Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of Türki̇ye in the Centennial of the Republic

Engin Balin, Billur (Ed.); Mumcu Akan, Hatice Dilara (Ed.); Karagoz Ozenc, Ferda (Ed.); Garan, Ozcan (Ed.) Book Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of Türkiye in the Centennial of the Republic Provided in Cooperation with: Istanbul University Press Suggested Citation: Engin Balin, Billur (Ed.); Mumcu Akan, Hatice Dilara (Ed.); Karagoz Ozenc, Ferda (Ed.); Garan, Ozcan (Ed.) (2024) : Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of Türkiye in the Centennial of the Republic, ISBN 978-605-07-1610-8, Istanbul University Press, Istanbul, Turkiye, https://doi.org/10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/312688 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GO ALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRK İ YE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC 100 th ANNIVERSARY OF THE REPUBLIC BOOKS Editors Billur ENG İ N BALIN H. Dilara MUMCU AKAN F erda KARAGÖZ ÖZENÇ Özcan GARAN PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC Editors Assoc. Prof. Dr . Billur Engin Balın İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye Assoc. Prof. Dr . H. Dilara Mumcu Akan İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye Assoc. Prof. Dr . Ferda Karagöz Özenç İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye Asst. Prof. Dr . Özcan Garan İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye ii Published by İstanbul University Press İstanbul University Central Campus IUPress Office, 34452 Beyazıt, Fatih / İstanbul - Türkiye https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of Türkiye in the Centennial of the Republic Editors: Billur Engin Balın, H. Dilara Mumcu Akan, Ferda Karagöz Özenç, Özcan Garan E-ISBN: 978-605-07-1610-8 DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013 Istanbul University Publication No: 5346 Faculty of Economics Publication No: 673 Published Online in May , 2024 It is recommended that a reference to the DOI is included when citing this work. This work is published online under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY -NC 4.0) https://creativecommons.or g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ This book was published as part of the Istanbul University Press’ 100 th Anniversary of the Republic book project. iii CONTENTS PREF ACE... ................................................................................................................................................... vii INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................... ix Sustainable Development Goal 1: No Poverty CHAPTER 1 The History and Dimensions of Poverty in Türkı  ye A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y ....................................................................................................................... 3 CHAPTER 2 No-Poverty Goal of Türkı  ye on the Basis of Leaving No One Behind Principle Emine T AHSİN ........................................................................................................................................ 33 Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger CHAPTER 3 Food and Environmental Security in Türkı  ye: T o End Hunger and Promote Sustainable Agriculture Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN ................................................................................................................ 87 Sustainable Development Goal 3: Good Health and W ell-being CHAPTER 4 Nudging in Behavioral Development Economics: An Evaluation of Preventive Health Services in Türkiye Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ ........................................................................................................................ 11 5 Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality Education CHAPTER 5 W omen Empowerment Through Compulsory Schooling Reform: The Case of Türkiye Emine Kübra UST A, Elif ERBA Y ......................................................................................................... 143 CHAPTER 6 Regulations in the Compulsory Education System in Türkı  ye and Government Support Ezgim ÇARBOĞA, Nazan SUSAM ...................................................................................................... 169 Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender Equality CHAPTER 7 Progress on Sustainable Development Goal 5 in Türkiye: Prevention of Violence Against W omen and Girls and Promotion of Gender Equality Adviye Damla ÜNLÜ BEKT AŞ ............................................................................................................ 193 CHAPTER 8 Gender Equality as a Sustainable Development Goal: W omen’ s Participation in Decision-Making Mechanisms in Türkiye Gizem BİLGİN A YT AÇ, A yda SEZGİN ............................................................................................... 221 iv CONTENTS Sustainable Development Goal 6: Clean W ater and Sanitation CHAPTER 9 A Detailed Analysis of SDG 6 and Türkı  ye Özlem YORULMAZ .............................................................................................................................. 243 Sustainable Development Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy CHAPTER 10 Renewable Energy Potential of Türkı  ye and Policy Recommendations to Improve Energy Ef ficiency Damla ÖZEKAN .................................................................................................................................... 263 CHAPTER 1 1 The Role of Geothermal and Hydraulic Ener gy in Türkı  ye’ s Achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 7: Potential, Opportunities and Barriers Kenan KOÇ, Yüksel BA YRAKT AR ...................................................................................................... 283 Sustainable Development Goal: 8 Decent W ork and Economic Growth CHAPTER 12 From the Perspective of Inclusive Growth, the Examination of Türkı  ye’ s Economic Growth After 2002 Hülya DENİZ KARAKOYUN, Safa Eymen YORULMAZ ................................................................. 307 CHAPTER 13 Multiple Disadvantages in the Labor Market of Türkı  ye: A Qualitative Study of W omen with Disabilities İlhan DOĞAN, Ezgi ÜNAL ................................................................................................................... 343 Sustainable Development Goal 9: Industry , Innovation and Infrastructure CHAPTER 14 A Critical Evaluation of Sustainability Criteria in Lar ge-Scale Infrastructure Projects and an Overview of Türkı  ye’ s Infrastructural Investments Through Critical Thinking Ferda UZUNY A YLA, Bülent HOCA ..................................................................................................... 371 CHAPTER 15 Evaluating the Significance of Research and Development (R&D) Activities in the T urkish Economy: A Comparative Study in the Context of SDG 9 - T ar get 9.5 Güzin Emel AKKUŞ .............................................................................................................................. 403 Sustainable Development Goal: 10 Reduced Inequalities CHAPTER 16 Dimensions of Income Inequality and Evaluation of the Redistributive Role of Fiscal Policies in T erms of Functional Public Expenditures in Türkı  ye A ysel ARIKBOĞA ................................................................................................................................. 457 CHAPTER 17 Reducing Income Inequality in Türkı  ye: What Has Changed and What Can Be Done? Betül MUTLUGÜN ............................................................................................................................... 477 v CONTENTS Sustainable Development Goal 1 1: Sustainable Cities and Communities CHAPTER 18 The Quadruple Helix into the Ef fort of Sustainable Cities and Communities: The Case of Marmara Urban Forum in Türkı  ye İrem GÜNEŞ, Özcan GARAN ............................................................................................................... 5 11 Sustainable Development Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production CHAPTER 19 Green Practices and Responsible Consumption by the Hotel Industry in Türkı  ye: A Qualitative Study on Hotel Managers Büşra KESİCİ, Mert ÖĞRETMENOĞLU, Gürkan ÇALIŞKAN ......................................................... 553 Sustainable Development Goal 13: Climate Action CHAPTER 20 Combating Climate Change in Türkı  ye: Integration of Market-Based Instruments to the Environmental Policy Billur ENGİN BALIN ............................................................................................................................ 581 CHAPTER 21 The Role of Green Bonds in Achieving SDG 13: The Case of Türkı  ye Güzhan GÜLA Y , Korkmaz ERGUN ...................................................................................................... 597 Sustainable Development Goal 14: Life Below W ater CHAPTER 22 T owards a Sustainable Blue Economy in Türkı  ye: An Overview of Key Sectors and SDG 14 T argets Gülşah KOCAKA Y A .............................................................................................................................. 627 Sustainable Development Goal 15: Life on Land CHAPTER 23 The Political Economy of the Conservation of Biodiversity and Biodiversity-Based T rade: The Case of Türkı  ye Ferda KARAGÖZ ÖZENÇ .................................................................................................................... 655 CHAPTER 24 Sustainable Land and Forest Management in Türkı  ye Ufuk DEMİRCİ, Idris DURUSOY , Atakan ÖZTÜRK, Bekir KA Y ACAN ........................................... 703 Sustainable Development Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Str ong Institutions CHAPTER 25 Türkı  ye as an Actor in Sustaining International Peace: The Case of Ukraine W ar Pınar ERKEM GÜLBOY , Elifcan ÇORUK ........................................................................................... 731 vi Sustainable Development Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals CHAPTER 26 Possible Impacts of Innovation on Employment Sayım YORGUN .................................................................................................................................... 769 CONTENTS S UST AINABLE D EVELOPMENT G OAL CHAPTER 1 THE HISTOR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y 1 1 Asst. