Plehwe, Die e ; Neuje ski, Mo i z; Haas, Tobias
Book Pa — Published Ve sion
Clima e Obs uc ion in he Eu opean Union: Business
Coali ions and he Technoc acy o Delay
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Plehwe, Die e ; Neuje ski, Mo i z; Haas, Tobias (2024) : Clima e Obs uc ion in
he Eu opean Union: Business Coali ions and he Technoc acy o Delay, In: B ulle, Robe J. Robe s,
J. Timmons Spence , Mi anda C. (Ed.): Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope, ISBN 9780197762080,
Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, Ox o d, pp. 320-346,
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Die e Plehwe, Mo i z Neuje ski, and Tobias Haas, Clima e Obs uc ion in he Eu opean Union In: Clima e Obs uc ion
ac oss Eu ope. Edi ed by: Robe J. B ulle, J. Timmons Robe s and Mi anda C. Spence , Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
© Ox o d Uni e si y P ess 2024. DOI: 10.1093/ oso/ 9780197762042.003.0013
13
Clima e Obs uc ion in he
Eu opean Union
Business Coali ions and he Technoc acy o Delay
DIETER PLEHWE, MORITZ NEUJEFFSKI, AND
TOBIAS HAAS
INTRODUCTION: BUSINESS EFFORTS TO PREVENT EUROPEAN
CLIMATE PROTECTION POLICIES
‘This is Eu ope’s man on he moon momen ’.1 Wi h much an a e, Eu opean
Commission P esiden U sula on de Leyen announced he Eu opean
G een Deal (EGD) on 11 Decembe 2019. The EGD is a majo poli ical p o-
jec ha aims o achie e clima e neu ali y by 2050. Al hough he analogy
o he moon landing is hype bolic, he EGD does ep esen an a emp
o signi ican ly upg ade clima e and en i onmen al policy wi hin he
Eu opean Union. These a e highly con es ed policy a enas in he Eu opean
Union, and he achie emen o he goals s ipula ed in he EGD, such as a
55% educ ion in g eenhouse gases (GHG) by 2030 compa ed wi h 1990, is
by no means a o egone conclusion.
The Eu opean Union has gained inc easing in luence in se ing clima e
policy. I s powe o de e mine he gene al o ien a ion o he in eg a ed
body and i s weigh in mul ile el nego ia ions and decision- making gi es
he Eu opean Union a p i ileged ole in he clima e policies o he indi-
idual membe s a es— and hese p ocesses, oo, a e con es ed. Unlike in
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The eu opean union [ 321 ]
he Uni ed S a es o Aus alia, he opposi ion o ambi ious clima e policy
in he EU a ena does no ea u e in luen ial clima e denial ne wo ks openly
opposed o any o m o clima e policy egula ion. Ra he , he main policy
obs uc o s in he Eu opean Union a e la ge companies and business
associa ions wi h a s ong es ed in e es in he ossil economy and neolib-
e al o conse a i e hink anks. As such, clima e obs uc ion e o s in he
Eu opean Union a e shaped mainly by e o s o sow doub abou speci ic
clima e policy measu es and by s a egies o weaken hei le el o ambi-
ion. This is wha Ekbe g and colleagues e e o as ‘seconda y obs uc ion’,
which ‘includes all hose calls which do no deny he human- induced na-
u e o he clima e c isis (science), bu ne e heless delay o o es all mean-
ing ul clima e ac ion’.2 We coun i as obs uc ion when ac o s a emp o
delay o o he wise shape clima e policy in ways ha unde mine e o s
o keep global wa ming below 1.5°C. Such e o s include, among o he
hings, shi king esponsibili y, ad oca ing non- ans o ma i e solu ions,
de ending he ossil uel s a us quo, and clima e policy nihilism.3
In e es g oups logically pu sue hei own in e es s and hose o he
membe s hey ep esen . Howe e , g oups ha a e in e es ed in long-
e m, good- ai h ela ionships wi h poli icians also need o accep de ea
i compe ing in e es s p e ail and be eady o comp omise and adjus .
Clima e obs uc ion, howe e , equen ly in ol es bad- ai h e o s o push
back clima e policy goals in a ou o o he goals, such as p o i o o h-
e wise na ow objec i es, by claiming adhe ence o he goals o he Pa is
Ag eemen bu ne e heless engaging in a ange o equen ly di icul o
ecognize e o s o block ambi ious policy.
The limi ed appeal o denialism a he EU le el is due mos ly o he
ac ha he Eu opean in eg a ion p ocess is qui e echnoc a ic and eli e
d i en, gea ed p ima ily owa d he es ablishmen o comple ion o a single
Eu opean ma ke and Economic and Mone a y Union (EMU). Eu opean
en i onmen al and clima e policy app oaches, in u n, ha e suppo ed eg-
ula o y cohesion and a e s ongly o ien ed owa d he guiding p inciple
o ecological mode niza ion (i.e. a depoli icized app oach ha pu s ech-
nological inno a ion and ma ke - based app oaches a i s cen e4), albei
no exclusi ely. The limi ed Eu opean public sphe e also does no lend
i sel easily o he ype o abloid p ess s yle campaigns known bes in
he Anglosphe e, and B exi ( he Uni ed Kingdom’s disengagemen om
he Eu opean Union) conside ably weakened he poli ical o ces in he
Eu opean Union ha do p omo e clima e change denial.
Rega dless o he low p o ile o adical denialism in EU clima e
poli ics, clima e policy obs uc ion emains a se ious obs acle on he
Eu opean ‘ oad o Pa is’. The Eu opean Union depends on i s membe
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[ 322 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
322
s a es o secu e and police implemen a ion o ea ies. While he
Eu opean Union can pu p essu e on membe s a es in he case o non-
compliance, his p ocess akes ime and hus becomes ye ano he delay
mechanism.
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE EUROPEAN INTEGRATION CONTEXT
OF CLIMATE POLICY
The his o y o Eu opean in eg a ion was s ongly in luenced by bo h he
ideas o Ge man economis s om he ‘o dolibe al’ school, such as Wal e
Eucken, who opposes s a e in e en ionism, and by mo e s a e planning-
o ien ed pe spec i es p e alen in F ance in he 1950s (such as hose a -
icula ed by Jean Monne ). While economic libe aliza ion s eps we e
pu sued a he cau iously in Eu ope un il he 1980s, he economic libe al-
iza ion agenda gained momen um wi h he in oduc ion o he Eu opean
Mone a y Sys em (EMS) in 1979. In he 1980s and 1990s, he Eu opean
communi y ook nume ous s eps o acili a e a Eu opean EMU, culmina ing
in in he plan o comple e he single ma ke ( ia he Single Eu opean Ac
o 1986) and he in oduc ion o he eu o as a common cu ency in 1999.
