Pandemic culture: The impacts of COVID- 19 on the UK cultural sector and implications for the future

Gilmo e, Abigail (Ed.); O'B ien, Da e (Ed.); Walmsley, Ben (Ed.)
Book
Pandemic cul u e: The impac s o COVID- 19 on he UK
cul u al sec o and implica ions o he u u e
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Manches e Uni e si y P ess
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Gilmo e, Abigail (Ed.); O'B ien, Da e (Ed.); Walmsley, Ben (Ed.) (2024) : Pandemic
cul u e: The impac s o COVID- 19 on he UK cul u al sec o and implica ions o he u u e, ISBN
9781526168375, Manches e Uni e si y P ess, Manches e ,
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Pandemic cul u e
Manches e Uni e si y P ess
Pandemic cul u e
The impac s o COVID- 19 on
he UK cul u al sec o and
implica ions o he u u e
Edi ed by
Abigail Gilmo e, Da e O’B ien
and Ben Walmsley

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Lis o igu es ii
Lis o ables ix
Lis o abb e ia ions x
Lis o con ibu o s xii
P e ace x ii
Acknowledgemen s xix
In oduc ion: aming mixed- me hods analyses
o he impac o COVID- 19 on he cul u al sec o
– Ben Walmsley, Abigail Gilmo e and Da e O’B ien 1
1 Cul u al policy and he pandemic: esponse and
eco e y in he Uni ed Kingdom – Abigail Gilmo e,
Sue Hay on, T e o MacFa lane, John W igh ,
Ben Dunn and Rachel Johnson 20
2 Wha happened o he wo ke s? Unde s anding he
impac o he pandemic on jobs and wo king
hou s in he cul u al sec o – Tal Fede , O ian
B ook, Rebecca Flo isson, Siobhan McAnd ew,
Da e O’B ien, Gwilym Owen and Ma k Taylo 54
3 The same people seeing mo e: audiences’ engagemen
wi h cul u e du ing he COVID- 19 pandemic
– Oli e Man ell, Anne To eggiani, Ben Walmsley,
Jenny Kidd and E a Nie o McA oy 95
4 Pandemic d ama: how England’s hea e o ganisa ions
esponded o he COVID- 19 pandemic – Ka en G ay
and Ben Walmsley 118
Con en s
i Con en s
5 Beyond he digi al: no ions o belonging and he
impac s o COVID- 19 on es i als in Sco land
– John W igh 144
6 Collabo a i e cul u al leade ship: No he n I eland’s
esponse o he COVID- 19 c isis – John W igh and
Ali Fi zGibbon 163
7 A ques ion o sus ainabili y: he impac o COVID- 19
on he sc een sec o in Wales – E a Nie o McA oy
and Ania Os owska 185
8 Ci ic esponsibili y in imes o c isis: museums and
galle ies in no he n England du ing he COVID- 19
pandemic – Danielle Child, Ka en G ay and
Ha y Weeks 212
9 Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place:
an ecosys em analysis o G ea e Manches e
– Ben Dunn and Abigail Gilmo e 230
Conclusion: dis up ion and con inui y in he cul u al
indus ies: om pandemic cul u e o an endemic c isis?
– Da e O’B ien, Abigail Gilmo e and Ben Walmsley 258
Index 274
1.1 Dis ibu ion o eme gency cul u al eco e y unding
pe head ac oss Sco ish local au ho i y a eas, analysis
by Ma k Taylo . Sou ce: C ea i e Sco land 34
2.1 Pe cen age o wo ke s lea ing c ea i e occupa ions,
pe qua e 56
2.2 O e all size o he wo k o ce in c ea i e indus ies
and occupa ions in all ou qua e s o 2020 58
2.3 Wo ke s in music and pe o ming a s, 2017– 2021 59
2.4 Dis ibu ion o hou s wo ked, by occupa ional g oup 60
2.5 Size o he wo k o ce in c ea i e indus ies
and occupa ions 2019– 2022, by na ions 62
2.6 Pe cen age o wo ke s lea ing c ea i e occupa ions
pe qua e since lockdown 65
2.7 Numbe o eelance s in c ea i e occupa ions,
2018– 2020 68
2.8 Numbe s o eelance s in c ea i e occupa ions
by age, 2019 Q4– 2020 69
2.9 Numbe o eelance s in c ea i e occupa ions
by e hnic g oup, 2019 Q4– 2020 71
2.10 Numbe o eelance s in c ea i e occupa ions
by gende , 2019 Q4– 2020 72
2.11 Pe cen age o s a u loughed by c ea i e sec o 75
2.12 Pe cen age o s a u loughed by c ea i e sec o
and Co id es ic ions 76
2.13 Wo ke s en olled in educa ion cou ses 78
2.14 P opo ion o a educa ion en olmen s 79
2.15 O e all numbe s o a educa ion en olmen s 80
Figu es
xi Lis o con ibu o s
o Policy Engagemen a he Cen e o Cul u al Value, a which
she is now a consul an . He in e es s include c ea i e knowledge
exchange, explo ing he ole o a is s as esea che s and as ca a-
lys s o inno a ion.
Rachel Johnson is Lec u e in Film S udies a he Uni e si y o
Leeds. She esea ches cul u al ins i u ions and ansna ional lows
o cul u e, specialising in ilm es i als and policy- making. Rachel is
also co- ounde o he DIY ilm club Leeds Cine o um.
Jenny Kidd is Reade in he School o Jou nalism, Media and
Cul u e a Ca di Uni e si y. She has published widely on new
media, cul u al ins i u ions and digi al he i age. She is a Managing
Edi o o Museum and Socie y, and a Se ies Edi o o Bloomsbu y
S udies in Digi al Cul u es.
T e o MacFa lane is Founding Di ec o o Cul u e Commons, a
policy design and ad ocacy o ganisa ion suppo ing he UK’s c e-
a i e and cul u al ecosys em, and a Fellow o he Royal Socie y
o A s. T e o is a o me policy and poli ical ad iso o senio
pa liamen a ians, including he Vice P esiden o he Cul u e and
Educa ion Commi ee in he Eu opean Pa liamen , he Depu y
Leade o he Labou Pa y (UK) and he Shadow Sec e a y o S a e
o Digi al, Cul u e, Media and Spo .
Oli e Man ell is Di ec o o E idence and Insigh a The Audience
Agency, whe e he has wo ked in a a ie y o audience esea ch
and consul ancy oles since 2012. His a eas o ocus include audi-
ence analysis and segmen a ion, collabo a i e benchma king and
he na ional cul u al beha iou and a i udes su ey, he Cul u al
Pa icipa ion Moni o .
Siobhan McAnd ew is Senio Lec u e in Poli ics, Philosophy and
Economics a She ield Me hods Ins i u e, Uni e si y o She ield.
He esea ch in e es s a e in he quan i a i e s udy o cul u e, pe -
cep ions, mo al alues and plu alism. She is cu en ly examining
cul u al and mo al esponses o c ises, bo h his o ically and du ing
he COVID- 19 pandemic.

x Lis o con ibu o s
x
E a Nie o McA oy eaches and esea ches digi al cul u es and
media a he School o Jou nalism, Media and Cul u e, Ca di
Uni e si y. Recen wo k includes he ‘pi o o digi al’ in museums
and galle ies du ing COVID- 19 and algo i hmic memo y.
Da e O’B ien is P o esso o Cul u al and C ea i e Indus ies a he
Uni e si y o Manches e . He is he co- au ho o Cul u e is Bad o
You and he C ea i e Majo i y epo , as well as nume ous pape s
on he c ea i e sec o . He is cu en ly co- in es iga o on he AHRC-
unded C ea i e Indus ies Policy and E idence Cen e, as well as
wo king on p ojec s abou class in he ele ision indus y, di e si-
ying c ea i e highe educa ion and as e in con empo a y B i ain.
Ania Os owska is a Resea ch Manage a he B i ish Film Ins i u e,
suppo ing i s ac i i ies as an Independen Resea ch O ganisa ion,
including building and main aining pa ne ships wi h UK- based
academics and uni e si ies and managing Collabo a i e Doc o al
Awa ds. Building on he expe ience o esea ching B i ish ilm-
make s (culmina ing in he doc o al hesis de ended a he
Uni e si y o Sou hamp on) and UK ilm and TV indus ies (wo k-
ing wi h Ca di Uni e si y and he Cen e o Cul u al Value a he
Uni e si y o Leeds, among o he s), she also helps commission and
supe ises ex e nal esea ch p ojec s in o all aspec s o B i ish ilm,
TV and gaming indus ies.
Gwilym Owen is a esea che who uses s a is ics and da a o be e
unde s and he causes and consequences o social inequali ies. He
has pa icula in e es s in heal h, cul u e, en i onmen and hous-
ing and has wo ked a he Uni e si ies o Li e pool, She ield and
B is ol. He wo ked in he i s ew mon hs o he COVID- 19 p ojec
acking ends in he numbe s o wo ke s in cul u al and c ea i e
occupa ions wi h he UK Labou Fo ce Su ey.
Ma k Taylo is Senio Lec u e in Quan i a i e Me hods (Sociology)
a he She ield Me hods Ins i u e, Uni e si y o She ield. His
esea ch in e es s a e in he sociology o cul u e: in consump ion,
p oduc ion and educa ion and i s ela ionship o inequali y, as well
as in quan i a i e me hods, pa icula ly da a isualisa ion. He leads
x i Lis o con ibu o s
esea ch on he A s, Cul u e and He i age sec o s o he C ea i e
Indus ies Policy and E idence Cen e.
Anne To eggiani is ounding CEO o The Audience Agency – a
UK cha i y o esea ch and de elopmen in cul u al pa icipa ion –
and Co- Di ec o o he Cen e o Cul u al Value a he Uni e si y
o Leeds. She is a specialis in audience esea ch, da a and ends
wi h pa icula in e es in human- cen ed design and o ganisa ional
change. She wo ks as a acili a o and ad ise .
Ben Walmsley is Dean o Cul u al Engagemen a he Uni e si y o
Leeds (UK) and Di ec o o he na ional Cen e o Cul u al Value.
He is an Expe Ad iso o he UK Go e nmen ’s Depa men o
Digi al, Cul u e, Media and Spo (DCMS). P io o his academic
ca ee , Ben wo ked as an a s manage o en yea s, mos ecen ly
as P oduce a he Na ional Thea e o Sco land. Ben has published
widely on a s ma ke ing, a s managemen , cul u al policy and cul-
u al alue.
Ha y Weeks is Lec u e and Head o A His o y a Newcas le
Uni e si y. His esea ch ocuses on socially engaged a p ac ices
and labou and con empo a y a . His wo k has been published
in he Thi d Tex jou nal, and he co- edi ed a special issue o his
jou nal on a and an i- ascism in 2019.
John W igh is a esea ch associa e wi h he Cen e o Cul u al
Value, Uni e si y o Leeds. He has p e iously wo ked as a isi ing
lec u e a Leeds A s Uni e si y on he BA Fine A p og amme
and as a module leade on he MA C i ical S udies p og amme a
B ad o d College. In his p o essional li e be o e academia, he co-
ounded he a is - led collec i e The Re o Ba a he End o he
Uni e se and de eloped a cu a o ial backg ound in museums, gal-
le ies and in a is - led ac i i y.
This book is pa documen a y, pa analysis, pa ca ha sis and
pa p o oca ion. Back in 2020, when we began he esea ch p o-
jec ha he book d aws om, we we e al eady awa e o he likeli-
hood ha he UK’s, and he wo ld’s, cul u al and c ea i e sec o s
would ne e be he same. This idea s ayed wi h us, e en when we
obse ed hei ongoing esilience and he agili y o hei esponses
o he pandemic’s impac .
As we desc ibe in he In oduc ion ha ollows, he mo i a ion
o assemble a eam, de ise a p ojec me hodology and unde ake he
esea ch was ins inc ual and unde aken wi h sympa hy. I was also
done wi h empa hy: as academic esea che s who a e also lec u e s,
u o s and supe iso s, we we e also physically di o ced om ou
audiences and pa ne s, ou s uden s and wo k colleagues. We we e
quickly lea ning o adap o emo e deli e y and digi al con en
c ea ion o keep he business o highe educa ion a loa . This ga e
he e lec ions o ou esea ch pa icipan s he quali y o sha ed
expe iences and us a ions in common, as we me on ou home
o ice sc eens.
Ou In oduc ion also e lec s on he lack o ime a ailable o
heo isa ion and c i ical e lec ion du ing he esea ch. This was
caused by he shee pace and in ensi y o he pandemic; he na u e
o in- dep h, mixed- me hod esea ch unde aken wi h engaged pa -
ne s and pa icipan s; and he desi e o almos - eal- ime analysis.
This ja ed wi h he sense eme ging om he sec o ha COVID- 19
had unwi ingly opened up a space o e lec ion, a po en ial s a e-
gic pause ha migh add ess issues and inequali ies in c ea i e and
cul u al p oduc ion, pa icipa ion and alues.
P e ace
x iii P e ace
This desi e o eg oup and ese was no ed ac oss he sec o ,
e en when he space o do so was limi ed. I was also an aim o
ou esea ch p ojec . We we e able, h ough wo kshops, con e -
ences and e e ence g oups, o conside he b oade implica ions o
ou indings o policy and in es men models, sec o s a egy and
ope a ions. Ye i is h ough he p ocess o w i ing ha he analysis
and syn hesis o heo y and empi ical indings ha e been possible.
We a e g a e ul o he oppo uni y o unde ake some o his c i i-
cal hinking he e in his olume.
Ou esea ch happened in a maels om du ing which we had o
ely hea ily on new and exis ing pa ne ships and collabo a ions.
This la ge- scale conso ium app oach o esea ch was new o many
o us; bu i was pe haps ypical o much o he academic esea ch
and cul u al ac i i y ha ook place du ing he pandemic in i s gen-
e ous and highly collabo a i e na u e. Jus as we all hoped o see
a be e and mo e equi able cul u al sec o eme ge om he pan-
demic, so do we hope ha p ojec s such as ou s migh he ald a new
e a o mo e collabo a i e and engaged esea ch, be ween academ-
ics hemsel es and be ween schola s and cul u al o ganisa ions and
p ac i ione s.
The e a e so many people o hank o making his book possible
ha i is di icul o know whe e o begin. Bu wi hou he agili y
and con idence o ou unde s, his esea ch would simply no ha e
aken place, so we would like o hank he A s and Humani ies
Resea ch Council (AHRC) and UK Resea ch and Inno a ion
(UKRI) o hei gene ous unding o his esea ch. We ex end hese
hanks o he co e unde s o he Cen e o Cul u al Value (AHRC,
A s Council England and Paul Hamlyn Founda ion) and ou col-
leagues a he Uni e si y o Leeds o hei ongoing suppo o he
Cen e. We would also like o hank ou Policy Re e ence G oup
and all hose who pa icipa ed in ou Co id esea ch con e ence
in No embe 2021. Hea el hanks go o ou dedica ed Ad iso y
G oup, who p o ided expe suppo and guidance o e he cou se
o he p ojec : Geo ey C ossick, Alas ai E ans, Sha on Heal,
Sa ie Mai s- Slee, Ha man Sagge , Jose Seisdedos, Liz Thompson
and Michelle W igh .
We a e e y g a e ul o hose o ganisa ions who gene ously
ag eed o hos one o ou policy placemen s: C ea i e Sco land,
Depa men o Communi ies (No he n I eland), Depa men o
Cul u e, Media and Spo (UK), G ea e Manches e Combined
Au ho i y, Leeds Ci y Council and he Welsh Go e nmen ’s
Depa men o Cul u e, He i age, Spo & Tou ism. We bene i ed
hugely om he gene osi y and ime o esea ch pa ne s Sal o d
Cul u e and Place Pa ne ship and Manches e Ci y Council. Mos
impo an ly, we would like o hank all o ou esea ch pa icipan s
who gene ously ga e hei ime in wha o many we e e y chal-
lenging pe sonal and p o essional ci cums ances. O e he cou se
Acknowledgemen s

xx Acknowledgemen s
o he p ojec we in e iewed o e 238 cul u al sec o p o es-
sionals, anging om eelance s and gene al manage s o mic o-
o ganisa ions o ep esen a i es o la ge egional and na ional
cul u al o ganisa ions, unde s and policy- make s. Along he jou -
ney we in e iewed employees om a wide ange o cul u al o gani-
sa ions, and we’d like o hank hem o p o iding us wi h such a
p i ileged insigh in o hei wo lds as hey shi ed o e he cou se
o he pandemic in 2020– 2021.
We would pe sonally like o hank ou p ojec pa ne s – The
Audience Agency, he C ea i e Indus ies Policy and E idence
Cen e, and Cul u e Commons, as well as he co e eam a he
Cen e o Cul u al Value (Tamsin Cu o , Liz Ha op and Alex
Lancas le) and all o ou colleagues in he wide p ojec eam (Ma ia
Ba e , B uce Da enpo , John Da ies, Rachel Johnson, Fanny
Ma in, Tammi Mu phy, Alice Nigh ingale, Ce i Pi ches, Be hany
Rowley and Richa d Tu pin), many o whom wo ked abo e and
beyond hei alloca ed hou s o p oduce wha we belie e o be one
o he mos me iculous and comp ehensi e s udies o he impac o
COVID- 19 on he cul u al sec o ha has been unde aken any-
whe e in he wo ld. This book is es amen o hei diligen and
sensi i e wo k and also o he dedica ion o e e yone who has kep
he cul u al sec o ali e du ing i s da kes hou s.
newgenp epd
Re lec ions on he impac o he COVID- 19 pandemic on he a s,
cul u al and c ea i e sec o s ha e been ongoing since he impli-
ca ions o public heal h and sa e y es ic ions and imposi ions
o lockdowns eme ged globally in he i s qua e o 2020. A s
audiences, c ea i e p oduce s and cul u e schola s alike ha e
obse ed he pa icula shi s and ‘pi o s’ equi ed o sus ain
he mixed economies and o en p eca ious business models o
ac i i ies ha ely on physical co- p esence, s a e in e en ion and
eedom o mo emen o su i e. As he mon hs, and now yea s,
ha e passed, he shock and scale o hese impac s and he calls
om he cul u al sec o ad oca ing o a ‘new no mal’ ha e sub-
sided, despi e he ac ha he memo ies o his ex ao dina y
pe iod, he sec o - speci ic s esses and he wide socie al auma
i caused, con inue.
In he UK, he mobilisa ion o go e nmen unds a ge ed a he
a s and cul u al indus ies, many o which we e al eady in eceip
o g an unding, p e en ed a a mo e signi ican e osion o a is s,
c ea i e wo ke s and cul u al manage s’ li elihoods han would
ha e been he case wi hou in e en ion. O ganisa ional s a egies
we e pu on pause, howe e , as audiences and pe o me s we e
locked ou ba digi al pa icipa ion, wi h many aking he ime o
e lec on social missions and isions, while cons an ly escoping
p og amming and budge lines as condi ions equen ly changed.
The mo i a ion o documen hese u bulen imes h ough empi i-
cal esea ch, and o conside h ough analysis po en ial pa hways
o esilience and eco e y o cul u al o ganisa ions and hose who
wo k in and wi h hem, was he e o e ob ious. This book is an
In oduc ion: aming mixed- me hods
analyses o he impac o COVID- 19
on he cul u al sec o
Ben Walmsley, Abigail Gilmo e and Da e O’B ien
2Pandemic cul u e
ou come o such a mo i a ion, one o a numbe o ou pu s om he
eigh een- mon h UKRI- unded esea ch ha ook place in England,
Sco land, No he n I eland and Wales be ween Sep embe 2020
and No embe 2021.1
This in oduc o y chap e se s ou he a ionale and con ex
o his wide- anging esea ch. I ou lines i s aims and objec i es,
desc ibing and jus i ying he mixed- me hods me hodology and
he sampling mechanisms deployed by he esea ch and ou lining
he a eas o syne gy be ween he di e en s ands o he s udy
so as o d aw ou common objec i es and hemes be ween he
chap e s ha ollow. I s co e aim, he e o e, is o se he scene
o he es o he book. I does his by p o iding a b ie analysis
o he s uc u al challenges and issues acing he UK’s cul u al
indus ies p io o he pandemic ha hampe ed he cul u al sec-
o and became exace ba ed as he COVID- 19 pandemic hi and
p og essed. The chap e goes on o con ex ualise and in oduce
he o hcoming chap e s and o e eade s a na a i e a c o guide
hem h ough he book.
S udy con ex and aims
This book p esen s indings om one o he mos comp ehensi e
s udies o he impac s o COVID- 19 on he cul u al sec o unde -
aken anywhe e in he wo ld. This na ional esea ch p ojec was
led by he Cen e o Cul u al Value and conduc ed by wen y- ou
esea che s om wel e esea ch ins i u ions and ou na ional
pa ne s: he Cen e o Cul u al Value, The Audience Agency,
he AHRC C ea i e Indus ies Policy and E idence Cen e, and
Cul u e Commons. This conso ium app oach mean ha he s udy
bene i ed om policy and a o m expe s embedded in di e en
na ions and egions o he UK. Those expe s ep esen ed uni e si-
ies, esea ch cen es, cul u al agencies and consul an s. The s udy
b ough oge he s a is icians, quan i a i e sociologis s, a his o i-
ans and audience esea che s wi h in e disciplina y schola s om
he ields o media s udies, pe o mance s udies, a s managemen
and cul u al policy s udies.
3In oduc ion
3
Based on he indings o his ex ensi e esea ch p ojec , his book
o e s a comp ehensi e o e iew o he impac s o COVID- 19 on he
UK’s cul u al sec o and highligh s he implica ions o he sec o ’s
u u e di ec ion. O e he cou se o ele en chap e s, he book p o ides
a summa y o he local, egional and na ional policy esponses o he
c isis; a s a is ical analysis o he impac s o hese policy esponses and
o he pandemic i sel on he UK’s cul u al wo k o ce; and a mixed-
me hods analysis o audiences’ esponses o he pandemic. These
insigh s a e nuanced and illus a ed ia de ailed case s udies o a num-
be o key sub- sec o s o he cul u al indus ies ( hea e, museums and
galle ies, sc een indus ies, lib a ies and es i als), ia in e iews wi h
eme ging cul u al leade s and ia aking an ecosys em app oach o he
case s udy o he G ea e Manches e ci y egion.
The book iden i ies he co e, ecu en hemes ha ha e eme ged
om he esea ch. I o e s a obus analysis o he sho , medium
and longe - e m impac s o COVID- 19 on he cul u al sec o and i s
audiences, and highligh s he implica ions o cul u al p ac i ione s,
o ganisa ions, unde s and policy- make s as we con inue o mo e
in o he endemic s age o he pandemic. The unique con ibu ion o
he book lies in i s p esen a ion o esea ch indings coo dina ed o
highligh he challenges aced by cul u al p ac i ione s, o ganisa-
ions and audiences om di e en backg ounds, egions and a
o ms. Using lenses which ocus on bo h mac o and mic o le els,
he book p o ides esh insigh s in o he implica ions o policy and
esea ch on, wi h and a ound he cul u al sec o , highligh ing pos-
sible u u e di ec ions o a s managemen , audience esea ch and
cul u al policy s udies.
The pandemic has impac ed he c ea i e and cul u al indus ies
mo e globally and auma ically han any o he c isis in li ing
memo y (Sa gen , 2021). I has w ough a seismic shock ac oss he
a s and cul u al sec o in pa icula . Bu as Sa gen also a gues,
‘as always, amongs he loss and damage he e has been in aluable
lea ning o new kinds o hinking, new ways o doing hings. We
need o iden i y all hose new lea nings a ound he wo ld, hen build
on hose new ounda ions a he han jus eassembling he b oken
pieces om he pas ’ (Sa gen , 2021). I is in his spi i o os e ing
posi i e change ha we ha e esea ched and w i en his book.
10 Pandemic cul u e
One pa icula aspec o o ganisa ional ac i i y ha we we e pa -
icula ly keen o explo e was how o ganisa ions engaged and in e -
ac ed wi h hei audiences and communi ies on social media. Social
media gene a es an abundance o wha Zappa igna (2011) e e s o
as he ‘sea chable alk’ o social ne wo ks. Analysis o such public
discou se can enable mo e dynamic and meaning ul o ms o cul-
u al pa icipa ion and os e a mo e p oduc i e ela ional and e hi-
cal ajec o y o he ins i u ions which engage wi h i (Kidd, Nie o
McA oy and Os owska, 2022). Ou s udy in ol ed analysing da a
collec ed om Twi e om he hash ags #Cul u eInQua an ine and
#MuseumA Home du ing he i s six weeks o he UK lockdown
(Ma ch– Ap il 2020). These wo hash ags we e used by museums
and galle ies du ing his ime ame as key connec i e de ices and
p oduced 9,000 wee s which we e analysed quan i a i ely by he
eam using Twi e ’s me ada a o d aw ou ecu en hemes, be o e
a andom 5 pe cen sample o 450 wee s was quali a i ely ana-
lysed using NVi o. The eme ging sen imen s and hemes shed ligh
on how audiences we e using cul u e o na iga e he pandemic, as
is p esen ed alongside he popula ion s udy in Chap e 3.
In addi ion o he impe a i e o engage wi h sec o policy- make s
and he po en ial o in o m hei c i ical in e en ions h ough
empi ical da a and analysis, he s udy o e ed a unique iew o how
he ac i i ies o he cul u al sec o a e alued, p o ec ed, p omo ed
and egula ed by cul u al policy. The pandemic p esen ed an oppo -
uni y o unde s and he sec o ’s pe cei ed alue o policy in he
unp eceden ed con ex o i s su i al, ac ing almos like a con in-
gen alua ion exe cise, whe e a p oxy o he alue o public good
can be de i ed om he cos s o sa ing and sus aining i . We he e-
o e knew we needed channels wi h which o consul wi h policy-
make s as well as o unde ake esea ch wi h and on hem, and o
his end we o med a policy e e ence g oup and wo ked closely
wi h local and na ional policy bodies, including he Depa men o
Cul u e, Media and Spo (DCMS), C ea i e Sco land, cul u e o ic-
e s om he Welsh Go e nmen and No he n I eland’s Depa men
o Communi ies, and ep esen a i es om local councils including
Leeds and Sal o d. The g oup me h ee imes and u he engage-
men oppo uni ies we e also p o ided by egula wo kshops wi h
DCMS, p o iding he chance o dialogue and e lec i e p ac ice,
and a se ies o policy placemen s a egional and na ional le el