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-8337-1 16X DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.001 Abstract Türkiye is celebrating its one-hundredth anniversary and implementing policies to promote sustainable development at the same time. With nearly 82 million citizens, Türkiye stands as a dynamic nation that has a distinct historical context that shapes the country’ s trajectory . As the nation’ s accomplishments and potential are reviewed, sustainable development goals, including the pioneering goal of ending poverty , must be examined. This complex phenomenon hinders human potential, maintains inequality , and slows the advancement of inclusive and equitable societies. The UNDP and its partners in Türkiye 1 are working towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) by 2030, and the first goal is to end poverty by that time. After 25 years of steady progress in reducing poverty , the COVID-19 pandemic has reversed that progress, with the number of people living in extreme poverty rising for the first time in a generation. In comparison to predictions made before the pandemic, the combined crisis with the Ukranian war could result in an increase of 75 million to 95 million people living in extreme poverty in 2022 (UN, 2022; 26). When compared globally between the years 2000 and 2016, Türkiye was one of those nations that has significantly reduced poverty and showed delicate success in eradicating severe poverty (BM, 2019; 35). Unfortunately , that was a fragile progress and today poverty is still a serious problem in our country . Elimination of poverty in all its forms and dimensions is an indispensable requirement and the policies aimed at reaching this requirement will be the focus of this chapter . Keywords: UNDP , Sustainable Development Goals, no poverty , Türkiye, history of poverty 1 The United Nations Country T eam (UNCT), in close consultation with the Government of Türkiye, has developed a new cooperation framework for the 2021-2025 period. The framework, known as the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF) is a core instrument defining how the UNCT in Türkiye contributes to the national development priorities set out by the Government of Türkiye in the National Development Plan 2019-2023 and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. (UNCT Results Report: 2021) PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 4 1. Intr oduction The Republic of Türkiye is a diligent nation that has achieved a significant milestone by commemorating its centenary and has been exertive in implementing ef fective policies to promote sustainable development. W ith a current population exceeding 82 million, Türkiye has experienced significant changes that have led to its emergence as a dynamic and intent nation. As one contemplates the advancement and prospects of the country , it becomes im- perative to explore the goals of sustainable development, with a particular emphasis on the commendable objective of eliminating poverty . In evaluating Türkiye’ s accomplishments, it is crucial to recognize the intricate and dynamic character of poverty and the distinct obstacles that the country encounters. W ith a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 1 of approximately 807 million U.S. dollars as of 2021 and 905 million dollars in 2022, Türkiye’ s economic struggle and significant human resource potential continue. Türkiye is an OECD member that has made significant strides in its economic development. (TURKST A T , 2023) The complex nature of poverty presents a significant obstacle for countries worldwide. The elaborate nature of this phenomenon hinders the realization of human potential, sustains disparities, and obstructs the advancement of societies that prioritize inclusivity and equi- ty . The establishment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was a response to the pressing need to address this issue and was undertaken by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The SDGs serve as a framework for achieving a more sustainable and improved future. The present chapter aims to provide insights into Türkiye’ s ef forts to eliminate poverty , examining the country’ s undertakings, advancements, and obstacles in achieving the first goal of “No Poverty”. Through an analysis of Türkiye’ s history , policies, and strategies, our ob- jective is to acquire a deeper understanding of the nation’ s endeavors to enhance the well-be- ing of its populace and establish a community in which all members can prosper and make valuable contributions to the country’ s advancement. In analyzing this vital goal, we will try to consider the economic and social facets of poverty , enabling individuals, households, and societies to overcome its entrenchment. When examining the issue of poverty , it may seem necessary to delve into the causal context of poverty formation and the fight against poverty based on different economic and political temporal characteristics. However , as to the scope of this chapter , this causal context will be excluded. 1 GDP increased by 4.0% compared with the same quarter of the previous year in the first quarter of 2023. 5 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y As we commence our investigation into the elimination of poverty within the framework of Türkiye’ s sustainable development trajectory , it is crucial to acknowledge the importance of our collaborative endeavors in constructing a society where poverty is relegated to history , and all members of the populace can participate in the country’ s centennial festivities as a symbol of human worth, perseverance, and advancement. Just like in the phenomenon of poverty , the causal context is also important in the fight against poverty . In the context of causality , the inevitability of a systemic problem in income distribution and poverty issues is extremely significant. However , it should be stated that in this study these will not be covered, and the explanation will be limited to the historical drift of the mere phenomenon of poverty . 2. Poverty in Türkiye Türkiye’ s foundation as a republic in 1923 marked the beginning of a transformative era under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal. The young republic sought to enhance its political and economic foundations, aiming to establish a modern and prosperous society . Türkiye has witnessed substantial economic changes from the early 1920s. It should be underlined that poverty in Türkiye has been influenced by various factors, including economic growth, industrialization, urbanization, and government policies. In the early years of the T urkish Republic, efforts were made to modernize the economy and society , which impacted poverty levels. Over the decades, the country experienced significant economic changes, transitioning from a primarily rural and agrarian society to a more urbanized and industrialized one. The government policies carried both successes and shortcomings, in addressing poverty . While Türkiye made progress in improving living standards and reducing extreme poverty , there were also periods of economic instability that affected vulnerable populations. This study delves into the challenges of measuring and defining poverty across different periods and contexts in the history of poverty in Türkiye. 2.1. History of Poverty in Türkiye One of the significant features of the 19th-century T urkish economy was the low average income compared to the second half of the 20th century , and a substantial portion of the pop- ulation remained below the absolute poverty line defined by the standards of the latter half of the 20th century (Pamuk, 2014: 155, 326). T o understand the socio-economic conditions of the early Republican period, it is necessary to evaluate the late period of the Ottoman Empire. Since the young T urkish Republic did not inherit a rich legacy from the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman economy was predominantly agricultural, with agricultural production being carried out through traditional methods. Additionally , the economy could be defined as an exporter THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 6 of raw materials and an importer of industrial goods. (Boratav , 1995; 268) Furthermore, the external debts the Ottoman Empire was obliged to pay , and the successive wars had brought the empire to the point of collapse. The Y oung T urkish Republic inherited the Ottoman Pub- lic Debt Administration which was a $65 million external debt burden (Yılmaz, 2014). The capitulations had frequently plagued the Ottoman Empire’ s late period, the status of being an exporter of raw materials and food, and an importer of industrial production. This was the typical economic structure that had ended the monetary sovereignty and started more of a colonial period. (T ezel, 2015; 75) 2.1.1. The End of the Ottoman Period Looking at the income distribution of the Ottoman throughout the 19 th century , the key processes influencing this indicator are the decline of traditional crafts in a free trade envi- ronment with low tarif f barriers and the economy’ s increasing specialization in agriculture. The tendency of relative prices of manufactured goods in global markets to decline after the Industrial Revolution led to a general favoring of agricultural prices within the country as well. The Ottoman Empire’ s integration into European capital control during the opening of the economy and the centralization of Ottoman finances was marked by significant turning points. These included the signing of a foreign trade agreement in 1838, the initiation of a foreign borrowing process in 1854, and the granting of privileges to foreign capital for railway construction from the 1850s onwards. The favorable development of prices in agriculture resulted in sectors engaged in market-oriented production, especially medium and lar ge-scale agricultural producers and traders in W estern Anatolia and coastal regions, receiving a larger share of income. (Pamuk, 2005; 208-9, 240-1) It has been estimated that between 1880 and 1913, the average annual growth rate of per capita income was less than 1 percent in the Ottoman Empire. Furthermore, it is approximat- ed that during the span of approximately one century , from 1820 to 1913, the total increase in per capita income was over 50 percent. Nonetheless, over the identical timeframe, the economies of Europe were experiencing more rapid expansion, thereby exacerbating the dis- parity between their economy and that of the Ottoman Empire. However , the data suggests that the Ottoman economy experienced growth while adhering to a model that was based on agriculture and external trade (Pamuk, 2008; 27). In 1925, the newly established government eliminated the agricultural tithe, which was widely feared by the populace 2 . Fiscal policies 2 The decision to abolish the tithe tax was made during the Economy Congress held in Izmir in 1925, and its abolition was realized in the same year . However , the cattle tax (ağnam resmi) rates were increased, and it continued to be implemented as the Republic’ s number one law . 7 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y implemented during the Ottoman era resulted in a substantial reduction in the overall tax burden and marked a significant departure from the previous tax regime. Fiscal responsibility is imposed on individuals residing in rural areas. The current administration prioritized the mitigation of destitution among the small and medium-sized producers, who constituted the predominant demographic within the rural populace. Over an extended period, the elimination of the tithe and tax farming facilitated the consolidation of small-scale peasant ownership. The revitalization of agricultural practices played a significant role in bolstering the urban economy , and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita had reached the same levels as those observed before W orld W ar I by the conclusion of the 1920s. (Pamuk, 2010; 23) Since 1913, and particularly since 1950, Türkiye has exhibited levels and advancements in life expectancy that are analogous to those observed in other developing nations with corre- sponding income levels. Since the years 1913 and 1950, education indicators such as literacy rates, years of schooling, and school enrollment in Türkiye have consistently fallen behind those of developing countries with comparable levels of GDP . Simultaneously , Türkiye has exhibited a lower prevalence of poverty in contrast to developing nations that possess com - parable income levels. The rate at which rural poverty and population decline in the coming decades will be contingent upon the extent to which institutional transformations occur and the amount of education and capital that is infused into rural areas. (Pamuk, 2007: 272-6) 2.1.2. The Early Y ears of the Republic and W orld W ar II In the early years of the Republic, the state pursued a series of policies for both political and economic