.092***
-0.003
-0.121***
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.014)
(0.019)
Sample size
23591
23572
23591
23591
23572
R2
0.182
0.148
0.16
0.128
0.193
34
Table II.3 IPW leas squa es eg essions, in e ac ion e ms be ween a ious ac o s and coun y g oups (ou come a iable cu o a 85%, 80%, and 90%)
Family Schooling
Po e y S a us
U ban Vs. Ru al
Disabili y S a us
Cu poin
0.85
0.8
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.9
Highes educa ional le el in he household (base
ca ego y=No school)
P ima y
0.034***
0.036***
0.018*
0.028***
0.029***
0.013
0.026**
0.028**
0.01
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.008)
Junio seconda y
0.100***
0.095***
0.091***
0.069***
0.062***
0.062***
0.067***
0.060***
0.060***
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
Senio seconda y o highe
0.116***
0.118***
0.103***
0.080***
0.081***
0.069***
0.081***
0.082***
0.071***
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
No School
0.054***
0.056***
0.049***
(0.011)
(0.011)
(0.010)
No School#Mid- eading coun y
-0.163***
-0.169***
-0.125***
(0.015)
(0.016)
(0.014)
No School#High- eading coun y
-0.102***
-0.088***
-0.129***
(0.024)
(0.024)
(0.024)
Weal h index (base ca ego y=Poo es )
Second quin ile
0.043***
0.042***
0.042***
0.040***
0.039***
0.037***
0.043***
0.042***
0.041***
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
Middle
0.074***
0.079***
0.072***
0.070***
0.075***
0.065***
0.074***
0.079***
0.071***
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.009)
Fou h quin ile
0.142***
0.144***
0.128***
0.137***
0.139***
0.120***
0.140***
0.143***
0.124***
(0.011)
(0.011)
(0.010)
(0.011)
(0.011)
(0.010)
(0.011)
(0.011)
(0.010)
Riches
0.253***
0.261***
0.238***
0.245***
0.254***
0.225***
0.247***
0.256***
0.227***
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
Poo
-0.043***
-0.046***
-0.037***
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.010)
Poo #Mid- eading coun y
-0.083***
-0.087***
-0.064***
(0.016)
(0.017)
(0.015)
Poo #High- eading coun y
-0.045*
-0.037
-0.084***
(0.022)
(0.022)
(0.021)
Loca ion (base ca ego y: u ban)
-0.124***
-0.120***
-0.114***
-0.185***
-0.185***
-0.168***
-0.075***
-0.081***
-0.045***
-0.115***
-0.112***
-0.106***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.008)
(0.013)
(0.013)
(0.012)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
Ru al#Mid- eading coun y
-0.029
-0.014
-0.047**
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.016)
Ru al#High- eading coun y
-0.117***
-0.104***
-0.164***
(0.018)
(0.018)
(0.018)
Disabled (base ca ego y: non-disabled)
-0.156***
-0.164***
-0.140***
-0.169***
-0.178***
-0.153***
-0.158***
-0.167***
-0.143***
-0.131***
-0.142***
-0.111***
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.014)
(0.021)
(0.021)
(0.019)
Disabled#Mid- eading coun y
-0.03
-0.029
-0.026
(0.027)
(0.028)
(0.025)
Disabled#High- eading coun y
-0.053
-0.041
-0.092*
(0.042)
(0.041)
(0.039)
35
Age (Base ca ego y=10)
age11
0.063***
0.063***
0.053***
0.064***
0.063***
0.054***
0.063***
0.062***
0.053***
0.062***
0.061***
0.052***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age12
0.112***
0.117***
0.092***
0.111***
0.116***
0.092***
0.112***
0.117***
0.092***
0.111***
0.117***
0.092***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
age13
0.163***
0.172***
0.135***
0.163***
0.173***
0.135***
0.162***
0.171***
0.134***
0.162***
0.171***
0.134***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age14
0.207***
0.218***
0.174***
0.210***
0.221***