11In oduc ion
11
owa ds he end o he s udy, which embedded esea che s wi hin
a ious policy con ex s. A na a i e accoun o he imeline and
e olu ion o policy esponses o e 2020 and 2021 compa ing he
de ol ed na ions o he UK is p esen ed in Chap e 1.
The esea ch was augmen ed by he inclusion o a case s udy o
G ea e Manches e ’s cul u al ecosys em, which began in No embe
2020, wo king in consul a ion wi h G ea e Manches e Combined
Au ho i y, Manches e Ci y Council and Sal o d Cul u e and Place
Pa ne ship o de elop a p og amme o in e iews and ac ion
esea ch wi h policy ac o s, cul u al leade s, and p ac i ione s ac oss
he ci y egion in he no h- wes o England. The esul ing wo wa es
o quali a i e in e iews ( i y in o al) p o ided unique insigh s om
a c ea i e and cul u al ecosys ems pe spec i e, which o e ed a lens
on he in e sec ion o local ne wo ks, ini ia i es and s a egic p io i-
ies wi h he e icacy (o o he wise) o na ional policy esponses.
C ea i e and cul u al ecosys ems analysis ecognises he complex
and in e connec ed ma ix o ac o s in ol ed wi hin c ea i e and
cul u al ecologies o conside ela ionships be ween di e en nodes
o ne wo ks, made up o indi idual ac o s and ins i u ions (Ba ke ,
2019). The e m’s appea ance in UK policy discou se is concu en
wi h John Holden’s p omo ion o ‘cul u al ecology’ as a model o
he ‘in ensi ely in e linked’ (A s and Humani ies Resea ch Council,
2015, p.2), cyclical, gene a i e cha ac e is ics o cul u al and c ea-
i e p oduc ion. I aims o a oid a linea p oduc ion chain model
ha ocuses solely on connec ions be ween inpu s and ou pu s, dis-
inguishing be ween alues- d i en policy app oaches and hose ha
seek o gene a e alues as an ou come. In his way, i encompasses
a spec um o in e dependen quali ies ac oss and be ween public
and p i a e sphe es, o mal and in o mal s a egy, and ama eu and
p o essional p ac ice. Al hough no bound o geog aphy, ecosys-
ems app oaches p o ide use ul amewo ks o local cul u al policy
analysis. They make isible he p ocesses h ough which capi als a e
mobilised, aken up and gene a ed ac oss ne wo ks and ela ionships.
By doing so, hey show ha places a e no simply si es ha policies
a ec , bu a he ha places ha e hei own e ec s on policies as si u-
a ed p ac ices (Du e , Gilmo e and S e enson, 2019), which equi e
he nego ia ion o bounda ies and capabili ies ha a e a ached o
place (G oss and Wilson, 2020). We discuss key indings om he
cul u al ecosys em case s udy in Chap e 9.
12 Pandemic cul u e
The e hical con ex
Planning his signi ican body o engaged esea ch in he con ex o
a global heal h pandemic ine i ably aised signi ican e hical issues
ha he esea ch eam had o add ess and na iga e. The mos ob i-
ous o hese, pe haps, was he isk o causing u he psychological
ha m o cul u al p ac i ione s by asking hem o e lec in online,
depe sonalised in e iews on wha had clea ly been auma ic li ed
expe iences. Al hough in o med consen was always secu ed well
in ad ance and in e iews we e conduc ed wi h he u mos sen-
si i i y by sec o specialis s, ou app oach a imes el ex ac i e
and some pa icipan s unde s andably b oke down in he cou se
o hei in e iews. The expe ience o conduc ing in e iews was
deeply humbling, and al hough mi iga ion o e hical issues also
ex ended o he esea che s hemsel es, who occasionally ound
hemsel es in he ole o he quasi he apis , o e all he in e iew-
e s el a heigh ened sense o p i ilege o bea wi ness i s - hand o
pa icipan s’ pe sonal jou neys h ough he pandemic.
As a esea ch eam we sha ed a sense o esponsibili y o ell ou
in e iewees’ s o ies accu a ely and au hen ically, and o cap u e
he eali y o hei li ed expe iences in a way ha migh e en ually
e ec posi i e change. We can only hope ha we ha e achie ed his;
bu ul ima ely, he only alid judges o his will be hem as pa ici-
pan s in ou esea ch and you as eade s o his book.
S uc u e and o e iew o he book
The s uc u e o he book is in ended o le he esea ch indings
b ea he a li le and o o e a ailo ed ou e o indi idual eade
in e es s h ough he di e en chap e s, which a e o ganised by
wo k s and o a o m/ sub- sec o .3 The excep ions o his a e his
in oduc o y chap e , and he inal chap e , whe e we summa ise
he co e indings and highligh he implica ions o u u e esea ch,
policy de elopmen and cul u al sec o p ac ice as we eme ge om
he pandemic.
Chap e 1 aces he key de elopmen s in cul u al policy ac oss
he ou UK na ions since he s a o he COVID- 19 pandemic.
I p o ides an o e iew o policy esponses and in e en ions a
13In oduc ion
13
egional and na ional le els, cha ing he na ional policy landscape
o e he imescale o he pandemic and highligh ing he implica-
ions o cul u al sec o eco e y. The chap e d aws on desk- based
policy analysis a a na ional and egional le el, consul a ion wi h
key policy s akeholde s, and in e iews wi h policy- make s, cul-
u al wo ke s and eelance s ep esen ing pe spec i es om music,
museums, es i als and hea e ac oss he ou UK na ions. I inds
ha while he e a e commonali ies be ween hei na ional go e n-
men esponses, e en as he u moil and changing condi ions o he
pandemic dis up ed he o dina y p ocess o policy decision- making,
he e we e also di e ences guided by he dis inc i e o ganising log-
ics o ‘policy assemblages’ (P ince, 2010).
Chap e 2 explo es he cul u al sec o h ough he lens o
longe - e m ends in he wo k o ce, p ima ily ocused on he long-
s anding and s uc u al inequali ies cha ac e is ic o cul u e in he
UK. The chap e shows he impac o lockdown, and he subsequen
a emp s o a es he sp ead o he i us, on di e ing pa s o he
cul u al indus ies, no ing he dis inc pa e ns in publishing, ilm
and ele ision and he pe o ming a s. The analysis e eals how
each sub- sec o expe ienced di e en consequences, o example
inc eased demand o wo king om home in publishing compa ed
o signi ican losses o employmen in he pe o ming a s, wi h di -
e en dilemmas o he o ganisa ions, businesses and wo ke s who
cons i u e hese sec o s.
Chap e 3 in es iga es how audiences and he wide UK pop-
ula ion ha e engaged wi h cul u al con en du ing he pandemic,
in bo h li e and digi al spaces. I p esen s, con ex ualises and dis-
cusses he indings o he Cul u al Pa icipa ion Moni o , a bespoke
longi udinal acking su ey o he UK popula ion ha analy-
ses changing digi al engagemen habi s and a i udes owa ds e-
engagemen in li e e en s. The chap e also o e s an analysis o
Twi e da a sha ed ac oss wo hash ags, #Cul u eInQua an ine
and #MuseumA Home, in o de o explo e he pa ame e s o
engagemen be ween cul u al ins i u ions and membe s o he pub-
lic o e he pandemic. I explo es he popula i y o con en h ough
a hema ic lens, as well as by one, be o e explo ing how he sample
connec s wi h o he deba es a he ime. This esea ch is signi ican
because i e eals wha seemed o wo k, and wha wo ked less well,
as s a egies o engagemen du ing he pandemic. I ells a s o y
14 Pandemic cul u e
abou he kinds o con en and in e ac ion use s ound aluable and
unpacks how we can unde s and and a icula e ha alue du ing
a ime o c isis. I also sugges s how cul u al in e ac ion may ha e
shi ed du ing he pandemic in ways ha could be meaning ul in he
longe e m i ins i u ions ha e he capaci y o build on hose de el-
opmen s. The chap e concludes by assessing longe - e m ends in
audience beha iou and engagemen and by explo ing he implica-
ions o hese ends o a is s, cul u al o ganisa ions, unde s and
policy- make s.
Chap e 4 in es iga es how England’s hea e sec o a ed o e
he cou se o he pandemic. Du ing he COVID- 19 c isis, he
sec o was o ced in o making and accele a ing changes o he
s a egies and modes i uses o make wo k and o engage wi h
i s audiences. This unsu p isingly in ol ed a s ong ocus on dig-
i al dis ibu ion and adap a ion, which, alongside he en o ced
and epea ed closu e o buildings, challenged o ganisa ions o all
scales o make adical decisions abou hei business models and
o ackle issues o p oduc i i y, quali y, capaci y and skills ha
will ha e signi ican implica ions o policy, managemen and
aining.
Lockdown expe iences o making and consuming hea e ha e
aised impo an ques ions a ound he ole o physical spaces, o
sha ed o synch onous expe ience and de ini ions o au hen ici y,
and ega ding audience pe cep ions o he ela i e alue o digi al
and li e pe o mance. They ha e d awn close a en ion o inequal-
i ies o access o all kinds. Some o ganisa ions ha e ‘lean in o’ hei
lea ning and pa icipa ion unc ions wi h he aim o main aining
and some imes deepening audience ela ionships ha o he wise
may ha e been ac u ed du ing he c isis. This ac i i y e lec s he
in ensi ied a en ion ha has been paid owa ds he social and ci ic
ole o hea e. Chap e 4 examines his e olu ion, highligh ing
some o he con e gences and di e gences wi hin he hea e sec o
and be ween i and o he cul u al sec o s. In so doing, i builds on
esea ch engaging wi h he concep o cul u al alue and he public
ole o a s and cul u e, and wi h he ‘ ela ional u n’ in audience
engagemen (Walmsley, 2019).
Chap e 5 aces he impac o COVID- 19 on cul u al es i als
in Sco land. I is based p ima ily on a se ies o in e iews and con-
e sa ions ca ied ou in 2020 and 2021 wi h es i al p oduce s,
15In oduc ion
15
di ec o s and o ganise s. The chap e p esen s indings ha illu-
mina e he di e en esponses ha es i als implemen ed du ing
he pandemic om mo ing o hyb id models o li e and digi al
con en o und aising o local oodbanks. These shi s in wo k-
ing p ac ices ha e undamen ally b ough in o ques ion he ole o
es i als wi hin hei communi ies and his chap e conside s how
digi al and hyb idised p og amming, pe o ming and ga he ing
ha e changed es i als’ app oaches o u u e planning, s a egy and
audience engagemen .
Chap e 6 aces he impac o COVID- 19 on a s and cul u al
ac i i y in No he n I eland h ough he lens o eme ging and col-
labo a i e app oaches o leade ship. I d aws p incipally om
a se ies o p ac i ione in e iews and discussions ca ied ou in
2020 and 2021, combining he knowledge o a ange o o ganisa-
ional leade s wi h ha o c ea i e eelance s and policy- make s.
The au ho s examine he ole and na u e o wha cons i u es
leade ship wi hin he No he n I ish cul u al economy. Al hough
exace ba ed by he c isis, he ensions o how cul u al leade ship
is ecognised and de ined p e- da e he pandemic and a e in insi-
cally linked o conce ns o ep esen a ion and conside a ion in
egional, na ional and subna ional policy s uc u es and wi hin
he sys ems o a s and cul u al p ac ices. By poin ing o whe e
leade ship has eme ged in new o mo e s iden o ms, he chap e
equally poin s o whe e i has been absen , excluded o igno ed.
Th ough analysing hese eme gen o ms o collabo a i e lead-
e ship, he au ho s sugges ways in which hese p ac ices could
shape he u u e di ec ion o cul u al policy- making in No he n
I eland.
Chap e 7 in es iga es he e ec ha he pandemic, lockdown
and he subsequen suppo measu es had on he sc een sec o in
Wales. I does so by ocusing on he challenges acing he wo k o ce,
including he impac o COVID- 19 on people’s wo king p ac ices,
inancial si ua ions and men al heal h. The chap e also analyses
di e en o ganisa ional app oaches o lockdown, he eme gency
unding made a ailable o ilm and TV p o essionals in Wales, and
he eme ging signs o pola isa ion in he sec o .
Chap e 8 builds on and con ibu es esh empi ical esea ch o
he exis ing discou se on cul u al alue by examining he heigh ened
ci ic esponsibili y iden i ied in a s ins i u ions in he no h- eas

16 Pandemic cul u e
and no h- wes o England in esponse o he pandemic. The no h
o England was hi pa icula ly ha d by he pandemic, expe ienc-
ing ex ended lockdowns and high- ie es ic ions. F om in e iews
wi h o e hi y galle y, museum and a s wo ke s in hese egions,
including eelance s and a is - led o ganisa ions, he au ho s
iden i y an inc ease in communi y engagemen and ou each om
galle ies and museums in he no h o England du ing pe iods o
lockdown. The chap e examines he communi y engagemen and
ou each ac i i ies p o ided by hese ins i u ions and asks: How
do galle ies and museums p o ide suppo du ing unp eceden ed
imes? Whom do galle ies and museums se e? Who bene i s om
his p o ision, and can i be sus ained in he long e m? Wha a e
he implica ions o he wo k o ce, managemen and business mod-
els o galle ies and museums? How do hese p ac ices in o m new
na a i es o ‘le elling up’ and pos - pandemic eco e y wi hin a eas
al eady highligh ed o in es men ? In esponding o hese unda-
men al ques ions abou he ci ic esponsibili y o a s ins i u ions
in imes o c isis, he chap e unde akes a close analysis o h ee
case s udies. These include a la ge galle y, a g oup o museums and
a small in e disciplina y a s o ganisa ion, all based in he no h
o England.
Chap e 9 conside s he impac o COVID- 19 on he a s and
cul u al indus ies om a place- based pe spec i e, ocusing on
a speci ic geog aphy, he ci y egion o G ea e Manches e , and
he social and poli ical ela ionships ha comp ise i s cul u al
ecology and policy in as uc u e. Following a cul u al ecosys-
ems app oach, which ecognises he complex and in e connec ed
ma ix o ac o s in ol ed wi hin c ea i e and cul u al ecologies, he
au ho s explo e how he pandemic has a ec ed he deli e y o local
cul u al s a egies wi hin he i s de ol ed English ci y egion, and
how na ional policy esponses, such as Cul u e Reco e y Funds,
ha e been ecei ed and ope a ionalised locally.
The chap e ocuses on h ee in e sec ions o policy, cul u e
and place o in e oga e u he he poli ical, socio- economic,
spa ial and loca ional dimensions ha unde pin he esponse and
eco e y plans o local go e nance. These ‘mini case s udies’ con-
ce n: (a) models o cul u al leade ship and coo dina ion wi hin
he local sec o o suppo eelance s; (b) policy- led esponses
17In oduc ion
17
o suppo c ea i i y wi hin social ca e and olun a y se ings,
h ough c ea i e ca e ki s; and (c) si e- speci ic cul u al eco e y
planning and cul u al p og amming, including he de elopmen
o C ea i e Imp o emen Dis ic s in G ea e Manches e dis-
ic owns.
The concluding chap e d aws oge he he co e hemes eme g-
ing om he analyses p esen ed in he p e ious chap e s. I o e s
a c i ical o e iew o eme ging indings; highligh s no able a eas
o syne gy and di e gence be ween di e en sec o s, a o ms,
sizes, scales and loca ions o cul u al o ganisa ion; and iden i ies
he implica ions o cul u al managemen and policy. Re lec ing
on he b oade socio- poli ical con ex , he chap e e iews he
global con ex o he pandemic and discusses he ex en o which
he UK con ex and expe ience migh be said o be excep ional.
I in es iga es aspec s o di e gence and con e gence be ween
di e en a o ms and how hese ela e o ins ances o con i-
nui y and change, o example by highligh ing he con inui y o
inequali y in he sec o and no ing ha he pandemic has no
changed he seemingly en enched economic a ionalism o cul-
u al policy.
The inal chap e also e lec s back on he key indings o he
esea ch, including he sec o ’s pi o o ci ic engagemen and digi-
al dis ibu ion, and d aws ou he implica ions o such phenomena
o policy, managemen and u u e esea ch – no leas o cul u al
da a and leade ship. Finally, i discusses how he sec o migh
become mo e ele an , ep esen a i e, equi able and ‘ egene a i e’
(Walmsley e al., 2022).
No es
1 COVID- 19: Impac s on he cul u al indus ies and implica ions o
policy (Re e ence AH/ V00994X/ 1).
2 The Audience Agency ecei ed addi ional unding o enable i o con-
inue he su ey beyond he li e ime o ou unded esea ch.
3 Reade s who would also like a ch onological summa y o e iew o
he esea ch migh like o ead he Cul u e in C isis epo (Walmsley
e al., 2022), a ailable a : www.cul u eh i e.co.uk/ CVI e sou ces/ cul u e-
in- c i sis- impa c s- o - co id- 19/
18 Pandemic cul u e
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Neelands, J., Bel io e, E., Fi h, C. and Ha , N. 2015. En iching B i ain:
cul u e, c ea i i y and g ow h ( epo o he Wa wick Commission on
he Fu u e o Cul u al Value). Co en y: Uni e si y o Wa wick.
O’Conno , J. 2020. A and cul u e a e Co id- 19. 9 Ap il. Wake in
F igh . [Online]. [Accessed 27 Janua y 2023]. A ailable om: h ps://
wake inal a m.blog/ 2020/ 04/ 09/ a - and- cul u e- a e - co id- 19/
P ince, R. 2010. Policy ans e as policy assemblage: making policy o
he c ea i e indus ies in New Zealand. En i onmen and Planning A:
Economy and Space. 42(1), pp.169– 186.
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Sage.
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Twi e . New Media & Socie y. 13, pp.788– 806.
England No he n I eland Sco land Wales
Janua y
2021
6 Janua y:
Lockdown
in oduced
6 Janua y: CRF
Round 2 opens
o applica ions
4 Janua y: Lockdown
announced
17 Janua y: SG
announces eme gency
suppo o £3m o
h ee majo a s
o ganisa ions
22 Janua y: Na ional
Pa ne ship o
Cul u e announced
Feb ua y 23 Feb ua y: ACE
publishes
oadmap
o easing o
es ic ions
o a s and
cul u e
24 Feb ua y: NI
Execu i e in oduces
£6.9m o
suppo
indi idual
a is s as pa
o Indi idual
Eme gency
Resilience
P og amme
17 Feb ua y: Ha dship
Fund o C ea i e
F eelance s and
Sc een Ha dship
Fund £9m
17 Feb ua y:
Ex ension o Pi o al
E en Business Fund/
E en s Indus y
Suppo Fund £8.5m
23 Feb ua y:
SG publishes S a egy
F amewo k Upda e
o eopening
17 Feb ua y:
A s Council
Wales opens
Connec
and Flou ish
2 £2.7m
(o £5m)
10 Feb ua y:
F eelance
Fund
ex ended
by £8.9m
19 Feb ua y:
Res ic ions
eased
Ma ch
UK wide
3 Ma ch: UK Go e nmen p esen he 2021 Budge wi h SEISS ounds 4 and 5
22 Ma ch: CRF Round 2 ex ension announced o suppo up o Sep embe 2021
Ap il 6 Ap il: A s
Council Wales
Fund o
o ganisa ions
opens
Ap il
UK wide
17 Ap il: DCMS launches E en s Resea ch P og amme wi h pilo e en a Wo ld
Snooke Championships
May
UK wide
10 May: The ou Chie Medical O ice s o he UK ag ee o educe he UK
COVID- 19 ale le el om 4 o ale le el 3
May 15 May: E en s
Resea ch
P og amme
pilo e en a
FA Cup Final
18 May: Task o ce
and cul u al
s a egy
announced
17 May: Mos o
Sco land is le el 2,
allowing li e enue
opening
10 May: Welsh
Go e nmen
announce
e en s pilo
se ies
Table1.2 (Con .)

England No he n I eland Sco land Wales
June 21 June: DCMS
E en s
Resea ch
P og amme
i s epo
published
17 June: C ea i e
Sco land Cul u e
O ganisa ions &
Venue Reco e y Fund
Round 2, £25m
25 June: NHS
Co id passes
in oduced
Table1.2 (Con .)
Table 1.3 Cul u e Reco e y Fund e enue unding o DCMS sec o s
showing dis ibu ion by a m’s leng h body (England only)
A m’s- leng h body Funding po Sub- sec o s a ge ed Amoun (£m)
A s Council
England
Cul u e
Reco e y
Fund (G an s)
Na ional Po olio O ganisa ions
(NPOs¹) – o ganisa ions ha ecie e
subs an ial unding om ACE
118
Non- Na ional Po olio O ganisa ions 209
ACE- acc edi ed museums and
museums wo king owa ds
acc edi a ion²
137
Music enues – independen g ass oo s
music enues, including indoo
a enas and conce halls
36
A s Council England o al 500
His o ic England
and he
Na ional
Lo e y
He i age Fund
He i age Res a
and Rescue
G an s (CRF
o He i age)
He i age si es, enues o a ac ions
in England, and o ganisa ions
managing cul u ally signi ican
asse s o collec ions (including non-
acc edi ed museums)
92³
B i ish Film
Ins i u e
Independen
Cinema
G an s
Independen cinemas ha p o ide a
yea - ound p og amme
30
To al a ailable in phase 1 o England 622
Con ingency 258
Re enue g an s o al 880
1The a s o ganisa ions, museums and lib a ies, anging in size and loca ion, in which A s
Council England (ACE) in es s.
2Museum acc edi a ion is he benchma k o a well- un museum. Acc edi a ion is made by
ACE. The e a e abou 1,700 acc edi ed museums in England. Acc edi ed museums and hose
wo king owa ds acc edi a ion had o apply o CRF h ough ACE. All o he museums could
apply o he CRF o He i age.
3£2m o his was o he A chi ec u al He i age Fund and up o £2m was o digi al suppo
and business suppo p og ammes.
Sou ce: Na ional Audi O ice analysis o he Depa men o Digi al, Cul u e, Media & Spo ’s
documen a ion.
28 Pandemic cul u e
p o iding o e £100m in Eme gency Funding o nea ly a housand
applican s in Sp ing 2020, including 7,484 indi idual c ea i e p ac-
i ione s and 2,374 o ganisa ions) (SQW, 2022, p.1).
Phase Two: a emp ing eco e y
The UK Go e nmen eased some es ic ions in May 2020 in
England as pa o a pandemic eco e y s a egy (Cabine O ice,
2020), howe e , hese we e quickly e e sed o a oid a po en ial
‘second wa e’ (Home O ice, 2020a). Al hough ‘Cul u al Renewal
Task o ce’ led by Lo d Mendoza was es ablished by he Depa men
o Digi al, Cul u e, Media and Spo (DCMS) Sec e a y o S a e
(DCMS, 2020a) na ional suppo did no ully eme ge un il July
2020, when he £1.57bn Cul u e Reco e y Fund (CRF) was
announced, he single la ges in es men in he c ea i e and cul-
u al sec o s e e made in he UK (DCMS, 2020b). Un il hen, he
high deg ee o unce ain y led o a conside able numbe o open
le e s and campaigns by sec o ad oca es which con inued o hold
he UK go e nmen s o accoun h oughou he pandemic pe iod
(see, o example, Equi y, 2020; The S age, 2020). The CRF was
c ea ed in esponse o e idence o he se e i y o he impac o he
pandemic on he sec o , wi h DCMS es ima ing ha he cul u al
sec o had seen comme cial income all by 95 pe cen since Ma ch
2020, p o isionally aiming o ensu e su i al o a a ge 75 pe
cen o hose o ganisa ions a isk o alling o he ‘cli - edge’ o
inancial ailu e by Sep embe 2020 (NAO, 2021, p.5). O e seen
by a new Cul u e Reco e y Boa d, wi h e enue and capi al g an s
and epayable loans dis ibu ed ia he a m’s- leng h bodies wi hin
he ou na ions, CRF calcula ions we e based on a wo s - case
scena io assump ion ha social dis ancing migh emain in place
un il Ma ch 2021. The c i e ia o shaping unding decisions we e
es ablished b oadly acco ding o wo p inciples: i s ly, cul u al
alue and signi icance, such as o ganisa ions ecognised as excel-
len by hei pee s o asse s ha a e deemed na ionally impo an
o i eplaceable and, secondly, by hei signi icance o place, o
example, by p o iding access o pa icipa ion o audiences o con-
ibu ion o c ea i e economies and/ o local policy agendas (NAO,
2021, p.13). Al hough he loan scheme emained unde subsc ibed,
29Cul u al policy and he pandemic
29
he g an schemes we e hea ily o e subsc ibed. By Feb ua y 2021,
a ound £495m had been paid ou o ecipien s, o he o al o
£830m awa ded o he DCMS sec o s, which included £622m e -
enue unding and £120m capi al awa ds, plus a u he £100m p o-
ided o he a m’s- leng h bodies as g an in aid (NAO, 2021, p.20);
see Table 1.3.
The iming and policies o eopening cul u al enues di e ed
ac oss England, Sco land, Wales and No he n I eland, p ima -
ily d i en by moni o ing o localised case a es, wi h enues in
No he n I eland and Sco land eopening in July 2020, while hose
in England we e delayed om eopening un il mid- Augus 2020. By
Sep embe 2020, as new a ian s o he i us eme ged, na ional and
localised es ic ions we e ein oduced, las ing h oughou he win-
e in o 2021, and despi e a emp s by he ou na ions o ha mo-
nise egula ion o e Ch is mas (Welsh Go e nmen , 2020a) he e
emained dis inc i e app oaches ac oss he UK. A 10pm cu ew o
pubs and es au an s, he ‘ ule o six’ (Home O ice, 2020b) and
he Ea Ou o Help Ou scheme (Hu on, 2020) we e in oduced
in England in quick succession, c ea ing u he con usion, and in
some cases u he spikes in cases. On 31 Oc obe 2020, he UK
P ime Minis e announced a new England- wide lockdown, Wales
mo ed in and ou o localised lockdowns (Welsh Go e nmen ,
2020b), while No he n I eland saw es ic ions in oduced o a
ou - week ‘ci cui b eake ’ which o ced cul u al enues o close on
19 No embe 2020 (Execu i e O ice o No he n I eland, 2020).
In Sco land, es ic ions on social ga he ings we e ein oduced
wi h local lockdowns om No embe 2020 which, coupled wi h
a na ional lockdown coming in o o ce o e he new yea , encou -
aged he launch o speci ic unds a ge ing Sco ish cul u al enues
(C ea i e Sco land, 2020).
A his ime, i emained unclea when he u lough scheme
would end, and he e was con inued lack o guidance on how en-
ues migh eopen sa ely. Reopening wi h educed capaci y bu a
ull s a complemen placed a huge inancial s ain on cul u al
o ganisa ions ha we e al eady acing u he loss o income a a
adi ionally busy ime o yea . The u lough scheme was e en ually
ex ended in No embe 2020 h ough o Ma ch 2021, wi h calls
o ex end and plug he ongoing gaps in he SEISS le unheeded
despi e g owing lobbying om p essu e g oups, wo k o ce
Table 1.4 Policy in e en ions, Summe o No embe 2021
England No he n I eland Sco land Wales
July
2021
19 July: ‘F eedom
Day’ ending
o Co id
es ic ions –
English cul u al
enues eopen
27 July: Phased
eopening o enues
and emo al o
es ic ions
13 July:
Sel - isola ion
g an s o
£500 o
low income
19 July: Sco land
mo es o ale
le el 0
Augus 16 Augus : CRF
opens Con inui y
Suppo o
Rounds 1 and 2
ecipien s
23 Augus : £750k
Sco ish
Go e nmen (SG)
Tou ing Fund o
li e music
5 Augus : Wales
mo es o
ale le el 0
Sep embe 16 Sep embe :
No he n I eland
(NI_ Execu i e
ans e s £500k
oA s and
BusinessNI
7 Sep embe :
S a egic ision
and policy
e iew o
cul u e
announced
10 Sep embe :
SG launch
Public Lib a ies
COVID
eco e yFund
Oc obe 13 Oc obe : A s
Council o
No he n I eland
(ACNI) launches
£750k Heal h &
Sa e y Capi al
P og amme
1 Oc obe : SG
Co id
ce i ica iono
accina ion o
enue access
11 Oc obe :
NHS Co id
Passes o
la ge e en s,
nigh clubs
No embe
UK wide
27 No embe : Omic on a ian de ec ed in UK
29 No embe : CRF
Round 2 olling
p og amme
16 No embe : SG
upda e Sco land’s
S a egy
F amewo k
29 No embe :
Omic on
de ec ed in
Sco land
15 No embe :
NHS Co id
Pass o
cinema,
hea es and
conce halls
31Cul u al policy and he pandemic
31
ne wo ks, a m’s leng h bodies, unde s and cul u al o ganisa ions
(Bec u, 2020). A emp s o suppo wo k o ce de elopmen we e
hinde ed by hese u bulen condi ions; o example, he launch o
he UK Go e nmen ’s ‘Kicks a ’ scheme which encou aged young
people o ake up app en iceships, including in he c ea i e and
cul u al sec o s, yielded mixed esul s (Powell, 2022). Meanwhile,
inancial suppo h ough g an s and loan schemes con inued,
wi h he opening o CRF Round 2 in Janua y 2021 (A s Council
England, n.d.).
Phase Th ee: con inuing unce ain y
In Feb ua y 2021, a u he oadmap ou o he lockdowns was
published by he P ime Minis e ’s O ice (2021), wi h sec o -
speci ic guidance added by he DCMS (Woodhouse and Hu on,
2021). The go e nmen budge s a emen in Ma ch con i med
an ex ension o he SEISS and an upli in unding o he cul u e
depa men (DCMS, 2021a). A esea ch p og amme was launched
in Ap il 2021 o es he impac o holding la ge- scale e en s unde
ce ain condi ions, and unde pinned u he guidance as new a i-
an s we e beginning o ake hold in he UK (DCMS, 2021b). By
May 2021, Wales and mos o Sco land had mo ed in o Le el2
es ic ions, allowing hea es, cinemas and li e enues o e-
open (Welsh Go e nmen , 2021). Howe e , ull eopening ac oss
he whole o he UK was no pe mi ed un il he summe , when
he so- called ‘F eedom Day’ on 19 July 2021 saw he emo al o
all Co id- ela ed es ic ions in England agains a backd op o
inc eased ansmission a es and a p ime minis e in qua an ine
(James, 2021). This appa en change in logic was empe ed poli i-
cally by a b oadly success ul ollou o he accina ion p og amme,
and a high up ake o ‘boos e jabs’ educing he isk o se ious
illness and hospi alisa ion. I also p o ided he means o p opose
sa e enue opening, wi h accina ion ce i ica ion schemes ialled
in Sco land and Wales in ‘high- isk enues’ such as hea es, cin-
emas and music enues (Mo is, 2021).
The hi d ound o he CRF opened in Augus 2021 and saw
a u he £100m in con inui y and eco e y g an s. The au umn
budge in Oc obe 2021 included unding o boos cul u e in local