institutionalization. T ezel (2015) ar gues that the impact of these policies on people’ s living conditions is debatable, based on per capita consumption rates of essential goods such as wheat, sugar , factory-made cotton textiles, cement, and primary ener gy con- sumption. The study found that there was no significant increase in per capita consumption levels of these basic goods over 15 years. It was determined that the occasional increases were due to improvements in climatic conditions, and overall, there was no notable increase, particularly in wheat, which is the most consumed product by the people. (T ezel, 2015; 600) There is almost no data on the dimensions of poverty during the first years of the re- public. Therefore, some research is based on newspaper and magazine articles of that period. Çavdar (1983: 74) for example analyzed the writings of the newspapers and magazines of those years, and found an article in a magazine to report: “Y esterday morning, two men were found in the basin of the fountain across from Gülhane Park, one of them sick and the other dead. The examination revealed that the deceased had died THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 8 of hunger . (...) While the police of ficers were dealing with the body of this man, they heard a moan from the other basin and found that the poor man was experiencing his last moments there. (...) The life of the man who lived of f the fruits of trees in the forests was more secure. At least he could satisfy his hunger with the fruits he possessed and would not die of starvation in the forest”. Another newspaper article is related to child poverty: “Some children in the outskirts of Istanbul engage in small crafts to help their families during school holidays. These children make griddles and earn 15-20 kuruş per day .” (Çavdar , 1983) During the 1930 Great Depression (like previous general crises), when monetary incomes declined, impoverished peasants were forced to sell their lands and tools, leading to an in- crease in sharecropping and tenancy . This jeopardized their independence. However , the emer ging dependency would be a temporary development that could be reversed when prices started changing in favor of the farmers. The increase in agricultural prices, the availability of cheap credit, and the rapid introduction of tractors enabling extensive land cultivation led to a decrease in the significance of sharecropping in agriculture in the post-war period and the 1950s. The dominant trend observed both in poor and wealthy villages was the expan- sion of peasant ownership. The number of farms owned by their operators increased from 2.3 million in 1950 to 2.5 million in 1952 and reached 3.1 million in 1961. This indicates an approximately 30 percent increase in the number of small-scale production units during the 1950-1960 period. The proportion of landless peasant families decreased from 16 percent in 1950 to 10 percent in 1960. It is a bit more challenging to demonstrate the indirect impact of the agricultural structure. However , it is certain that from the perspective of the capitalist sector , the peasantry has become an important segment of the domestic market. Those who migrated from villages to cities did not have to leave their villages because they were land- less and impoverished. In other words, when they arrived in the city , they were not without belongings or property; they were not deprived. The average migrant had land in their village that they either leased out or left to their family members in exchange for something. In most cases, they had enough money to start building a house in a makeshift settlement closed off by relatives or fellow villagers from the same village. (Keyder , 2014; 160-5, 195) 2.1.3. Post-W orld W ar II Period President İnönü ensured the submission and approval of a land reform project in 1945 to the Parliament that aimed to distribute state lands to landless and impoverished peasants. This shows the desire of the bureaucracy lies in establishing a new alliance with impoverished peasants in response to the increasingly strengthening opposition of the bour geoisie. It could be said that the most af fected group by statist policies and mobilization was the impoverished 9 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y peasantry . Therefore, even if they did not independently demand land reform, it would be logical to select the impoverished peasants as the group whose hearts needed to be won over . It might have been possible to gain the support of impoverished peasants; however , it became apparent that in the 1950s, while not to the same extent as middle and wealthy peasants, im- poverished peasants also preferred the opportunities evaluated by the free market. (Keyder , 2014; 153-8) The accumulated wealth of merchants during W orld W ar II reached significant proportions and became a significant factor in the dissolution of the alliance between the bourgeoisie and the bureaucracy . V oices against profiteering in the black market and speculation by merchants began to rise. Bureaucrats whose salaries were falling behind prices and industrialists who had limited opportunities for profiteering expressed their discomfort. It became evident that the regime lacked the means to prevent these profiteering activities. The rationing of bread and other essential goods in cities proved to be an ineffective and sluggish practice. Parallel markets emerged where the well-off could engage in trade. Newspapers were filled with news of lucrative activities. In the atmosphere of general scarcity and poverty , the knowledge that certain individuals were making significant profits quickly turned into opposition against the government, and the search for culprits began. This search once again directed the government to confront the non-Muslim commercial bour geoisie in Istanbul. Throughout the Republican era, the former capital had been associated with undesirable colonial connections and the comprador bourgeoisie. The new mentality represented by Ankara had become the essence of national development. In this ideological framework, it was not difficult to confront the com - mercial capital of colonial Istanbul with the national industry of Ankara (Keyder , 2014; 143) W ith the increase in economic growth after W orld W ar II, the absolute poverty rate also began to decline. The poorest segments within the country were peasants with limited or no land in less economically developed regions such as Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia. Therefore, it is not easy to determine the direction of regional inequalities during this period. The tendency of decreasing inequalities between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors suggests that the dif ference between the Eastern and Southeastern regions, where agriculture has a higher weight, and the western regions may not have increased. On the other hand, the concentration of industrialization in the northwest of the country and the inability of the Eastern and Southeastern regions to benefit from industrialization may have led to an increase in regional inequalities. (Pamuk, 2014) In the 1950s, during the rule of the Demokrat Parti [Democratic Party], a growth strategy based on agriculture was pursued. In the early 1950s, nearly 80% of the country’ s population THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 10 derived their livelihood from agriculture. During this period, intra-agricultural inequalities had a significant weight within the overall inequality framework of the country . However , with the acceleration of rural-urban migration, the importance of agriculture both in the econ- omy and in the income inequality landscape began to decrease. The analysis of the relative price movements also reflects the weight of agricultural producers’ votes after the transition to a multi-party-political regime. The Demokrat Parti and its successor , the Adalet Partisi [Justice Party], attempted to direct product and input prices in favor of agriculture through expanding support programs. The relative price favorability towards agriculture benefited lar ge-scale producers the most, particularly increasing inequalities between those engaged in market-oriented production within the agricultural sector and those who were not. The trend favoring agriculture in relative prices also brought medium and small-scale producers into market relations. (Keyder , 2014; 154-9) Despite the trend of industrialization and rapid productivity growth in the urban economy , the decrease in inequalities between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors can be ob- served, partially attributed to significant numbers of people transitioning from agriculture to the urban economy . In other words, significant productivity and income increases occurred in the urban economy . However , productivity and income increase in the agricultural sector did not lag the urban economy . In fact, with the acceleration of the shift of labor from agriculture to non-agricultural sectors, labor productivity , and average incomes in agriculture began to increase at a faster pace than in the urban economy . The third key indicator reflecting income distribution within the urban economy , the wage-to-average income ratio, also showed an increase during this period. W ages, which remained suppressed in the previous period and did not rise as much as average incomes in the urban sector , increased faster than the average income growth in the urban economy during this period. If we had a series for manufactur - ing industry wages as well as for regular wages, we could more accurately determine the dimensions of the trend favoring labor . Nevertheless, labor ’ s share in total income increased significantly within the urban economy . Moreover , we know that protectionism and state in- tervention led to increased profits for medium and lar ge-scale industrialists who could benefit from quotas and allocation processes during this period. Pamuk (2014; 330-3) 2.1.4. The Liberalization after the 1980s The W orld Bank report of Derviş and Robinson (1978) indicates that Türkiye’ s per capita income in 1977 was approximately $1000, which placed it below the average income of most semi-industrialized countries. The report also underlines the low wages of traditional labor and consequent urban poverty . (Derviş and Robinson, 1978; 2, 24). In the early 1980s, 17 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y evaluating the cost of each item annually , the prices for the entire basket were determined, thus establishing the food poverty threshold. T o determine the cost of non-food essentials, the cost of the food basket was divided by the proportion of food consumption among indi- viduals slightly above the poverty threshold. The proportion of non-food consumption varied from year to year , with a recorded percentage of 60% in 2003 and 65% in 2009. As a result, the proportion of food consumption also fluctuated accordingly . It’ s important to note that the official poverty lines in Türkiye vary from year to year and are not strictly considered absolute poverty lines like the US$1 per day line. Since 2006, TURKST A T has been releasing income-based relative poverty statistics derived from the T urkish component of EU-SILC, which complement the poverty estimates obtained through the basic needs approach. (Demir and Jenkins, 2013; 4) T able 3 shows the percentage of the population subsisting on less than $2.15 per day at prices adjusted for 2017. This measure is defined by the W orld Bank’ s methodology as the proportion of the population that makes less than $2.15 per day in international prices in 2017. Using data from household surveys in 22 countries, the W orld Bank created its first estimates of worldwide poverty for developing nations for the W orld Development Report 1990: Poverty 3 . Looking at T able 3, one can observe that we have experienced a nearly con- tinuous reduction in poverty from the early 2000s onwards. However , this progress slowed down or stabilized from the mid-2010s. The economic challenges faced in 2018-2019 led to an increase in poverty rates, causing approximately 1.5 million more people to fall into poverty . (W orld Bank, 2023) T able 3. Po ver t y hea dc ou nt r a t io at $2. 