O e ime, he balance o powe be ween he neolibe al and egula o y-
minded o ces shi ed in a ou o he o me .5
Un il oday, he aim o comple e he single ma ke is a common na a i e
used o en o ce libe aliza ion and ma ke - based policies in he Eu opean
Union. Wi hin he Eu opean mul ile el go e nance sys em, he dis ibu-
ion o egula o y esponsibili ies and he geog aphical scale o ac ion a e
always con es ed. While he Eu opean Commission (EC) and he majo i ies
in he Eu opean Pa liamen (EP) usually y o shi esponsibili ies o he
Eu opean le el, he Eu opean Council (EUCO), composed o he heads o
go e nmen o he membe s a es and he p esiden o he EC, equen ly
y o p ese e na ional so e eign y (Box 13.1).
As a esul , clima e policy in he Eu opean Union is cha ac e ized by a en-
sion be ween he scala dimension (i.e. he ques ion o which esponsibili ies
and obliga ions a e loca ed a which go e nance le el) and he subs ance o
p oposals. The le el o clima e policy ambi ion and o ien a ion a e ypi-
cally con es ed wi hin he EP as well as he EUCO and EC. Acco dingly,
lobbying ac i i ies a e di ec ed a bo h he Eu opean ins i u ions and na-
ional go e nmen s, he la e o which can exe signi ican in luence
h ough he EUCO.6 This app oach was c ucial in, o example, he nego ia-
ion o he Eu opean G een Taxonomy o Sus ainable In es men s (G een
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The eu opean union [ 323 ]
Box 13.1 KEY INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
THE INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
The Eu opean Commission
Eu opean Pa liamen
is he EU’s execu i e b anch, esponsible o p oposing and implemen ing EU laws an
d
policies. I holds conside able powe s, including he au ho i y o ini ia e legisla ion,
nego ia e in e na ional ag eemen s on behal o he EU, and en o ce EU laws.
is he EU’s di ec ly elec ed legisla i e body. I has he abili y o pass laws, app o e he
EU budge , and exe cise democ a ic o e sigh o e o he EU ins i u ions. Howe e , i
canno ini ia e i s own legisla i e p oposals.
The Council o he Eu opean Union
ep esen s he Membe S a es' go e nmen s. I sha es legisla i e powe wi h he
Eu opean Pa liamen , wi h he abili y o adop EU laws, coo dina e policies, and make
impo an decisions on a ious EU ma e s, including o eign policy and economic
coo dina ion.
Taxonomy, discussed la e ) and in esol ing dispu es o e he ban on in-
e nal combus ion engines a e 2035, which he Ge man go e nmen
e used o accep in 2023.
To c ea e he leas dis o ed compe i ion possible in he single Eu opean
ma ke , he idea goes, Eu opean compe i ion law needs o be de eloped in
such a way ha ma ke in e en ions on a na ional le el may only be made
in case o an o e iding Eu opean in e es . An example o such an in e es
could be mee ing binding a ge s in he ields o ene gy and clima e policy.
Ne e heless, clima e policy app oaches wi hin he EU membe s a es con-
s an ly exis in a s a e o ension wi h he single ma ke , he EMU, and
he co esponding compe i ion and s a e aid law, which go e ns he p o-
ision o go e nmen al inancial suppo by membe s a es o indi idual
companies o indus y sec o s.7
In he mean ime, howe e , we a gue ha en i onmen al and clima e
policies ha e become cen al o he legi imacy o he Eu opean in eg a-
ion p ojec . While he o al GHG emissions wi hin he Eu opean Union
dec eased o e all be ween 1990 and 2020 (Figu e 13.1), EU policies o
deal wi h CO2 emissions ha e isen in bo h numbe and subs ance. Fo ex-
ample, en i onmen al policy was ad anced wi h he Ams e dam T ea y o
1997 (e ec i e 1999), which es ablished a du y o in eg a e en i onmen al
p o ec ion in o all EU sec o al policies o help p omo e sus ainable de el-
opmen .8 The Eu opean Union has since es ablished he p ecau iona y
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Pe cen Change in Emissions
0%
–10%
–20%
–30%
–40%
–50%
Eu opean Union G eenhouse Gas Emissions
To al GHG Emissions
5000
4500
4000
3500
MMT CO2e
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Figu e 13.1 To al g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (in MMT CO2e) and pe cen age change in emissions in he Eu opean Union be ween 1990 and 2021,
inclusi e.
Sou ce: To al GHG emissions based on da a p o ided by Gü schow and P lüge (2023) o Kyo o Six G eenhouse Gas To als.
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The eu opean union [ 325 ]
p inciple (now A icle 191 o he T ea y on he Func ioning o he
Eu opean Union [TFEU]) and equi ed he EC o engage in p e en a i e ac-
ion o achie e a high le el o en i onmen al p o ec ion. The p ecau iona y
p inciple equi es policymake s o delay inno a ions wi h a po en ial o
causing ha m i he e is no ye su icien scien i ic e idence a ailable on i s
sa e y. P e en a i e ac ion also equi es he in eg a ion o en i onmen al
conside a ions in o all Eu opean policies.
The Ams e dam T ea y also s ipula ed majo i y o ing in he EC and
co- decision o he EP. This so- called communi y me hod o Eu opean law-
making he eby elimina es he e o powe o any single EU membe s a e,
which had been a majo obs acle o ambi ious policymaking. Despi e pe sis-
en limi a ions, a ious en i onmen al egula ions ha e he eby been he
esul o EU en i onmen al policymaking since he la e 1990s.9 O e ime,
g een pa ies, en i onmen al hink anks, and social mo emen s also be-
came mo e in eg a ed in o Eu opean policymaking. Today he Commission
consul s nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) on a egula basis, and
G een MEPs a e leading membe s o Eu opean Pa liamen Commi ees and
wo king g oups.