32 Pandemic cul u e
communi ies and on he high s ee . I also con i med empo a y
ex ensions o ax elie s o hea es, o ches as, museums and gal-
le ies, plus u he suppo o c ea i e indus ies h ough schemes
such as he Li e E en s Reinsu ance Scheme and he Film & TV
P oduc ion Res a Scheme, which we e success ul in eins a ing
cul u al p oduc ion (RSM, 2022) despi e he ini ial delays in hei
incep ion. Howe e , a e eigh een mon hs o u moil, in No embe
2021, he i s cases o he Omic on a ian we e de ec ed in he
UK, and ansmission a es soa ed back up. Despi e he subs an ial
injec ion o public unds, e ol ing models o sa e e u n o cul u al
enues, and g owing unde s anding o he speci ic issues caused
and e ealed by he pandemic conce ning wo k o ce and business
model p eca i y, he unce ain ies o a s and cul u al p oduce s
and consume s, as well as he challenges o policy- make s, we e
se o con inue.
In he nex sec ion we examine u he he a ie y o policy
esponses, beginning wi h he dis inc i e challenges in Sco land,
Wales and No he n I eland, be o e conside ing he signi ican and
cen al ole o Wes mins e in se ing policy (and he o ic) no jus
o England bu ac oss he UK. We hen u n b ie ly o discuss he
implica ions o hese esponses o unde s anding cul u al policy in
he UK con ex .
Tailo ing in e en ions in Sco land
The Sco ish Go e nmen ’s ambi ions o cul u e p io o he pan-
demic we e laid ou in a new cul u al s a egy, published on 28
Feb ua y 2020. The esul o leng hy sec o s akeholde consul a-
ion las ing se e al yea s (Sco ish Go e nmen , 2020), he policy
a icula ed a nuanced ision o cul u e ha is esponsi e o he
di e se his o ies, geog aphies, cul u es and communi ies o he
na ional popula ion (Sco ish Go e nmen , 2020, p.3). Al hough
de i ed be o e he beginning o he pandemic, he policy p o ided
a empla e o s a ed aims and ac ion planning, and p inciples o
place, inclusion and cul u al democ acy, which we e used o guide
he na ional esponse.
Much o his was deli e ed h ough he na ional a m’s- leng h
body o cul u e C ea i e Sco land, who dis ibu ed £85.3m in
33Cul u al policy and he pandemic
33
eme gency unding on behal o he na ional go e nmen be ween
2020 and 2021 (EKOS, 2022). As wi h A s Council England in
England, C ea i e Sco land was able o ac ahead o na ional leg-
isla i e policy, elaxing deli e y es ic ions o hei po olio o
Regula Funded O ganisa ions (RFOs) and edi ec ing exis ing
unds o p o ide eme gency suppo o he sec o , wi h £11m
o unding announced on 27 Ma ch. Howe e , whe e analysis o
eme gency unding in England has con i med ha ‘ elie lowed dis-
p opo iona ely o ins i u ions’ (de Peu e , Oakley and T usolino,
2022, p.8), Sco land’s ini ial eme gency esponse p io i ised sup-
po o indi iduals, wi h u he unding decisions de ailing sig-
ni ican dis inc ions ac oss he de ol ed na ional esponses wi hin
he UK.
P edominan ly unded by £97m eleased o Sco land h ough
he Ba ne o mula ollowing he announcemen o he Cul u e
Reco e y Fund,1 he pe iod a e July 2020 saw a p og amme o
eigh olling unds a ge ed a di e en a eas o he sec o . Some
ou comes o hese in e en ions a e unsu p ising. Glasgow and
Edinbu gh, he wo la ges ci ies in he coun y wi h he highes
concen a ion o RFOs and he la ges c ea i e wo k o ce, ben-
e i ed om he mos unding, ecei ing o e 50 pe cen o he
o al amoun dis ibu ed ac oss all unds wi h he wo highes
le els o inwa d in es men pe pe son (see Figu e 1.1). Beyond
hese headline igu es, howe e , he pic u e is mo e a ied. While
Glasgow and Edinbu gh domina ed gene al unds, such as he
£28m Cul u al O ganisa ions and Venues Reco e y Fund which
was open o comme cial and publicly unded o ganisa ions, a -
ge ed unds, such as he £24.5m Pe o ming A s Venue Relie
Fund o publicly unded hea es and pe o mance enues o
he £5.9m Cul u e Collec i e Fund o local c ea i e ne wo ks,
eached di e en a eas o he sec o , wi h a highe p opo ion o
unds going o a wide ange o local au ho i ies. Di ec suppo
o eelance s also con inued, wi h wo in- pa allel ha dship unds,
o alling £17m, eplacing he eme gency suppo es ablished in he
i s mon h o he pandemic. Deli e ed in pa ne ship wi h sec-
o bodies such as C a Sco land and Help Musicians Sco land,
hese p og ammes o e ed suppo o eelance s un il he end o
Ma ch 2021, accoun ing o 17 pe cen o he o al spend ac oss
all unds (EKOS, 2022, p.33).
34 Pandemic cul u e
A numbe o hese p og ammes ing enced g an s o non- RFO
o ganisa ions, eaching beyond exis ing unding pa e ns o p o-
ec local cul u al in as uc u es alongside he na ion’s lagship
asse s. Alongside his expansion, he e was no able ecogni ion
o c oss- sec o suppo h ough he es ablishmen o he Sco ish
Tou ism Eme gency Response G oup (STERG) wi h a £25m und
o suppo he eco e y o he ou ism indus y (STERG, 2021).
P ojec s ha impac ed cul u e and he i age h ough his und
we e p ima ily conce ned wi h en icing audiences h ough days
ou schemes and holiday ouche s. Howe e , he g oup was also
conce ned abou longe e m in as uc u e and capaci y building
Figu e 1.1 Dis ibu ion o eme gency cul u al eco e y unding pe head
ac oss Sco ish local au ho i y a eas, analysis by Ma k Taylo
Sou ce: C ea i e Sco land
35Cul u al policy and he pandemic
35
a ound sus ainable a el o he mo e emo e a eas o he highland
and islands pa icula ly o es i al a endance.
The deli e y o hese policies and he e iciency wi h which hey
we e able o achie e hei aims was signi ican ly a ec ed by ne -
wo ks, knowledges and indi idual and o ganisa ional capaci ies
as hey exis ed be o e he pandemic. P ima y esea ch in o how
es i als in Sco land a ed h oughou 2020 helps illus a e hese
dynamics, discussed below.
The es ic ions on social ga he ings had pa icula ly acu e
impac s o es i als. Addi ionally, while o he a eas we e se ed
wi h bespoke unding p og ammes, he e was no a ge ed suppo
o es i als, lea ing many o ganisa ions eeling o e looked and
unde suppo ed. Many o he in e iewees om es i als exp essed
us a ion a a lack o cohe en messaging om he Sco ish
Go e nmen , pa icula ly in ela ion o eligibili y and o changing
heal h and sa e y guidance, leading o conce ns ha he Sco ish
Go e nmen did no unde s and how he es i al sec o ope a ed.
In he absence o policy leade ship, ne wo ks o u al and smalle
es i als eso ed o pooling esou ces and knowledge, dissemina -
ing ad ice om o he es i als and indi iduals ha had managed o
ecei e guidance om ci il se an s.
One o he majo communica ion issues conce ned he eligibil-
i y c i e ia o eme gency unding and he employmen o eelanc-
e s. Fo many es i als, he collapse o box o ice income mean
ha hey we e applying o and ecei ing mo e public unding han
be o e he pandemic. One e ec o his in lux was ha o ganisa ions
we e wo king wi h un amilia inancial es ic ions, and es i als
ound hemsel es ha ing o seek cla i ica ion om he go e nmen
and unde s, wi h i egula wo king pa e ns and po olio wo k
o c ea i e and cul u al eelance s p o ing a pa icula challenge
(Tsioulakis and Fi zGibbon, 2020; Jones, 2022). This caused majo
delays o some es i als and logis ical p oblems when i came o
hi ing seasonal wo ke s, whose numbe s we e al eady deple ed due
o es ic ions on mo emen and a el. Eligibili y c i e ia also di -
e ed be ween eme gency unding p og ammes wi hou explana-
ion, leading o us a ion o es i al o ganisa ions despe a e o
ecei e unding o s op hem om going unde .
O cou se, hese expe iences a e no uni e sal. Th oughou
he pandemic, local au ho i ies ac ed as a p oxy o na ional
42 Pandemic cul u e
I eland. As a esul , i s ecommenda ions a e p ac i ione ocused
and deal wi h long- s anding issues a ound inaccessible and in lex-
ible unding (p.18). This app oach was no ably di e en o ha
o he DCMS bu had simila i ies wi h he gene al consensus in
bo h he Welsh and Sco ish Go e nmen s’ commi men s o ee-
lance s and indi iduals h ough mo e collabo a i e policy- making.
This close engagemen wi h decision- make s and success ul lob-
bying o mo e expe imen al and isk- aking in es men has led
o schemes such as he £4.7m Fu u e Sc eens No he n I eland
A Wo ks p og amme, which aims o inc ease he a ac ion and
e en ion o c ea i e wo ke s in local a s o ganisa ions by c ea ing
h ee- yea pos s (Moo e, 2022).
Policy, he o ic and Wes mins e
The imeline and accoun s o he de ol ed na ions abo e ecog-
nise he dominan ole o go e nmen in Wes mins e . I se s le els
o budge s and di ec ion o a el o policy app oaches and iscal
in e en ions which we e dis ibu ed by he de ol ed and local go -
e nmen s and a m’s- leng h bodies. I also o e ed guidance om
newly es ablished bodies such as he Cul u al Renewal Task o ce,
wi h some a ia ions in he iming o es ic ions and in he dis ibu-
ion and alloca ion o unds. While a he ime o w i ing he e i-
cacy o bo h p ocess and ou come o he a s and cul u al sec o is
s ill being e alua ed, wi hin he momen hese in e en ions ecei ed
in ense sc u iny and p omp ed deba es on social media and wi hin
sec o publica ions, which we a gue a e indica i e no only o policy
a ionale bu o he o ic. Amid he eddies o unce ain y and con-
inual p essu e o unding applica ions o s abilisa ion and eco e y
unding om na ional and local sou ces, ce ain discu si e momen s
ose o he su ace which e ealed p e ailing a i udes and ensions
conce ning he alue o a s, c ea i i y and cul u e wi hin na ional
public li e. These we e a icula ions o c isis, bu like he ou c ies
and mo emen s coalescing a ound he con empo aneous ac i -
ism o Black Li es Ma e , ollowing he mu de o Geo ge Floyd,
and he oppling s a ua y and cul u e ba les pi ched agains he
Na ional T us (see, o example, Henley, 2020; Aa ono i ch, 2021;
The Gua dian, 2021; Adesina, 2022), hese media ed momen s

43Cul u al policy and he pandemic
43
punc u ed any sense o cohe en and consensual na ional policy o
he a s and cul u al sec o in England, despi e he i al impo ance
and magni ude o he CRF and o he public unds.
Fo example, he A s Council England’s Eme gency Fund
scheme, apidly es ablished wi hin weeks a e he i s lockdown,
included he ea ma king o £90m ou o £160m o i s na ional
po olio, he o ganisa ions who a e in eceip o egula und-
ing om he a m’s- leng h body. This p o oked deba es abou he
ai ness o he unding o mula and eligibili y c i e ia, and accusa-
ions ha hese a ou ed ickle- down economics which neglec ed
o ganisa ions and places ou side o he egula unding ing ence
(Hill, 2020). Simila ly, he announcemen o he CRF scheme was
accompanied by a mis- s epped s a emen o commi men by he UK
Sec e a y o S a e o p io i ise he (p edominan ly London- based)
ins i u ions who we e ‘ he c own jewels o ou na ional li e’ (E ans,
2020). Such u e ances opened old wounds abou he me opoli an
bias o a s unding, bu also ep esen ed conce ns o he p eca i-
ous posi ion o c ea i e eelance ecologies who we e pe cei ed
o be doubly neglec ed by gene al iscal policy and a ge ed sec o
unds (Thompson, 2020). This conce n seemed jus i ied as he pan-
demic wo e on, when hose esponsible o hese policies appea ed
o unde mine he case o sec o suppo u he . In Oc obe 2020, a
poo ly conside ed campaign o encou age people o e ain in digi al
echnologies ea u ed an image o a balle dance wi h he cap ion
‘Fa ima’s nex job could be in cybe ’, causing acu e emba assmen
o Sec e a y o S a e Oli e Dowden (Baka e, 2020) and he hen
Chancello o he Excheque , Rishi Sunak, o back- ack on com-
men s abou adap a ion o su i al (Snow, 2020). Meanwhile, hose
who ecei ed CRF unding we e equi ed o sha e asse s ac oss hei
social media channels, publicly hanking he go e nmen o sup-
po h ough a #He eFo Cul u e hash ag, and agging a m’s- leng h
bodies, he T easu y and he DCMS (A s Council England, n.d.).
Responses om wi hin a s commen a y showed he exaspe a-
ion o a sec o who was wa ching i s business model slip h ough
i s inge s. A imes hose wi h leade ship oles seemed o simply
misunde s and how c ea i e p oduc ion wo ks, o example, unde -
es ima ing he lead ime o ‘opening up’ equi ed o hea es and
pe o ming a s in eco e y oadmaps (Billing on, 2020), o p o id-
ing c ipplingly delayed and inadequa e policy le e s o help es i als
44 Pandemic cul u e
and e en s wi h cancella ion insu ance (Jowe , 2022). The impo -
ance o a m’s- leng h bodies in p o iding expe ise and ela ionship
managemen a a local le el, in pa ne ship wi h local go e nmen
a s o ice s, ancho ins i u ions and local ne wo ks, was unde lined
by he us a ion wi h cen alised policy, as discussed in Chap e 5.
As he pandemic p og essed, Wes mins e u ned o policies o
egene a ion and economic eco e y, which aimed o add ess geo-
g aphical inequali ies in p oduc i i y unde he banne o he idea
o le elling up (DLUHC, 2022). A clus e o unds o capi al p o-
jec s and in as uc u e in es men was b ough oge he unde his
agenda, o ganised by place- based eligibili y c i e ia and p io i ising
p ojec s wi h cul u e and he i age hemes. The a ionale o alloca-
ion o unding shi ed om he need o s abilise a c i ically unde -
mined a s and cul u al sec o o he le e age ha a s and cul u e
can p o ide in aiding place eco e y:
In es men in cul u al asse s can eju ena e places, leading o posi i e
economic and social ou comes a a local le el. I can help o e ain
and g ow a highly skilled wo k o ce, a ac ou is s o bols e local
business, and p o ide oppo uni ies o g ow people and communi ies’
connec ions wi h places. (HM T easu y, 2021, p.12)
Fu he mo e, he enewed ocus on place, signalled also in he
c i e ia o CRF alloca ion, was iden i ied in he Le elling Up Whi e
Pape as a equi emen o deli e y by A s Council England, who
we e compelled o inc ease he numbe o si es o a ge ed in es -
men in hei P io i y Places scheme, om he i y- ou iden i ied
by hei Deli e y Plan o 109 local au ho i y a eas, all ou side o
G ea e London (ACE, 2022; DLUHC, 2022). While add essing
long- s anding issues o place inequali y in a s in es men in ‘le
behind’ places, his was a clea example o cen alised go e nmen
in e en ion wi h ami ica ions o he sanc i y o he a m’s- leng h
decision- making o A s Council England.
Implica ions and conclusion
As ou lined abo e, he un olding imeline o he pandemic shows he
une enness and agmen a ion o decision- making and policy in e -
en ions ac oss he UK, a imes apid and imely bu o en us a -
ingly delayed. The wa es and spikes o co ona i us cases d i en by
45Cul u al policy and he pandemic
45
new a ian s we e in e wo en wi h shi ing public heal h es ic ions
and iscal policies, in a emp s o con ol he sp ead o he i us and
mi iga e i s impac s on he na ions’ economies. Fo c ea i e wo ke s,
o ganisa ions and a s leade s his mean successi e app aisal and
eapp aisal o business models, audience con idence, ope a ional
s uc u es and alue p oposi ions, plus con inuous lobbying and
bidding o eme gency unding. Fo policy- make s his mean deci-
sions on he bo owing and dis ibu ion o public spending, making
calls on wha le els o a i ion we e pala able among he ha des - hi
sec o s and he o ms o mi iga ion ha would p o ec bo h publics
and economic u u es. I also eposi ioned he ole o expe ise and
e idence, wi hin a clima e o suspicion o he o me and cynicism
abou he la e , ollowing he clamou ing ise o ‘ ake news’ and
‘cul u e wa s’ in pos - EU- e e endum UK.
The policy esponses ha eme ged o e he cou se o he pan-
demic demons a e di e en app oaches and capabili ies wi hin
s a ec a a na ional, egional and local le els. They e eal disso-
nance be ween public heal h s a egies, economic policy and he
mi iga ion o he impac o hese s a egies on he a s and cul u al
sec o . Howe e , commonali ies be ween he ou na ions’ esponses
can be cha ac e ised b oadly wi hin he ollowing ca ego ies:
• Unp eceden ed injec ions o unds o secu e he su i al o he
sec o h ough eme gency and eco e y unding p ima ily a
he na ional le el, bu also locally.
• Relaxed c i e ia o eligibili y and use o unds, al hough wi h
anomalies and con o e sy o eelance s and o p io i ising
places.
• Policy in e en ions o suppo inno a ion and expe imen a ion
wi h new business models – e.g. hyb id deli e y, comme cialisa-
ion o s eaming and o he asse s.
• Ad hoc s a egies epu posing a s and cul u al ac i i ies and
spaces o ca e o new needs and alues e ealed by he pan-
demic – e.g. Cul u al Ca e Ki s, ood banks and ‘Nigh ingale
Cou s’ in hea es.
• Policies ha con inue o ins umen alise he alue o cul u e
and a ach i o o he policy objec i es – e.g. le elling up, c ea-
i e imp o emen dis ic s, local high s ee eco e y plans.
The e we e a ia ions howe e , which we a gue e lec he dis inc
policy assemblages (P ince, 2010) which ad oca e and media e
speci ic a ionales o decision- making, and which ha e di ec and
46 Pandemic cul u e
indi ec consequences o cul u al and c ea i e indus ies. A di e -
en momen s in he pandemic hese a ionales we e d awn on and
ins an ia ed wi hin policy guidance, such as he le elling up p o-
spec us, and in e ac ed wi h local eco e y plans which highligh ed
he ole o cul u al and c ea i e indus ies in a ac ing inwa d
in es men and agglome a ion. The u moil o he pandemic has
also b ough oge he , o pe haps mo e ap ly collapsed he bound-
a ies be ween, disc e e a ionales o cul u al policy- making. Fo
example, he aspi a ions o he de ol ed na ions o UBI o a -
is s p io i ise pa icula a ionales o policy in e en ions wi hin
c ea i e and cul u al indus ies ha we e embedded in hei pol-
icy assemblages, e en when us a ed by he cen alised con ol
om Wes mins e . Ul ima ely, COVID- 19 p o ed o be a de ice o
e ealing he di e gence o cul u al go e nance ac oss he egions
and na ions o he Uni ed Kingdom, as well as he unequal capaci y
o di e en places o suppo s a egies o eco e y.
No es
1 The Ba ne o mula, named a e Chie Sec e a y o he T easu y Joel
Ba ne , who in oduced i in 1979, p o ides a mechanism o se ing
he budge s o public monies om Wes mins e o he de ol ed go e n-
men s o Sco land, Wales and No he n I eland. The calcula ion is based
on he p e ious yea ’s igu es by budge line combined wi h compa able
pe capi a spending in England; de ol ed budge s a e no ing enced,
allowing lexibili y in he decision o e hei alloca ion. Fo a s and
cul u al de ol ed spending, he p opo ion o Cul u e, Media and Spo
unding which is de ol ed o alloca ion is be ween 68 pe cen and 70
pe cen . Howe e , du ing he co ona i us pandemic he me hod o
alloca ing unds was changed o allow addi ional money o be eleased
wi h gua an eed amoun s o he de ol ed na ions, a oiding delays in
decision- making a Wes mins e (Ins i u e o Go e nmen , 2020).
2 See Chap e 6 o u he discussion o he No he n I ish con ex .
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Jou nal o Music. 2021. C ea i e P ac i ione Bu sa y P og amme. [Online].
[Accessed 10 Janua y 2024]. A ailable om: h ps:// jou nal o mu sic.com/
lis ing/ 09- 03- 21/ c ea i e- p ac i io ne - bu s a y- p og a mme
Jowe , P. 2022. Low up ake o li e e en s insu ance scheme by es i als.
A s P o essional. [Online]. 23 June. [Accessed 8 Augus 2022]. A ailable
om: www.a sp o e ssio nal.co.uk/ news/ low- up ake- li e- e e n s- insu a nce-
sch eme- es i als
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ing c ea i e wo ke s back o No he n I eland. [Online]. [Accessed 22
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no h e n- i el and
51Cul u al policy and he pandemic
51
Mo is, S. 2021. Wales o equi e NHS Co id passes o a end nigh -
clubs and e en s. The Gua dian. [Online]. 17 Sep embe . [Accessed 23
Janua y 2023]. A ailable om: www. heg ua d ian.com/ uk- news/ 2021/
sep/ 17/ wales- o- equ i e- nhs- co id- pas ses- o- a end- nig h cl ubs- and- e e n s
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cul u al- eco e y- und- 2020- 2021
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co o na i us- 16- ma ch- 2020
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58 Pandemic cul u e
numbe o hou s wo ked each week. Figu e 2.4 shows he change in
he numbe o hou s wo ked by people in each o he c ea i e occu-
pa ional g oups, compa ing he second qua e o 2019 (Ap il– June)
wi h he second qua e o 2020 (Ap il– June). This compa ison is o
make su e he di e ences obse ed a e no jus due o seasonal a ia-
ions. This e eals a subs an ial inc ease in he numbe o people ha
epo ed wo king ze o hou s in he p e ious week.
The da a also show us ha he educ ion in hou s did no all
e enly ac oss he c ea i e indus ies: hose wo king in c a s, ilm,
Figu e 2.2 O e all size o he wo k o ce in c ea i e indus ies and
occupa ions in all ou qua e s o 2020

Figu e 2.3 Wo ke s in music and pe o ming a s, 2017– 2021
Figu e 2.4 Dis ibu ion o hou s wo ked, by occupa ional g oup
61Wha happened o he wo ke s?
61
TV, ideo, adio and pho og aphy, music, pe o ming and isual
a s and design we e he mos se e ely a ec ed. Mo eo e , July–
Sep embe 2020 da a indica es ha while he e was a sligh educ ion
in he pe cen age o wo ke s wo king ze o hou s in his la e pa
o he yea , he a e age numbe o hou s wo ked we e s ill a below
p e- lockdown le els. Thus, we can see ha wo ke s in he c ea i e
indus ies we e hi pa icula ly ha d by he COVID- 19 pandemic and
lockdown. Wi hin his segmen , indus ies and occupa ions such as
music and pe o ming a s su e ed mos , wi h a collapse in he num-
be o hou s wo ked and la ge numbe s o job losses.
Wha we e he na ional and egional di e ences, and
he di e ences be ween demog aphic g oups?
In his sec ion, again based on analysis o he ONS Labou Fo ce
Su ey o he i s h ee qua e s o 2020, we di e down below
he headline igu es o look a he impac on di e en places and
di e en g oups o wo ke s wi hin he c ea i e economy. Fi s ly,
we compa e he na ions and egions o he UK. We hen ocus on
disabled people; hose who a e younge ; and hose who ha en’
engaged in highe educa ion. This analysis complemen s wo k ha
looked a he impac on o he demog aphic g oups, such as women
o colou (TUC, 2021).
The na ions and egions o he UK
In 2020 he e we e no clea di e ences in ends be ween he ou
na ions. No ably, almos e e y na ion showed some le el o con ac-
ion in 2020 Q2 (Ap il o June 2020) as lockdown hi (Figu e 2.5),
and hen a small expansion as es ic ions eased and he economy
eopened in Q3 (July o Sep embe 2020). This sugges s ha he
size o he c ea i e labou o ce is esponsi e o he ype and ex en
o lockdown condi ions.
The excep ion is Q2 in Sco land, al hough we should bea in
mind ha he sample size is much smalle han o England, and
o he UK as a whole. Indeed, his is one a ea whe e we need much
mo e de ailed da a o gi e a mo e comp ehensi e pic u e o he
Figu e 2.5 Size o he wo k o ce in c ea i e indus ies and occupa ions 2019– 2022, by na ions
63Wha happened o he wo ke s?
63
Sco ish, Welsh and No he n I ish c ea i e economies. The ONS
Labou Fo ce Su ey collec s da a on he en i e UK economy, wi h
c ea i e indus ies and occupa ions ep esen ing a signi ican , bu
small, p opo ion o he economy as a whole. Wi hin ha , England
is by a he la ges single na ional economy. The da a o he c ea-
i e economies ou side o England he e o e ha e o be ea ed wi h
mo e cau ion as a esul o he smalle sample sizes.
These smalle sample sizes mean ha he e is limi ed scope o
u he egional b eakdowns wi hin Sco land, Wales and No he n
I eland. Howe e , we can o e a mo e de ailed analysis o England.
London and he Sou h Eas domina e he geog aphy o he c ea i e
indus ies in England. This holds ue e en i we accoun o hese
egions ha ing la ge popula ions. Fo mos egions he e is li le
e idence o la ge changes in numbe s om he beginning o lock-
down onwa ds. The e is some e idence o a pa icula decline in he
Sou h Eas , al hough we should bea in mind ha he unce ain y
a ound his is la ge, again due o small sample sizes.
Ne e heless, he na ion- le el da a does sugges ha he c ea i e
wo k o ce con ac ed and expanded in line wi h lockdown es ic-
ions. In o he sec o s o he economy (Taylo and Flo isson, 2020)
i appea ed ha hose in con ac ually insecu e jobs, o en wi h
lowe le els o educa ion, and in lowe - paid jobs, we e he mos
ulne able o job loss du ing his pe iod.
The impac on di e en demog aphic g oups
Be o e he pandemic, a ange o academic li e a u e was conce ned
ha he e we e clea inequali ies in c ea i e jobs based on people’s
demog aphic cha ac e is ics (see B ook, O’B ien and Taylo , 2020
o a summa y). The mos ecen analysis, published by he AHRC
C ea i e Indus ies Policy and E idence Cen e (Ca ey, O’B ien and
Gable, 2021a, 2021b), shows he long- s anding unde - ep esen a ion
o women, disabled people, hose om wo king- class backg ounds
and people o colou in he c ea i e sec o . In e ms o changes in
he ep esen a ion o women, disabled people and people o colou ,
i is oo ea ly o say i he pandemic has had any long- e m conse-
quences, al hough we know om TUC (2021) analysis ha he e
has been an immedia e, nega i e impac on employmen igu es.