1 5 a d ay ( 20 1 7 PPP ) (% o f p opu l at ion ) Ye a r s 20 02 20 03 20 04 200 5 200 6 20 07 20 08 20 09 2 0 10 % of pop u la t i on 2 .10 3. 8 6 2 . 01 2. 34 1.7 7 1. 31 0. 56 0. 72 0 .7 7 Ye a r s 2 0 11 2 01 2 201 3 2 0 14 2 01 5 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 % of pop u la t i on 0 .1 3 0.0 9 0. 30 0. 2 0 0 . 21 0. 2 0 0 .14 0.0 4 0. 36 Sourc e: Th e W orld B a n k, Pove r t y , a n d I n e qu al it y P l at for m (20 23 ) Looking at T able 4, relative poverty is defined as the state of individuals whose incomes fall below a certain threshold in comparison to the wider population. From 2013 to 2022, the at-risk-of-poverty rates based on different poverty thresholds were as follows: 7.6% for the poverty threshold set at 40% of the median equivalised household disposable income (a decrease of 0.9 points from the previous year), and 29.3% for the poverty threshold set 3 Martin Ravillion was the first one to come up with the idea of comparing levels of poverty based on household surveys. THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 18 at 70% of the median equivalised household disposable income (an increase of 0.6 points). Analyzing the poverty rates based on household types and the poverty threshold set at 50% of the median equivalised household disposable income, the at-risk-of-poverty rate was 7.5% for one-person households (an increase of 1.0 points), 1 1.7% for multi-person no-family households (an increase of 2.6 points), 19.6% for extended family households (an increase of 1.1 points), and 13.9% for one-family households (a decrease of 0.3 points) compared to the previous year . The TURKST A T data also shows that the poverty rate among children is particularly high, standing at 12.2% in 2021, a decrease from 12.7% in 2020. This highlights the importance of addressing poverty among children, as it can have long-term effects on their social and economic well-being. In terms of income inequality , the data shows that the Gini coefficient, which measures the distribution of income among individuals or households within a country , decreased from 0.41 in 2019 to 0.40 in 2020. The Gini coefficient stood at 0.39 in 2021, a decrease from 0.40 in 2020. This indicates that income inequality in Türkiye has slightly decreased. However , the Gini coef ficient remains relatively high, indicating that income inequality is still a significant issue in the country . The TURKST A T data also shows that access to basic services and social protection in Türkiye has improved in recent years. The poverty rate of households with access to basic services such as electricity , water , and sanitation is lower than that of households without access to these services. Moreover , the poverty rate of households receiving social protec- tion benefits is lower than that of households not receiving these benefits. In terms of access to affordable and adequate housing, T it can be observed that the percentage of households living in inadequate housing decreased from 5.2% in 2019 to 4.5% in 2020. This decrease can be attributed to the government’ s efforts to improve housing conditions and provide af- fordable housing options for low-income households. In terms of access to social protection, T able 4 . Po ver t y r a te by e qu iva l is ed ho u sehold di s po sa ble in com e (% ), 20 1 3 - 2022 S u r v e y Ye a r 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 019 2020 2 0 21 2 022 I nco me Refe re nce Y e ar 2 012 2 013 2 014 2 015 2 0 16 2 0 17 2 0 18 2 019 2020 2 0 21 40% of t he me d ian e qu i va l i s e d i ncom e 9.1 8 .7 8 .7 8.4 7. 4 7. 9 8.3 8.9 8. 5 7. 6 5 0% of the me d ian e qu i va l ise d i ncom e 15. 0 15. 0 14 .7 14 . 3 13. 5 13. 9 14 . 4 15. 0 14 . 4 14 . 4 60% of t he me d i a n e qu i va l i s e d i ncom e 22 .4 21. 8 21. 9 21. 2 2 0 .1 21 . 2 21. 3 21. 9 21. 3 21. 6 70% of the me d ian e qu i va l ise d i ncom e 2 9. 5 2 9. 4 2 9. 5 2 8 .7 2 8 .1 28.5 28.5 29 .0 28.8 2 9. 3 Sourc e: TU R K STA T , I n c om e a nd Li v i n g Co nd itio n s Su r ve y (2022) 19 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y the percentage of households receiving social protection benefits increased from 17.3% in 2019 to 18.3% in 2020. This increase can be attributed to the expansion of social assistance programs, such as the FISP and CCT , which have provided targeted cash transfers to families and individuals living in poverty . The below data is based on the Income and Living Conditions Survey report for 2022 of TURKST A T which pertains to the income information for the year 2021. In this survey , pov- erty and living conditions statistics are calculated based on household income. The income is converted into equivalent household disposable income, considering the household’ s size and composition. Relative poverty is defined as the state of individuals with incomes below a specified line compared to the general population. According to the poverty threshold set at 50% of the median equivalised household disposable income, the at-risk-of-poverty rate remained unchanged at 14.4% compared to 2021. However , when the poverty threshold was set at 60% of the median equivalised household disposable income, the at-risk-of-poverty rate increased by 0.3 points to reach 21.6% compared to the previous year . Regarding education status, among individuals with incomes below the poverty threshold set at 50% of the median equivalised household disposable income, 27.7% of illiterates and 24.4% of literates without a degree were classified as poor . The corresponding figures for individuals with less than a high school education and high school graduates were 13.8% and 7.8%, respectively . Higher education graduates had the lowest poverty rate at 2.6%. The persistent at-risk-of-poverty rate, which measures individuals living below the poverty threshold for at least two out of the preceding three years, was 14.0% in 2022, representing a 0.2-point increase compared to the previous year . T able 5 presents the poverty rates based on the poverty threshold set at 50% and 60% of median equivalised household disposable income, with consideration given to various household types. The process of determining income and poverty involves converting the household’ s income into an equivalent household disposable income, which is adjusted based on the household’ s size and composition. The findings indicate that the at-risk-of- poverty rate for one-person households increased by 1.0 points to reach 7.5%. Similarly , multi-person no-family households experienced an increase of 2.6 points, resulting in an at-risk-of-poverty rate of 1 1.7%. Extended family households had an at-risk-of-poverty rate of 19.6%, which increased by 1.1 points. In contrast, one-family households experienced a decrease of 0.3 points, resulting in an at-risk-of-poverty rate of 13.9% compared to the previous year . THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 20 In T able 6 we see the poverty figures calculated based on equivalent household disposable income and household types, poverty rate, and poverty gap; the poverty figures, poverty rate, and poverty gap based on the relative poverty line was calculated using Purchasing Power Par- ity (PPP). Underlining the date for 50%: In Türkiye, as of 2022, a total of 1 1,163 per thousand people remained below the poverty line (17,219 TL) determined using PPP . The poverty rate, on the other hand, experienced fluctuations until 2012, and then started to decline, reaching its lowest point since 2006 at 12.3 % in 2017. The poverty gap ratio serves as an indicator of the extent of poverty within a given population. The metric denoting poverty severity reaches a critical level when approaching “100”, while a decrease in this metric indicates a lower degree of poverty risk. The formula: Poverty gap = ((Poverty threshold-Median income of poors by EII)/Poverty thresh- old)*100 The poverty gap, which is the difference between the poverty line adjusted by PPP and household income, was 20.5% in 2022. Eurostat has updated the definition of material deprivation by incorporating social depriva - tion criteria. The variables pertaining to the household level were utilized in the computation T able 5. Nu mber of t he po or a n d pover t y r at e by hou s ehold t y pe a nd e qu iva l is ed ho u sehold d is po sa ble in co me, 2022 Ho usehold T y pe 5 0% 6 0% Pove r t y th re s hol d ( T L) Numbe r of the p o or ( Per thou sa nd p e o p le) Pove r t y rat e ( %) Pove r t y th re s hol d ( T L) Numbe r of the p o or ( Per thou sa nd p e o p le) Pove r t y rat e ( %) To t a l 17 , 7 4 7 1 2,000 14 . 4 21, 2 9 6 1 8,030 21. 6 One person hou sehold 17, 7 4 7 382 7. 5 21 , 2 9 6 560 10 . 9 One-fam i ly ho useholds 17, 7 4 7 8,925 13. 9 21 , 2 9 6 1 3 , 511 21 . 0 Coupl e w i thou t re s ide nt ch i ld r en 17, 7 4 7 370 4. 2 21, 2 9 6 6 57 7. 4 Coupl e w i th at l e a st one re s ide nt ch i ld 17, 7 4 7 7, 9 91 15. 8 21, 2 9 6 11 , 9 9 0 2 3 .7 Lo ne pa re nt s w i th at l e as t one re s ide nt ch i ld 17, 7 4 7 564 11 .7 21, 2 9 6 8 63 17. 9 Extended-fami ly hou seholds 17, 7 4 7 2 , 58 0 19. 6 21 , 2 9 6 3 , 810 28.9 Mul t i- p er s on no -fa m i ly house hold s 17, 7 4 7 11 3 11 . 7 21, 2 9 6 15 0 15 . 5 So u rc e: T U R K STA T , I n c om e a n d Liv i n g C on d it io n s Su r ve y (2022) 21 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y T able 6 . Nu mb e r of the p oo r , p over t y r at e s, a n d pover t y g ap by pover t y t h re sholds a dju st e d by PP P for Tü rk iye, 20 0 6 - 2 022 Ye a r s 200 6 20 07 200 8 20 09 2 0 10 2 011 2 012 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 2020 2 0 21 2022 4 0% Pove r t y th re s hol d ( T L) 1 , 8 49 2 , 348 2 ,4 6 0 2 ,7 35 2, 886 3 , 16 7 3 , 51 5 3 ,897 4 , 31 2 4,82 6 5 , 5 17 ,16 6 6 , 918 8 , 35 4 9 , 6 21 10 , 8 8 4 1 3 ,77 5 Nu mb e r of po or s ( T hous a nd p e r s o n) 8, 228 5, 9 2 0 6 , 2 41 6,869 6 , 8 01 6,6 6 4 6 ,75 9 6 ,12 8 5,9 29 5,9 70 5 ,74 9 ,19 7 5 ,71 2 5, 9 42 6 , 674 6,50 5 5, 729 Pove r t y r a t e ( %) 12 . 2 8 .6 9. 0 9.7 9. 5 9. 2 9. 2 8.2 7. 8 7. 8 7. 5 6.6 7. 2 7. 4 8.2 7. 9 6.9 Pove r t y g a p 28 .4 2 3. 3 22 .5 2 3. 9 22.3 2 4.3 22 .3 21. 4 21. 3 21 . 8 19. 6 19. 8 2 0 .1 20. 5 22 .4 2 3. 9 2 2 .9 5 0% Pove r t y th re s hol d ( T L) 2 , 311 2 , 9 35 3 , 0 75 3,4 1 9 3,60 8 3,9 58 4, 39 4 4 , 8 71 5, 39 0 6 , 0 32 6, 896 ,70 7 8 ,6 47 10 , 4 4 2 2 ,0 26 13, 6 0 5 17, 2 1 9 Nu mb e r of po or s ( T hous a nd p e r s o n) 12 , 0 96 10 , 0 0 7 1 0 6 13 11 , 3 9 1 11 , 4 6 1 1, 0 5 8 11 ,1 31 10 , 321 10 , 4 51 0 , 503 10 , 2 9 6 ,690 10 , 6 4 7 10 , 8 3 3 1 ,424 11 , 2 3 3 11 , 16 3 Pove r t y r a t e ( %) 17. 9 14 . 6 15 . 3 16 . 1 16 .1 15 . 3 15.1 13. 9 13. 8 13. 8 13. 4 12 .3 13. 3 13. 4 14 . 0 13 . 6 13. 4 Pove r t y g a p 3 0 .7 2 5. 0 2 5. 0 26. 1 2 5. 3 2 5 .7 26.0 2 4.5 2 3. 6 2 3. 8 2 3. 0 21 . 5 2 2 .1 22.4 2 5. 