Lenschow and Sp ungk ha e a gued ha he goal and ‘my h o a G een
Eu ope’ has ecen ly been impo an in d i ing he Eu opean in eg a ion
p ocess as such. In he academic li e a u e, he Eu opean Union is o en
classi ied as a leade in global en i onmen al and clima e policy. Indeed,
in he ield o clima e policy, nume ous goals ha e been de ined and
ins umen s ha e been de eloped since 199010 (Table 13.1). Fo example,
unde he Kyo o P o ocol o 1997, he Eu opean Union commi ed i sel
o educing i s emissions by 8% o e he pe iod 2008– 2012 compa ed
wi h 1990 le els, and, as pa o his goal, he EU Emission T ading Sys em
(ETS) was in oduced in 2005. By 2007, he Eu opean Union had al eady
adop ed h ee majo clima e and ene gy policy a ge s: By 2020, (1) GHG
emissions we e o be educed by 20%, (2) he sha e o enewable ene gy in
o al ene gy consump ion was o inc ease o 20%, and (3) ene gy e iciency
was o be inc eased by 20%. Then, in 2014, he (p elimina y) clima e and
ene gy policy amewo k o 2030 was adop ed: by hen, emissions we e o
all by 40%, enewables we e o be expanded o 27%, and ene gy e iciency
was o inc ease o 27%.
A he ime, his a ge ho izon was al eady being c i icized by
en i onmen alis s as ex emely unambi ious; indeed, i was also no backed
up by na ionally o sec o ally binding a ge s. The si ua ion changed wi h
he incoming Commission headed by on de Leyen, a Ge man Ch is ian
Democ a , in 2019. The Commission p esiden is elec ed by he EP. Due o
he weakening o he conse a i e ac ion in he EP ollowing B exi and
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[ 326 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
326
he spli o he conse a i e pa liamen a y g oup, on de Leyen had o woo
g eens and libe als o suppo he candidacy.11 The s a egy o he a igh -
wing g oups in he EP o end cen is coope a ion be ween conse a i es
and social democ a s ul ima ely achie ed he opposi e: he EC mo ed o
he le , which allowed o mo e ambi ious Eu opean clima e policy. (The
upcoming Eu opean elec ions a e expec ed o s eng hen he igh and a
igh ins ead, which migh lead o a e e sal o ambi ious Eu opean clima e
policy.)
Acco dingly, much mo e ambi ious a ge s we e o mula ed as pa o
he EGD in 2019, namely, eaching an emissions educ ion goal o be ween
50% and 55% by 2030 o he Eu opean Union as a whole and achie ing
clima e neu ali y by 2050.12 To es and Bonga d ha e a gued ha he EGD
subs an ially enhanced he sus ainabili y dimension wi hin EU economic
go e nance: ‘ he EGD may hus be ega ded as a hi d building block in he
making o he Eu opean economic model, alongside he single ma ke and
EMU, and ha any c isis would he e o e need o be add essed h ough
i s amewo k’.13 In he mean ime, ag eemen was eached on a i m CO2
emissions educ ion a ge o 55% by 2030. In July 2021, he EC hen
p esen ed he ‘Fi o 55’ package, which was adop ed in Oc obe 2022.14
This policy package includes a a ie y o ini ia i es, di ec i es, and e o ms.
Among o he hings, i called o he es ablishmen o he addi ional EU
Table 13.1 EU CLIMATE TARGETS BY YEAR AND STATUS
Yea adop ed (and ela ed UN
clima e de elopmen )
GHG emission educ ion
a ge (base yea 1990) S a us
1990 (1992 UNFCCC) S abiliza ion by 2000 (CO2
only)
Achie ed
1997– 1998 (1997 Kyo o P o ocol) 8% by 2008- 2012 Achie ed
2007 (2009 Copenhagen COP 15) 20% by 2020 32% in 2020
2009 (2009 Copenhagen COP 15) 80– 95% by 2050 Wi h he Eu opean G een
Deal (EGD), by 2050
clima e neu ali y is he
new a ge
2014 (2015 Pa is Ag eemen ) 40% by 2030 Wi h he EGD and he Fi - o
55package, he a ge was
igh ened
2019 (2021 Glasgow COP 26) Clima e neu ali y by 2050 Achie emen e y unce ain
2020 (2021 Glasgow COP 26) 55% by 2030 Achie emen e y unce ain
Sou ce: Based on on Homeye e al. 2021, p. 961, ep in ed by pe mission o he publishe (Taylo &
F ancis L d, h p:// www. and onl ine.com).
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The eu opean union [ 327 ]
ETS o buildings, oad anspo , and uels; he sha pening o educ ion
a ge s wi hin he amewo k o lee limi s o ca manu ac u e s; he
in oduc ion o a ca bon bo de adjus men mechanism (CBAM) o p o-
ec Eu opean p oduce s o ene gy- in ensi e ma e ials (such as conc e e,
aluminium, s eel, and e ilize s) om impo s ha a e no subjec o
ca bon p icing; and mo e ambi ious egula ions in he a eas o ene gy e i-
ciency, he ci cula economy, and ca bon dioxide emo al, all o which a e
necessa y o achie ing clima e neu ali y. The indi idual membe s a es
a e also equi ed o make a g ea e con ibu ion o clima e p o ec ion.
Bu he clima e policy push has also been con o e sial. Opposi ion o
many o he Fi o 55 package measu es was s ong among he conse a-
i e poli ical pa ies and almos unanimous in he a - igh pa ies. Jacob
also epo ed s ong suppo o he inclusion o nuclea ene gy and ossil
gas in he G een Taxonomy (which classi ies economic ac i i ies acco ding
o hei alignmen wi h he ne ze o s a egy o di ec in es men s)
om se e al go e nmen s, a posi ion ha uns coun e o he scien i ic
ecommenda ions o he expe g oup ins alled o de elop he axonomy.15
Based on hese insigh s, obs uc ion o ambi ious clima e policy can
hus be loca ed in he cen e- igh wing o he poli ical pa y spec um
on he one hand and, on he o he , in speci ic coun ies dependen on
ossil and nuclea pa hs. To cha ac e ize he opposi ion o ambi ious cli-
ma e policy mo e comple ely, we nex u n he spo ligh on p i a e sec o
lobbies and hei allies.
CLIMATE OBSTRUCTION ACTORS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION
Wi h each expansion o sup ana ional nego ia ing and decision- making
powe s in B ussels, he lobbyis landscape has g own, seeking o expand
he policy in luence capaci ies o ac o s p e iously ocused on ele an
na ional ju isdic ions. Schola s speak abou he co- e olu ion o he EU
poli ical sys em, ‘p i a e in e es go e nmen s’,16 and a new ype o ne -
wo k go e nance in Eu ope.17 And, indeed, by 2021, mo e han 13,300
o ganiza ions had been eco ded in he Eu opean T anspa ency Regis e ,
an o icial da abase o o ganiza ions ha y o in luence he policy p o-
cess o EU ins i u ions.18 O hese g oups, 7,000 a e business o ganiza-
ions and p o essional se ice i ms, compa ed wi h abou 1,000 ade
union o ganiza ions, abou 3,500 NGOs, and nea ly 1,000 hink anks
and academic ins i u ions.19 Obse e s and wa chdog o ganiza ions es-
ima e he numbe o lobbyis s in B ussels o be a ound 25,000 people,
wo king wi h a o al budge o abou €1.5 billion.20 Con a y o e o s o
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[ 334 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
334
business s udies and lobbying s a egies, he CO2 p ice only c acked he
€30 ma k o he i s ime in Decembe 2020 (€30 was a ge ed when he
EU ETS was in oduced in 2005). O e all, i is ob ious ha he EU ETS so
a has se ed mainly o p o ec he compe i i eness o Eu opean indus y.