64 Pandemic cul u e
The e is ai ly s ong e idence ha he p opo ion o people
wi hou deg ees wo king in c ea i e occupa ions is declining. The
pandemic saw a decline in he pe cen age o wo ke s in c ea i e
occupa ions wi hou deg ees om 37 pe cen in he yea be o e
lockdown o 34 pe cen in he six mon hs pos - lockdown, a di e -
ence which is s a is ically signi ican . Fo con ex , he pe cen age in
he o e all wo k o ce wi hou a deg ee is mo e han 60 pe cen .
Figu e 2.6 uses he longi udinal e sion o he Labou Fo ce
Su ey o examine whe he people who le c ea i e employ-
men we e disp opo iona ely d awn om ce ain demog aphic
g oups.5 The g aph illus a es ha while he e a e some di -
e ences, he ela i ely small sample sizes in he Labou Fo ce
Su ey o each sub- g oup means ha in mos cases we canno
be con iden whe he hese obse ed changes a e eal o due o
sampling a ia ion.
An impo an excep ion, and he one whe e we see he bigges
di e ence, is among wo ke s aged unde wen y- i e. Mo e han a
qua e (27 pe cen ) o c ea i e wo ke s unde he age o wen y-
i e le he c ea i e occupa ions a e lockdown, compa ed wi h
jus 14 pe cen o wo ke s aged wen y- i e and o e .6 Be o e he
pandemic i was also ypical o see a highe u no e o wo ke s
aged unde wen y- i e in and ou o he c ea i e indus ies com-
pa ed wi h wo ke s o o he ages. Howe e , among unde - wen y-
i es, he a e o lea ing since lockdown (a ound 15 pe cen ) was
highe han wha would ypically be expec ed.
We can see he bigges di e ences in he numbe o hou s wo ked.
In all demog aphic g oups he a e age numbe o hou s wo ked
dec eased, and he pe cen age o people wo king no hou s inc eased
ollowing he 2020 lockdown. Howe e , he e we e also clea demo-
g aphic di e ences in he magni ude o he changes.
The e was a g ea e inc ease in he p opo ion o people wo k-
ing ze o hou s o people unde he age o wen y- i e, and o
people wi hou a deg ee, as compa ed wi h hose o e he age o
wen y- i e, and wi h a deg ee, espec i ely. Fo hose unde he
age o wen y- i e, o e 30 pe cen o wo ke s epo ed wo king
ze o hou s. The e a e also highe p opo ions o women wo k-
ing ze o hou s, as well as disabled wo ke s. O cou se, many o
hese g oups we e al eady mo e likely o be wo king ze o hou s
p e- lockdown.
Figu e 2.6 Pe cen age o wo ke s lea ing c ea i e occupa ions pe qua e since lockdown
66 Pandemic cul u e
We also looked a changes in hou s wo ked o wo ke s in c ea-
i e indus ies and ound simila ends. In his case, we ound a
la ge inc ease in he p opo ion o disabled wo ke s wo king ze o
hou s compa ed wi h non- disabled wo ke s. These di e ences in
changes in hou s wo ked b oadly e lec wha we obse ed in he
o e all labou o ce. The excep ions a e ha unde - wen y- i es in
c ea i e occupa ions and disabled people in he c ea i e indus ies
do appea o ha e g ea e educ ions in wo king hou s han we see
in he labou o ce as a whole.
Al hough changes in o mal o sel - iden i ied employmen we e
no la ge, changes in he numbe s o people ac ually wo king sub-
s an ial hou s we e. To some ex en his migh indica e ha he
go e nmen suppo schemes we e e ec i e, in ha hey e ained
wo ke s wi hin he c ea i e sec o . Howe e , i does also sugges ha
ce ain demog aphic g oups we e mo e ulne able o losing hei
jobs in he i s mon hs o he pandemic. I is easy o see how his
could lead o e en g ea e inequali ies in he sec o . Addi ionally, i
seems clea ha younge wo ke s we e pa icula ly a ec ed. This is
o pa icula conce n ega ding u u e inequali y in he cul u al and
c ea i e sec o , po en ially he alding a missing gene a ion o c ea i e
and cul u al wo ke s.
The impac on eelance s
F eelance s a e especially impo an o he c ea i e economy, as
hey ep esen a high p opo ion o he wo k o ce compa ed o
o he pa s o he economy. A he end o 2019, ONS da a indi-
ca ed ha a ound 15 pe cen o he wo k o ce we e sel - employed,
bu he equi alen igu e was 30 pe cen o all c ea i e occupa ions
and an as onishing 88 pe cen o music, pe o ming and isual
a s occupa ions. F eelance s, as a subse o he sel - employed, a e
highly o e - ep esen ed in music, pe o ming and isual a s (27 pe
cen o he wo k o ce) as compa ed wi h c ea i e occupa ions (9
pe cen ) and he wo k o ce as a whole (3 pe cen ).7
In his sec ion, we explo e wha he ONS da a can ell us abou
he pligh o eelance s. We also d ill down o look a ends in
h ee clus e s o c ea i e occupa ions: ilm, TV, adio and pho og-
aphy; publishing; and music, pe o ming and isual a s. We ind
67Wha happened o he wo ke s?
67
ha he numbe o eelance s wo king in c ea i e jobs dec eased
signi ican ly du ing 2020. Mo eo e , he hou s wo ked by hose
eelance s who con inued o wo k ha e also seen a se e e decline.
Di e en demog aphic g oups ha e su e ed une enly, wi h younge
wo ke s and women su e ing job losses and educ ion o hou s a
g ea e a es han hei olde and male colleagues.
As wi h c ea i e occupa ions as a whole, eelance s in di e en
occupa ions had di e en expe iences o he impac s o he pandemic.
Fo hose in media occupa ions, he low o job losses seems o ha e
been s emmed wi h some e idence o eco e y. Fo hose in music,
pe o ming and isual a s, he c isis con inued well in o 2022.
F eelance s in all c ea i e occupa ions
Figu e 2.7 shows he numbe o eelance s wo king in c ea i e
occupa ions om he s a o 2018 o he end o 2020. The g ey
sec ions su ounding he cen al black line in he isualisa ion
shows he con idence in e als ha a e associa ed wi h sample sizes
in he Labou Fo ce Su ey. We can see ha a he end o 2020 he
numbe o eelance s wo king in c ea i e occupa ions was lowe
(a ound 156,000) han he beginning o 2018 (a ound 176,000).
This sugges s ha he end o g ow h in eelance employmen ,
as pa o a g owing c ea i e economy sec o , s alled as a esul o
he pandemic. In pa icula , he numbe o eelance s in all c ea i e
occupa ions declined by a ound 38,000 om he s a o he end
o 2020.
We see simila ends in he numbe s o hou s wo ked. By he
middle o 2020 he e was a s eep ise in he numbe s epo ing
wo king ze o hou s pe week in hei eelance c ea i e occupa-
ion (and an associa ed decline o hose epo ing wo king o e 32
hou s). The e was some e idence o eco e y in he numbe s epo -
ing wo king o e 32 hou s a week by he end o 2020.
The da a om he ONS Labou Fo ce Su ey sugges s ha he
c isis o eelance s hi di e en demog aphic g oups in une en
ways. Age clea ly ma e ed mos , wi h he decline in numbe s o
eelance wo ke s impac ing less se e ely on he oldes , and pe -
haps mos es ablished, eelance s. Figu e 2.8 summa ises ends
o di e en age g oups, highligh ing s eep declines in numbe s o
74 Pandemic cul u e
in he cul u al sec o . The popula ly called ‘ u lough’ scheme was
indeed i al o p o ec jobs in he cul u al and c ea i e indus ies.8
Howe e , as we saw in he p e ious sec ion, high numbe s o ee-
lance s we e no p o ec ed.
Fo his analysis we’ e used da a om he Business Impac o
COVID- 19 Su ey (BICS), a da a se ha , in Ma ch 2021, was
enamed he Business Insigh s and Condi ions Su ey. This su -
ey collec ed da a e e y wo weeks, using an online ques ionnai e
om a sample o jus unde 40,000 businesses. I began in Ap il
2020, asking ques ions abou a ange o business issues, includ-
ing inances, wo k o ce and ading con idence.9 The ONS classi ies
his da a se as ‘expe imen al’ and he e a e many easons o be
cau ious abou i . Fo example, i is olun a y, depending on he
goodwill o businesses o comple e he su ey ques ions. I does,
howe e , o e a unique insigh in o businesses’ expe iences o e he
pandemic pe iod.
The ONS epo s BICS indings by indus ial sec o . This was
inc edibly use ul in ge ing a pic u e o he UK economy o e he
cou se o he pandemic. Howe e , he e ha e been limi a ions in
e ms o unde s anding he expe ience o cul u al and c ea i e
indus ies. These limi a ions exis o h ee easons. Fi s ly, cul-
u al and c ea i e businesses and o ganisa ions a e included in
wo sepa a e indus ial sec o s in he ONS epo ing: in o ma ion
and communica ion; and a s, en e ainmen and ec ea ion. This
means ha we don’ ha e a single indica o o he sec o . Secondly,
businesses and o ganisa ions ha a e no cul u al and c ea i e a e
also included in hese wo indus ial sec o s. An ob ious example is
ha be ing shops, gol cou ses and gyms a e included in he ‘a s,
en e ainmen and ec ea ion’ ca ego y.
Figu e 2.11 shows he pe cen age o wo ke s u loughed ac oss
all c ea i e indus ies, and in he economy o e all (in a hick g ey
line). They a e placed oge he on he same cha o ease o com-
pa ison. Figu e 2.12 p esen s cha s o each indi idual c ea i e
indus y, agains a backd op showing he le el o lockdown es ic-
ions, om highes o lowes . This allows us o show he le els o he
u lough ela i e o he le els o Co id- ela ed es ic ions.
Th ee sec o s – pe o ming and isual a s, museums and galle -
ies, and ilm and ele ision – a e immedia ely s iking. They a e a he
op o Figu e 2.12, e lec ing he ac hey had e y high p opo ions

Figu e 2.11 Pe cen age o s a u loughed by c ea i e sec o
Figu e 2.12 Pe cen age o s a u loughed by c ea i e sec o
and Co id es ic ions
77Wha happened o he wo ke s?
77
o u loughed s a (o e 80 pe cen in pe o ming and isual a s
and o e 60 pe cen in museums and galle ies) a he beginning o
he pandemic. This is a signi ican ly highe p opo ion han he a e -
age ac oss he es o he economy, which was jus o e 20 pe cen ,
despi e including sec o s such as hospi ali y, which we know we e
se e ely a ec ed by pandemic measu es.
Wha is also no iceable abou pe o ming and isual a s and
museums and galle ies is hei slow e u n o ‘no mal’. In he las
wa es o he BICS, when u lough was coming o an end, we can
see how he pe o ming a s had almos 30 pe cen and museums
and galle ies had o e 10 pe cen o he wo k o ce on u lough,
e en as pandemic es ic ions we e eased and ended, whe eas o he
sec o s had only 2 pe cen o he wo k o ce u loughed.
The impac o he pandemic on ilm and ele ision and publish-
ing was less d ama ic han o he pe o ming and isual a s and
museums, al hough s ill on a e age highe han he es o he
economy, and he e was a spike in u lough o ilm and ele ision
a he s a o 2021. Fo publishing, as o he analysis has indi-
ca ed, companies did no see he same le els o impac as hose
indus ies ha engage physical audiences o wo k on ilm and el-
e ision se s.
Upskilling and e aining in he wo k o ce
One way in which c ea i e wo ke s esponded o he pandemic
was o enhance hei skill le els by de eloping hei quali ica ions
and educa ion. Du ing economic c ises he demand o educa-
ion inc eases (Ba and Tu ne , 2015). Wo ke s spend hei ime
s eng hening hei skills o ge an ad an age in hei p o ession –
upskilling – o , al e na i ely, in es ing in acqui ing new skills ha
will allow hem o change hei occupa ion – eskilling. C ea i e
wo ke s ha e been upskilling, aking a s- ela ed educa ion cou ses
o bols e hei skills eady o a e u n o wo k.
We’ e again using he ONS Labou Fo ce Su ey o his anal-
ysis. Figu e 2.13 shows ha in 2020, he p opo ion o wo k-
e s en olled on ei he ull- ime o pa - ime educa ion cou ses
(excluding o leisu e pu poses) was highe han in ecen yea s.
78 Pandemic cul u e
Figu e 2.13 Wo ke s en olled in educa ion cou ses
The inc ease in 2020 bucks a ela i ely s eady nega i e end
in non- c ea i e wo ke s’ en olmen in educa ion and is mo e
ma ked o c ea i e wo ke s in ‘co e’ c ea i e occupa ions. We
de ine ‘co e’ c ea i e occupa ions as: ilm, TV, ideo, adio and
pho og aphy; museums, galle ies and lib a ies; music, pe o m-
ing and isual a s; and publishing.
I is impo an o no e ha his is s ill a small p opo ion o
he o al numbe o co e c ea i e wo ke s. Howe e , he up ick in
he numbe s sugges s a clea esponse o he sec o ’s economic
c isis.
79Wha happened o he wo ke s?
79
Figu e 2.14 P opo ion o a educa ion en olmen s
Choice o subjec
We u n now o look mo e closely a en olmen in a s- ela ed edu-
ca ion, a ca ego y ha includes a ious c ea i e ields: ine a s,
music and pe o ming a s, audio, isual and media p oduc ion,
design, c a s and gene al a p og ammes. Figu e 2.14 shows ha
he p opo ion o co e c ea i e wo ke s en olled in a s educa ion in
2020 (ou o he wo ke s en olled in any educa ion) was simila o
ha o 2019, i no e en sligh ly la ge . The es ima es demons a e
an inc ease o a ound 5 pe cen in he en olmen in a s educa ion
among co e c ea i e wo ke s. Howe e , he sample size is small and
we should again be cau ious when d awing de ini i e conclusions.

80 Pandemic cul u e
We also es ima ed he numbe o wo ke s en olled in a s- ela ed
educa ion. This is o e i y ha he obse ed inc ease in he ac-
ion o wo ke s en olled in a s educa ion is no simply a esul
o he sh inking o he cul u al wo k o ce due o job losses and
wo ke s lea ing du ing he pandemic. Ou es ima es, illus a ed in
Figu e 2.15, show ha his is no he case. E en wi h he con ac-
ion o he wo k o ce, he obse ed inc ease in a s educa ion is also
appa en in absolu e en olmen numbe s.
In Figu e 2.16, we zoom in on he ou mos popula s udy ields
as hey appea in he ONS coding. The ba g aphs depic he dis-
ibu ion o s udied subjec s. We should keep in mind ha he o al
numbe o wo ke s en olled in 2020 is highe han in he p e ious
yea s, so small inc eases in p opo ion ep esen an e en mo e p o-
nounced inc ease in absolu e numbe s.
Figu e 2.15 O e all numbe s o a educa ion en olmen s
81Wha happened o he wo ke s?
81
We me ge all he c ea i e wo ke s in o one g oup in his g aph
since some o he ca ego ies con ain a small numbe o espond-
en s. We ind no d ama ic changes in he p opo ion o c ea i e
wo ke s en olled in di e en educa ional p og ammes. The mos
p onounced changes o e he pe iod a e no among cul u al
wo ke s en olled in a s cou ses. Ins ead, since 2017, we can
see inc eases in en olmen s in social sciences p og ammes and
dec eases in en olmen s in humani ies p og ammes. This esul
indica es once again ha c ea i e wo ke s we e no u ning in big
numbe s o o he ields o s udy o ain hemsel es in al e na i e
occupa ions.
Figu e 2.16 Subjec choices o all c ea i e wo ke s en olled
in educa ion cou ses
82 Pandemic cul u e
Pos g adua e and specialis skills
C ea i e wo ke s end o ha e highe le els o educa ional quali ica-
ions han he a e age wo ke and a e mo e likely o a ain pos -
g adua e deg ees (Oakley e al., 2017). Figu e 2.17 shows he le el
Figu e 2.17 Le el o quali ica ion being s udied
83Wha happened o he wo ke s?
83
o deg ee p og ammes ha wo ke s who s udy a - ela ed subjec s
a e en olled in. I sugges s ha he impac o he pandemic has been
o mo i a e co e c ea i e wo ke s o ex end hei a - ela ed educa-
ion. Figu e 2.17 shows ha , consis en ly o e ime, he p opo ion
o c ea i e wo ke s s udying o a s- ela ed pos g adua e deg ees
is abou double ha o o he wo ke s. In 2020, o he i s ime
since 2015, he numbe o co e c ea i e wo ke s s udying o an a s-
ela ed highe deg ee (66 pe cen ) su passed ha o unde g adua e
deg ees (27 pe cen ).
In Oc obe 2020 a go e nmen ad e wi h a pic u e o a young
balle dance and he headline ‘Fa ima’s nex job could be in cybe
(she jus doesn’ know i ye )’ wen i al in he media, ecei ing a
la ge amoun o backlash. The ad was ead by many as a ecom-
menda ion om he go e nmen ha a is s change hei p o es-
sion, agains a backd op o conce n o e he u u e o he c ea i e
indus ies. The pandemic does seem o ha e pushed many c ea i e
wo ke s o hink abou hei p o essional u u e and en ol in edu-
ca ional p og ammes. Howe e , i seems ha he goal o he educa-
ional ac i i y o hose co e c ea i e wo ke s mos impac ed by he
pandemic was no eskilling o al e na i e p o essions bu a he
upskilling o eap he possible bene i s o mo e educa ion wi hin
c ea i e occupa ions. The upskilling ends seen in 2020 con inued
a leas o he i s mon hs o 2021.
2021: doing mo e wi h less
By he end o 2021 many pa s o he economy and socie y had ully
eopened. Howe e , ou analysis o ONS da a demons a es ha
he pe o ming a s wo k o ce s ill had no ully eco e ed. As illus-
a ed in Figu e 2.18, in e ms o he size o i s wo k o ce, e en a he
end o 2021 he pe o ming a s we e eco e ing much mo e slowly
han o he sec o s o he c ea i e indus ies, lagging behind publish-
ing, he sc een and media sec o , museums, galle ies and lib a ies.
Al hough music and he pe o ming and isual a s was he sec-
ond la ges o hese sec o s be o e he pandemic, we can see ha
i los o e 40,000 wo ke s since i s peak a he end o 2019. In
e ms o he o al numbe o hou s wo ked pe week, i was also
s ill behind p e- pandemic le els, showing a sha p decline in he inal
Figu e 2.23 Numbe o wo ke s in co e c ea i e occupa ions by age g oup

91Wha happened o he wo ke s?
91
We ind simila esul s in he case o e hnici y and educa ion.
I seems ha he ecen inc ease in he numbe o wo ke s e lec s
exis ing pa e ns o inequali y; employmen g ow h is d i en by
whi e wo ke s and by wo ke s wi h highe educa ion le els. We also
ind ha mos o he g ow h in he numbe o wo ke s is a ibu ed
o sel - employed wo ke s, who ace mo e p eca ious wo king condi-
ions compa ed o employed wo ke s. The abili y o pa icipa e in
c ea i e labou ma ke s is being u he concen a ed in hose g oups
who ha e he esou ces o wi hs and po en ial p eca i y.
O e all, his analysis, and he mos ecen da a, ein o ces he
na a i e o he une en na u e o he pandemic’s long- e m impac .
Ul ima ely, 2020 compounded he al eady exis ing p oblems o
B i ain’s cul u al labou ma ke . These p oblems a e ue globally,
as we see in he concluding chap e , as well as wi hin he speci ic
case we ha e analysed he e.
We can end his pessimis ic e iew o he si ua ion in he co e cul-
u al occupa ions on a posi i e no e wi h one sil e lining b ough
by he pandemic: we ound ha he numbe o disabled wo ke s
in he co e c ea i e occupa ions has g own in he a e ma h o he
pandemic, as shown in Figu e 2.24. We belie e ha he expansion
Figu e 2.24 Numbe o disabled wo ke s in he co e c ea i e occupa ions
92 Pandemic cul u e
o oppo uni ies o emo e wo k, encou aged by he pandemic, has
opened new and mo e accessible pa hways o disabled people o
pa icipa e in he cul u al wo k o ce. I is essen ial ha hese new
oppo uni ies, a he han he e u n o he unequal p e- pandemic
no mal, a e cen al o bo h cul u al policy and he cul u al sec o .
No es
1 This is app oxima ely 260,000 people (95 pe cen con idence in e -
al – 210,000 o 310,000), which is (s a is ically) signi ican ly highe
han he es ima ed 170,000 (130,000 o 210,000) people who we e
newly wo king in c ea i e occupa ions in Qua e 2, indica ing ha
he o al numbe o people wo king in c ea i e occupa ions has
declined.
2 Al hough hese numbe s come wi h some unce ain y, as ou da a
come om a sample o he popula ion, he con idence in e als on
he g aph do no o e lap. This means ha we can be con iden ha
mo e people ha e le he c ea i e indus ies han would no mally be
expec ed a his ime o yea .
3 De ined as people wi hou a job who ha e been ac i ely seeking wo k
in he pas ou weeks and a e a ailable o s a wo k in he nex
wo weeks.
4 This numbe is only hose who le he c ea i e indus ies and no he
ne change in size o he wo k o ce.
5 Fo he pu pose o his chap e we ha e used ai ly b oad socio-
demog aphic g oupings: he numbe s o cul u al and c ea i e wo k-
e s in he su ey as a whole a e small, which makes i di icul o d aw
conclusions abou he popula ion. I is impo an o bea in mind ha
he e is likely o be conside able di e si y wi hin ou g oupings, e en
i we a e no able o explo e his gi en he da a ha we ha e a ailable.
6 We expe imen ed wi h a a ie y o age g oupings. Howe e , we epo
di e ences be ween unde - wen y- i es compa ed wi h he es o he
popula ion as his was whe e we saw he mos subs an ial di e ences.
7 The Labou Fo ce Su ey cap u es a ange o di e en o ms o sel -
employmen . Responden s saying hey a e sel - employed can choose
up o ou op ions om he ollowing o cap u e hei sel - employmen
s a us:
1. Paid sala y o wage by employmen agency
2. Sole di ec o o own l d business
3. Running a business o p o p ac ice
93Wha happened o he wo ke s?
93
4. Pa ne in business o p o p ac ice
5. Wo king o sel
6. Sub con ac o
7. F eelance wo k
8. None o he abo e.
In ou analysis we’ e looking a people who ha e indica ed hey
a e7) eelance wo ke s. The e o e, hey a e only a small subsample
o he o e all numbe o sel - employed wo ke s.
8 The Co ona i us Job Re en ion Scheme was designed o co e wage
and associa ed employmen cos s whe e businesses we e unable o
ope a e as a esul o public heal h measu es. Employees we e gi en
empo a y lea e, o ‘ u lough’, and businesses and o ganisa ions we e
able o claim g an s om he go e nmen o he cos s o con inuing
o employ hem.
9 Mo e in o ma ion abou he BICS is a ailable a : www.ons.go .uk/
su eys/ in o ma i on o bus ines ses/ busi ness su eys/ businessimpac o c
o on a i usco id1 9su ey
10 Howe e , we ha e o be cau ious as his di e ence is no s a is ically
signi ican .
Re e ences
Ba , A. and Tu ne , S. 2015. Ou o wo k and in o school: labo ma ke
policies and college en ollmen du ing he G ea Recession. Jou nal o
Public Economics. 124(C), pp.63– 73.
B ook, O., O’B ien, D. and Taylo , M. 2020. Cul u e is bad o you.
Manches e : Manches e Uni e si y P ess.
Ca ey, H., O’B ien, D. and Gable, O. 2021a. Social mobili y in he c ea-
i e economy: ebuilding and le elling up? [Online]. London: C ea i e
Indus ies Policy and E idence Cen e. [Accessed 8 Janua y 2024].
A ailable om: h ps:// pec.ac.uk/ esea ch- epo s/ soc ial- mobil i y- in-
he- c ea i e- econ omy- eb uild ing- and- le ell ing- up
Ca ey, H., O’B ien, D. and Gable, O. 2021b. Sc eened ou : ackling
class inequali ies in he Sc een Indus ies. [Online]. London: C ea i e
Indus ies Policy and E idence Cen e. [Accessed 8 Janua y 2024].
A ailable om: h ps:// pec.ac.uk/ esea ch- epo s/ sc ee ned- ou - ackl ing-
class- ine qual i y- in- he- uks- sc een- ind us ies
Oakley, K., Lau ison, D., O’B ien, D. and F iedman, S. 2017. Cul u al cap-
i al: a s g adua es, spa ial inequali y, and London’s impac on cul u al
labou ma ke s. Ame ican Beha io al Scien is . 61(12), pp.1510– 1531.
Skillse . 2010. Women in he c ea i e media indus ies. [Online]. [Accessed
24 Augus 2022]. A ailable om: www.sc ee nski lls.com/ media/ 1507/
women_ in_ he_ c ea i e_ m edia _ ind us ies_ epo _ - _ se p _ 2 010.pd
94 Pandemic cul u e
Taylo , H. and Flo isson, R. 2020. UK labou ma ke sees eco d edun-
dancies. [Online]. 15 Decembe . Lancas e Uni e si y. [Accessed 6
Feb ua y 2023]. A ailable om: www.lancas e .ac.uk/ wo k- ou nda ion/
ou - wo k/ insec u e- wo k/ uk- lab ou - ma ke - sees- ec o d- edun danc ies
TUC. 2021. Jobs and eco e y moni o . Issue #3: BME wo ke s. [Online].
London: TUC. [Accessed 8 Janua y 2024]. A ailable om: www. uc.o g.
uk/ si es/ de a ul / iles/ 2021- 01/ Recess ion%20 ep o %20- %20BME%
20wo k e s%20(1).pd
In oduc ion
The COVID- 19 pandemic has dis up ed cul u al p oduc ion and
engagemen in ways we do no ye ully unde s and. I mani es ed
as an in e lude, an accele a ion and an in lec ion all a he same
ime. Li le emained he same: some hings educed hen e u ned,
while o he s educed o good; some hings kep changing in he
di ec ion hey we e al eady heading, and some sped up; o he s
changed in new ways ha ha e pe sis ed beyond he immedia e
c isis. This obse a ion holds as much o audience ends and
dynamics as i does o ins i u ions and p ac i ione s. I is di icul
o di ine whe he we will wi ness a g adual e u n o old pa e ns o
engagemen o a adical swi ch, pushed o u he ex emes by he
cos - o - li ing c isis. The p oli ic shi o digi al dis ibu ion made
a weal h o new a s con en a ailable o audiences s uck a home,
bu did i ha e he democ a ising, game- changing e ec on audi-
ences ha many hough hey we e wi nessing?
This chap e in es iga es how audiences and he wide UK popu-
la ion engaged wi h cul u al con en du ing he pandemic, in bo h
li e and digi al spaces, and explo es how hei beha iou s and a i-
udes a e e ol ing as we eme ge om he COVID- 19 c isis in o
he cos - o - li ing c isis. I p esen s, con ex ualises and discusses he
indings o he Cul u al Pa icipa ion Moni o , a bespoke longi u-
dinal acking su ey o he UK popula ion ha analysed changing
digi al engagemen habi s and a i udes owa ds e- engagemen .
Led by The Audience Agency, he Cul u al Pa icipa ion Moni o
3
The same people seeing mo e:
audiences’ engagemen wi h cul u e
du ing he COVID- 19 pandemic
Oli e Man ell, Anne To eggiani, Ben Walmsley,
Jenny Kidd and E a Nie o McA oy