4 2 4 .7 20.6 6 0% Pove r t y th re s hol d ( T L) 2 ,7 74 3 , 52 2 3,6 89 4 ,10 3 4 , 33 0 4 ,75 0 5, 272 5 , 8 45 6,4 68 7, 2 3 8 8 , 2 75 ,2 49 10 , 3 7 7 2 , 5 31 14 , 4 31 16 , 3 2 6 20, 6 63 THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 22 T able 6 . Co nt i nu e d Ye a r s 200 6 20 07 200 8 20 09 2 0 10 2 011 2 012 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 2020 2 021 2 022 Nu mb e r of po or s ( T hous a nd p e r s o n) 16 , 5 61 15 , 0 0 9 15 ,7 7 3 1 6,4 0 9 6 , 2 74 15 , 9 0 3 16 , 0 41 15 , 9 9 0 5 , 8 01 16 , 0 2 4 16 , 0 3 4 1 5 , 318 16 , 3 7 5 16 , 2 9 9 17, 17 6 16 , 8 5 9 17 , 2 0 5 Pove r t y r a t e ( %) 24. 5 21. 9 22.8 2 3. 3 22 .8 22 .0 21. 8 21 . 5 20.9 21 . 0 2 0.8 1 9. 4 20. 5 20.2 21 . 0 2 0.4 2 0.6 Pove r t y g a p 3 3 .1 26.3 2 7. 2 27 .6 2 7. 7 27 .6 28.3 2 5.5 2 5.9 24 .9 24.4 2 4. 2 24. 3 25. 5 25. 8 26.2 24.4 70% Pove r t y th re s hol d ( T L) 3, 2 36 4 ,10 9 4 ,30 4 4 ,7 8 7 5 , 0 51 5, 5 42 6 , 151 6 , 81 9 7, 5 4 5 8 ,4 45 9, 6 55 10 ,7 9 0 1 2 ,10 6 14 , 6 1 9 16 , 8 3 6 19, 0 47 24, 1 07 Nu mb e r of po or s ( T hous a nd p e r s o n) 21, 6 8 4 19, 9 0 7 2 0 , 914 21 , 3 2 0 21, 3 6 0 21,1 3 2 21, 8 4 2 21, 3 85 21 , 4 6 5 21, 6 0 5 21, 5 4 7 21 , 6 65 22 ,48 4 2 2 , 39 7 2 3,152 2 3,0 57 2 3, 652 Pove r t y r a t e ( %) 32 .1 2 9.1 30. 2 30.2 2 9. 9 2 9. 2 2 9.7 2 8 .7 28.4 28.3 2 7. 9 2 7. 5 28.2 2 7. 7 28.3 2 7. 8 28.3 Pove r t y g a p 33. 3 2 8.9 2 9.1 3 0 .7 30. 8 3 0 .1 2 9. 3 2 7. 7 2 7. 9 27 .6 2 7.1 2 5.5 26.9 27 .6 28. 2 2 7. 8 26. 7 Sourc e: TU R K STA T , I n c om e a nd Li v i n g Co nd itio n s Su r ve y (2022) 23 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y of the rates of material and social deprivation. These variables included the incapacity to afford unforeseen financial expenses related to automobiles, the ability to take an annual holiday away from home for a week, the payment of mortgage or rent, the consumption of a meal containing meat, chicken, or fish every other day , the provision of adequate heating to the home, the re - placement of worn furniture, and the possession of an automobile. The contemporary definition has undergone modifications by excluding the possession of a washing machine, a color TV , and a telephone, which were previously included. The recently incorporated variables at the individual level encompassed the following: the incapacity to acquire new clothes to replace worn-out ones, the lack of access to two pairs of appropriately fitting shoes, the inability to en - gage in leisure activities outside the home that require monetary expenditure, the failure to meet with family or friends at least once a month, the absence of a weekly allowance for personal expenses, and the unavailability of a personal internet connection at home. T able 7 shows the rate of severe material and social deprivation, characterized by the inability to af ford at least seven of the thirteen items specified. The data pertaining to the variables utilized for computing social deprivation indicators were first gathered in 2015, therefore 2006-2014 are null. The severe material deprivation rate (%) showed a steady fall throughout 2006-2022. Severe material and social deprivation rate (%) decreased between 2015 and 2020. Then in 2021, probably with the impact of COVID-19, it increased to 18.1% but decreased to 16.6% in 2022. 3. Sustainable Development Goals: “No Poverty” in the W orld and Türkiye Prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, advancements toward the attainment of Goal 1 had decelerated, and the global community was not making sufficient headway in eradicating extreme poverty by the year 2030. In light of the current global climate, with the looming possibility of severe economic repercussions comparable to those experienced during the Great Depression, it is expected that a significant portion of the global population will be forced into poverty , thereby reversing the progress made in poverty reduction over the past several years. The significance of resilient social protection systems in protecting individuals who are impoverished and susceptible is increasingly evident as the economic consequences of the pandemic intensify . The necessity for proficient emergency preparedness is imperative for both pandemics and other perils that result in calamities. The proportion of individuals residing in severe destitution across the globe experienced a reduction from 15.7% in 2010 to 10.0% in 2015. Nevertheless, there has been a slowdown in the rate of global poverty reduc- tion. According to current estimates, the global poverty rate in 2019 was 8.2%. (UN, 2020) THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 24 T able 7 . Per sis t ent a t-r i sk - o f-p ov e r t y-r at e by 60 % of med ia n e qu iva l is ed ho u sehold di s po sa ble in com e, seve re m at e r i al d e pr ivation , m at e r ial, a nd so cia l de pr ivat ion r at es , 20 0 6 - 2022 Ye a r s 200 6 20 07 20 08 20 09 2 010 2 0 11 2 01 2 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 2020 2 0 21 2022 P ersis ten t a t-risk - of-po vert y-rate ( %) - (1) - (1) - (1) 17. 3 18 . 5 16 . 0 16 . 0 13 .0 1 5 .1 15. 8 14 . 6 14 . 0 12 .7 1 2 .7 1 3 .7 13. 8 14 . 0 Se vere ma te r i a l depr ivat ion rat e ( %) 6 0.4 58 . 8 5 7. 7 5 6 .7 59. 4 5 7. 9 55 . 0 43. 8 2 9. 4 30.3 32 .9 2 8 .7 26.5 26.3 2 7. 4 2 7. 2 28 .4 Se vere ma te r i a l and s o ci a l depr ivat ion rat e ( %) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - ( 2) 19. 2 17. 8 15. 4 15. 3 15 . 8 16 .7 18 .1 16 . 6 Sourc e: TU R K STA T , I n c om e a nd Li v i n g Co nd itio n s Su r ve y (2022): - Den ot e s m a g n it u de n u l l. (1 ) T h i s i n d ic at o r ca n be ca lc u l at e d ove r t h e fou r -yea r p a n el d a t a . T h e va r ia ble s u s e d to ca lc u l at e t h is i nd icat o r st ar te d t o b e c ol le c t e d i n 201 5. 25 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y Türkiye has experienced a consistent decline in poverty rates since the early 2000s, how- ever , this trend has exhibited a deceleration or plateauing ef fect since the mid-2010s. The period of economic decline observed between 2018 and 2019 increased poverty rates, as measured by consumption-based welfare aggregates and the upper -middle-income poverty line, from 10.9 percent to 12.6 percent in 2019. This led to an estimated 1.5 million individuals falling below the poverty line. Türkiye experienced the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in close succession, leading to significant employment reductions that disproportionately affect- ed individuals employed in informal, low-skilled, and youthful occupations. The Household Budget Survey , which encompasses consumption microdata, was not gathered during the years 2020 and 2021. However , the Survey of Income and Living Conditions (SILC) for the same period indicates that the poverty rate based on income remained stable in 2020. This can be attributed to the augmented government transfers that counterbalanced the adverse impact of the reduction in labor and investment incomes. (W orld Bank, 2023) The phenomenon of inequality has experienced an upward trend in Türkiye in the past. The Gini index exhibited a decline from 0.42. in 2003 to 0.39 before the onset of the economic crisis in 2008. However , it subsequently experienced an upswing, reaching 0.41 in 2019. The level of income-based inequality in the year 2020 was observed to remain unaltered, owing to the augmented government transfers. In 2022, there is evidence of a rise in inequality , which can be attributed to the distribution of national income being skewed towards gross operat- ing surplus as opposed to compensation of employees. In 2022, the proportion of employee compensation in GNI attained a historic minimum of 23.7 %, which is a notable decline from the 31.3% recorded in 2019. It is estimated that the impact of the earthquake on regions with higher poverty rates than the national average will exacerbate measures of inequality in the upcoming years. (W orld Bank, 2023) Related to the achievement of SGD 1 in Türkiye, one can assert that poverty remains a significant issue, with an estimated 19% of the population living below the poverty line in 2019. The government of Türkite has implemented various policies and programs to address poverty , including social assistance programs, employment policies, and education and train- ing programs. One of the main poverty reduction strategies in Türkiye has been the expansion of social assistance programs, such as the Family Income Support Program (FISP) and the Conditional Cash T ransfer Program (CCT). These programs provide targeted cash transfers to families and individuals living in poverty , to increase their purchasing power and improve their standard of living. Another key strategy has been the implementation of employment policies and programs, such as the Employment Strategy for the EU Harmonization Period THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE 26 and the National Employment Action Plan. These policies aim to increase the participation of disadvantaged groups in the labor market, such as women and young people, and to improve the quality and productivity of jobs. Historically , poverty in Türkiye has been high and persistent, with the poverty rate re- maining above 20% for most of the 20th century . The poverty rate began to decline in the early 2000s, reaching a low of 12.5% in 2008 before increasing slightly in the aftermath of the global financial crisis. However , the poverty rate has remained relatively stable in the 2010s, hovering around 19%. The T urkish Statistical Institute (TURKST A T) data also shows that poverty rates vary significantly across regions in Türkiye. The highest poverty rates are found in the eastern and southeastern regions of the country , where over 30% of the population lives below the poverty line. In contrast, the western and central regions of Türkiye have the lowest poverty rates, with less than 15% of the population living in poverty . These regional disparities in poverty rates can be attributed to several factors, including dif ferences in economic development, access to education and training opportunities, and em - ployment opportunities. The eastern and southeastern regions of Türkiye have traditionally been less developed economically and have had lower levels of educational attainment and higher unemployment rates compared to other regions of the country . T o address these disparities, the government of Türkiye has implemented several poverty reduction strategies, such as the expansion of social assistance programs, the implementation of employment policies and pro - grams, and education and training programs. The Family Income Support Program (FISP) and the Conditional Cash T ransfer Program (CCT) are two examples of social assistance programs that have been implemented to provide targeted cash transfers to families and individuals living in poverty , to increase their purchasing power and improve their standard of living. The Employment Strategy for the EU Harmonization Period and the National Employment Action Plan are examples of employment policies that have been implemented to increase the participation of disadvantaged groups in the labor market, such as women and young people, and to improve the quality and productivity of jobs. Education and training programs have also been a significant focus of poverty reduction efforts in Türkiye. The government has implemented various initiatives, such as the Education T ransformation Program and the Lifelong Learning Program, to improve access to education and training opportunities for disadvantaged individuals and families. T able 8 shows Türkiye’ s distance only to the first goal, covering the poverty tar gets and recent trends in OECD. The institution remarks data availability as a challenge for measuring CHAPTER 2 NO -POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE* Emine T AHSİN 1 1 Assoc. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-0349-2381 DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.002 Abstract The primary purpose of this article is to define interactions between sustainable development goals based on inclusiveness in the case of Türkiye. Inclusiveness plays a key role in sustainability and even inclusiveness is directly linked with the ‘leaving no one behind’ principle, that is defined among the guiding principles led by the sustainable development goals. In this context, a no-poverty goal is an important indicator in achieving inclusiveness based on these universal principles of the SDGs’ given that the synergies and trade-offs between SDG1(no-poverty) and other goals are an important priority in the assessment of achievements through the SDGs. As the empirical findings indicate the importance of the synergies among SDG tar gets, it is also outlined that the no-poverty goal has strong spillover effects on other SDGs. In this context, this study aims to outline whether these facts are relevant to Türkiye’ s SDG performance. For this purpose, PCA (principal component analysis) methods, which are among the main tools that analyze the performance of SDGs based on synergies and trade-offs will be implemented. W ithin this framework, Türkiye’ s development plans and an overview of the relevant SDGs will be summarized to set up the links between the past and present performance of the development policies based on inclusiveness and the ‘Leaving no one behind’ principle. The main objectives of the development plans and the strengths and weaknesses of the policies relevant to given SDGs will be taken into account. As a final result of the analysis, the priorities among the SDG goals and the scope of possible policies for the achievement of the SDGs will be discussed. Keywords: LNOB and SDGs, SDGs performance of Türkiye, No-poverty goal and Türkiye, PCA, poverty and inequality in Türkiye * I would like to express my thanks to two anonymous reviewers for their valuable and helpful comments. PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 34 1. Intr oduction In the pursuit of sustainable development, the United Nations introduced 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as a comprehensive framework, addressing diverse aspects of global challenges (UN, 2015). SDGs cover three broad categories and three basic bottom lines (economic development, environmental sustainability , and social inclusion) (Sachs,2012) and are classified under 5 principles (5 Ps, people, prosperity , planet, peace and partnerships). Their achievement depends on the governance of these goals under this guidance of princi- ples. In this context, the primary goal is known as the no poverty tar get (SDG 1) and mostly addresses material deprivations (Sachs, 2012). However , the scope of achievements for human development along with economic growth and the compatibility of this progress within a sus- tainable environment is defined as an important topic, especially in terms of people-centered goals. In 2015 the UN declared that this framework has an “underlying commitment to cr eate conditions for sustainable, inclusive and sustained gr owth, shar ed pr osperity and decent work for all”. It is stated that “on this collective journey… no one will be left behind” (UN, 2015). These targets emphasize the need to ensure that progress and development are accessible to all individuals, especially the most vulnerable and marginalized populations. For this purpose, universal values in achieving sustainability were defined. Among the 17 SDGs, the princi- ples of inclusiveness and leaving no one behind have gained significance regarding the 2030 tar gets. LNOB (Leaving No One Behind) is defined as one of the six “Guiding Principles of the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework “and a specific target of 2030’ ’ (UNSDG, 2023). The scope of the sustainable development goals and the fact that global efforts are deci- sive in these topics have brought about transformations in the framework of both global and national-based development goals. Although this study partially excludes discussions on these dimensions (see Mensah, 2019), the SDG targets are considered to be an important paradigm change in that they define the development efforts of countries in line with common principles at the international level. The SDG goals, their scope, and practical implementation imply the adaptation of the principles underpinning 21st-century modernization theory through “goal” oriented policies. Hence, these modernization interventions through SDGs might be challeng - ing and controversial. While SDGs behave in all countries as “similar” units in some aspects, dimensions of the public-private partnership and project-led financing and macroeconomic governance are among the main controversies. 35 Emine T AHSİN Türkiye has also accelerated its efforts to comply with the SDG targets since the Rio +20 Conference (2012). Based on these facts, the study aims to analyze the SDG targets for Türkiye by taking into account the principles of inclusiveness and LNOB. The phenomenon of growth together with human development has been an important topic throughout the his- tory of the Republic of Türkiye. Despite advances in income level, Türkiye’ s performance in human development and persistent inequalities, reveal opposite trends. This paper seeks to contribute to the understanding of inclusiveness and leaving no one behind in Türkiye by utilizing PCA methodology and growth with equity approach to explore historical poverty dynamics. By examining Türkiye’ s progress, challenges, and policy initia- tives, the paper aims to provide insights that will support the global pursuit of sustainable development. Accordingly , this chapter ’ s structure is based on three main sections. In the first section, the importance and scope of the no-poverty goal are considered. Following that the chapter covers the evolution of Türkiye’ s poverty dynamics over time and the SDGs’ links. Thirdly , taking into account the literature on SDG interactions, the chapter will focus on analyzing the links between the no-poverty goal and the LNOB in Türkiye. In this context, the PCA (Prin- cipal Component Analysis) method is applied to identify Türkiye’ s syner gies and trade-of fs within the scope of SDG targets, based on SDG-based data (Sachs et al., 2022; Lafortune et al., 2022) for the period 2000-2021. 2. No-Poverty Goal and its Challenges As the first goal of the SDGs, pillars of the “no-poverty” tar get are built on the goal of “ending extreme poverty and hunger”, which was previously defined under the MDG (Mil- lennium Development Goals) tar gets and includes broader dimensions. The MDGs related to poverty aimed to halve the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by 2015, compared to the baseline year of 1990 (UN, 2015). In contrast to MDGs, SDG1, aims to end poverty in all its forms and dimensions (UN, 2015) and as seen in T able 1, goes beyond ending extreme poverty . NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 36 T able 1. No- pover t y G oa l T a rget s Unde r SD Gs 1 . 1 B y 2030, e r a d ic at e ex t rem e p over t y for a l l p eo ple eve r y wh e re , cu r rent ly m ea s u re d a s pe o ple l iv i ng o n le ss t h a n $ 1 .25 a d ay . 1 . 2 By 2 030, re d uc e at le a s t by ha l f , t he p ro p or t ion of me n , wome n a n d ch i ld ren of a ll a ge s l iv i ng in p ove r t y i n al l it s d i men sio n s a c co rd i ng to n at iona l def i n it ions . 1 . 3 I m ple me nt n at iona ll y ap pr o pr iat e so c ia l pr ot e ct ion sys t e m s a nd m e a su re s for a ll , i n clud ing f lo o r s, a nd by 2030 a ch ieve s ub st ant ial c over a ge of th e p oo r a nd t he v u l ner a ble. 1 .4 B y 2030, e n su re t h at a l l me n a n d wome n , i n p a r t ic u la r t he po or a n d t he v ul ne r able, h ave e qu a l r ight s t o ec o nom ic res ou rce s , a s wel l a s a cc e s s to b a sic s e r vic e s, ow ner s h ip a n d co nt rol over la n d a nd ot her for m s of pro pe r t y , i n her it a nc e, n a t ur al re s ou r c e s, a p pr op r iat e new t e ch nolog y a n d f i na ncia l se r v ice s , i nclud i ng m i c r of i n a nc e. 1 . 5 By 2 030, bu i ld t he r e si l ien c e of th e po or a nd th os e i n v u l ne r able sit u a t ion s a nd re du c e t he i r ex p os u re a nd v ul n e r abi l it y to cl i m at e -rela t ed e xt re me e vent s and o t he r e c on om ic, s o ci al a nd env i ron ment al sho ck s a nd disasters . 1 . A E n su re sig ni f ica nt m obi l i z at ion of res ou rce s f rom a va rie t y o f s ou rce s , i n clud i ng th rou g h e n ha n ce d develo pme nt c o op e r a t ion , i n orde r t o p rov id e a de q u at e a nd pre d ict able m ea ns for d evelopi n g co u nt r ie s , i n p a r tic u l a r le a st d evelop e d c ou nt r ies, t o i mpleme nt p rog ra m me s a nd p ol icie s t o e nd p over t y in a l l it s dimens io ns. 1 . B Cr e at e s ou n d p olic y f ra me work s at t he n at io n al , r eg ion a l a nd i nte r na t ion a l levels , b a se d o n pr o - p oo r a nd ge nde r-se n sit iv e d evelop me nt s t rat eg ies, t o s up p or t a c cele r a te d i nvest ment i n pover t y e r a d icat ion a c t io n s. So u rc e: U N (2 015 ). The conceptualization of poverty in SDG1 is in line with a theoretical framework that emer ged from the W orld Bank in the 1990s and the UNDP’ s human development approach. The definition of “extreme poverty” is defined according to poverty thresholds identified by the W orld Bank. In these tar gets, the choice of extreme poverty threshold-headcount ratio $1.25 at a day- as a yardstick is questioned (Ravallion, 2022: 47). It is ar gued that focusing on the fact of poverty based on this context may lead to underestimation of poverty and create certain limits in achieving the tar gets. No-poverty target; ending poverty means decreasing the poverty rate by 3% by 2030 could be also challenging (Ravallion, 2022: 46). During this period, the cost of decreasing poverty is another fact that needs to be evaluated in detail. Additionally , it is claimed that some goals are “unattainable” (Easterly , 2015a, 2015b). Reinert (2020: 126) brings up the idea of relative poverty and claims that it is unrealistic to expect to eradicate all forms of poverty worldwide. Easterly (2015a), on the other hand, draws attention to the fact that the specific timetables (2030 target year) set for the SDG tar gets may limit their realization. Even this, he points out that the goal of ending extreme poverty could potentially be more easily attained than many other goals. Also, he draws attention to the boundaries of the threshold values set within the scope of this tar get as a measure of poverty and reminds us that extreme poverty values have already been on a downward trend in recent years. 