As a esul , he clima e policy eco d o he lagship o Eu opean clima e
policy is unimp essi e: ‘Clima e policy appea s condemned o su e om
ha ing he p ecau iona y p inciple applied o he bene i o he economy
ins ead o he en i onmen ’.47
Only owa d he end o he hi d phase o he EU ETS in 2020 did p ices
pick up somewha due o he in oduc ion o he Ma ke S abili y Rese e
(MSR). And wi h he new ambi ion le el in he wake o he EGD (a educ-
ion o ca bon emissions by 55% by 2030 compa ed wi h 1990), he linea
educ ion ac o (LRF) has also been inc eased, meaning ha up o 4.2%
ewe allowances will be issued each yea un il 2030. In addi ion o he in-
c ease in he LRF, he in oduc ion o he CBAM in 2022 (scheduled o ake
ull e ec in 2026) was a second key e o m p ojec o he ETS. Add essing
ca bon leakage conce ns, he CBAM ep esen s a le y on impo ed goods
p oduced unde less s ingen clima e egula ions ou side he Eu opean
Union. This le y would emo e he basis o he ee alloca ion o emission
allowances.
Howe e , la ge pa s o Eu opean indus y and neolibe al hink anks
such as he F eibu g- based Cen e o Eu opean Policy (CEP) see his
si ua ion di e en ly. An alliance o hi een associa ions om ene gy-
in ensi e indus ies wa ned in May 2021: ‘The ca bon leakage isk is
mo e p essing han e e gi en he ecen e olu ion o he ca bon p ice
eaching unp eceden ed alues in spi e o he economic impac o he
COVID- 19 pandemic, and conside ing he u he inc ease expec ed in he
ou h ading pe iod’.48 BusinessEu ope, he umb ella o ganiza ion o
Eu opean indus y, ook he ollowing posi ion in No embe 2021:
The Ca bon Bo de Adjus men Mechanism (CBAM) could p o e o be a ool o
igh ca bon leakage and le el he playing ield. Ensu ing WTO compa ibili y and
a oiding e alia ion om ading pa ne s is key no only o CBAM sec o s, bu
also o he EU indus y as a whole. The CBAM should no be conside ed as an al e -
na i e o ee allowances, bu should complemen hem, un il he mechanism has
p o en i s abili y o e ec i ely p e en ca bon leakage and le el he playing ield.49
The CEP also c i icized he plan o abolish ee allowances h ough he in-
oduc ion o a CBAM. Re e ing o he concep o ca bon leakage, he CEP
wa ned: ‘The p o isions on educ ion o ee allowances a e misguided be-
cause hey inc ease he isk o EU indus y o p oduc ion and emissions
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The eu opean union [ 335 ]
being eloca ed o hi d coun ies (ca bon leakage)’.50 In addi ion, he hink
ank aised he issue o he g owing in e na ional ade con o e sies: ‘In
iew o cu en geopoli ical ensions, he EU should base i s clima e policy
on global coope a ion ins ead o con lic - p one unila e al ini ia i es like
he CBAM’.51 This posi ion esona es wi h one ea u e o discou ses o
delay, namely edi ec ing esponsibili y.52
In his espec , he nego ia ions o he EU ETS and he in oduc ion
o he CBAM e eal a long- s anding pa e n: conju ing up he dange o
ca bon leakage o main ain exis ing business models as p o i ably as pos-
sible o as long as possible and hus p e en e ec i e clima e p o ec ion.
Lamb and colleagues ha e desc ibed his as he delay s a egy o pu suing
non- ans o ma i e solu ions.53 Va ious lobbying o ces a e join ly
wo king on ad ancing his s a egy in policy dispu es and hus help he
majo CO2 emi e s o con inue o ope a e in la ge and di e si ied business
coali ions.54
The EU’s G een Taxonomy o sus ainable ac i i ies
A wide ange o co po a e ac o s and hink anks has also a emp ed o in-
luence he G een Taxonomy. To mee he Eu opean Union’s 2030 clima e
goals o educing CO2 emissions by 55% compa ed wi h 1990 le els, he
B ussels- based hink ank B uegel es ima ed an annual in es men gap o
€300 billion.55 The G een Taxonomy was c ea ed o s ee addi ional p i-
a e in es men s in o sus ainable asse s in addi ion o he €1.8 illion
ea ma ked in he EGD.
Six objec i es a e cen al o his e o : (1) clima e change mi iga ion,
(2) clima e change adap a ion, (3) p omo ing a ci cula economy (an ec-
onomic sys em minimizing was e and p omo ing ecycling), (4) igh ing
pollu ion, (5) p o ec ing wa e , and (6) p o ec ing biodi e si y. F om he
ou se , he ques ion o wha ypes o in es men s can be classi ied as sus-
ainable was con es ed. A echnical expe g oup consis ing o hi y- i e
membe s om ci il socie y, academia, business, and he inance sec o 56 was
es ablished in 2018 o assis in he de elopmen o he G een Taxonomy.