96 Pandemic cul u e
has been asking a ep esen a i e sample o he UK popula ion
ac oss mul iple wa es abou hei cul u al expe iences and expec a-
ions be o e, du ing and beyond he pandemic. Ou explo a ion o
audiences’ digi al beha iou change includes a deep- di e analysis o
social media by Jenny Kidd and E a Nie o McA oy a he momen
he UK wen in o na ional lockdowns in Ma ch 2020. The chap e
in e oga es how socie y’s ela ionship o a s and cul u e may ha e
shi ed o e his ime o signi ican change and ells a s o y abou
he kinds o cul u al con en and in e ac ions ha people ound
aluable in a pe iod o unp eceden ed unce ain y and anxie y.
The chap e concludes by assessing he signs o longe - e m
ends in audience beha iou and engagemen and by explo ing
he implica ions o hese ends o a is s, cul u al o ganisa ions,
unde s and policy- make s.
Me hodological e lec ions on ou popula ion su ey
To unde s and and analyse any possible ela ionship be ween
digi isa ion and democ a isa ion o cul u al engagemen and o
mo e beyond a pe spec i e media ed en i ely by cul u al p ac-
i ione s and commen a o s, we el ha i was i al o engage
di ec ly wi h he gene al public. As new ules and egula ions o
social dis ancing came in o law, he e was an ou b eak o audi-
ence su eying as o ganisa ions and umb ella bodies ushed o
unde s and he po en ial impac o each new wa e o es ic ions.
Many su eys we e has ily concoc ed, posing na ow o pa o-
chial ques ions, one- o and close- up exe cises, based on dubious
samples, some imes in en on ‘p o ing’ wha he sec o hough
i was wi nessing. O he s we e well- c a ed and conside ed bu
ine i ably biased owa ds commi ed cul u al audiences. In his
deluge o mo e o less eliable in elligence, i seemed impo an o
de elop a s a is ically signi ican , uni e sal unde s anding o he
impac o he pandemic on people’s cul u al engagemen ac oss
he UK’s ou home na ions. Ou aim was o p o ide an ongoing,
eal- ime ba ome e o he public’s esponse, lee e o oo and
mo e esponsi e o change han exis ing s udies such as Taking
Pa , he na ional s a is ical su ey on pa icipa ion (DCMS,
n.d.), bu mo e independen and impa ial han he sec o ’s u gen
DIY esea ch.
97The same people seeing mo e
97
Acco dingly, we chose a popula ion- wide su ey. The su ey
was ca ied ou online o p ac ical easons, despi e some isks o
sampling bias. We a emp ed o mi iga e hese by making i na ion-
ally ep esen a i e by egion, age, gende , e hnici y and Audience
Spec um, The Audience Agency’s en- ca ego y segmen a ion model,
o en and accu a ely used o ack signi ican di e ences ac oss a
spec um o cul u al a i udes and beha iou s. Audience Spec um
enabled us o di e en ia e be ween p i ileged segmen s ‘highly
engaged’ wi h cul u e o he o mal, publicly unded a ie y, less
equen o medium- engaged g oups, and hose ‘less engaged’ wi h
o mal a s and cul u al o e s. The esea ch design also e lec ed ou
in e es in he wides ange o cul u al and c ea i e ac i i y ac oss
socie y a he han a limi ed ange o ins i u ional o e ings.
Ou p ima y in e es was in he scope and deg ee o change in
cul u al habi s o e bo h he sho and long e m. We could no
assume ha hose egula ly a ending be o e COVID- 19 would do
so a e i – and unde s anding po en ial new audiences would be as
impo an as unde s anding newly lapsed ones. Simila ly, we we e
looking o shi s in ‘e e yday c ea i i y’ (see W igh , 2022), e ol -
ing in e ac ion wi h digi al cul u al con en and e idence o o he
cul u al o c ea i e pu sui s no media ed by public ins i u ions. We
he e o e included ques ions abou how much spa e ime people had
and wha hey did wi h i be o e and du ing he pandemic, and wha
hey an icipa ed doing a e i . These co e ques ions we e epea ed
ac oss oughly qua e ly wa es o eigh een mon hs and o e ed a
sense o how public a i udes we e changing. To hese we added
spo - ques ions o unde s and sudden changes – in policy, a i ude,
he news, e c. – as hey eme ged. Ha ing his esh in o ma ion a
ou inge ips became inc easingly aluable as he sec o became
mo e adep a adap ing; and since he a e o change has sca cely
slowed, we con inued he Moni o beyond he pe iod o he o iginal
esea ch, in o 2022– 2023. This un o eseen ex ension o he su ey
con ibu es some hing o a sequel o he o iginal esea ch s o y and
acili a es a longe - e m obse a ion o audience ends.
The e olu ion o cul u al engagemen h ough he pandemic
In e ms o a di ec esponse o he impac o he pandemic on
ex e nal ac i i ies, a clea pic u e eme ged om he i s wa e o
98 Pandemic cul u e
he Moni o in No embe 2020. Nine mon hs in o he c isis, wi h
one lockdown behind us and ano he one on he ca ds, i was
clea ha jus o e a hi d o he popula ion had no in en ion o
going ou o do cul u al – o indeed any o he kind o – ac i i y.
Ano he hi d we e only likely o do so unde s ic ly con olled
condi ions, while a inal g oup – jus unde one- hi d – we e keen
o go back o doing in- pe son ac i i ies. Pe haps p edic ably, hese
di isions o opinion co esponded o age and li e- s age, wi h olde
audiences signi ican ly mo e cau ious han younge ones, especially
hose wi h young amilies. We mapped a simila di ide be ween
u al and u ban communi ies: ou su ey highligh ed how people
in la ge me opoli an cen es – especially London – we e a mo e
gung- ho. In iguingly, i seemed ha he di e en COVID- 19 poli-
cies ac oss he na ions may also ha e d i en public con idence and
pe cep ions o isk, wi h he p opo ion o people willing o e u n
in Sco land, Wales and No he n I eland being a lowe han in
England h oughou he pandemic and despi e ac o ing o age and
o he demog aphic in luences.
Rema kably, howe e , he as majo i y – o e 95 pe cen in
epea ed wa es o he Moni o , including hose keen o ge back
o no mal a endance – con inued o hink ha social dis ancing
was impo an and o be espec ed. Ve y ew people sugges ed ha
dis ancing measu es spoiled hei expe ience – a leas no enough
o pu hem o e u ning o cul u al enues – and 90+ pe cen
o esponden s epea edly a ed a s and cul u al o ganisa ions as
doing a good job wi h he measu es hey pu in place. O all he
measu es, hose allowing lexibili y, such as o e ing icke e unds
and he chance o mo e ime slo s, we e he mos highly a ed.
This e lec ed ou inding ha wha people liked bes abou digi al
oppo uni ies was hei ‘always- on’ quali y – he chance o engage
as and when people wan ed and on hei own e ms. A side s o y
abou he appeal o mo e lexible, cus ome - conside a e ways o
wo king eme ged in ou analysis.
Con a y o popula belie , he COVID- 19 pandemic was
no un emi ingly de as a ing o he a s and cul u al sec o –
a leas om an audience and unding pe spec i e. In ac , he
popula ion’s in e es in and suppo o a s and cul u e seemed
conside ably consolida ed by he pandemic, wi h 57 pe cen o
people epo ing ha i was impo an o hei wellbeing, 63 pe
cen saying hey we e mo e willing o suppo public unding o
99The same people seeing mo e
99
cul u al ins i u ions and 56 pe cen con i ming ha hey we e
mo e likely o dona e pe sonally o o ganisa ions o help hem
ope a e wi h COVID- 19 es ic ions in place. The pligh o public
o ganisa ions h ough he c isis clea ly ouched a ne e and we
migh specula e ha he c ea i e, social engagemen s ha some
o ganisa ions u ned o wi h hei communi ies, as highligh ed
in a ious chap e s in his book, made a signi ican public and
ci icimpac .
Meanwhile, as epo ed widely in he media, people go used
o s aying in, disco e ing he joys o hunke ing down and ge ing
c ea i e o consuming lo s o new cul u al con en – and some imes
bo h a once. Howe e , i eme ged ha e y ew people ac ually
ook up new c ea i e hobbies o de eloped a new digi al cul u al
habi du ing he pandemic. Ou esea ch demons a ed ha peo-
ple who we e al eady keen e e yday c ea i es and/ o digi al cul-
u e en husias s engaged mo e han e e be o e. This gene ally
applied o mo e p i ileged, mo e a s- engaged people who ell in o
he g oup wi h mo e ime on hei hands. Howe e , hese ends
s a ed o d op o ela i ely s eeply a e lockdown as a signi ican
p opo ion o he popula ion e u ned o he o ice (and he gym,
commu ing e c.). This sugges s ha emo ing physical ba ie s o
engagemen such as lack o ime, lack o money and he need o
a el is no in i sel an e ec i e way o open up cul u al and c ea-
i e oppo uni ies o a mo e di e se audience base. This con i ms
exis ing esea ch by S e enson (2019), which iden i ies he p esence
o he ‘disin e es ed’ cul u al pa icipan bu challenges he inding
by B ook (2016a) ha spa ial equi y can ha e a signi ican impac
on cul u al pa icipa ion.
The segmen a ion o audiences by le els o con idence – a hi d
s aying in, a hi d emaining cau ious and a hi d ge ing ou – was
ema kably pe sis en h oughou he pandemic and i was only by
he e y end o 2021 ha we obse ed a small bu signi ican shi .
By No embe 2021, a esidual 37 pe cen we e s ill s aying in and,
as o Sep embe 2022, 26 pe cen o people said hey s ill did no
wan o e u n. This highligh s a signi ican lag be ween he ac ual
le el o isk and people’s pe cep ion o i , which is con inuing o
hampe icke buying and hus o hinde he eco e y o he cul u al
sec o i sel . The en husias ic ‘keen o ge ou ’ g oup, howe e , did
indeed lock back o enues as hey eopened, wi h many o hem
epo ing highe le els o engagemen han p e- pandemic.
106 Pandemic cul u e
he p o ile o hese en husias s is signi ican ly younge , wi h much
highe ep esen a ion among people o colou han he audience
o in- pe son a s and museums. As depic ed in Figu e 3.2, younge
people we e also a mo e likely o ake pa in pa icipa o y and
imme si e kinds o expe iences. Al hough he e has been a g adual
ail- o in he amoun o ime younge audiences a e now spending
online, a he end o he lockdown signi ican numbe s said hey
hough hey would engage mo e wi h digi al cul u e in u u e. By
Sep embe 2022, a ne 12 pe cen o he whole sample said hey
would do mo e i mo e online cul u e we e a ailable and he pe -
cen age was a highe among unde - hi y- i es and people wi h
amilies – o example, 22 pe cen o he younge , educa ed Gen
Figu e 3.2 Digi al cul u al ac i i ies people engaged wi h in he las
12 mon hs, by age g oup, No embe 2021

107The same people seeing mo e
107
Y/ Z segmen ‘Expe ience Seeke s’. 20 pe cen o ou pa icipan s
said hey would do mo e i hey could ind wha hey we e in e -
es ed in. Again, his igu e was much highe o unde - hi y- i es
and e en highe o people wi h young amilies.
One o he mos impo an disco e ies was ha digi al eally did
open up access o disabled audiences, many o whom had been
campaigning o mo e equi able access o cul u al con en o some
ime. A signi ican ly highe p opo ion o disabled people engaged
online han hey had in pe son. They engaged a mo e online han
he non- disabled people: 74 pe cen o disabled unde - wen y- i es,
compa ed wi h 48 pe cen o non- disabled unde - wen y- i es. This
unp eceden ed access has inc eased hei appe i e o u u e ac i -
i y, wi h 25 pe cen o disabled wen y- i es o six y- ou s e sus
9 pe cen o non- disabled esponden s s ongly ag eeing ha hey
wan ed mo e digi al cul u e. Indeed 62 pe cen o a s- going disabled
wen y- i es o six y- ou s hough hey we e likely o eplace mos o
some o hei in- pe son engagemen wi h digi al in u u e. Combined
wi h ou indings abou younge audiences, his ein o ces he s a-
egic need o de elop mo e online cul u al con en o younge and
disabled people and amilies o build u u e audiences.
This en o ced inno a ion in digi al p ac ice eached beyond he UK
popula ion pa icipa ing in he Moni o . As showcased in Chap e 5,
many o ganisa ions we e deligh ed o ind new niche audiences in a -
lung places ac oss he globe, and hey we e o en su p ised o connec
wi h hem by inc easing hei social media and gone- digi al e en s.
Meanwhile, a he o he end o he global– local scale, he e we e
inspi ing s o ies o communi y- embedded o ganisa ions who chose
o ocus on he hype local and a ge hose u hes om oppo u-
ni y. O en ou o conce n o he ulne able people hey wo k wi h,
p ac i ione s we e p omp ed o y new digi al ou es o engage wi h
su p ising consequences. These c ea i e o ays in o online engage-
men demons a ed how o some i can be less in imida ing o mee
on Zoom han in a public space, ha Wha sApp can be an inclusi e
condui o a mig an communi y’s c ea i i y, ha digi al a chi ing is
a g ea way o s a and connec a new communi y, and ha muse-
ums make a mo e compelling school esou ces han mos . The e
we e many o he s o ies o unexpec ed and ans o ma i e eme gen
p ac ice, all o which demand u he in es iga ion.
In sho , we mus conclude ha , seen in a mo e nuanced way,
he e is a conside able and un apped ma ke o digi al con en and
108 Pandemic cul u e
digi ally enabled expe iences in a hyb id mix ha is se o g ow sig-
ni ican ly in he u u e. While he pandemic may no ha e sol ed he
digi al business model conund um, he sec o was a leas able o es
demand and build a be e unde s anding o wha kinds o expe iences
wo k o whom. We saw how digi al could enable mo e accessible,
lexible isi o jou neys, be a channel o dialogue and communi y
building bo h locally and globally, d aw la ge numbe s, and cemen
and ex end ela ionships. Al hough i did no di e si y audiences on
he mac o le el, i did a ac mo e younge and disabled audiences
and deepen engagemen and loyal y among exis ing audiences. This
suppo s exis ing esea ch highligh ing how digi al pla o ms show
mo e po en ial in enhancing engagemen among exis ing audiences
han in a ac ing new audiences (Walmsley, 2019). Howe e , we
should no e ha digi al expe imen a ion is s ill in i s in ancy in he
a s and cul u al sec o and he e o e wa an s much mo e s a egic
in es men , esea ch and e alua ion.
Social media engagemen
As pa o ou audience esea ch we conduc ed a sys ema ic analy-
sis o a six- week snapsho o Twi e ac i i y om 19 Ma ch o
5 May 2020, he ea ly weeks o lockdown in he UK. The ind-
ings p esen ed he e a e g ounded in a mixed- me hods analysis o
9,000 wee s sha ed ac oss he hash ags #MuseumA Home and
#Cul u eInQua an ine.1 This app oach enabled an assessmen o
social media in e ac ions ha ex ends a beyond he elemen a y
me ics which cul u al ins i u ions ypically epo on, such as
likes, commen s and sha es – he so- called ‘ ani y me ics’ ha ,
i is a gued, o en amoun o li le mo e han ‘success hea e and
p ojec ion’ (Roge s, 2018, p.454). While we used hese me ics as
a s a ing poin , ou aim was o be e unde s and he quali y and
dep h o in e ac ions on Twi e – a he han jus hei each –
h ough an analysis o hemes, one and alues in he wee s.2
Mos wee s we e om accoun s ep esen ing cul u al ins i u-
ions o hose wo king in he c ea i e/ cul u al sec o s. Membe s o
he public accoun ed o only 7 pe cen o he wee s in ou sample,
and only a mino i y o hese (as a as we could ell) we e new audi-
ences. Twee s ea u ing ideo we e mo e likely o egis e as high on
ac ion, ha is, in he op en wee s o numbe s o likes, e wee s
109The same people seeing mo e
109
o quo e wee s ( hus mos isible).3 This is pe haps unsu p ising
gi en he amoun o ideo con en we encoun e now in social
media en i onmen s, bu i is eally p onounced in ou sample, ech-
oing esea ch epo ing on cul u al ins i u ions’ successes in using
ideo con en o spa k in e ac ion (Najda- Janoszka and Sawczuk,
2021). The sample was in e na ional, bu mos ly ep esen a i e o
he English Twi e sphe e, and o wee s loca ed in he UK, London
and he Sou heas we e he mos ac i e egions.
Some ins i u ions, no ably museums and galle ies, p o ed
mo e agile in pi o ing o he social media en i onmen du ing
lockdown, quickly mo ing o p oduce new con en and ac i i-
ies which p i ileged empa hy and in imacy o e adi ional p o-
duc ion alues (see also Kidd, Nie o McA oy and Os owska,
2021). A signi ican p opo ion o wee s om ins i u ions ied
o spa kand celeb a e he alue o cu iosi y by asking ques ions
and encou aging people o explo e and expe imen digi ally.
O he ypes o cul u al ins i u ions (e.g. hea es, ope a houses,
e c.) we e mo e likely o be conduc ing adi ional p omo ional
ac i i ies a ound e en s. Rega dless, we ound ha mos mem-
be s o he public we e posi i e abou he o e on social media,
men ioning pleasu able and enjoyable in e ac ions wi h con en
o e en s.
We ound an o e all inc ease in he numbe o wee s ha ied
o inspi e in e ac ion as compa ed o p e ious esea ch (e.g. Kidd,
2011), ei he asking o engagemen o issuing a call o ac ion o
people o espond o (in 26 pe cen and 17 pe cen o wee s, espec-
i ely). S a egies included asking people di ec ques ions o in i ing
hem o ake pa in quizzes o c owdsou cing p ojec s. We also ound
examples o calls o use s o be c ea i e a home, ei he by p o id-
ing links o downloadable ac i i ies o asking people o engage wi h
e e yday objec s and o wee o pos he esul s back o ins i u ions
( o example, he Ge y Museum Challenge). These examples poin o
he impo ance o ‘hyb idi y’ – ha is, e o s o b idge he adi ional
physical– digi al di ide. As ins i u ions closed hei doo s, we ound a
heigh ening o ongoing e o s o connec use s wi h he ma e iali y o
cul u al ins i u ions in ways ha go beyond me e ep esen a ion (c .
Galani and Kidd 2020; Noeh e e al., 2021; Walmsley e al., 2022).
O he examples o hyb id o blended app oaches included wo k wi h
online exhibi ions, i ual and 3D guided ou s, wo kshops and les-
sons o adul s and child en, and li e- s eaming o conce s, hea e
110 Pandemic cul u e
and o he pe o mances. We also ound ‘behind- he- scenes’ momen s
and snapsho s o su ounding ou doo enues (like museums’ ga -
dens) ha a emp ed o connec audiences wi h (closed) cul u al
spaces as well as na u e.
Wellbeing and e e yday c ea i i y
Shaped by i s eal- wo ld con ex s du ing his pe iod, popula con-
en connec ed powe ully, play ully and/ o emo ionally wi h he
hemes o he pandemic. ‘A s as a way o coping’ was p esen in
59 pe cen o quali a i ely coded wee s.4 This included wee s
ha we e Co id inspi ed o ela ed, as well as wee s which spe-
ci ically e e enced he a s in ela ion o wellbeing and ca e. P e-
emp ing he subsequen indings o he Moni o , many o hose
wee ing spoke abou he po en ial o cul u e and he a s o make
lockdowns and he ela ed isola ion hey we e expe iencing mo e
ole able. Also o ela ed in e es was a g ouping o wee s ha
e e enced suppo , ad ocacy and unding o he a s in pa icu-
la . Al hough no qui e so p e alen , e e ences o na u e we e also
p esen , o en ci ed in ela ion o a and wellbeing and linked o
he alue o e lec ion.
A signi ican p opo ion o wee s championed he alue o c ea-
i i y and celeb a ed p ac ical engagemen wi h he a s. We ound
plen y o examples o ins i u ions encou aging use s o be inspi ed
by objec s in hei collec ions o c ea e a is ic esponses a home
o sha e online. One o hese ini ia i es was Na ional Galle ies o
Sco land’s call o use s o espond o a challenge and c ea e #a -
oge he on 25 Ma ch 2020:
I ’s ime o ge c ea i e and make some ART TOGETHER! [emoji
smile] [emoji pale e] Inspi ed by Paolozzi’s gigan ic ‘Vulcan’, he e’s
you chance o make and sha e you own an as ic Vulcan sculp u es
using wha e e you can ind a ound he house. He e o inspi e you is
one we made ea lie ! #a oge he .5
Use s esponded well ( wen y- se en eplies, ele en o which we e
c ea i e con ibu ions, some by child en). This wee o e s a pe -
ec example o he hyb id app oach men ioned ea lie . We also
ound a numbe o esponses o he esponses, demons a ing he
alue o play ul in e ac ion in he social media en i onmen .
111The same people seeing mo e
111
O he alues ha we e celeb a ed in he sample o wee s
included social alue (discussed below), play ulness (o en demon-
s a ed h ough he use o emoji and GIFs) and conside ed e lec-
ion (including nos algia, admi a ion and esilience). We saw only
e y ew wee s which deba ed o made he case o he a s’ eco-
nomic alue.
Place and communi y
A s and cul u e we e connec ed dynamically wi h place in ou
sample (mos ly locally o egionally a he han na ionally, espe-
cially h ough he use o hash ags). Twee s ea i med he heigh -
ened impo ance o communi y and local g een spaces du ing he
ea ly weeks o lockdown.
Pe haps unsu p isingly, museums and galle ies we e mos
likely o sha e in o ma ion abou collec ions, bu hey we e also
he mos likely g oup o be sha ing ‘behind- he- scenes’ insigh s.
These a emp s o open up ins i u ions ia behind- he- scenes
snapsho s p o ed popula in ou sample, pe haps demons a ing
a longing wi hin audiences o he eassu ance and amilia i y
he physical space and place o a museum building seems o sug-
ges , o some people a leas , e en emo ely. This is in e es ing,
as i highligh s he impo ance o place and locali y in he sample
and unde sco es ac i e a emp s by o ganisa ions g ounded in
communi ies o be isible, and o engage, collabo a e and sup-
po . In his espec , we may ha e seen a mo e nuanced consid-
e a ion o wha speci ically social media ‘communi y’ means o
hese o ganisa ions, an examina ion o which, acco ding o Wong
(2015), is long o e due.
Du ing his ini ial pe iod o lockdown many wee s p omo ed
and celeb a ed social alues. Some p omo ed ini ia i es o local
place- based communi ies, while o he s e e ed o wide ci ic and
socie al issues. Many sough o solici a sense o belonging o
oge he ness among ollowe s, o e ing com o , en ichmen and
connec ion digi ally while hei doo s we e closed. The e was a
sense o bene olence om ins i u ions sedimen ed in o ou sample,
a wish o be public- spi i ed, help ul and ‘o ’ he communi ies hey
ep esen . As such, wee s ha migh p o oke o ange use s we e