37 Emine T AHSİN Besides, the definition of some of the targets is found to be unclear . For the case of target 1.3, it is argued that social protection can have dif ferent scopes and practices for different countries. The definition and dimensions of social services in target 1.4, need to be clarified. At the same time access problems in reaching these services are thought to be considered specific to countries’ conditions (Reinert, 2020:126). The scale of poverty may differ across countries and the “homogeneous” character of these tar gets may impede the specific charac- teristics of the countries. Such as, focusing on poverty in rural areas may require the imple- mentation of country specific, holistic policies. On the other hand, for countries problems in measuring poverty can make it difficult to measure the performance of policies in this area. Another challenging dimension in achieving the poverty target is the lack of political and financial commitment to the formulation of holistic policies (Cichos and Salvia, 2018). All these covered targets under SDG 1 (no-poverty goal) make it vital to discuss the scope of poverty alleviation strategies. Ravallion (2022) argues that rather than focusing on extreme poverty , pro-poor growth is more important in reaching these tar gets (see tar get 1. B in T able 1). The pro-poor growth target highlights the necessity of growth, inequality and poverty linkages and emphasizes the need for countries to implement more holistic policies specific to their conditions. The fact that there is no linear relationship between growth and poverty (Easterly , 2009); growth dynamics might not always lead to recovery in poverty conditions, needs to be tackled for the countries. Sachs’ vision of the SDGs is based on a reorganization of the goals based on certain principles in the transition from MDGs to SDGs. In this context, the SDG targets should be or ganized, particularly to secure basic material needs and human rights. Sachs’ (2012) vision emphasizes the required bottom lines for the success of the SDGs. These bottom lines are cate- gorized into the three broad categories of economic development, environmental sustainability and social inclusion, and their success depends on each other . Accordingly , the economic dimension should build on the MDGs, which have helped to advance the world’ s agenda in the fight against poverty , hunger , and disease, and SGDs should include basic material needs and human rights. In this framework, the fact that the no-poverty target has been identified under the first goal is related to the indication that it is one of the elements that should be provided as a minimum within the scope of meeting basic needs (Sachs, 2012: 2208). Given this approach, it is possible to argue that the no-poverty tar get constitutes a “red line” in terms of basic needs and in achieving sustainable development goals in general. The outcome of these approaches is discussed in terms of which fundamental principles will be adopted under the SDGs. Human rights and capabilities-based approaches are also NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 38 considered within this framework. A multidimensional poverty approach is included in the analysis so it is possible to go beyond income deprivation in setting up no-poverty goals. Education healthcare and social protection matters for the no-poverty goal. The no-poverty tar get also considers environmental vulnerabilities, pro–poor growth (growth and inequality), and gender-sensitive developments. More importantly , reference is made to vulnerable people as a separate category- “other than being poor”- under the no-poverty goal. Paragraph 23 of the 2030 Agenda defines vulnerable peoples as: “all children, youth, persons with disabilities (of whom more than 80% live in poverty), people living with HIV/AIDS, older persons, indigenous peoples, refugees and internally displaced persons and migrants and people living in areas affected by complex humanitarian emergencies and in areas af fected by terrorism” (UN, 2015). Leaving no one behind principle, which will be introduced in the following section, comes to the agenda as a result of these dimensions included in the no -poverty goal. 2.1. The No-Poverty Goal at the Interaction of Inclusiveness and LNOB The no-poverty goal as one of the key indicators of the interactions between the SDG targets, is also one of the main indicators guiding the principles of inclusiveness and leaving no one behind (UN, 2015). The principles of “to create inclusive societies is among the main tar gets”, which defines the vision of the SDGs, and “Leaving no one left”, which is among the central transformative promises of the 2030 Agenda (UN, 2015), can also be considered complemen - tary to each other . Inclusiveness and leaving no one behind are mutually reinforcing principles. Although inclusiveness is a controversial concept, it is generally used in the SDG tar gets as a goal of creating an inclusive society (see T able 2, Goal 16). Unlike the inclusive growth (Anand et al., 2013), the inclusiveness defined under the SDGs refers to a broader set of con- cepts. As seen in T able 2, the SDGs are based on four dimensions of inclusiveness; social, economic, political, and environmental. Relevant to these dimensions, inequality , exclusion, and vulnerability for sustainable development are the main principles that are covered under inclusiveness (UNDP , 2018). Inclusiveness ensures that the most marginalized and vulnerable individuals have equal opportunities, rights, and access to resources. This is an important step in ensuring conditions that guarantee respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, respect for cultural and religious diversity , and social justice in line with the goal of achieving an inclusive society (UN, 1995) 1 . 1 Inclusive society as “a society for all’, in which every individual, each with rights and responsibilities, has an active role to play (United Nations, 1995, para 66). 39 Emine T AHSİN According to Gupta and V egelin (2016), the inclusive development concept, which com- prises social, ecological, and relational inclusiveness, mostly covers the dimensions of inclu- siveness in the SDGs. According to them, the definition of inclusive development per sé calls for leaving ‘no one behind’, which means equitably including the most vulnerable people in the development process within countries and internationally (Gupta et al., 2014: 3). This principle underlies rights-based (Klasen and Fleurbaey , 2019) approaches as a commit - ment of all UN members to eradicate poverty in all its forms, end discrimination and exclusion (Stuart and Samman, 2017), and reduce inequalities and vulnerabilities, including the impact of climate change and environmental degradation. The United Nations’ approach to leaving no one behind entails “reaching the poorest of the poor” and seeks to “combat” discrimination and rising inequalities within and amongst countries and their root causes (UNSDG, 2019). T able 2 . I n clusivene ss c on ce pt i n the SDG s I nclu si vene s s a nd SD G s Go al 4. E n su re i n clu sive a nd e q u it a ble qu a l it y ed uc at io n a nd p ro mot e l i felong l ea r n i ng op po r t u nit ies for al l . Go al 8 . P ro mot e s u s t a i n ed , in clu sive a nd s u st ai n a ble ec on om ic g row t h, f ul l a nd p r od u ct ive e mploy ment a nd de c e nt work for a l l. Go al 9 . Bu ild re si l ie nt i n f r a st r uct u r e, p ro mot e i n clu sive a nd s u st ai n a ble i nd u st r ia l i z a t ion a nd fost e r in no vat ion. Go al 1 1 . M a ke cit ies a nd hu ma n s et tle me nt s i nclus ive, sa fe, r e si l ien t a nd s u st ai n a ble. Go al 1 6. P r omo te p e a c ef ul a nd i nclu sive so ciet ies for s u st ai n able d evelop me nt , p rov id e a cc e s s to j u st ice for al l a nd bu i ld ef fect ive, a c c ou nt able a n d i nclu sive i n s t it ut ion s a t a ll le vels. Sourc e: U N (20 15) Leaving no one behind aims to address two related concerns: ending absolute poverty in all its forms and ensuring that those who have been ‘left behind’ (in relative or absolute terms) can ‘catch up’ with those who have experienced greater progress (Stuart and Samman, 2017:2). The lack of choices and capabilities that enable others to participate in or benefit from human development is defined as the consequence of leaving left (UNDP , 2018). In this context, absolute deprivations and relative disadvantages may occur . As a measurement of absolute deprivations, multidimensional poverty or below other minimally accepted stan- dards of security , income, income public service, infrastructure, or well-being are considered. Given the no-poverty goal, for material deprivation, a multidimensional poverty (Alkire and Foster , 201 1) approach is considered rather than extreme poverty indicators (UNDP , 2018: 9). Relative disadvantage is defined as facing exclusion, discrimination, and/or entrenched inequalities that make people less able to gain influence, get educated, survive setbacks, ac- quire wealth, access job markets or technologies, have shorter riskier lives, and rank below the median in SDG outcomes and opportunities (UNDP , 2018: 7). NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 40 Summing up, discrimination, inequality , governance, socio-economic status, shocks, and vulnerability are defined as the key reasons for being left behind. Across countries, women and girls, people in rural areas, indigenous peoples, ethnic and linguistic minorities, people with disabilities, migrants, gender and sexual minorities, youth, and older people are dispro- portionately among those left behind (UNDP , 2018: 9). However , the measurement of LNOB and inclusiveness is still methodologically controversial. The development of dif ferent criteria for assessing progress in this area has also come to the fore. The LNOB index score is among these indicators. This index tracks the inqualities based on 4 main dimensions; poverty , ser - vices, gender , and income. The relevant SDG tar gets are sub-categorized under these given 4 dimensions of inequalities, as can be seen in T able A.2. Extreme poverty and material deprivation is the first category that focuses on the goal of eliminating poverty , which is extreme poverty and material deprivation (Mackie and Allwood, 2022). SDG 1 of fers a transformative vision to eradicate poverty . First of all, this goal cannot be achieved without embracing inclusiveness and leaving no one behind. Secondly , income inequality addresses inclusiveness based on economic growth and income distribution. Third- ly , “access to and quality of services” is considered. In this framework, social inclusiveness requires ensuring that all individuals have equal access to essential services such as healthcare, education, housing, transportation, and legal assistance. It also involves improving the quality of these services to ensure they meet the diverse needs of the population (Lafortune et al., 2022). Finally , gender inequality includes SDG indicators that focus on discrimination and vulnerabilities regarding gender (Appendix, T able A.2). The definition of leaving no one score as a quantitative indicator could be a complementa- ry indicator produced within the SDGs. This index assesses who is excluded or discriminated against and outlines the basis of discrimination and the dimensions of discrimination and inequalities. The method of constructing LNOB index is similar with SDGs index (for details see the methodology section). 