The expe g oup was commi ed o a science- based app oach, which led i
o p opose he exclusion o ossil gas and nuclea ene gy om he scope o
he G een Taxonomy.57
Con a y o he ecommenda ions de i ed om he science- based
indings o he echnical expe g oup, small hyd opowe p ojec s ha e been
included in he axonomy due o Scandina ian lobbying e o s. Bioene gy
g oups also succeeded in emo ing he equi emen o limi bioene gy o
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[ 336 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
336
ad anced eeds ocks, and a ious ag icul u al lobby g oups managed o e-
mo e declining GHG emission s anda ds.58 Howe e , he bigges success
was secu ed by ossil and nuclea in e es s, which managed o ob ain he
inclusion o gas and a omic p ojec s in he G een Taxonomy unde ce ain
condi ions. Nuclea ene gy had been omi ed by he echnical expe g oup
because i iola es he p ecau iona y p inciple because o he un esol ed
issue o secu ing long- e m s o age o nuclea was e. Gas does no mee
he equi emen in p inciple, ei he , bu has been included o p ojec s
ha keep CO2 emission low due o plan e iciency and/ o he addi ional
deploymen o ca bon cap u e and s o age (CCS) echnologies, among
o he excep ions. Ye in con as o such ela i ely s ingen condi ions,
ossil gas- powe ed p ojec s al eady pe mi ed un il 2030 and designed o
swi ch o hyd ogen by 2035 can s ill be unded despi e hei highe GHG
emissions.59
Based on he en ies in he T anspa ency Regis e , a s udy by Reclaim
Finance iden i ied no ewe han 189 nuclea and gas lobby ac o s employing
825 lobbyis s. The g oups we e ound o spend be ween €71.4 million and
€86.6 million a yea o in luence Eu opean policymaking. The s udy ound
a e y high equency o mee ings be ween he lobby g oups and he EC,
o alling 310 such mee ings be ween 2018 and 2020. The ossil gas lobby
accoun ed o he bulk o he lobbying o ce in ol ed in he e o .60 The
e o o main ain ossil gas dependency in he Eu opean Union hus in-
ol ed many lobby g oups wo king in coali ion, including gas companies,
he oil majo s, u bine p oduce s such as Rolls Royce, and associa ions o
la ge ene gy cus ome s such as he Eu opean chemical indus y.61 Ea lie
wo k om In luenceMap also ound ha he shadow banking indus y had
lobbied o less igid classi ica ion c i e ia o g een in es men s and o
so me hods o assess he sus ainabili y o unded p ojec s.62
In addi ion o he indus y lobby g oups, hink ank allies objec ed
o he G een Taxonomy. Fo example, he EPICENTER hink ank ne -
wo k ci cula ed a policy b ie by Ca lo S agna o and S e ano Ve de, he
ne wo k’s ene gy policy expe s, ‘Only a Si h deals in absolu es: how
o nudge he Taxonomy owa ds he Ligh Side’. S agna o and Ve de,
who ha e close ela ionships wi h he I alian gas indus y, accuse he
Commission o
ac i ely picking echnological winne s among he exis ing clean(e ) echnologies,
o he de imen o o he echnologies ha may well be as clean and e en mo e
so o he de imen o echnologies ha a e no ye a ailable. The Taxonomy
deals in absolu es: i is ounded upon he claim ha a bu eauc a ic documen
can d aw a line be ween Good and Bad, by a aching a label o Absolu e Good
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The eu opean union [ 337 ]
o echnologies ha ha e he capabili y o c ea e an en i onmen al Eden in an
impe ec , di y wo ld.63
The au ho s hus a emp ed o include ossil gas in he lis o clean
indus ies, a guing ha ossil gas is b idging echnology— an a gumen
he Commission ul ima ely adop ed.
The CEP, men ioned ea lie , also a acked he G een Taxonomy in six
policy pape s published be ween 2018 and 2020.64 The CEP objec ed o
a single iew o sus ainabili y ( hus ejec ing he science- based p ecau-
iona y app oach o he echnical expe g oup), sugges ing ha he G een
Taxonomy s ands in con as o he ‘ isk- based’ app oach o inancial
ma ke egula ion and decla ing he whole e o useless: ‘De ailed meas-
u es on how co po a e ac o s should conside sus ainabili y aspec s and
long- e mism a e unnecessa y. They isk being ine icien and may un
coun e o he in e es s o owne s, cus ome s and o he s akeholde s’.65
Think anks gene alize he a gumen s o lobby g oups, which in u n a e
used o legi ima e demands submi ed by i ms and business associa ions
in he Commission’s policy consul a ion p ocesses. Rega ding he G een
Taxonomy, di e se business associa ions such as BusinessEu ope, he
Eu opean cemen associa ion Cembu eau, and he Eu opean S eel
Associa ion Eu o e ha e insis ed on he inadequacy o binding sus aina-
bili y c i e ia and demanded a mo e comp ehensi e assessmen o p oduc s
such as s eel beyond hei CO2 emissions eco ds. Meanwhile, Ge many’s
BDI— he oice o Ge man Indus y— demanded Eu ope wai o a science-
based me hod o li e- cycle analysis.66 Un il such a uni ied me hod can
be applied, hey a gued, only di ec emissions should be conside ed in
calcula ions o sus ainabili y. When i comes o delaying ambi ious e o s
o achie e clima e policy objec i es, much c ea i i y in he de ence o ossil
in e es s can be obse ed in he lobbying agains he G een Taxonomy,
anging om insis ence upon echnology neu ali y ( emaining unbiased
owa d which speci ic echnologies a e o be used) and p omo ing he need
o mul iple pe spec i es on sus ainabili y o demanding new and allegedly
supe io me hods o assessing p oduc s and ad oca ing he con inued use
o ossil sou ces un il be e echnology is a ailable.
KEY FRAMES OF EU CLIMATE POLICY OBSTRUCTION
The wo examples jus discussed illus a e ha discu si e amings a e
impo an ools in clima e policy dispu es. Clima e obs uc ionis s yp-
ically ad ance nume ous a gumen s agains ambi ious clima e policy.
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[ 338 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
338
Since Eu opean in eg a ion and i s clima e policy a e s ongly shaped by
he logic o compe i i eness and he concep o ecological mode niza-
ion, espec i ely, he ames u ilized in EU a gumen s need o esona e
wi h hese wo poin s o e e ence. Th ee main na a i es can be ound
in he obs uc ionis ’s oolbox: i s , ha ma ke - based ins umen s
a e p e e able o egula o y ‘command and con ol’ mechanisms (such
as bans and binding commi men s) and allow companies maximum
lexibili y. Second, ha clima e policy app oaches should be echnology
neu al. Thi d, ha policy ins umen s should always be designed in
such a way ha he compe i i eness o Eu opean companies does no
su e .