0.177***
0.207***
0.218***
0.174***
0.206***
0.217***
0.173***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
Gende (Base ca ego y: Men)
0.038***
0.038***
0.034***
0.040***
0.040***
0.035***
0.038***
0.038***
0.034***
0.038***
0.038***
0.034***
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
Coun y
0.314***
0.337***
0.238***
0.307***
0.330***
0.237***
0.293***
0.305***
0.238***
0.279***
0.301***
0.214***
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
(0.014)
(0.014)
(0.013)
0.008
0.008
0.007
0.478***
0.483***
0.430***
0.457***
0.460***
0.418***
0.522***
0.520***
0.502***
0.456***
0.461***
0.410***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.013)
(0.013)
(0.014)
0.009
0.009
0.009
Cons an
0.009
0.017
-0.004
0.113***
0.126***
0.094***
-0.040*
-0.026
-0.058***
-0.019
-0.01
-0.025
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.014)
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.016)
0.016
0.016
0.016
Sample size
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
23572
R2
0.208
0.215
0.175
0.192
0.198
0.163
0.207
0.214
0.178
0.206
0.212
0.175
36
Table II.4 IPW leas squa es eg essions, in e ac ion e ms be ween disabili y s a us and social ac o s (ou come
a iable cu o a 85%, 80%, and 90%)
Cu poin
0.85
0.8
0.9
Disabled (base ca ego y: non-disabled)
-0.249***
-0.268***
-0.249***
(0.045)
(0.047)
(0.040)
Loca ion (base ca ego y: u ban)
-0.117***
-0.114***
-0.103***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
Disabled # Loca ion
Disabled # Ru al
0.055
0.054
0.092**
(0.035)
(0.035)
(0.032)
Weal h index (base ca ego y=Poo es )
Middle
0.081***
0.081***
0.076***
(0.008)
(0.009)
(0.008)
Riches
0.232***
0.238***
0.218***
(0.012)
(0.012)
(0.012)
Disabled # Weal h Index
Disabled#Middle
0.000
0.02
-0.003
(0.034)
(0.035)
(0.031)
Disabled#Riches
0.01
0.039
0.013
(0.057)
(0.056)
(0.053)
P ima y
0.034***
0.032***
0.024**
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
Junio seconda y
0.109***
0.105***
0.092***
(0.010)
(0.010)
(0.010)
Senio seconda y o highe
0.096***
0.095***
0.084***
(0.011)
(0.011)
(0.011)
Disabled # Highes Educa ion le el in he household
Disabled#1
0.094**
0.086*
0.058
(0.036)
(0.037)
(0.031)
Disabled#2
0.049
0.056
0.041
(0.039)
(0.041)
(0.034)
Disabled#3
0.073
0.048
0.098*
(0.050)
(0.051)
(0.046)
Age (Base ca ego y=10)
age11
0.064***
0.063***
0.054***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
age12
0.111***
0.116***
0.092***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
age13
0.162***
0.172***
0.136***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.008)
age14
0.206***
0.217***
0.174***
(0.009)
(0.009)
(0.009)
Gende (Base ca ego y: Boys)
0.036***
0.036***
0.032***
(0.006)
(0.006)
(0.006)
Coun y
Chad
0.065***
0.070***
0.068***
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.015)
DRCongo
0.043**
0.053***
0.037**
(0.014)
(0.014)
(0.013)
Ghana
0.315***
0.332***
0.268***
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.014)
Leso ho
0.466***
0.487***
0.360***
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.017)
Madagasca
0.388***
0.431***
0.304***
(0.016)
(0.016)
(0.015)
Malawi
0.379***
0.413***
0.289***
(0.014)
(0.015)
(0.014)
The Gambia
0.221***
0.231***
0.187***
(0.018)
(0.018)
(0.016)
Togo
0.270***
0.280***
0.208***
(0.017)
(0.017)
(0.015)
Tunisia
0.698***
0.723***
0.636***
(0.014)
(0.014)
(0.015)
Zimbabwe
0.427***
0.424***
0.414***
(0.015)
(0.015)
(0.015)
_cons
-0.097***
-0.093***
-0.100***
(0.019)
(0.019)
(0.018)
Sample size
23572
23572
23572
R2
0.222
0.233
0.19