112 Pandemic cul u e
a oided. I has been no ed elsewhe e ha he pandemic has seeded
o nu u ed ci ic- mindedness wi hin ins i u ions – a ‘pi o o pu -
pose’ (Walmsley e al., 2022) – and ou analysis sugges s ha digi al
eams ha e played an impo an ole wi hin ha endea ou (see
also Kidd, Nie o McA oy and Os owska, 2021).
Changing ideas o he local
A i udes o local engagemen e lec o he ends. As well as
esponden s indica ing ha hey expec ed o engage mo e locally
a e he pandemic han be o e i , hey also indica ed ha hey had
become awa e o mo e cul u al hings o do as well. This e ec
was mos p onounced o younge , highly engaged g oups in u ban
a eas, highligh ing ha he e is less likely o be ‘spill o e ’ om ci -
ies o su ounding a eas. This end is likely o in ensi y he exis ing
geog aphical inequali ies be ween a eas.
Wo king om home (WFH) is ano he end al eady chang-
ing a endance habi s and i looks se o ha e a las ing impac . We
know om p e ious esea ch, including B ook’s (2016b) analysis
o Audience Finde da a, ha wo king people a e mos likely o
a end ei he whe e hey li e o wo k. When hese become he same
place, he e is likely o be a g ea e concen a ion o local audi-
ences. Mo eo e , no only do many o hose who ha e been wo k-
ing om home expec o con inue o do so, hey also p e e i (and
hence a e incen i ised o main ain i whe e possible). In p ac ice, as
deba es ha e con inued abou he u u e o home wo king, changes
o o ice accommoda ion (wi h many o ganisa ions downsizing),
wo king p ac ices ( amilia i y wi h online wo king) and loca ion
(e.g. emo e hi ing) mean ha many changes a e al eady ‘baked in’.
The Moni o showed us a s ong co ela ion be ween hose ha
an icipa ed WFH mos o some o he ime and high le els o cul-
u al engagemen . We can be su e, hen, ha his is likely o shi
he p o ile o audiences signi ican ly o some enues and o ganisa-
ions and could well ha e a posi i e impac o smalle o ganisa-
ions ha a e loca ed u he away om iconic ci y- cen e buildings
and shiny c ea i e dis ic s (Flo ida, 2002). This shi implies ha
cul u al o ganisa ions should main ain a mo e local p esence and
eimagine and e- engage hei local audiences.
113The same people seeing mo e
113
Conclusions and implica ions
The mos signi ican inding om ou in es iga ions in o audience
beha iou and pe cep ions o e he cou se o he COVID- 19 pan-
demic is ha he emo al o wha ha e adi ionally been pe cei ed
o be spa ial and inancial ba ie s o engagemen ailed o di e si y
who engages wi h publicly unded a s and cul u e in he UK. This
con i ms exis ing esea ch in o cul u al engagemen bu challenges
s udies ha ad oca e o mo e local a s enues as an audience
de elopmen s a egy.
Ou analysis o social media ells an impo an s o y abou he
kinds o con en and in e ac ion ha use s ound aluable du ing
his ime o c isis. I he e o e helps us o unde s and and a icula e
he alue o cul u al con en on social ne wo ks mo e b oadly as
we eme ge om he pandemic. I p esen s a ich and nuanced snap-
sho o social media ac i i y and highligh s eme gen deba es ha
demand u he conside a ion in hose con ex s ela ing o hyb id-
i y, he alue o use c ea i i y and connec ion, digi al inequali ies
and he limi a ions o adi ional engagemen me ics. Ou analysis
aises a numbe o ques ions as we conside implica ions o u u e
digi al engagemen and o esea ch in ha ield: How has he pan-
demic impac ed ins i u ional assessmen s o he alue and impo -
ance o social media ac i i y? How do hose assessmen s in o m
digi al s a egy, esou cing and aining wi hin ins i u ions, and
ac oss he sec o ? Can cul u al ins i u ions con inue o cen e place-
based and communi y ini ia i es online, as well as wo k owa ds
inclusion and social jus ice, in he mids o a pos - pandemic eco e y
ha sees cul u al in as uc u e being squeezed? As social ne wo ks
con inue o e ol e, and as hei own p io i ies shi pos - pandemic,
how will cul u al ins i u ions espond?
O e all, ou esea ch demons a es ha he sec o ’s e o s o
s and by hei communi ies paid o . Suppo o he cul u al sec o
and public unde s anding o i s alue ha e inc eased signi ican ly
since 2019. Pe haps i ook he pandemic o show many o us how
impo an cul u e and c ea i i y eally is, especially when enjoyed
in he company o o he s. In many senses, hen, he case o cul-
u e has ne e been s onge . This makes he pligh o o ganisa ions
caugh be ween he a e - e ec s o he COVID- 19 sunami and he
cu en s o m o he cos - o - li ing c isis seem pa icula ly unjus . I
114 Pandemic cul u e
is p obably s ill oo soon o call wha he las ing changes on audi-
ence and engagemen ends a e likely o be, especially gi en he
new ola ili y gene a ed by he cos - o - li ing c isis. As we conclude
ou analysis, he e a e ou clea issues eme ging om ou esea ch
ha we igno e a ou own pe il.
The i s is ha he widening gap be ween he na ion’s ha es
and ha e- no s is pa icula ly p oblema ic in he con ex o cul-
u al engagemen : he Moni o shines a spo ligh on he s uc-
u al inequali ies ha con inue o de e mine who does and who
doesn’ engage wi h publicly unded a s and cul u e in he UK.
Despi e he sec o ’s g owing con idence and skills in building
meaning ul ela ionships wi h people adi ionally less engaged
wi h o mal a s and cul u e, he se backs w ough by he pan-
demic and now he cos - o - li ing c isis a e se e e. We know ha
in imes o c ises like hese, people need bo h b ead and ci cuses
and ye many o ganisa ions a e ill- equipped o p o ide accessible
and a ac i e cul u al con en , c eaking as hey a e unde he
p essu e o main ain hei social commi men while inc easing
e enue.
This eali y appea s pa icula ly challenging in he ace o he
second end: he gene al changes in habi which a e likely o dimin-
ish he co e audiences he sec o has elied on o a oo long. We
ha e seen a measu able change among less commi ed, less con i-
den audiences, which will only be consolida ed by he cos - o - li -
ing c isis. The Moni o shows us ha a signi ican g oup – la gely
olde , away om he big ci ies – we e al eady p edic ing hey would
be engaging less in pe son in u u e. This end has been masked
in some places by la ge numbe s o younge people doing mo e
in a pos - Co id ush, bu he cos - o - li ing c isis is dis up ing his
shi : he au umn 2022 wa e o he Moni o showed ha he la ge
majo i y o he popula ion (pa icula ly younge people and hose
wi h young amilies) hink hey will be spending less on cul u e as
a esul . This is especially wo ying gi en ha hese g oups we e
eme ging om he pandemic as segmen s wi h he highes po en-
ial o engage wi h cul u e, as e ealed in ou ea lie analysis.
Ul ima ely, he pandemic has helped o pu a spo ligh on he gen-
e a ion gap and he c i ical impo ance o no assuming ha each
gene a ion wan s he same hing. Fu u e- hinking o ganisa ions
will need o pay close a en ion and apply hei ingenui y o add ess
115The same people seeing mo e
115
he inc easingly di e gen habi s and p e e ences o he nex gene a-
ions o audiences.
In his en i onmen , i is also essen ial ha o ganisa ions a e
mind ul o he hi d issue: he changing dynamics in how we ela e
o he places whe e we li e and wo k. The Moni o ga e us many
clues ha his change is on he ca ds, al hough i may be sub le,
long e m and ha d o pe cei e. Again, u u e- p oo ing will equi e
o ganisa ions o become ully enmeshed in he DNA o hei place,
o be i al pa ne s in cul u al co- p oduc ion and engagemen , and
places o communi y, joy, solace and sanc ua y.
The ou h majo end – he shi owa ds public expec a ions
o high- quali y digi al and hyb id con en and expe iences – is a gu-
ably he mos c i ical. Poised, as many p edic we a e, on he b ink
o he Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion, he echnically enabled ‘imagi-
na ion age’ (Moin, 2022) seems o be he ac o we can leas a o d
o igno e. F us a ingly, hen, while many o ganisa ions lea ned
om and gained new con idence om hei pandemic digi al
expe imen s, many ha e ‘snapped back’ o business as usual: some
because hey amed hei digi al o e s as a empo a y way o ge -
ing h ough he c isis a he han as a way o an icipa ing seismic
change; o he s because, despi e a sense hey we e on o some hing
good, hey lack capaci y o keep pushing o wa d on all on s.
Ou esea ch clea ly signals ha change, showing us ha ea ly
adop e s a he on o he cu e a e highly esponsi e o eme ging
digi al o e s; ha digi al can p o ide new solu ions o old p ob-
lems; ha he nex gene a ion wan no jus digi al con en bu
digi ally ans o med cul u al expe iences ha a e imme si e and
pa icipa o y; ha we can and mus o e he sma e , mo e lexible,
mo e pe sonalised isi o jou neys ha au oma ion, AI and imme -
si e and esponsi e echnologies can enable.
I is ha d o see how his po en ial can be p ope ly me by o gani-
sa ions who s ill s uggle o su i al and lack he deep pocke s
equi ed o con e hei pandemic lea ning, le alone accele a e he
a e o expe imen a ion o collabo a e wi h o he s, o se iously scale
he sec o ’s eimagina ion. The e is an ob ious ole and esponsibili y
o cul u al unde s and policy- make s he e, and elsewhe e we ha e
se ou ou ecommenda ions o hese key s akeholde s (see Cul u e
Commons and Cen e o Cul u al Value, 2022). In summa y, he
cul u al sec o u gen ly needs a ge ed suppo o capi alise on he
122 Pandemic cul u e
by p eca i y and exace ba ed by he inequi able ways in which
hea e’s wo k o ce is s uc u ed and emune a ed (Comunian and
England, 2020; DCMS, 2020). I has since been claimed ha ‘no
o he indus y ou sou ces i s c ea i e leade ship o i s inno a ion o
such a deg ee’ (F eelance s Make Thea e Wo k, 2021, p.8). When
he pandemic hi , he win cen al pilla s o he UK Go e nmen ’s
pandemic policy esponse – lockdown and hen he implemen a-
ion o he Job Re en ion Scheme – c ea ed an inequi able si ua-
ion o hose ac oss he pe o ming a s who we e sel - employed,
and o he many po olio wo ke s o hose employed on casual
o ze o- hou s con ac s (DCMS, 2020). In many building- based
o ganisa ions, hose in he la e g oup included s a employed in
impo an componen s o mixed business models, such as hospi-
ali y o e ail. Ou in e iews documen ed how, while many lead-
e s sympa hised wi h hei eelance and empo a y wo ke s, mos
mo ed ins inc i ely in o ‘su i al mode’ and u ned hei ocus
inwa ds: as one di ec o old us blun ly, ‘[ eelance s] can’ ha e
he same expec a ion o con inuing employmen wi h an o ganisa-
ion as a pe manen s a membe ’. Simila ly, while casual s a
may ha e ini ially been suppo ed in some o ganisa ions, his
e en ually p o ed unsus ainable, wi h mos quie ly ‘ alling o he
books’ as enue closu es ex ended in o 2021, he eby o en lea ing
he emaining wo k o ce e en less di e se han i had been be o e
he pandemic.
O he esea ch sugges s ha many eelance hea e wo ke s
esponded wi h ypical esilience, de eloping inno a i e p ac ice,
skilling hemsel es up o mo ing sideways in o digi al wo k, s a -
ing cou ses o u he educa ion, and seeking o expanding p e i-
ously held po olio oles ou side hea e (Maples e al., 2022;
Shaughnessy e al., 2022). Howe e , despi e he in oduc ion o
he Co ona i us Sel - Employed Income Suppo Scheme (SEISS)
in Ma ch 2020, he complex na u e o employmen in he sec o
mean ha a signi ican numbe o eelance hea e wo ke s s ill ell
h ough he gaps, lea ing hem unable o claim suppo and seek-
ing al e na i e wo k o u ning o Uni e sal C edi (Maples e al.,
2022). Anxie y and us a ion we e exp essed on social media and
elsewhe e a he inequali ies implici wi hin policy esponses, wi h
he expe ience o eelance s and smalle o ganisa ions o en pi ched
agains ha o b icks- and- mo a o ganisa ions and wha Cul u e

123Pandemic d ama
123
Sec e a y Oli e Dowden MP had damagingly e med he na ion’s
ins i u ional ‘c own jewels’ when in oducing he sec o ’s £1.57bn
escue package in July 2020. Ou in e iews also poin ed ou a di -
e ence in expe ience be ween hose wo king in he subsidised and
hose in he comme cial sec o s. Indeed, one di ec o o a la ge com-
me cial hea e old us ha i el he na ional na a i e was consis -
en ly d i en by he subsidised sec o .
A lack o unde s anding o he espec i e posi ions and ci cum-
s ances occupied by hose wo king wi hin di e en pa s o hea e’s
ecosys em was highligh ed egula ly by in e iewees. Ha nessing
such conce ns, he F eelance s Make Thea e Wo k mo emen was
o med o p o ide a collec i e oice o eelance s, campaigning
o indus y and go e nmen and demanding a sea a he able in
discussions abou suppo , eco e y and ese . Faced by he eal
ha dship being expe ienced by many indi iduals, we did hea s o-
ies o la ge o ganisa ions p oac i ely wo king ac oss hei hea e
ecologies o suppo smalle companies and eelance a is s bo h
inancially and in e ms o p o essional suppo – o example,
o apply o al e na i e sou ces o unding. Va ious o ganisa ion-
backed ini ia i es wi h simila aims also sp ang up. Fo example,
in May 2020, 150 pe o mance companies and enues signed an
open le e add essed o eelance wo ke s, ollowed by a pledge
o sponso an indi idual membe in wo king as pa o a F eelance
Task o ce in ended o s eng hen he oice o he eelance commu-
ni y (Fuel Thea e, 2020) in all key con e sa ions. O ganisa ions
o en no ed hei in ol emen in collegia e ini ia i es such as G ea e
Manches e ’s A is Hub (see Chap e 9). Many also exp essed a
pe sonal sense o esponsibili y and epo ed engaging in p o bono
as well as unded men o ing, ad ice and de elopmen suppo o
eelance colleagues du ing he c isis.
O e all, ou esea ch iden i ied a sha p ise in collegiali y ac oss
he cul u al sec o and his was ce ainly ue in he hea e sec o
whe e exis ing ne wo ks s eng hened almos o e nigh and new
ne wo ks quickly eme ged o o e mo al and ope a ional suppo .
Thea e wo ke s we e keen o sha e hei s o ies and help each o he
and pe cei ed ne wo ks as ‘silen ly looking ou o each o he ’. One
in e iewee desc ibed he angible impac o hese ne wo ks as p o-
ound: ‘I did eel like hose ne wo ks did ha e some ac ual in lu-
ence … he amoun o p essu e ha was pu on he go e nmen
124 Pandemic cul u e
om he whole hea e sec o …I genuinely don’ hink ha money
would ha e been anywhe e nea wha i was i he sec o wasn’ …
collec i ely lobbying he go e nmen .’
Howe e , o many hea e eelance s, ime and labou al eady
sunk in o de elopmen o u u e wo k (gene ally unpaid) mean
ha many we e al eady signi ican ly ou o pocke when he pan-
demic s uck. While some commi men s o cancelled wo k we e
honou ed immedia ely ollowing he ini ial lockdown, his was no
uni o mly he case, wi h dis essing esul s. One c ea i e p oduce ,
o example, oiced us a ion and ange a a majo building- based
o ganisa ion ha , she said, had simply backed ou o a p ojec ha
had been ou yea s in he planning: ‘The wo lead a is s said o
me hey el disposed o .’ Any new wo k on o e necessa ily lean
owa ds lea ning and pa icipa ion o digi al p og amming. So, o
hose al eady well ne wo ked o wi h hese in- demand skill se s, he
pandemic gene ally bi less ha d. Indeed, some hea es ound hem-
sel es di ec ly employing mo e eelance s han p e iously: deli e -
ing lea ning and pa icipa ion wo k online ook g ea e esou ce
han i s in- pe son equi alen and hey epo ed an inc ease in col-
labo a ion wi h local au ho i ies and s a u o y suppo and hi d
sec o o ganisa ions, p o iding a ge ed suppo o g oups such as
economically disad an aged child en, young people and amilies.
As he c isis ex ended, some eelance s el ha ‘ anspa ency
and communica ion’ om o ganisa ions inally eached a le el
ha many had been demanding o yea s. Howe e , oppo uni ies
handed ou o eelance s s ill some imes el , as one enue’s senio
leade e med i , mo e like ‘c umbs’ om he able; o he s a gued
ha , as usual, cul u al eco e y unding simply ailed o ‘ ickle
down’ om la ge o g ass oo s o ganisa ions o o indi iduals in
he way ha some had clea ly an icipa ed.
Expe iences o employed and u loughed s a
Fo hose who emained employed, he s esses we e di e en ,
al hough many also ound hemsel es e lec ing on he agili y o
he indus y, i s unsa is ac o y ca ee s uc u e and he in lexibil-
i y o i s no mal wo king condi ions. Addi ionally, in e iewees
poin ed o dispa i ies be ween he expe iences o hose u loughed
125Pandemic d ama
125
and hose who emained wo king. Those wo king o en ound
hemsel es ill- equipped and in un amilia e i o y; hey we e
equi ed o ake on mul iple and di e en oles, o use di e en
skills and o bea hea ie wo kloads: ‘All he usual s uc u es and
bounda ies and pa ame e s ha we usually adhe e o wen ou he
window and we all had o ge s uck in’, one senio manage old us.
As a enue di ec o con ided: ‘[M] y ole … doesn’ esemble any job
desc ip ion I ha e e e seen … i ’s all abou in e p e ing and enac -
ing go e nmen guidance.’
Some s a , in pa icula membe s o acili ies and echnical
eams, we e u loughed well in o 2021. Fu lough was capped o
mos , a ec ing hose on highe sala ies. While many o ganisa ions
made e o s o include u loughed colleagues in egula communi-
ca ions, he e was widesp ead unde s anding ha many may ha e
el us a ed and isola ed. Howe e , he e was also some esen -
men among hose who emained wo king. This was pa uelled by
he knowledge ha u loughed colleagues we e no exposed o he
same p essu es and had pe haps e en picked up addi ional wo k in
o he sec o s while some o hose emaining wo king had aken pay
cu s o keep hei o ganisa ions a loa .
Those wi h exis ing skills a he in e sec ion be ween li e and dig-
i al o wi h asse s eady o be made in o digi al na i e pe o mance
we e well placed o bene i . In con as , in e iewees exp essed pa -
icula conce n a ound p ospec s o independen echnical, acili-
ies o backs age specialis s, many o whom could be o e ed no
possibili y o wo k o ex ended pe iods. A hin a he di icul ies
ha migh accompany a ull eopening came when se e al comme -
cial p oduc ion companies we e pa o Ope a ion Sleeping Beau y,
an ill- a ed (mos closed be o e opening nigh ) a emp o ehea se
and s age pan o in 2020, suppo ed by he go e nmen and unde -
w i en by he Na ional Lo e y. A di ec o in ol ed in one o hese
p oduc ions ha we in e iewed s uggled o b ing back echnical
and on - o - house eams since many had ound al e na i e wo k.
Those who emained employed o en ound hemsel es ques ion-
ing hei ca ee choice, as did eelance s and hose who we e u -
loughed and could no ind ewa ding wo k in o he mo e agile
sec o s. As one eelance mused: ‘Why am I wo king in hea e?
I doesn’ o e any secu i y …pay ises in hea e jus don’ exis .
126 Pandemic cul u e
TheEqui y a e goes up so, so slowly …. I ’s a mad indus y o wo k
in anyway, and hen o ha e some hing happen like his…’
Th oughou 2020 and 2021, eelings o exhaus ion, disloca ion
and anxie y abou wha migh happen as a consequence o ail-
u e we e common o hose who con inued wo king. In e iewees
wi h ca ing esponsibili ies desc ibed ‘ lexible’ hou s ex ending
in o la e nigh s and ea ly mo nings while wo king om home: ‘I
hink i ’s impo an o acknowledge ha he pe sonal eally does
impac on he p o essional a he momen ’, one manage old
us. In e iewees equen ly exp essed a sense o du y and gen-
e osi y owa ds colleagues and hei local and wide communi-
ies: ‘I ’s been elen less. I hink e e yone has ound ha . … And
he ene gy o cons an ly eimagining and eeling like you wan o
do so much mo e is eally ha d in i sel .’ Such eelings pe haps
e lec ed Alaco ska’s (2020) a gumen ha cul u al wo k should
be iewed ‘as a labou o compassion as opposed o a labou o
passion’ (p.728); and compassiona e and emo ional labou akes a
hea y oll: he e we e epo s o inc eased sickness a es and new
o exace ba ed men al heal h condi ions, wi h some o ganisa ions
seeing high le els o up ake in hei c eaking wellbeing and coun-
selling se ices (when hey we e o una e enough o ha e hese).
O he s alked o aining employees in ‘men al heal h i s aid’.
Each new lockdown c ea ed esh sca s, as hopes o e u ns o
no mali y we e aised and hen dashed. E e yone el mos keenly
he absence o he h ill o li e hea e and he physical p esence
o audiences and o colleagues. Wi h ghos ligh s licke ing in
many emp y hea es, i was ha d o keep deli e ing wo k ha ,
o many, smacked o comp omise.
Case s udy: Thea e Absolu e
‘To be hones , we ha e no s opped wo king’, Thea e Absolu e
co- ounde and di ec o Julia Negus ne e heless con essed in
Janua y 2021. Embedded in i s local communi y, Thea e Absolu e
opened a small shop- on hea e space in cen al Co en y in
2009 as a sho - e m p ojec ; he company ne e an icipa ed ha i
migh s ill be he e hi een yea s la e . P ojec unded, wi h a small
co e eam suppo ed by a ne wo k o associa es, he hea e c ea es
127Pandemic d ama
127
c oss- disciplina y pe o mance, o e ing audiences and pe o me s
oppo uni ies o explo e adical o dis up i e na a i es.
In Ma ch 2020, jus h ee days be o e he opening nigh o a
long- planned p ojec , he i s lockdown o ced he shop- on hea-
e space o close. The esul ing loss was c ea i ely and emo ionally
challenging o e e yone, and while backing om unde s Esmée
Fai bai n was ne e in dange , signi ican income om he ba and
hi es was los , icke holde s had o be con ac ed and eimbu sed,
and he wo leade s we e e y conscious ha s a , eelance a is s,
all hose in ol ed in u u e planned commissions, and he hea e’s
audiences migh all need suppo .
The o ganisa ion adap ed immedia ely: ‘We’ e s o y elle s a he
end o he day, so we c ea ed a a o wo k bo h so ha we could
keep commissioning eelance s …bu also be wi h ou communi-
ies.’ Impo an ly hough, alongside mul iple unding applica ions,
he co e eam ook ime ou o nu u e hei own a is ic p ac ice
and e lec s a egically, wo king wi h a consul an on he compa-
ny’s mission, ision and alues. A se ies o online wo kshops o
Co en y- based w i e s culmina ed in a se ies o mic o- commissions
and an online sha ing e en . Eme gency Response Funding om
A s Council England mean ha hey could also o e men o ing
and a one- o- one online sc ip d ama u g se ice: ‘We could ha e
un ha ou imes o e !’ Mind ul o he s ong co ela ion be ween
e e yday c ea i i y and emo ional wellbeing (W igh , 2022), Thea e
Absolu e also made and pos ed ou 300 W i ing Boxes illed wi h
s imuli and p omp s o suppo c ea i i y a home.
Ac oss mul iple lockdowns, he shop- on space emained an
asse , despi e being closed o he public. I s la ge s ee - acing win-
dows o med a changing exhibi ion space, engaging passe s- by wi h
ilm, pho og aphy, poe y and ex iles. Local a is s we e o e ed
sho solo esidencies along wi h a small bu sa y – no s ings
a ached – allowing hem o make wo k o jus o be in he space.
The company had ne e iewed i s wo k wi hin and wi h i s local
communi ies and he shop- on space as sepa a e because he space
wouldn’ exis wi hou hose who make and come in o see i s wo k;
i s c ea ion was ‘a delibe a e ac o ci ic hea e’. The pandemic saw
Thea e Absolu e enego ia e i s ela ionships wi h i s audiences
while de eloping a heigh ened sensi i i y owa ds inclusion and he
ba ie s o i . The company el ha some ela ionships deepened

128 Pandemic cul u e
h ough he use o digi al echnology: ‘The e a e lo s o people who
won’ engage in he physical space, o lo s o easons.’
As pa o plans o he egene a ion o Co en y ci y cen e,
he building in which he shop- on hea e is si ed is scheduled
o demoli ion in 2023 and he hea e will close. I is clea hough
ha he pandemic will be w i la ge in he company’s u u e plans
because o i s ole in highligh ing he inaccessibili y and lack o
inclusi i y a ec ing many cul u al spaces and places. A he ime o
w i ing, hese plans included sho esidencies in communi y and
public spaces a ound Co en y alongside digi al and online deli -
e y. The company is also de e mined o make wo k ha can o m
an exempla o ca e and compassion, o hemsel es as hea e
p oduce s, o hose wi h whom hey wo k and o hose li ing
hei li es a ound hem.
O ganisa ions: mission, ision and ci izenship
As he e ec s o lockdown p omp ed many o ganisa ions o ocus
mo e egionally, local cul u al ecologies consolida ed and his led
o new collabo a ions on unding bids and pionee ing commu-
ni y p ojec s. In he e y ea ly days o he pandemic, he e we e
ins ances o ac iousness as he s ess o unpicking a is ic con ac s
and co- p oduc ion deals began o ake i s oll. The e was ine i ably
some ‘unpleasan inancial w angling’ wi h collabo a o s, which
damaged some exis ing business ela ionships in he sho e m.
As no ed abo e, ela ionships wi h eelance s we e sensi i e and
in some cases no helped by ce ain unions who, wi ingly o no ,
quickly sowed seeds o di ision.
Eme gency elie income (Economic Resilience Fund1 and Cul u e
Reco e y Fund) sa ed many hea es and p oducing companies om
bank up cy, bu some smalle o ganisa ions ound he applica ion
p ocess ‘insanely complex’ and el ha i wasn’ designed o hem.
As he lockdowns eased, o ganisa ions s a ed o eassess hei inan-
cialposi ions and ge on wi h he business o p og amming and ep o-
g amming, wi h some in e iewees admi ing o making sa e choices.
Many o ganisa ions used he b eak in p oducing and p esen ing wo k
o ocus on schools and/ o communi y engagemen : ‘We’ e eally
lean in o ou L&P [lea ning and pa icipa ion] wo k. I was always
129Pandemic d ama
129
a eally i al pa o ou c ea i e p og amme, bu a he momen i is
ou c ea i e p og amme.’
Policy- make s ini ially esponded slowly, wi h some demons a -
ing limi ed unde s anding o he complex logis ics, ope a ions and
in as uc u e o he sec o . This esul ed in a se o poo ly esea ched
COVID- 19 es ic ions, all o which p esen ed a a o new chal-
lenges o li e hea e. No leas o hese we e he 1– 2m social dis-
ancing measu es which essen ially made li e pe o mance inancially
un enable. These p esen ed a pa icula challenge o comme cial
enues, which we e no eligible o elie unding. The go e nmen ’s
ie ed app oach o Co id es ic ions played ou di e en ly ac oss
he coun y; hea es in some egions (including London) could open
o mos o au umn/ win e 2020 and much o 2021, whe eas o h-
e s (especially in no h- wes England) emained closed o mon hs
on end. Some hea es s uggled o deploy box o ice, on - o - house
and hospi ali y s a as e en many o hose who had been u loughed
had ei he ound o he (o en be e - paid) jobs and/ o en olled in
highe educa ion cou ses o skill up. This ec ui men c isis endu ed
in o 2023.
Con i ming ou indings om he Cul u al Pa icipa ion
Moni o (see Chap e 3), exis ing audiences p o ed slow o e u n
o li e e en s. Many hea es el as hough hey we e almos
de eloping audiences om sc a ch: one di ec o commen ed ‘I
hink we ha e o hink abou ou hea es as i , i ’s almos as i
we a e opening hem o he i s ime. I ’s no a kind o e e y-
body’s eady o come back h ough he doo s, i ’s like going in o
a place o low engagemen and deciding you’ e going o build
a hea e and opening campaign.’ As ano he in e iewee pu
i : ‘ u ning up and jus expec ing people o come o he hea e
is old- ashioned now’. Al hough we know ha audiences didn’
b oaden o di e si y on a mac o le el, many hea e companies
did see new audiences eme ge o hem, as exis ing cul u al audi-
ences became inc easingly omni o ous and hung y o cul u al
con en and engagemen . Mo ing owa ds ull eopening in 2021,
he e o e, many o ganisa ions also ook ime o e iew how hey
we e engaging wi h hei publics. The esul s included plans o
di ch p in ed b ochu es, ini ia i es o deepen ela ionships wi h
exis ing pa ons and s a egies o e- examine icke p icing mod-
els ha migh encou age new o cau iously e u ning audiences.
130 Pandemic cul u e
Case s udy: The Na ional Thea e
As elsewhe e, shu ing down was a auma ic expe ience o he
Na ional Thea e (NT). This was he i s ime in i s hen o y- ou -
yea his o y ha he NT had closed i s building and i s shu down
was no jus unp eceden ed; i was also unplanned and occu ed in
a acuum o public in o ma ion. As one in e iewee pu i , ‘ he e
was skele al in o ma ion and a heigh ened sense o ea …. The HR
eam we e ou o hei dep h. We all made mis akes and commu-
nica ed badly.’ The s ess was ‘phenomenal’ – decisions had o be
made wi hin hou s, including closing he hea e and sending s a ,
ac o s and audiences home be o e ha e ening’s pe o mance. S a
had o ack down 150 colleagues wo king ac oss he la ge si e and
communica e complex in o ma ion apidly and sensi i ely. S a
and audiences had undamen ally di e en le els o unde s anding
abou he pandemic a he ime and he e we e ulne able people o
conside among bo h g oups.
The pandemic b ough immedia e change and speeded up
planned s a egic de elopmen s. Be o e COVID- 19, NT was eli-
an on 85 pe cen capaci y o balance i s inances and i quickly
had o econside his unsus ainable income model. In he wo ds
o one di ec o , ‘The P&L [p o i and loss inancial s a emen ]
was no obus : we we e elian on a bi o luck and a p e ailing
wind.’ As ano he di ec o con ided: ‘I disman led he business …
i ’s been abou su i al, no s a egy and i ’s knocked any sense o
ce ain y ou o he business.’ The immedia e inancial impac was
‘g im beyond belie ’ and he o ganisa ion only su i ed hanks o
i s £15m ese es, eme gency go e nmen unding and a loan o
£20m. In his sense i was a ic im o i s own success and had o
adically e hink i s business model alongside i s concep o i s own
esilience. NT ealised how key i s s ong na ional ne wo ks we e;
his mean hey could quickly be ha nessed and mobilised o add ess
he immedia e challenges and collec i ely lobby o suppo .
On he posi i e side, he pandemic o ced a wide ange o s a
o engage wi h he business model, encou aging g ea e unde s and-
ing o he need o manage budge s e y igh ly and ake ‘a mo e
business- like app oach o cos managemen ’. I also encou aged a
mo e en ep eneu ial use o he enue’s spaces, wi h he Ly le on
being empo a ily ans o med in o a luc a i e ilm s udio, p oducing
131Pandemic d ama
131
in- house con en o global ilm media ne wo ks. The o ganisa ion
esponded much mo e apidly and adically han i e e would ha e
in no mal imes, whe e p essu es on box o ice income his o ically
delimi ed oppo uni ies o business model de elopmen . Inno a ion
no ably included he launch o Na ional Thea e a Home, ep esen -
ing a shi no only in he business model bu in he e hos o he en i e
o ganisa ion o emb ace domes ic engagemen wi h hea e. O e
10,000 people subsc ibed o he s eaming pla o m in he cou se o
se e al weeks, o cing he hea e o edesign i s in ellec ual p ope y
policies, i s e alua ion me ics and analy ics and i s en i e audience
engagemen model.
The o ganisa ion quickly came unde p essu e o suppo i s sig-
ni ican numbe o eelance s a and accessed i s Bene olen Fund
o suppo eelance s who we e a isk o losing hei homes. As
one senio manage poin ed ou , he pandemic immedia ely ‘shone
a ligh on who has ca ee secu i y’. The disc epancies be ween di -
e en coho s o s a – hose who we e u loughed e sus hose
who we en’ ; hose who we e made edundan e sus hose who
kep hei jobs; employed e sus eelance – ine i ably c ea ed en-
sions and eelings o guil : ‘I eels like an inc edibly b uised o gani-
sa ion: he e’s a sense o su i o ’s guil .’ This sense o inju y was
con i med by ano he in e iewee who con ided: ‘Wounds ha e
been le ; people eel like hey ha e been h ough a auma ic ime
and we’ e ying o heal he wounds as quickly as possible.’ The
‘su i o s’ we e soon pi o ing o home wo king and wo king
ha de han e e , co e ing o anished colleagues and cancelling
annual lea e. Redundancies we e signi ican and ook an a is ic as
well as psychological and ope a ional oll: 25 pe cen o pe manen
oles had o go o achie e cos sa ings o 30 pe cen , culmina ing
in an o e all loss o 50 pe cen o s a who we e on he pay oll in
Feb ua y 2020; he di e si y o s a dec eased om 19 pe cen o
15 pe cen agains a a ge o 30 pe cen ; and a whole gene a ion
o s agec a was los almos o e nigh , comp omising skills and
ins i u ional memo y.
Exhaus ion soon se in, bu his was empe ed by a sha ed sense
o a mo e nimble o ganisa ion acing unique oppo uni ies: ‘I’ e
achie ed hings ha i would ha e aken me yea s o achie e …
and i o ced us o e hink inclusion.’ Fo me Execu i e Di ec o
Lisa Bu ge summed up he s a egic challenges as ollows: ‘We’ll
234 Pandemic cul u e
e en as business models and con en ional p inciples o cul u al
s a egy collapsed.
The quali a i e me hodology o ecosys em case s udy p o ided
access o he na a i es and pe cep ions o ou in e iewees, p e-
sen ing insigh in o he ela ional o ms o cul u al go e nance in
he ci y- egion and eal- ime e lec ions on he changes o local
s a egic objec i es as hese wen ‘ou he window’ a he s a o
he pandemic, leading o an unp eceden ed pe iod o imp o isa-
o y decision- making and policy inno a ion in he egion. Ou
s udy is he e o e bo h in o med and bounded by he pe spec i es
o ou in e iewees as esea ch pa ne s and, as such, e lec s ins i-
u ionally in o med concep ions o place, con ex , and he pu pose
Figu e 9.2 Wo k o ce size, G ea e Manches e (indus ies)
Sou ce: ONS, Labou Fo ce Su ey

235Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
235
and impac s o policy. This has wo main consequences o his
esea ch. Fi s ly, we ely on policy- make s and cul u al pa ne s o
ac as in e locu o s o he b oade impac s o policy inno a ion o
audiences, communi ies and o he local s akeholde s. Secondly, he
lens in oduced in his s udy is biased by a poli ical in as uc u e
ha has, his o ically, p i ileged Manches e ci y cen e. Though we
spoke o policy- make s and cul u al pa ne s in each o he egion’s
en dis ic s, he discussion p esen ed he e should be seen as an
o e iew o policy de elopmen in he egion ha would bene i
om u he place- ocused esea ch a a local au ho i y le el.
‘E e y hing was on an upwa d end’:
cul u e be o e he pandemic
GM has a his o y o collabo a i e wo king ac oss i s owns, ci ies
and dis ic s, which pa ed he way o ci y- egional de olu ion. The
s eng h o he ela ionships wi hin his ‘ ed wall s onghold’ o
mainly le - wing- led local go e nmen s wo king o c ea e he i s
combined au ho i y in England has aised he ci y- egion’s p o ile
and iden i y, and has bene i ed he s a egic nego ia ion o capi-
al in es men ela ed o he No he n Powe house, an ini ia i e
aimed o ebalance geog aphic inequali ies in p oduc i i y and sup-
po economic de elopmen ac oss he no h o England (Gilmo e
and Bulai is, 2023). This ini ia i e, cho eog aphed by he o -
me Chancello o he Excheque Geo ge Osbo ne and combined
wi h a long- s anding ad ocacy o cul u e and c ea i e indus ies,
p o ided isibili y o he ci y- egion wi hin Wes mins e which
esul ed in £78m o cen al go e nmen in es men in The Fac o y,
a new home o Manches e In e na ional Fes i al (MIF), among
o he componen pa s o he 2014 de olu ion deal (Jenkins, 2015).
Manches e i sel is an expe in boos e ism, wi h a epu a ion
o s ong leade ship, place- based wo king and ad ocacy a a ci y-
egion le el (Localis, 2009). Ci y leade s we e amilia wi h he
poli ics and discou se o c ea i e indus ies and c ea i e clus e s,
and he echnoc acy o hei ex insic powe s, ha ing come op
o Richa d Flo ida’s C ea i e Class Boho Index exe cise in 2003,
which anked UK ci ies by hei p opensi y o hos he ‘c ea i e
class’ (Ca e , 2003). The ci y claims a global ack eco d as a
236 Pandemic cul u e
cul u al capi al, pa icula ly in oo ball and music, and has a s ong
p esence o c ea i e indus ies clus e s, concen a ed in he ci y
cen e and a eas o i s neighbou ci y Sal o d (Siepel e al., 2021;
Te he , 2022), including MediaCi yUK, he home o BBC No h
and ITV G anada. The p esence o clus e s and ‘mic o- clus e s’ o
c ea i e businesses has long been a le e o a ge ed in es men
o unde pin s a egic de elopmen , mos ecen ly in a pilo Local
Indus ial S a egy (BEIS/ HCLG, 2019). Howe e , his app oach
exace ba ed long- s anding conce ns a ound he une en dis ibu-
ion o cul u al in es men and oppo uni y ac oss he ci y- egion,
aising ques ions o dis ic au ho i ies abou he alue o hei
in es men in o he combined au ho i y’s cul u al budge . As a ep-
esen a i e o Bu y obse ed: ‘In GM, he local poli icians eel ha
he ou lying bo oughs a e basically housing es a es o Manches e
Ci y Cen e, and I hink i ’s easie o hem o lea e all ha cul u e
s u o Manches e Ci y Cen e, a he han ac ually in es ing in i
in local e ms.’
Weeks be o e he i s na ional lockdown, GMCA launched he
Cul u e Fund, an in es men o £8.6m o e wo yea s, designed o
suppo a ‘balanced’ (GMCA, 2020a, p.1) po olio o hi y- i e
cul u al o ganisa ions ep esen ing each o he egion’s en dis ic s.
Alongside he inaugu al GM own o cul u e (Bu y Council, 2020),
he po olio is a key pilla in he GMCA cul u e eam’s e o s o
add ess inequali y in he egion’s cul u al o e and o build links
be ween GMCA, dis ic au ho i ies and cul u al pa ne s beyond
Manches e and Sal o d. This p og ess is complemen ed by e o s
om policy- make s ac oss each o he en dis ic s o de elop local
cul u al s a egies a a ious s ages o ma u i y a he s a o 2020.
Local cul u al s a egies ‘make he case’ o cul u e, locally and
egionally, helping o secu e local au ho i y buy- in by iden i ying
oppo uni ies o cul u e o suppo local policy ambi ions h ough
policy a achmen s (G ay, 2007) o gene a e posi i e ou comes o
communi ies, own cen es and he local economy, while p o iding
isibili y o local cul u al in e es s and iden i ies as pa o egion-
wide policy discussion. This wo k is suppo ed by s ong lines o
communica ion be ween he dis ic s and he combined au ho -
i y, acili a ed by bodies like he GM A s Ne wo k, which b ings
oge he a s o ice s om each o he egion’s dis ic s wi h a emi
o cul u al planning and de elopmen .
237Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
237
Despi e he in luence o his o ical condi ions ha ha e ended
o p i ilege he ci y o Manches e , he e was, as a egional policy-
make obse ed, a s ong sense ha cul u e was ‘on an upwa d end’
in he mon hs be o e he pandemic, bo h in i s legi imacy as pa o
wide s a egy and policy de elopmen ac oss he egion, and in he
inclusion o he di e se dis ic s and communi ies ha make up he
egion. Though he c ea i e clus e model has undoub edly helped
bols e he case o cul u e in he egion, and con inues o ecei e
poli ical and inancial suppo , he e a e clea e o s a dis ic and
combined au ho i y le els o ex end hinking abou cul u e’s ela-
ionship o policy beyond he ‘winne - akes- all u banism’ (Flo ida,
2017, p.6) o Flo ida’s c ea i e class. The GM Cul u e Fund was led
no only by he p inciple o economic edis ibu ion, bu also by he
con ic ion ha a heal hy cul u al ecosys em should anscend he
alues held by a small numbe o lagship ins i u ions. Along wi h
egion- wide schemes like G ea Place GM (2018– 2021), a join und-
ing scheme by A s Council England and he He i age Lo e y Fund
which aimed o capaci y build cul u al place- making, he e ha e been
signi ican e o s o o malise s a egic ela ionships be ween cul u e
and subs an i e ou comes in o he policy a eas wi hin GM, om
municipal cul u al s a egies o he local indus ial s a egy o GM,
which o eg ounded cul u al enues and c ea i e indus ies clus e s
as economic d i e s (Gilmo e and Bulai is, 2023). As a local go e n-
men o ice explained o hei dis ic ’s plans o cul u e p io o
he pandemic: ‘i was all abou ying o es ablish a cul u al ecology
ac oss he bo ough and o engage s akeholde s in wha ha cul u al
ecology bluep in could and should look like’. Such ini ia i es we e
in p og ess a he s a o 2020 and indica e a di ec ion o a el
a he han an es ablished policy en i onmen . Ne e heless, hey
e lec he app oach and ambi ions ha we e in place owa ds he
end o 2019 and he condi ions ha in o med he egion’s esponse
as he pandemic de eloped o e he ollowing yea s.
‘An o e whelming sense o anxie y and conce n’:
local impac s o a global pandemic
Es ablished ela ionships be ween cul u al o ganisa ions, suppo ed
by he egion’s his o y o s a egic cul u al de elopmen , allowed o
238 Pandemic cul u e
a coo dina ed esponse ac oss he ci y- egion, wi h a numbe o pub-
licly unded o ganisa ions closing hei doo s on 20 Ma ch 2020,
in ad ance o na ional guidance. Ne e heless, ou esea ch ound
s ong simila i ies be ween he ini ial s ages o he pandemic wi hin
GM and he b oade na ional pic u e. As in e iewees obse ed, he
ea ly weeks o he pandemic we e cha ac e ised by shock and panic
as cul u al wo ke s and policy- make s ackled he comple e shu -
down o enues and in- pe son ac i i ies, and a p o oundly unce ain
u u e as hey wai ed o go e nmen ad ice. As he execu i e di ec-
o o a Manches e lagship o ganisa ion explained: ‘The way ha
he pandemic and he es ic ions ha came in we e handled h ew
e e ybody … in o a so o la spin because o he lack o guid-
ance o clea di ec ion o s uc u al iming.’ Local policy objec i es
and o ganisa ional s a egies we e quickly ende ed un enable and
al e na i es du ing hese ea ly weeks we e desc ibed as ‘kneeje k’
eac ions, d i en, as a combined au ho i y ep esen a i e obse ed,
by a ‘sense o powe lessness’ e lec ed in es imonies om cul u al
wo ke s and policy- make s ac oss he ou UK na ions.
Local e o s a emp ed o espond o he impac s on wo k
and jobs and he ulne abili y o he eelance wo k o ce, e ec s
obse ed elsewhe e which we e combined wi h s uc u al issues
ha p eceded he pandemic (as desc ibed in Chap e 2). The exac-
e ba ion o al eady p eca ious condi ions o la ge pa s o he cul-
u al sec o was acknowledged by he apid esponse o high- p o ile
o ganisa ions such as he biennial MIF, which was p epa ing o i s
nex es i al in 2021 and p e en ed by he pandemic om mo ing
o i s new home, he lagship Fac o y building. By 18 Ma ch 2020,
i e days ahead o he announcemen o he i s na ional lock-
down, MIF had launched a p og amme o online d op- in sessions
o a is s and eelance s o e ing suppo and esou ces (MIF,
2020). This was p omp ed by he eliance o he es i al on ee-
lance labou , bu also signalled he collec i e conce ns exp essed
by he p oli e a ion o c oss- o ganisa ional, c oss- dis ic ini ia i es
ha eme ged in pa allel in GM. As a membe o he GMCA cul-
u e eam explained: ‘The e was he unning a ound like headless
cul u al chickens, and hen we go: okay, ac ually, we’ e all doing
his… Why don’ we do his oge he ?’
As Figu e 9.2 shows, he pandemic had a signi ican impac on
wo k o ce size o he c ea i e and cul u al indus ies, especially
239Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
239
o enue- based ac i i ies du ing he i s h ee qua e s o 2020.
Resul s om MCC’s annual Cul u al Impac Su ey sugges a 95
pe cen dec ease in audiences and an 84 pe cen dec ease in p o-
duc ions be ween 2019 and 2020 (Cul u al He i age in Ac ion,
2022) and, as Figu e 9.2 shows, sec o s such as music, pe o ming
a s, isual a s, museums and galle ies, whe e business models a e
mos elian on in- pe son pa icipa ion, we e hose ha showed an
o e all downwa d ajec o y o wo k o ce ac oss he ou qua e s
o 2020. Addi ionally, he cen al go e nmen ’s ie ed app oach o
managing case numbe s disp opo iona ely impac ed GM as much
o he no hwes egion was placed in ‘special measu es’ wi h mo e
s ingen a el and social dis ancing es ic ions o mos o he sec-
ond hal o 2020. These condi ions placed pa icula s ain on cul-
u al o ganisa ions and on he wide e en s and hospi ali y sec o ,
signi ican ly exace ba ing he impac on he eelance wo k o ce.
As a local au ho i y o ice no ed, he claiman a e o Uni e sal
C edi in he ci y inc eased by 100 pe cen in 2020, sugges ing
ha ‘a lo o ha is younge people who migh wo k in he c ea-
i e indus ies bu a e also supplemen ing hei incomes by wo king
in ca és, ba s, es au an s, e c.’. Wo ke s in he cul u al sec o a e
mo e likely o hold wo o mo e jobs han hose in o he sec o s
(Pasikowska- Schnass, 2019, p.8) and, as ou in e iewee obse ed,
many c ea i e wo ke s we e doubly impac ed as addi ional, o en
mo e s able, income s eams we e cu o as complemen a y sec-
o s such as hospi ali y, ou ism and he nigh - ime economy also
emained closed.
Ou quali a i e esea ch p o ides nuance o he impac s o hese
condi ions on he egion and on he p essu es acing c ea i e and
cul u al wo ke s. As an execu i e di ec o o a la ge- scale cul u al
o ganisa ion in Manches e obse ed: ‘Whe e we saw he bigges
and mos immedia e impac was jus an o e whelming sense o
anxie y and conce n om a is s and he whole a s supply chain
in e ms o echnicians, c ew, eelance p oduce s.’ These anxie-
ies we e exace ba ed by he lack o clea leade ship o p omp
decision- making om cen al go e nmen in he ea ly s ages o
he pandemic and con inued when guidance on social dis ancing
and public e en s was epea edly e ised h oughou 2020 in o he
i s hal o 2021. Cha ac e ised as an exhaus ing se ies o ‘ alse
s a s’, hese condi ions no only made i impossible o cul u al

240 Pandemic cul u e
o ganisa ions o es ablish a cohe en s a egy a ound eopening,
bu e oded audience con idence as e en s had o be cancelled o
escheduled a sho no ice. Addi ionally, while cen alised poli-
cies such as he Cul u e Reco e y Fund (CRF) we e uni e sally
welcomed, hey ailed o add ess he needs o he mos ulne able
cul u al wo ke s in he egion. As one eelance a is explained o
he cen al go e nmen ’s esponse:
The e was a eal lack o ca e o he way ha a is s so o en sac i ice
a s able, singula income in o de o make hei a and, as a esul ,
piece oge he an income om di e en sou ces. So, o all o he sup-
po ha was p o ided, disad an aged people who we e going o be
in ha posi ion o wo king mul iple jobs …. Tha disp opo iona e
disad an age was no me wi h app op ia e suppo , and I hink ha
was shocking, and I will be ang y o a long ime.
The e we e mo e ‘ca e- ull’ e o s by local go e nmen o ind
p agma ic solu ions ailo ed o he needs o he egion. GMCA, o
ins ance, consul ed wi h cul u al sec o pa ne s o make an ea ly
decision o suspend ag eed unding equi emen s o hei Cul u e
Fund po olio, a anging immedia e ad ance o 2020– 2021 unds.
MCC ook simila ac ion. As a ep esen a i e explained:
I emembe , my las day in he o ice, I spen he day d a ing a le e
o cul u al o ganisa ions and ge ing i signed by my execu i e mem-
be s o say ha we will be suspending he moni o ing and condi ion-
ali y o ou unding ag eemen s wi h immedia e e ec .
Fo mos o ganisa ions ha ecei ed local unding, hese s eps
allowed hem o en e he ini ial s ages o he pandemic wi h a
deg ee o inancial s abili y. Though anxie y o e he po en ial
longe i y o he pandemic was high, hese p o isions cla i ied he
expec a ions o hei local au ho i y pa ne s, signalling hei in en-
ion o con inue suppo and unde lining a lexibili y ha allowed
o ganisa ions o hink ca e ully and c i ically abou hei esou ces
and how hey migh be deployed.
Desc ibed by a Manches e museum di ec o as an ambi ion
o ‘se e he ci y p ope ly’, o mos his in ol ed a u n owa ds
place and locali y, d awing on ela ionships wi h audience g oups
and s akeholde communi ies o unde s and how hei su ound-
ing popula ion was expe iencing he pandemic and how he cul-
u al sec o migh mi iga e he wo s o i s impac s, e en when
241Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
241
hey we e ou side o scope o he o ganisa ion’s no mal business.
This alues- led esponse posi ions he cul u al sec o as a public
se ice in he con ex o he pandemic, wi h unambiguous inan-
cial suppo om go e nmen au ho i ies eleasing a ious o ms
o social and cul u al capi al in suppo o he local popula ion.
The policy esponse o COVID- 19 o en blu ed he line be ween
cul u al and social p o ision, including a p oli e a ion o ad ice
sessions o a is s and c ea i e wo ke s; c ea i e packs sen ou o
amilies, young people and people expe iencing social isola ion o
keep hem en e ained a home; and a a ie y o online ac i i ies
and p ojec s including quiz nigh s, play eadings and communi y
g oups o olde people and e ugees. As he a is ic di ec o o a
Bol on hea e explained: ‘ o some people i ’s a eal li eline ….
We el e y keenly he esponsibili y … o en e ain and connec
people emo ely du ing his ime.’
These in o mal s a egies we e e lec ed in policy esponses
wi hin he ci y- egion. GMCA’s plan o cul u al eco e y, published
owa ds he end o 2020, included e ised guidelines o i s Cul u e
Fund o ganisa ions ha encou aged hem o use hei esou ces o
‘suppo he wide GM Cul u al sec o ’ (GMCA, 2020b, p.12) by
suppo ing indi idual a is s and eelance s, emphasising cul u al
oppo uni ies o ha d- hi communi ies, p o iding oppo uni ies o
young people and educing s uc u al inequali y in he cul u al sec-
o . Manches e ’s Cul u al Leade ’s G oup, a de ac o s ee ing g oup
o enue and o ganisa ion di ec o s and leade s o cul u e wi h
esponsibili y o deli e ing he ci y’s Cul u al Ambi ion s a egy
(MCC, 2016), expanded hei membe ship, eaching beyond he
ci y cen e’s lagship o ganisa ions and subsidised sec o o inco po-
a e new membe s om museums, dance, comedy, ma ke ing and
pho og aphy. Ac i i ies shi ed om deli e ing he p e- pandemic
con ic ion ha ‘in e na ional a and cul u e b ings he g ea es
local bene i ’ (MCC, 2016, p.1) owa ds local communi ies’ con-
ce ns and policy a achmen s o ein o ce he ela ionship be ween
cul u al ins i u ions and social goals. As a Manches e - based com-
pany di ec o explained: ‘i eels like going local is going o be he
an hem o ou ime when we eme ge om his’.
This led o some ex ao dina y coo dina ion ac oss he sec o
and he ci y- egion, including ini ia i es like he GM A s Hub, o
be conside ed sho ly. Howe e , he alue o he elaxed unding
242 Pandemic cul u e
es ic ions o MCC Po olio and GMCA Cul u e Fund o ganisa-
ions a ied signi ican ly depending on he ci cums ances o o gani-
sa ions and dis ic s a he s a o he pandemic. As a ep esen a i e
o a Manches e - based hea e explained:
I hink i was he 20 h o Ma ch ha we shu ou doo s, and o
ou business i was he wo s possible momen …. We we e a he
heigh o p oducing … which equi es huge sums o sunk cos in
ad ance…. We’ e go a show ha was on ou s age ha didn’ make
i s own p ess nigh …. We we e in p e- p oduc ion o wo o he
plays. The cos s associa ed wi h ha we e conside able.
Fo o ganisa ions ha ell in he gap be ween local suppo and
he in oduc ion o na ional p og ammes like he Co ona i us Job
Re en ion Scheme, A s Council England’s eme gency unding and
CRF (see Chap e 1), he o ganisa ional impac s we e signi ican ,
in ol ing edundancies, sc apped wo k and high pe sonal and emo-
ional cos s.
The pic u e a ied o di e en local au ho i ies. No all en dis-
ic s had es ablished cul u e eams a he s a o he pandemic,
and, in many cases, al eady limi ed eams we e educed u he as
o ice s we e edeployed o o he du ies. As a ep esen a i e om
Wigan Council explained, ‘qui e quickly we los abou 60 pe cen
o ou eam o on line c i ical se ice deli e y’. While a alues-
led app oach o managing he pandemic helped es ablish wha
one GMCA ep esen a i e desc ibed as a ‘coali ion o he willing’,
in as uc u al issues ela ing o capaci y and esou ce a o ganisa-
ional le el limi ed he each o hese e o s and hei bene i s. As
hey explained: ‘when you don’ ha e people, ha ’s when i ips
up … because we’ e all en husias ically on a join mission wi h a
comple ely sha ed pu pose, and hen you’ll ha e a dis ic whe e
hey ha en’ go s a ’. The ambi ion o ‘se e he ci y’ d ew on
place- based ne wo ks o suppo unde s anding o he pandemic’s
impac s and he sha ing o knowledge, esou ces and expe ise
in ways ha made a meaning ul di e ence o o ganisa ions and
o hose mos impac ed by he pandemic, wi hin and beyond he
sec o . The condi ions o place, howe e , also de ined he each o
hese p ojec s and policy in e en ions, indica ing he limi poin a
which chains o communica ion, esou ce and sha ed alue begin o
b eak down. In he ollowing sec ion, we conside he ela ionship
243Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
243
be ween he pandemic and place in mo e de ail, looking a wo
p ojec s ha sough o es ablish and ex end place- based ne wo ks
in s a egic esponse o he pandemic, and conside hei impac s
o cul u al sec o o ganisa ions, wo ke s and audiences.
Place- based pa ne ships
The examples conside ed he e a e he GM A is Hub, a egion-
wide ne wo k o cul u al o ganisa ions es ablished o suppo
independen a is s in esponse o he pandemic, and he Sal o d
Cul u e and Place Pa ne ship (SCPP), a c oss- sec o s ee ing
g oup o cul u e in Sal o d ha launched i s i s majo policy
ini ia i e, Sup ema Lex (SCPP, 2020), ele en days be o e he i s
na ional lockdown. Though dis inc in hei aims, hey illus a e
common in e es s associa ed wi h place- based hinking, ne -
wo ks and decision- making o highligh he ole and po en ial
o an ecosys ems pe spec i e in managing sec o esponse du ing
hepandemic.
The GM A is Hub was es ablished in he ea ly weeks o he
pandemic in esponse o impac s on he li elihoods and wellbeing
o independen a is s. As a ep esen a i e explained, he Hub was
designed no jus o o e inancial suppo , bu o p o ide a poin
o con ac o a is s whose ela ionships wi h he sec o had been
cu o : ‘ hey ha en’ jus los income, hey’ e also los suppo
…. They’ e los hei abili y o d aw on us o unde s and wha
he bigge pic u e migh look like.’ Led in i s ini ial s ages by The
Low y, he Hub elied on pa ne ship wo k unde aken by hei
a is de elopmen eam p io o he pandemic, b inging oge he
ou een o ganisa ions including Manches e - based ins i u ions
such as he hea e enues o HOME and Con ac , he Manches e
In e na ional Fes i al (MIF) along wi h smalle pa ne s om dis-
ic s ac oss he ci y- egion.
Ini ially, he Hub was esou ced h ough he in- kind commi -
men o i s membe s, elying on con ibu ions o knowledge and
ime ha would adjus as he pandemic de eloped and in esponse
o he ci cums ances o indi idual o ganisa ions. Desc ibed by
one o i s membe s as ‘collec i e esponsibili y, lexibly deli e ed’,
250 Pandemic cul u e
economic capi al. The es ablishmen and p i ileging o knowledge
ne wo ks wi hin places – in his case G ea e Manches e and, pa -
icula ly, Manches e i sel – has been c i ical in p omo ing he
sec o egionally and suppo ing he local ecosys em du ing he
pandemic. These condi ions also indica e a co ela ion be ween
epis emic communi ies and he ep oduc ion o s uc u al, place-
based inequali ies.
Ou case s udies illus a e he ways in which sec o esponse
du ing he pandemic migh be seen o dis up his equilib ium
and he possibili y o longe - e m change in he epis emic egis-
e s ha s uc u e and in o m cul u al policy and ecologies a he
egional le el. As Zygmun Bauman no es, communi y is always
a s a egic discou se o inclusion and exclusion, o e ing isibili y
and agency o i s membe s while making epis emological, i no
ac ual, enemies o hose on he ou side (2006, p. 14). The p ojec s
conside ed abo e ouble he long- s anding logics, ne wo ks and
alues ha ha e his o ically de e mined h esholds o inclusion
and exclusion in GM’s epis emic communi ies. Ope a ing as an
a m’s- leng h body o cul u e wi hin i s own dis ic , SCPP b ings
oge he o ganisa ions such as he ou doo a s company Walk he
Plank, whose hi y yea s o p ac ice can be linked o he legacy o
he B i ish al e na i e hea e mo emen and he coun e - cul u al
ambi ions o he 1960s and 1970s, and he Peel G oup, one o he
egion’s mos p ominen p ope y de elope s. Whe e con empo-
a y policy con ex s can o en be cha ac e ised by economic p io i-
ies ha dic a e cul u e’s alue and signi icance (Th osby, 2010),
SCPP makes explici he ela ional and in e dependen quali ies o
cul u al policy o b ing di e en alue sys ems oge he by in i -
ing s akeholde s om ac oss he local cul u al ecosys em in o he
same oom. This opens up he ange o pe spec i es on how cul-
u e is unde s ood and managed in he dis ic , posi ioning policy
as a esponsi e, dynamic ou come o he pa ne ship i sel . As a
membe no ed: ‘e e yone seems o ha e a oice a he able … i
eels democ a ic in ha way o me … i eels suppo i e’. The GM
A s Hub, simila ly, sough o ex end local epis emic bounda ies
by eposi ioning cul u al wo ke s as s akeholde s in he heal h and
su i al o he cul u al ecosys em. Ano he membe explained ha
b eaking down compe i i e ba ie s be ween o ganisa ions was

251Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
251
key o inc easing he ep esen a ion o a is s wi hin he decision-
making p ocesses o he Hub and Hub membe s:
By isibly building be e collabo a i e ela ionships be ween he
o ganisa ions in he ci y- egion i c ea ed be e oppo uni ies o all
o he a is s … o be suppo ed p ope ly, because hey could ha e
hones con e sa ions abou wha hey needed and whe he hey we e
ge ing hei needs me o no .
In bo h cases, hese p ojec s ex ended he p ac ices o inclusion
and ep esen a ion ha challenge o complica e he ‘no ma i e
beha iou s’ ha Haas (1992) sugges s a e cha ac e is ic o epis-
emic communi ies and hei app oach o managing change: while
epis emic communi ies a e usually legi imised h ough he aining,
p es ige and epu a ion o hei membe s, he e he epu a ions o
GM epis emic communi ies a e being used o au ho ise new dis-
cou ses in alue, decision- making and policy.
The expe iences o ou in e iewees sugges he pandemic acili-
a ed, o pe haps mo e ap ly w enched, a dynamic econside a ion o
alues and p oduc i i y ela ionships ac oss he local ecosys em. The
GM A is Hub explici ly p omo ed an in e connec ed iew o cul-
u al sec o ac i i y, posi ioning a commi men o collec i e esponsi-
bili y as a ba ie o en y o he p ojec ’s pa ne s. In con as o he
disc e e o ganisa ional agendas ha we e cha ac e is ic o he egion’s
cul u al ecology p io o he pandemic, he Hub posi ions he suppo
and wel a e o independen a is s and eelance wo ke s as a legi i-
ma e ou come o o ganisa ional ac i i y. Mo e b oadly, his shi ech-
oes Holden’s aming o he cul u al sec o as a ‘cycle o egene a ion’
(Holden, 2015, p.27), in which he ou comes o in es men a e no
los bu a e eci cula ed wi hin he wide cul u al ecosys em.
SCPP migh be allied wi h simila de elopmen s. As a ep e-
sen a i e o MediaCi yUK obse ed, Box on he Docks p o ided
‘p oo o concep ’ o co po a e pa ne s ha in es men in cul-
u e could be mu ually bene icial. Mo e speci ically, i aced hese
bene i s on o place, as a demons a ion case which links inancial
in es men om p i a e pa ne s wi h posi i e ou comes o ci y
esiden s. As he in e iewee obse ed: ‘The e’s a ealisa ion om
de elope s – p ope y de elope s – ha ac ually he days ha e
gone whe e you can jus en an o ice wi hou s u happening in
252 Pandemic cul u e
he ac ual place.’ No ably, wha his p ojec p oposes is a mul i-
alen in e p e a ion o alue ha p omo es simul aneous bene i
o co po a e in es o s, ci y esiden s, a is s and he wide cul-
u al ecology as a p inciple o u u e policy de elopmen . Though
hese de elopmen s eme ged in speci ic esponse o he condi ions
o he pandemic, he p ominence o he cul u al sec o in he ci y-
egion indica es a po en ial o signi ican , sus ainable change.
As an in e iewee wi h esponsibili y o ci y- cen e de elopmen
obse ed: ‘ he cul u al sec o e y much leads i sel and ou job
is o suppo i in he way ha hey wan o be suppo ed’. These
newly con igu ed communi ies, hen, ha e he po en ial o build
on he s eng h o he cul u al sec o p io o he pandemic o
de ise a u u e o local cul u al policy ha emains a en i e o
he ela ionships conside ed he e.
Conclusion
Taking a quali a i e ecosys ems app oach o he excep ional case o
GM (Dunn and Gilmo e, 2021), his chap e has desc ibed how he
pandemic lockdown es ic ions and he ab up end hey b ough
o business as no mal in GM shi ed he balance o powe om
na ional policy esponses o he cen al go e nmen in England,
cha ac e ised by indecision and by inadequa e conside a ion
o he p eca ious si ua ion o he eelance c ea i e and cul u al
wo k o ce, o he local epis emic communi ies in ol ed in cul u al
p og amming, esou ce alloca ion and s a egic decision- making.
Th ough ich, in- dep h quali a i e esea ch wi h policy p ac i ion-
e s, poli ical ep esen a i es and a s and cul u al leade s which
d ew on he collabo a ion o esea ch pa ne s, we ha e iden i ied
he signi icance o app oaches ha ecognise c ea i e and cul u al
ecosys ems and hei complexi ies as a heu is ic amewo k h ough
which o iden i y in e dependency. Impo an ly, he ela ional
dynamics o ecosys ems e ealed by aking his app oach, along-
side his p o ac ed pe iod o unce ain y, acili a ed condi ions o
expe imen a ion, unlikely new allegiances and collec i e ac ion.
They also o eg ounded alues- led esponses which, gi en he eco-
nomic ins abili y c ea ed by he pandemic, shi ed policy a ionales
253Epis emic go e nance and pa ne ships in place
253
om economic and p i a e in e es o he cul u al sec o ’s ole as
a public se ice, suppo ing local communi ies h ough ac s o ca e
and he anima ion o Co id- sa e public spaces and indi idual c ea-
i e p ac i ione s wi h oppo uni ies o employmen and subsidy.
The cul u al ne wo ks and pa ne ships ex an in ou case s udy
ecosys em we e acili a ed by s ong poli ical buy- in om a p e-
dominan ly le - wing complex o local and ci y- egional go e n-
men , amilia wi h na a i e discou se on bo h economic and social
e u ns o a s and cul u al in es men and mobilised by he chal-
lenges o he pandemic o seek collec i e solu ions ha could dem-
ons a e u he alue o bo h public and p i a e in e es s. These
we e ep esen ed by local au ho i y policy a achmen s aimed a
add essing no jus cul u al ma e s bu also economic dep i a ion,
isola ion and social exclusion, he s a egic aims o na ional und-
ing bodies such as A s Council England, whose job i was o e ec-
i ely dis ibu e public unds o sus ain he sec o h ough he c isis,
and also he co po a e in e es s o majo asse holde s and p ope y
de elope s, alongside p i a e companies wi hin he c ea i e indus-
ies, e en s, hospi ali y and nigh - ime economies.
We a gue ha he p esence o epis emic communi ies and hei
connec i i y h ough local pa ne ships, hubs and ne wo ks allowed
policy inno a ions a emp ing o add ess exis ing p oblems which
we e su aced by he pandemic. These included he con ingency o
c ea i e and cul u al p oduc ion on eelance wo ke s, wi h hei
a endan lack o p o ec ion o labou and economy, and he inhe -
en p oblem wi hin a s audience de elopmen c ea ed by he expec-
a ion ha audiences should o e come spa ial, social and economic
ba ie s by lea ing hei neighbou hoods o a end dedica ed lag-
ship buildings. We also a gue ha he p esence o hese ne wo ks
o expe ise and hei suppo by local go e nmen aided inc eased
esou ce de elopmen as CRFs we e success ully a ac ed o he ci y-
egion, albei disp opo iona ely a ou ing Manches e ’s ci y cen e.
Fu he mo e, we iden i y how he in ol emen o co po a e pa ne s
wi hin some o hese pa ne ships has led o he sha ing o new p ac-
ices and knowledges ha may in o m u u e s a egic collabo a ion,
o e u ning he lack o a en ion his o ically gi en by landlo ds and
p ope y owne s o he po en ial o cul u al anima ion and inclusi e
place- making o mu ual bene i o people and place.
254 Pandemic cul u e
The e a e ca ea s and limi a ions o hese obse a ions, how-
e e . The e u n o ‘no mal’ ope a ing condi ions a e he li ing
o es ic ions in July 2021 has seen an exhaus ed and somewha
auma ised cul u al sec o a emp ing o sus ain hese inno a ions
alongside he ‘digi al pi o ’ and ‘pi o o he ci ic’ (Walmsley e al.,
2022), amid con inued unce ain ies o e audience e u n and
e en ion, u moil in na ional go e nmen and immanen economic
ecession, ne e mind global conce ns o clima e change, ood
secu i y and in e na ional diploma ic ela ions. Fu he challenges
emain bo h locally and na ional, such as he en enched s uc u al
inequali ies o he c ea i e and cul u al sec o (B ook, O’B ien and
Taylo , 2020; Comunian and England, 2020), an o e eliance on
‘ ickle down’ and he ‘g a i a ional pull’ o eli e ins i u ions and
hei p esence (and absence) in ci ies and owns which con inued o
skew a s in es men e en du ing he pandemic (Johnson, Gilmo e
and Dunn, 2021; see also Chap e 2). Likewise, public– p i a e
pa ne ships o cul u al and high- s ee eco e y equi e cau ion as
iden i ied by he c i ics o cul u al policy ins umen alisa ion (e.g.
G ay, 2007; McGuigan, 2009; Bel io e, 2020), as well as ca e ul
egula ion and in e en ion om local go e nance o ensu e ha
social esponsibili y a he han p o i is he p ima y mo i a ion
o pa icipa ion and o a oid he pi alls o gen i ica ion and
social exclusion. These a e con inuing challenges o cul u al pol-
icy locally, na ionally and in e na ionally as pos - pandemic place-
based app oaches aim o maximise he bene i s o cul u al unding
o b oade egene a ion and economic eco e y, and a s and cul-
u al o ganisa ions hope o ind sus ainable ways o plug income
gaps and inno a e hei business models. Such app oaches can, we
a gue, lea n aluable policy lessons om he excep ional case o
GM and he ela ions o i s c ea i e and cul u al ecosys em.
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In oduc ion
We began his book no ing ha , e en be o e he pandemic, a se ies
o long- s anding p oblems con on ed cul u al policy and he cul-
u al sec o in he UK. Wi hin na ional policy, he e has been a
consis en ly low le el o unde s anding abou how di e en ly indi-
idual pa s o wha a e unde s ood as ‘c ea i e indus ies’ ope a e
(House o Lo ds, 2023). This p oblem is accen ua ed in he case o
he a s and cul u e; he e is a dis ance be ween he policy he o ic
abou he sec o ’s economic and cul u al impo ance and he eali y
o p eca ious wo ke s and unde alued, p eca ious o ganisa ions
(Banks and O’Conno , 2017; Comunian and England, 2020).
Audience de elopmen and widening pa icipa ion ha e equally
long- s anding issues. Go e nmen da a shows s a ic le els o
engagemen wi h he a s o e almos wo decades, i espec i e
o go e nmen policy (DCMS, 2020). Academic analysis, o bo h
su ey and icke ing da a, demons a es ha al hough he e a e
high le els o engagemen and pa icipa ion in ‘e e yday’ cul u al
ac i i ies (Miles and Gibson, 2016, Taylo , 2016; Gilmo e, 2017;
Bel io e and Gibson, 2019), audiences o mo e o mal ypes o
cul u e we e bo h a mino i y, and un ep esen a i e, o he wide
popula ion (Hanquine , O’B ien and Taylo , 2019; B ook, O’B ien
and Taylo , 2020).
These indings indica e ha he condi ions o cul u al and
c ea i e p oduc ion and consump ion can be cha ac e ised by
s uc u al con inui y a he han up u e o shi . This is a heme
we ha e s essed h oughou his book, and he o e a ching and
Conclusion: dis up ion and con inui y in
he cul u al indus ies: om pandemic
cul u e o an endemic c isis?
Da e O’B ien, Abigail Gilmo e and Ben Walmsley
259Conclusion
259
dominan heme has been con inui y. O cou se, he pandemic
was hugely dis up i e and we hope ou book has also clea ly dem-
ons a ed ha impac . Ye h oughou he ange o case s udies,
na ional and egional analysis, sub- sec o al and a o m- speci ic
discussions, and a ious me hodological app oaches, we ha e con-
sis en ly o eg ounded he ongoing impac o inequali ies in he
cul u al sec o . Ra he han being p oduc s o consequences o
2020, hese ends and s uc u es we e exace ba ed, a he han
c ea ed, by he pandemic.
Ou concluding chap e de elops his heme. A he same ime,
we a e also keen o e lec on he impac o ou indings o cul-
u al policy esea che s. Mos no ably, we conclude wi h e lec ions
no only conside ing he impac o he pandemic on u u e esea ch
subjec s, bu also on he condi ions o cul u al policy knowledge
p oduc ion and esea ch i sel .
Unde s anding he pandemic in a global con ex
The e is a clea consensus wi hin esea ch, i espec i e o he
na ional con ex , o he impac o he co ona i us pandemic on
c ea i e and cul u al p oduc ion and consump ion. The sudden
hal o almos all ac i i ies, whe he in e na ional ou ing o local
pa icipa ion, mean he a s, cul u al and c ea i e indus ies we e
among he wo s - a ec ed sec o s. The 2022 UNESCO epo on
Cul u e in imes o COVID- 19 inds ha he global cul u al sec o ’s
G oss Value Added ell by 25 pe cen in 2020. This all was accom-
panied by widesp ead job losses es ima ed a 10 million, compa a-
ble in i s se e i y o sec o s such as accommoda ion and ca e ing
(UNESCO, 2022).
The impac o COVID- 19 on cul u al wo ke s, pa icula ly he
eelance and sel - employed, canno be unde s a ed. Many saw
hei income sou ces disappea apidly and s uggled o access o en
ill- a ge ed public wage compensa ion (Dümcke, 2021; Jo e, 2020;
Johnson, 2020; Pacella, Luckman and O’Conno , 2021; W igh ,
2020). Howe e , he e ec s o he pandemic we e une enly dis ib-
u ed. The na a i e o absolu e ma ke ailu e does no cap u e he
nuances o impac s ha we e di e en ia ed by sec o , occupa ional
s a us and socio- economic g oup (as is discussed in Chap e 2 in
266 Pandemic cul u e
and he need o o ganisa ions o be ele an o hei local, egional,
na ional and e en in e na ional communi ies (e.g. Lane, 2022) we e
all pa o his discu si e and p ac ical shi .
These o ganisa ional ealisa ions we e pe haps long o e due,
p o iding a wake- up call o adical change and o many in he
sec o , including academics and boa ds o us ees, o econcep u-
alise hei no ions o esilience, which ou s udy e eals became
associa ed mo e wi h collabo a i e ne wo ks han o he di e si-
ica ion o income s eams. This in u n led many o ques ion (o
e- ques ion) he g owing u u e di ec ions o he sec o and he
inc easingly ense in e ela ionship be ween he a s and he wide
cul u al and c ea i e indus ies.
Ye despi e hese momen s o e hinking, ou analysis has shown
he wickedness o he p oblems acing cul u e in he UK. He e, e en
wi h he examples o new o ms o bes p ac ice, he sec o s ill
needed, and con inues o need, leade s willing no only o sha e
and collabo a e bu o make subs an i e changes. Commen a o s
ha e been mulling o e he appa en c isis in cul u al leade ship
since he beginning o he cen u y (Hewison, 2004), acknowledging
skills gaps and s uc u al ba ie s o en y and p og ession, which
combined wi h he #MeToo and Black Li es Ma e mo emen s
highligh ed a p e alence o whi e, male and all oo o en abusi e
leade ship in he sec o . P og ess emains slow and cul u al lead-
e ship and go e nance emains ala mingly ‘male, pale and s ale’
(Cla e, 2009, p.34).
Cul u al leade ship is oo o en o e looked in analysis o o ganisa-
ional success. I emains a opic ha , gi en i s signi icance o he s a-
egic de elopmen o he sec o and i s esea ch p e alence in o he
sec o s, emains woe ully unde - explo ed and unde - heo ised o
cul u e. Al hough many schola s ha e jus i iably a gued ha we need
o mo e beyond he sec o ’s quasi cul ish oman icisa ion o cha is-
ma ic leade s and shi ou ocus om leade s o leade ship, lead-
e s hemsel es a e s ill key agen s o blocke s o change (Walmsley,
2019b). I he posi i e changes ha he pandemic inspi ed, equi ed
and/ o o eshadowed a e o endu e o be adequa ely add essed, hen
capable, s a egic and ep esen a i e leade s will be i al.
Collabo a i e models o leade ship eme ged o be pa icula ly
e ec i e in a ime o c isis. This was se agains a mo e gene al con-
ex o calls o a shi away om cha isma ic and ans o ma ional

267Conclusion
267
leade ship owa ds a mo e dis ibu ed and ela ional app oach
(Janco ich, 2015; Nisbe and Walmsley, 2016). Chap e 6 o e s
excellen examples, whe e collabo a i e models d o e change in
No he n I eland’s cul u al sec o a an unp eceden ed pace. The
lea ning om he No he n I ish case is ha change needs p inci-
ples o mu ual suppo , anspa ency and us . These alues a e
di icul o nu u e and sus ain in he much mo e demanding con-
ex o wo ke s and audiences ha he analysis in Chap e s 2 and
3 has demons a ed.
Fu u e audiences
The indings ega ding audiences a e especially c ucial. P io o
he pandemic audience esea che s had been calling o a mo e
sus ained ocus on p ocesses o audience engagemen (Walmsley,
2019a) and o g ea e unde s anding o ma ginalised audience
g oups, such as wo king- class audiences (Ba e , 2022), d/ Dea ,
blind and neu odi e se audiences (Hadley, 2022) and audiences
o colou (Conne , 2022; No ak- Leona d, 2022). The physical
disappea ance o audiences om a s and cul u al enues du ing
he pandemic ocused minds and o ced p oduce s and o ganisa-
ions o adically e hink hei ela ionships wi h audiences. As
ques ions o ele ance and communi y o ci ic engagemen ose o
he o e, p ocesses o pa icipa ion, co- p oduc ion and co- c ea ion
we e ac i ely ealised and pe nicious ba ie s o access (especially
o disabled audiences) we e empo a ily emo ed as p oduc ion
shi ed online.
As we eme ge om he pandemic, and as highligh ed in Chap e 3,
we a e possibly wi nessing a adical shi in audience beha iou and
demog aphics. Families and younge audiences appea keen o a end
cul u al enues and olde audiences emain mo e hesi an . This ine i-
ably begs ques ions abou cul u al p og amming (and he poo he-
o isa ion o such) and abou he sus ainabili y o a o ms such as
classical balle and ope a ha ha e long elied on olde audiences.
Thanks o insigh s p o ided om ou Cul u al Pa icipa ion
Moni o , he pandemic augh us ha audiences equa e a s and cul-
u e wi h solace and wellbeing – especially ou doo a s and he i age
ac i i ies. The Moni o also highligh ed posi i e public pe cep ions
268 Pandemic cul u e
abou public unding o a s and cul u e and a g owing p opensi y
o dona e. These indings ha e h ee impo an implica ions.
Fi s ly, hey sugges ha cul u al policy and unding should p i-
o i ise in es men in ou doo a s and he i age, especially since p e i-
ous esea ch has demons a ed ha mo e ep esen a i e audiences a e
a ac ed o hese ac i i ies. This could o e a much- needed b eak-
h ough o he appa en deadlock in he lagging audience de el-
opmen p ojec ha has ailed o di e si y UK audiences o o e
i y yea s.
Secondly, ou indings signal he need o cul u al enues, p o-
duce s and ma ke e s o engage wi h audiences as a is ic pa ne s
a he han ansac ional icke - buye s. Audiences a e hung y o
high- quali y cul u al con en and we would all bene i om hem
ha ing a much g ea e oice and s ake in ou public cul u al ins i u-
ions. This obse a ion has implica ions no only o cul u al pol-
icy bu also, and mo e u gen ly pe haps, o a s managemen and
ma ke ing.
Thi dly, he nuanced, imely and ep esen a i e insigh s o e ed
by a egula popula ion su ey p o ed he bene i s o empi ical
audience esea ch conduc ed by a eam o specialis s and in eg a ed
in o a comp ehensi e mixed- me hods analysis o he cul u al sec-
o . As we wi ness ou na ional audience da a being ende ed ou o
comme cial managemen consul an s (Pu e , 2022), he u gency
o open- sou ce cul u al sec o da a has ne e been mo e acu e. This
should se e as a allying call o cul u al unde s and policy- make s
as well as o he sec o i sel .
Whe e nex o cul u al policy schola ship?
The w i ing o his o y, and a guably all social science and humani-
ies, has been one o deba e on he explana ions and he ools and
epis emologies ha p o ide hem: wha causes change, wha mi i-
ga es i ? In he con ex o c isis, his is e en mo e undamen al bu
complica ed by an u gen need o speedy answe s o p o ide he
a ionale o mi iga ion. In ou s udy, we ha e iden i ied a ious
longe - e m ends ha help o explain he se e i y o he impac o
he pandemic on speci ic pa s o he cul u al sec o and i s wo k-
e s. Howe e , we lea e open he exac balance be ween he speci ic
269Conclusion
269
decisions o indi iduals and o ganisa ions and longe - e m s uc-
u al ends.
To gi e a clea example, we know ha inequali ies in he wo k-
o ce we e p esen o decades be o e he pandemic (B ook e al.,
2023). We also know ha audiences o s a e- unded a o ms and
ins i u ions a e d awn disp opo iona ely om he olde , p o essional
middle- class segmen s o socie y (Benne e al., 2009; Hanquine ,
O’B ien and Taylo , 2019). These s uc u al cha ac e is ics o he
a s wo k o ce and o audiences we e also iden i iable in he demo-
g aphics o hose mo e likely o lea e cul u al jobs and mo e likely
o be cau ious abou e u ning o in- pe son pe o mances. In u n,
hese impac s o he pandemic ha e knock- on e ec s o a u he
lack o di e si y o he a s and cul u al wo k o ce and ques ion
he sus ainabili y o e enues gene a ed om icke sales and ela ed
concep ions o o ganisa ional esilience.
Teasing ou he deg ee o impac o o e p ecise causal explana-
ions is complex; his may be a key challenge o u he cul u al
policy s udies. Wha we can say wi h ce ain y is ha he s uc u al
p oblems con on ing a s and cul u al o ganisa ions ha e ce ainly
no been amelio a ed by he pandemic, no ha e any o he supposed
new ways o wo king and inno a i e o ms o deli e y adop ed
du ing 2020 been pa icula ly e ec i e in add essing hese wicked
p oblems (Fede e al., 2022), wi h he no able excep ion o g ea e
accessibili y o e ed by digi al pe o mances o disabled audiences.
This ques ion o challenges o cul u al policy leads o he con-
cluding discussion o his collec ion and ou esea ch p ojec . I
is no , o cou se, he conclusion o esea ch on he impac o he
pandemic. COVID- 19, as o 2023, has become endemic ac oss he
wo ld. A he isk o an insensi i e analogy, he issues ou analysis
has highligh ed a e seemingly endemic o he cul u al sec o .
Whe e does his lea e cul u al policy esea ch? This ques ion
is wo old. In he i s ins ance he e is he ques ion o academic
labou and he so s o pa ne ships needed o conduc esponsi e
esea ch a speed. In he UK, as uni e si ies ace unding cons ain s
and academics ace wo sening labou condi ions, pa icula ly a
he ea ly- ca ee and en y s ages o he p o ession, he e a e acu e
challenges o unde aking he so s o cul u al policy esea ch
discussed in his book. As academic wo ke s a e made mo e p e-
ca ious, he so s o skills and ich subjec and ield- speci ic knowl-
edges equi ed a e inc easingly unde h ea . Rein o cing capaci y
270 Pandemic cul u e
is a c ucial ask o bo h ins i u ions and hose who se he policy
amewo k unde which hey wo k.
The ques ion o he u u e o academics and hei ins i u ions
is mi o ed when we hink o pa ne ships wi h o ganisa ions and
p ac i ione s in he cul u al sec o . A signi ican pa o he success o
ou p ojec , and he b ead h o esea ch app oaches and pe spec i es
in his book, was he posi i e and p oduc i e wo king ela ionships
wi h he cul u al sec o . This included sec o o ganisa ions, p ac i ion-
e s and consul an s who ac as esea che s hemsel es. The impac
o he pandemic will no only impac he sec o ’s abili y o deli e
on i s aims; i will also cons ain he sec o ’s capaci y o know i sel ,
and hus be esponsi e o long- e m ends and immedia e shocks.
Resea ch capaci y he e is essen ial, no only o he so s o R&D
equi ed o deli e success ul ‘hi s’ (House o Lo ds, 2023) bu also
o he longe - e m s a egies o he o ganisa ions, p ac i ione s and
policy- make s complici in such an exe cise.
Secondly, he e a e he speci ic ques ions o cul u al policy
esea che s. The e a e many ob ious ones: in e na ional com-
pa isons a e c ucial o hinking h ough he social, economic and
cul u al impac s o he pandemic on local, na ional and in e na-
ional cul u al policies, as a e mixed- me hods and in e disciplina y
app oaches p o iding concep ual challenge o ques ions o a ion-
alism, e idence and ca e. We ha e e e enced some o he ini ial
wo k he e al eady in his conclusion. Mo e gene ally, he e is he
p oblem o inno a ion in cul u al policy esea ch. As he ques ion
o explana ions ha opened his conclusion illus a es, cul u al pol-
icy esea ch may be apped in a oo- na ow ocus on iden i ying
he pandemic’s ole in changes o longe - e m inequali ies. Ra he ,
he challenge o cul u al policy esea ch is o connec he pandemic
o mo e exis en ial ques ions, such as he ole o policy in suppo -
ing he igh s o all o access cul u e and c ea i i y o a ai e and
mo e jus cul u al sec o , and indeed a be e global socie y.
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#Cul u eInQua an ine 4, 10,
13, 108
#He eFo Cul u e 43
#MuseumA Home 4, 10, 13
2022 UNESCO epo Cul u e in
imes o COVID-19 259
AHRC C ea i e Indus ies Policy
and E idence Cen e 2
a m’s- leng h bodies 20, 21, 28, 31,
32, 41, 42, 43, 44, 250
A e Ú il 215, 223
A s Collabo a ion Ne wo k 41,
170, 172
A s Council England 21, 43, 44,
127, 135, 171, 212, 216,
237, 242, 248, 249, 253, 265
A s Council o No he n
I eland 22, 40
A s Council o Wales 37, 38
a s educa ion 79–80
a s managemen 2, 7, 119, 268
audience de elopmen 6, 113, 158,
247, 253, 258, 264, 268
audience engagemen 14, 15,
131, 267
audience esea ch 3, 4, 108, 119,
267, 268
BBC Cym u 186, 196, 198
Bec u 194
belonging 111, 144–161
Big Bu ns Suppe 151–156, 158,
160, 161
Black Li es Ma e 42, 132, 266
boa ds, di e si ica ion o 132–133
Boom Cym u 197
B ugue a, Tania 215
Bu ge , Lisa 131
Business Impac o COVID- 19
Su ey (BICS) 74, 77
business models 1, 5, 14, 16, 45,
118, 119, 121, 122, 133,
141, 177, 178, 234, 239,
254, 264, 265
business a es elie 21
Capi al Kicks a 232
Ca di Capi al Region 185, 188,
196, 202, 206
ca e 17, 39, 45, 128, 153, 155,
156, 158, 160, 174, 178,
180, 199, 212, 217, 219,
240, 253, 265
case s udies 3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 119,
133, 146, 212, 213, 215,
216, 220, 221, 224, 232,
250, 259, 263
ci ic engagemen 6, 197, 267
ci ic esponsibili y 15, 16, 213,
224–227
ci ic ole, o a s 213, 224, 265
ci ic ole, o hea e 14, 119, 132
Clws w 188
Index
275
275Index
collabo a i e leade ship 15, 164,
165, 166, 167, 174, 176–181
collabo a i e policy ne wo ks 163,
165, 167, 173, 175, 178,
179, 180
collegiali y 123, 171, 199, 265
comme cial hea e 123, 133
communi y engagemen 16, 128,
133, 136, 220
compa a i e analysis 145, 146
consume beha iou 5
con inui y 17, 31, 258, 259
con e gence 14, 17, 119, 263, 265
Co ona i us Business In e up ion
Loan Scheme 21
Co ona i us Job Re en ion Scheme
21, 74, 93, 242
co po a e sponso ship 6
C ea ion Thea e 139
C ea i e Ca di 188, 194
c ea i e clus e s 235
C ea i e Di e si y All Pa y
Pa liamen a y G oup 5
c ea i e economy 5, 61, 66, 67, 73,
195, 261
C ea i e Imp o emen Dis ic s
17, 45
C ea i e P ac i ione s Bu sa y
scheme 41
C ea i e Sco land 10, 22, 23, 24,
25, 32
C ea i e Wales 37, 188, 189, 190,
194, 204, 205, 207, 208
cul u al and c ea i e indus ies 46,
55, 74, 193, 259, 260,
261, 266
cul u al consump ion 4, 5, 9, 150
cul u al democ acy 6, 32
cul u al ecology 11, 16, 41, 136,
173, 177, 230, 233, 237,
244, 245, 251, 252
cul u al economy 15
cul u al ecosys em 11, 16, 233,
237, 250–254
cul u al excep ionalism 261
cul u al es i als 14
cul u al indus ies 1–5, 8, 13,
16, 17, 54, 55, 230, 238,
260, 262
cul u al leade ship 15, 16, 119,
163–165, 174, 180, 181, 266
cul u al ne wo ks 247, 253
cul u al occupa ions 91
cul u al pa icipa ion 10, 99, 140
Cul u al Pa icipa ion Moni o 9,
13, 95, 100, 104, 107, 110,
114, 129, 267
cul u al policy s udies 2, 3, 7,
119, 269
cul u al p oduc ion x ii, 4, 5, 20,
32, 95, 151, 164, 166, 233,
253, 259, 262
Cul u e Reco e y Fund 16, 33,
34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 124, 212,
232, 240, 248, 253
Cul u al Renewal Task o ce 28, 42
cul u al alue 6, 14, 15, 28, 119,
155, 262
cul u al wo k o ce 3, 4, 6, 38, 80,
86, 92, 252, 269
Cul u e Collec i e Fund 25, 33
Cyw 195, 199
Depa men o Communi ies
(D C) 10, 40, 168
Depa men o Communi ies
(NI) 166
Depa men o Cul u e, Media
and Spo (DCMS) 10, 28,
29, 31, 37, 42, 43, 171
dep h in e iews 7, 9, 119
de olu ion 36, 197, 230, 235
de ol ed na ions 11, 42, 46, 262
digi al bu nou 138
digi al engagemen 13, 95,
113, 140
digi al p oduc ion 6, 138, 140, 152
di e gence 17, 20, 46, 119, 177,
263, 264, 265
di e si y 5–6, 39, 85, 131, 132,
187, 195, 203, 205, 265, 269
Dowden, Oli e 43, 123