In e ms o p omo ing ma ke - based solu ions, he CEP claimed as ea ly
as 2008 ha ‘ ixed quo a sys ems o educing g eenhouse gas emissions
a e in e io o emissions ading on he g ounds o e iciency’.67 Simila
na a i es can be iden i ied in he CEP’s e alua ion o he commission’s
ecen o sho e enewable ene gy s a egy, which aims o signi ican ly
inc ease he capaci y o o sho e wind p oduc ion by 2030. On he
one hand, he legal hink ank s a ed ha ‘ he Commission is igh o
pu sue he goal o b inging o sho e enewable ene gy in o compe i ion
and exposing i o ma ke isks’.68 On he o he hand, he CEP opposed
plans o conc e e sec o a ge s. The o ganiza ion decla ed ha hese
a ge s ‘should be ejec ed as a di igis e p esump ion o knowledge ’.69 By
associa ing he commission p oposal wi h a planned economy measu e
in his way, hey a ed i wi h a socialis s igma. When, in he 2000s,
some EU membe s a es, including Ge many and Spain, igge ed a boom
in enewable ene gy ia gua an eed eed- in a i s, he g ey spec um o
ac o s c i icized hese ins umen s as incompa ible wi h he Eu opean
single ma ke . Wi h he e o m o s a e aid guidelines in 2014, he enew-
able expansion sys em based on eed- in a i mechanisms was la gely
unde mined.70
Rega ding he second na a i e, he call o a echnology- neu al ap-
p oach appea s in many cu en e o s o obs uc a s onge EU clima e
policy. One example is he s ance o he umb ella o ganiza ion o Eu opean
ca manu ac u e s, ACEA. In Janua y 2020, he associa ion issued a posi-
ion pape on EGD, wi h en ecommenda ions o ac ion. In he i s poin ,
he demand o echnology neu ali y is in e wined wi h an appeal o un-
dis o ed compe i ion. ACEA s a ed,
• Technological neu ali y mus be main ained in o de o e lec he di e se
equi emen s o di e en ehicle segmen s and he many use cases o
cus ome s.
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The eu opean union [ 339 ]
• The Commission should e ain om (di ec ly o implici ly) manda ing ce -
ain echnologies o speci ic ehicle segmen s.
• I should also main ain he in eg i y o he Eu opean single ma ke by
discou aging na ional and local bans on speci ic echnologies which can deli e
u he CO2 imp o emen s’.71
In a simila ein, FuelsEu ope has epea edly called o a echnologically
neu al app oach o achie e he EU clima e goals in he anspo a ion
sec o . In so doing, he indus y associa ion a gued agains a ban on com-
bus ion engines.72 In addi ion, a e Ge man Minis e o T anspo a ion
Volke Wissing managed o ex end he ime ame o an EU- wide ban
on combus ion engines ha would un only on CO2- neu al uels, he also
s a ed ha his mo e would ‘ensu e he elemen o echnology neu ali y’.73
The concep o echnology neu ali y, o openness, also plays a cen al ole
in he a gumen s ad anced by clima e obs uc ion ac o s such as Shell,74 as
well as by he elec ici y indus y.75
These examples illus a e he way in which indus y ep esen a i es
ha e epea edly used he na a i e o echnology neu ali y o enable he
p ese a ion o clima e damaging echnologies. Coupled wi h echnolog-
ical op imism and empi ically unsubs an ia ed and misleading e e ences
o he inno a i e powe o humani y in gene al, he ad ancemen o e-
newable ene gy sou ces and o he e ec i e clima e solu ions can he eby
be slowed.76
Tu ning o he hi d na a i e, clima e policy app oaches in he
Eu opean Union a e subsumed unde he p imacy o compe i i eness. Fo
example, BusinessEu ope’s Ma ch 2023 Re o m Ba ome e was i led ‘The
EU’s global compe i i eness unde h ea ’.77 In his epo , he o ganiza ion
concluded, among o he hings, ha s ic e clima e p o ec ion measu es
a e coun e p oduc i e because hey could lead o a mig a ion o indus y
o coun ies wi h much lowe le els o clima e p o ec ion. This ca bon
leakage na a i e is pa icula ly popula a he EU le el because p omo ing
he Eu opean Union’s compe i i eness has been a key poli ical p ojec o
he Eu opean Union. As no ed ea lie , he concep o ca bon leakage was
pa icula ly p ominen in he cons uc ion o he EU ETS. Howe e , as
shown by he c ea ion, in 2023, o he Eu opean Union’s Ne Ze o Indus y
Ac (in esponse o he US’s In la ion Reduc ion Ac ), clima e policies a e
closely in e wined wi h global compe i i eness in g ey as well as in g een
indus ies.
Apa om hese h ee s ands o discou se, which a e cen al o clima e
obs uc ion in he Eu opean Union, o he na a i es also delay ambi ious
clima e policies. Fo example, he belie in new b eak h ough echnologies
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[ 340 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
340
is e lec ed in he EGD i sel , wi hou any ce ain y ha such echnolog-
ical op imism will e e be ealized. Such op imis ic o ecas s ega ding he
e en ual a ailabili y o hyd ogen, e- uels, o ca bon dioxide emo al sys-
ems a e o en deployed o delegi imize egula o y measu es ha could
con ibu e immedia ely o emissions educ ions and hus also se e as
excuses o shi k esponsibili y o mo e app op ia e clima e ac ion. A he
same ime, indus ial sec o s know e y well how o posi ion hemsel es
as pa o he solu ion o he clima e p oblem (Tils ed and colleagues ha e
elabo a ed upon his s a egy in o he pe ochemical indus y).78 In his
espec , discou ses o delay in he Eu opean Union a e based on s uc u ing
he discu si e ield in such a way ha exis ing business models can be con-
inued o as long as possible and emain p o ec ed om a ack.
CONCLUSION
The Eu opean Union’s clima e policy is bes unde s ood as a con es ed
ield. A he Eu opean le el, denialism is ela i ely uncommon; seconda y
obs uc ion is he dominan o m o blocking ambi ious clima e policy.
The g ey spec um o ac o s elies on di e en s ands o discou se o
implemen hei obs uc i e goals, emphasizing he Eu opean single
ma ke , he p imacy o compe i i eness o Eu opean business, and he
echnoc a ic concep o ecological mode niza ion. Despi e he ma e-
ial supe io i y o g ey companies, hei associa ions, and ela ed hink
anks, a - eaching clima e policy manda es including he p ecau iona y
p inciple and ambi ious CO2 educ ion goals, such as he EGD, ha e been
se . Ne e heless, he dispu es o e he EU ETS and he G een Taxonomy
show ha he achie emen o ambi ious goals is highly unce ain. S ong
o ces o delay a e a wo k p omulga ing discou ses and lobbying p ac ices
in bo h he Eu opean a ena and, ia he EUCO, he na ion- s a e a enas.
Consequen ly, he Eu opean clima e policy pic u e emains unclea ,
oscilla ing be ween he jus i iable claims o global en i onmen al leade -
ship and s ong impedimen s, esul ing in a gene al o ien a ion owa d
global compe i i eness and ha dened powe ela ions ha con inue o
p o ec ossil in e es s.
Al hough academic esea ch on Eu opean lobbying has cla i ied he ele-
ance o lobby coali ions in impeding clima e ac ion,79 mo e wo k needs o
be done on he ways in which g een and g ey alliances o m and a e in key
clima e policy con lic s ac oss he Eu opean Union. Beyond an assessmen
o lobbying success and ailu e wi h ega d o speci ic legisla ion, a key e-
sea ch p io i y will be o lea n mo e abou i and how clima e p oposals
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The eu opean union [ 341 ]
(e.g. a e i al o public anspo a ion o a modi ica ion o s a e aid o
suppo policy ins umen s like he eed- in a i , e c.) ha e been blocked
om en e ing he Eu opean Union’s policy deba e in he i s place. All he
wo k hus a suppo ing he plu alis pe spec i e o lobby balance— which
holds ha asymme y in lobby powe ela ions is no a p oblem— ails
o add ess he ‘second ace o powe ’, o ‘non- decision’, namely agenda-
se ing abili y.80 Finally, i will be c i ical o examine he his o y and mobi-
liza ion o he ‘inno a ion p inciple’ ha indus y lobbyis s and neolibe al
hink anks in oke in an e o o coun e he impac o he p ecau iona y
p inciple.81
NOTES
1. Eu opean Commission (2019, Decembe ), ‘P esiden on De Leyen on he
Eu opean G een Deal’, Decembe 2019, h ps:// ec.eu opa.eu/ com miss ion/ p es
sco ne / de ail/ en/ SPE ECH_ 19_ 6 749.
2. K is o e Ekbe g, e al. (2022), Clima e Obs uc ion: How Denial, Delay and
Inac ion A e Hea ing he Plane , New Yo k: Taylo & F ancis, p. 12.
3. William F. Lamb, e al. (2020), ‘Discou ses o Clima e Delay’, Global
Sus ainabili y, 3: 1– 5, doi:10.1017/ SUS.2020.13.
4. Amanda Machin (2019), ‘Changing he S o y?The x o Ecological Mode nisa ion
in he Eu opean Union Machin, A.’, En i onmen al Poli ics, 28, 2: 208– 227.
5. Die e Plehwe and Ka in Fische (2022), ‘Tales o Passage om he No h
o he Sou h and Back: Cons i u ionalizing (Eu opean) Neolibe alism’.
In: Fe nando López- Cas ellano, Ca men Lizá aga, Rose Manzane a- Ruiz
(eds.) Neolibe alism and Unequal De elopmen : Al e na i es and T ansi ions in
Eu ope, La in Ame ica and Sub- Saha an A ica, pp. 123– 140. New Yo k: Taylo
and F ancis, doi:10.4324/ 9781003153306- 11/ TALES- PASSAGE- NORTH-
SOUTH- BACK- DIETER- PLEHWE- KARIN- FISCHER.
6. Syl ain Lau ens (2017), Lobbyis s and Bu eauc a s in B ussels: Capi alism’s
B oke s, Lobbyis s and Bu eauc a s in B ussels: Capi alism’s B oke s.
New Yo k: Taylo and F ancis, doi:10.4324/ 9781315267258/
LOBBYISTS- BUREAUCRATS- BRUSSELS- SYLVAIN- LAURENS.
7. Tobias Haas (2019, Feb ua y), ‘S uggles in Eu opean Union Ene gy Poli ics: A
G amscian Pe spec i e on Powe in Ene gy T ansi ions’, Ene gy Resea ch & Social
Science, 48: 66– 74, doi:10.1016/ J.ERSS.2018.09.011.
8. Hence he moonsho analogy; see Gengnagel, Vincen , Zimme mann, Ka ha ina
(2022), ‘The Eu opean G een Deal as a Moonsho : Ca ing o a Clima e- Neu al
Ye P ospe ing Con inen ?’ His o ical Social Resea ch, 47,4: 267– 302, doi
10.12759/ hs .47.2022.47
9. And ea Lenschow and Ca ina Sp ungk (2010, Janua y), ‘The My h o a G een
Eu ope’, JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies, 48, 1: 133– 154, doi:10.1111/
J.1468- 5965.2009.02045.X.
10. Ibid.
11. Alexand a B zozowski and Clai e S am (2019), ‘G eens Se Condi ions o
App o e Nominee on De Leyen – EURACTIV.Com’, Eu ac i , h ps:// www.
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[ 342 ] Clima e Obs uc ion ac oss Eu ope
342
eu ac i .com/ sec ion/ u u e- eu/ news/ g e ens- se - con di i ons- o- app o e- nomi
nee- on- de - leyen/ .
12. Ingma on Homeye , Sebas ian Obe hü , and And ew J. Jo dan (2021),
‘EU Clima e and Ene gy Go e nance in Times o C isis: Towa ds a New
Agenda’, Jou nal o Eu opean Public Policy, 28, 7: 959– 979, doi:10.1080/
13501763.2021.1918221.
13. Anne e Bonga d and F ancisco To es (2022), ‘The Eu opean G een Deal: Mo e
han an Exi S a egy o he Pandemic C isis, a Building Block o a Sus ainable
Eu opean Economic Model’, JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies, 60,
1: 170– 185.
14. Eu opean Commission (2021), ‘Fi o 55 – The EU’s Plan o a G een T ansi ion’,
h ps:// www.consil ium.eu opa.eu/ en/ polic ies/ g een- deal/ i - o - 55- he- eu- plan-
o - a- g een- a nsi ion/ .
15. Jacob, ‘Umwel - Und Klimapoli ik’ (2022), in We ne Weiden eld and Wol gang
Wessels (eds.), Jah buch de Eu opäischen In eg a ion 2022, pp. 308– 309. Baden
Baden: Nomos.
16. Volke Eichene and Helmu Voelzkow (1994), Eu opäische In eg a ion Und
Ve bandliche In e essen e mi lung. Mabu g: Me opolis.
17. Bea e Kohle - Koch and Raine Eising (eds.), The T ans o ma ion o Go e nance in
he Eu opean Union. London: Rou ledge.
18. Following he US Lobby Disclosu e Ac o 1995, which equi es egis e ed
lobbyis s o ile qua e ly ac i i y epo s wi h Cong ess, he Eu opean
Union es ablished i s own lobby egis e in 2008 ( i s joined by he EC, hen
e en ually he EP, al hough he Council o Minis e s has ne e aken pa ).
Unlike he US egis e , he Eu opean egis e is olun a y, hough some
es ic ions apply i companies o o he o ganiza ions in ol ed in lobbying do
no egis e .
19. T anspa ency Regis e Managemen Boa d (2022), ‘Annual Repo on he
Func ioning o he T anspa ency Regis e 2021’. h ps:// www.eu op a l.eu opa.
eu/ a - you - se ice/ iles/ ans pa e ncy- and- e h ics/ lobby- g o ups/ en- ann ual- ep
o - on- he- ope a i ons- o - he- ans pa e ncy- egis e - 2022.pd
20. Yea ly epo s by co po a e wa chdog o ganiza ions such as Co po a e Eu ope
Obse a o y o LobbyCon ol p o ide de ails o he sho comings o he
cu en egis e , which ne e heless p o ides a be e o e iew o he lobbying
landscape han had p e iously been a ailable. See Will Dinan (2010), ‘The Ba le
o Lobbying T anspa ency’. In: Al e EU (ed.), Bu s ing he B ussels Bubble,
pp. 139– 147. Al e EU, www.al e - eu.o g/ book/ bu s ing- he- b uss els- bub ble.
21. Eu opean Union Employmen Ad iso (2022), ‘How Many People Wo k o he
Eu opean Commission?’, h ps:// euemp loym en .eu/ eu op ean- com miss ion-
emplo yee- num be / .
22. Mahoney, ‘B ussels e sus he Bel way’; Co nelia Woll (2012), ‘The B ash and he
So - Spoken: Lobbying S yles in a T ansa lan ic Compa ison’. In e es G oups and
Ad ocacy, 1, 2: 193– 214.
23. Bea e Kohle - Koch and Ch is ine Qui ka (2011), Die En zaube ung
Pa izipa i e Demok a ie: Zu Rolle De Zi ilgesellscha Bei De Demok a isie ung
on EU- Go e nance. F ank u am Main: Campus Ve lag.
24. Heike Klü e (2013), Lobbying in he Eu opean Union: In e es G oups, Lobbying
Coali ions and Policy Change. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2013.
25. Haas, ‘S uggles in Eu opean Union Ene gy Poli ics’.
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26. BelénSabido, Pascoe Balanyá (2017, Oc obe ), ‘The G ea Gas Lock- In: Indus y
Lobbying behind he EU Poli ics o New Gas In as uc u e’, h ps:// co p o a
eeu ope.o g/ si es/ de a ul / iles/ he _ g e a _ g as_ l ock_ in_ e ngli sh_ .pd .
27. Haas, ‘S uggles in Eu opean Union Ene gy Poli ics’.
28. In luenceMap (2022, Ap il), ‘Eu ope: Does Co po a e Eu ope Suppo Clima e
Policy?’, h ps:// eu ope.in lu ence map.o g/ ep o / Does- Co po a e- Eu ope- Supp
o - Clim a e- Pol icy#13.
29. In cases whe e we could no ob ain in o ma ion on lobby expendi u e in 2019,
we used he yea 2018 o he yea 2020 ins ead. The wo igu es do no include
he g oup o companies ha a e comple ely opposed o he Eu opean Union’s
clima e policy (g oups E and F) o which we could no iden i y hei expendi u e
o lobbying a he EU le el.
30. Weise, Zia (2022, June). ‘The Lobbying Wa o e Cu ing EU Emissions’, Poli ico,
h ps:// www.poli ico.eu/ a i cle/ eu ope- emissi ons- clim a e- cha nge- lobby ing- wa /
31. See he o e iew a icle Puck, Jonas, Law on, Thomas, Moh , Alexande (2018)
The Co po a e Poli ical Ac i i y o MNCs: Taking S ock and Mo ing Fo wa d.
Manag In Re 58, 663– 673 (2018). h ps:// doi.o g/ 10.1007/ s11 575- 018-
0364- 0 and he Swedish case s udy Fjelkman, An on and Rolanda F omholde
(2021) S a egic Managemen o Public A ai s in Swedish Mul ina ional
Co po a ions— The Recipe o Success. Lund: Lund Uni e si y (h ps:// www.lun
duni e s i y.lu.se/ lup/ publ ica ion/ 9050 100)’.
32. Co po a e Eu ope Obse a o y (2017, Feb ua y), ‘Co po a e In e es s Con inue
o Domina e Key Expe G oups’, h ps:// co p o a eeu ope.o g/ en/ exp e - g o
ups/ 2017/ 02/ co po a e- in e e s s- con i nue- domin a e- key- exp e - g o ups.
33. Anne The ese Gullbe g (2011), ‘Equal Access, Unequal Voice. Business and
NGO Lobbying on EU Clima e Policy’. In: T anspa ency In e na ional, Global
Co up ion Repo : Clima e Change, pp. 39– 44. T anspa ency In e na ional.
h ps:// issuu.com/ ansp a en cyin e n a io nal/ docs/ global_ co up ion_ e po _ cli
ma e _ cha nge_ engl ish
34. Klemens Joos (2014), ‘E olg Du ch P ozesskompe enz. Pa adigmenwechsel
in De In e essen e e ung Nach Dem Ve ag on Lissabon’. In: Do is Diale
and Ma ga e e Rich e (eds.), Lobbying in De Eu opäischen Union. Zwischen
P o essionalisie ung Und Regulie ung, pp. 29– 45. Wiesbaden: Sp inge VS;
And eas Dü and Gemma Ma eo (2012, Sep embe ), ‘Who Lobbies he Eu opean
Union? Na ional In e es G oups in a Mul ile el Poli y’, Jou nal o Eu opean
Public Policy, 19, 7: 969– 987, doi:10.1080/ 13501763.2012.672103; Ch is ian
Lindne (2014), ‘Lobbyismus Und In e essen e e ung Au Eu opäische
Ebene. Zwischen P o essionalisie ung Und Regulie ung?’. In: Do is Diale
and Ma ga e e Rich e (eds.), Lobbying in De Eu opäischen Union. Zwischen
P o essionalisie ung Und Regulie ung, pp. 47– 59. Wiesbaden: Sp inge VS.
35. In luenceMap (2021, No embe ), ‘Ge man Au omake s and Clima e Policy’,
h ps:// in lu ence map.o g/ EN/ ep o / Ge man- Au omak e s- And- Clim a e- Pol icy-
a3ed 15c6 4b2e 258c 29 8 3beb 9333 7 6.
36. Susanne Gö ze and Annika Joe es (2020), Die Klimaschmu zlobby.
München: Piepe ,; In luence Map (2021), ‘A ia ion Indus y Lobbying and
Eu opean Clima e Change Policy’. h ps:// in lu ence map.o g/ ep o / A ia ion-
Indus y- Lobby ing- Eu op ean- Clim a e- Pol icy- 13137 8131 d950 3b4d 32b3 65e5
4756 351
37. Balanyá, ‘The G ea Gas Lock- In’.
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