3. Gr owth, Inequality and Poverty Links in Türkiye The dimensions of poverty alleviation strategies in Türkiye could not be interpreted inde - pendently from the emer ging international literature and practices. More precisely , the policies that have come to the agenda within the scope of poverty alleviation strategies have theoret- ical and practical indicators of the W orld Bank (WB, 1990, 2001) -based poverty alleviation strategies developed since the 1990s. The history of poverty in Türkiye certainly does not begin with the 1990s. As a phenomenon inherited from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic, 41 Emine T AHSİN poverty , as Çavdar (2015) emphasizes, refers to the living conditions of the “silent majority” of Anatolia’ s population, which is dependent on agricultural production. The fact of the poor –rural Anatolian population and their living conditions is one of the specific initial conditions in analyzing poverty dynamics depending on the economic transformation stages in Türkiye. Hence, the basic framework of poverty dynamics is not shaped independently of growth dynamics. Changes in the dynamics of distribution with growth in Türkiye essentially de- termine the scope of the phenomenon of equality with growth and, as a consequence, the dynamics of poverty . When we focus on Türkiye’ s growth and distribution dynamics within the framework of the equality phenomenon, and in particular on the changes in “poverty” as a result of this, different dynamics emer ge. The dynamics of poverty , the links between income-based inequalities and poverty , changes between agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, differentiation of urbanization dynamics, and migration waves have taken on dif ferent dimensions through time. According to the analytical framework defined by Pamuk (2005), intra-agricultural distri - bution, average income dif ferences between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, and the dynamics of distribution within the non-agricultural sector have determined the growth and distribution dynamics of income distribution for 200 years. In the early years of the Republic, instead of policies that directly addressed income distri- bution, surplus transfers between sectors and interventions to markets for these purposes were decisive. As a result, income distribution mechanisms developed as a result of preferences based on political economy . Price intervention policies and taxation policies were directly or indirectly influential on income distribution mechanisms in this process. For example, among these taxation policies in the agricultural sector was the abolition of “ âşar (tithe)” , which altered income distribution mechanisms (Önder , 2019). The land reform debate that came to the agenda in the mid-1940s is considered to be an attempt at direct intervention in income distribution mechanisms, although the links from growth to income distribution have been decisive (Özbudun, 1980). While in the 1950s and 1960s the main source of income inequality was explained by changes in the productivity of the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, with the indus- trialization taking place in the 1970s, urban dynamics changed. Under these phases of the economy , inequalities also increased within the industrial struggle for shares between capital and labor (Dervis and Robinson, 1980: 83). Although, intersectoral terms of trade and agri- cultural distribution remain important (Dervis and Robinson, 1980: 121) inequalities among NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 42 non-agricultural groups became more determinant in the post-1980 period due to the increas - ing weight of cities in the economic structure and dif ferences in the employment structure. Gini data for Türkiye can be found for the post-2001 period in a continuous trend. How- ever , when certain calculations made by different institutions and researchers are taken into account, it is observed that income distribution improved between 1968 and 1987, but dete- riorated in the 1990s 2 . The impact of the Özal years on the dynamics of distribution, together with the opening up stage of the T urkish economy , is also called a specific period that causes the differentiation of secondary (re-distribution) distribution relations (Boratav , 1991). In this period, beyond taxation practices as a component of the redistribution policies, the dynamics that have altered rent-interest earnings have had a decisive role. According to Boratav , who defines distribution relations as the sharing of the surplus obtained in capital accumulation and analyzes income sharing between classes, the changes in the sub-groups of the ruling /dominant classes 3 differed markedly in this period. In the 1990s, the allocation of title deeds to urban slums and zoning amnesty practices are also identified among the policies af fecting the dynamics of distribution (Boratav , 1991). While it has also been described as a populist policy for the poor , the allocation of title deeds has led to the creation of new rental opportunities. As a result of the growth strategies implemented in this period, going beyond traditional rural-agricultural poverty also meant the emergence of new forms of poverty (Buğra and Keyder , 2003). During this period, the emergence of the financial crisis also contributed to the phenomenon of urban poverty becoming more visible. Türkiye reached the highest Gini coef ficient in 1994 (DPT , 2001). The new urban poor reveal the inability of growth strategies to create new employment in the post-80s period and the spatial spread of poverty (Önder and Şenses, 2006). During this period, the rural-urban divide with new types of urban and poor started to characterize the poverty dynamics. In particular , urban poverty increases in cities where precarious living conditions are transferred from rural areas through migration (Şenses, 2005). Şenses (2005) emphasizes that the differences in income distribution in this period were mainly determined by the differences in sectoral structures in the city . Labor and non-labor income, skilled and unskilled labor on the other hand determines the disparities on the urban scale. Evidently , the 2 For a review of these pioneer studies, see DPT (2001: 16). 3 industrial-agricultural, financial, commercial capitals, and rentiers. 49 Emine T AHSİN the most vulnerable populations, such as cash transfers, food subsidies, and conditional cash transfers (Cammack, 2004). The aim is to empower the coping mechanisms of the poor and meet their basic needs. Social safety nets are considered an important parameter that mitigates poverty (W orld Bank, 2001). In this framework, it is assumed that the poor have risks against certain phenomena and lack the conditions to cope with these risks. A lack of social security mechanisms and a lack of public support against risks such as natural events, health, etc. make them vulnerable to risks (Zabcı, 2003; Şener , 2015). In 2001, the Social Risk Mitigation Project (SRMP) was launched to contribute to poverty reduction in Türkiye in the short and medium term (Zabcı, 2003; WB, 2003). W ith the ef fects of the 1999 earthquake and the 2001 crisis, it is envisaged to contribute to the development of protection mechanisms for those affected by the crisis. An emer gency assistance policy and a rapid assistance component were put in place. The main purpose of SRMP is outlined as follows. a. Building up the capacity of state institutions providing basic social services and social assistance to the poor (social risk management); b. Implementing a social assistance system (Conditional Cash T ransfers - CCT) targeted to the poorest 6 percent of the population con- ditional on improved use of basic health and education services (social risk mitigation and prevention); and c. Increasing the income generation, employment opportunities, and social service access of the poor (social risk prevention) (T urkey SRPM, 2008:2). The SRMP was the pioneering policy framework that formed the basis for today’ s poverty strategies. This project is also the first implementation of conditional cash transfers in Türkiye. Since the introduction of this program, the institutional structure of anti-poverty programs in Türkiye has also undergone fundamental changes. The scope of social welfare regime prac- tices has differentiated. Institutional transformation and poverty strategies have resulted in the development of assistance-oriented strategies instead of social welfare state practices. The focus has been on improving inclusion and achieving empowerment mechanisms. The primary fundamental institutional change is related to the re-establishment of the SASF (Social Assistance and Solidarity Encouragement Fund, 1986). When the structure of the social security 5 , system in Türkiye is examined, it can be seen that social policies for the 5 The social security system for pensions and health insurance consists of the ‘retirement chest’ for civil servants, established in 1949; the Social Insurance Institution, established in 1945 to cover workers, and Bağ-Kur , which was founded in 1971 to cover the self-employed. The scope of Türkiye’ s social security system resembles that of Southern European welfare regimes in its highly hierarchical and fragmented structure and corporatist features. In particular , the systems provide health and pension benefits to formally employed heads of households according to their employment status. Self-employment, unpaid family labor and informal employment practices NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 50 segments not covered by the social security system have been on the agenda since the end of the 1970s. The scope of social assistance, which was first introduced in Türkiye in 1976 aimed to help the elderly and disabled poor , and latter the framework of the assistance was expanded in 1986 under the name of SASF (Buğra, 2017). The Social Assistance Foundation was established with the aim of gathering the social services that had already been led by “Çocuk Esirgeme Kurumu” and “Emekli Sandığı” under a more centralized structure. T em- porary assistance for citizens who are in “poverty” and in need and who are unable to receive any income from of ficial social security institutions. In 1992, the “Green Card” program was launched for the poor who were outside the scope of the social security system. SASF (1986) was defined as the main coordinator of the SRAP (Şenses, 2015). Social assistance was managed nationally by the Fund Secretariat General within the Prime Min- ister ’ s Office and administered locally by the SASFs. In 201 1, with the establishment of the Ministry of Family and Social Policies 6 , the directorate was incorporated into this ministry . The other specific transformation that has been observed in the health system, is the social security system that is funded by WB credits. Under the Health T ransformation Programme launched in 2003, family practitioners were assigned to families to strengthen basic health services, with primary and emergency health care provided free of charge. In 2004, benefits under the Green card program were expanded. Green card holders have started to benefit from both outpatient and inpatient services at Ministry of Health and university hospitals. Through these changes, green card holders benefited from all health-related services without having to make any payments and family practitioners provide free public services to the households (T ahsin, 2013). In 2005, the Government expanded and enhanced the Universal Health Insurance program, which was Türkiye’ s largest targeted social assistance program up to that time. Also outpatient prescription drugs were included in the benefits of Green card holders in line with Universal Health Insurance program. In 2006, within the framework of the Health T ransformation Program, the Social Insurance Institution, the Pension Fund and Bağ-Kur (social security or ganization for artisans and the self-employed)were merged under a single umbrella under the name “General Health Insurance” (GHI) (SYGM, 2010). Along with these reforms; low-income artisans and craftsmen, unpaid family workers, domestic workers, etc.the steps to be taken for the registration of groups where unregistered are not covered. This feature also increases the centrality of the family in welfare regimes (Buğra and Keyder , 2006; Buğra, 2017). 6 In 2018, the ministry was merged with the Ministry of Labor and Social Security and renamed as the “Ministry of Family , Labor and Social Services. And recently with the establishment of the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in 2021, the name of the ministry was changed to the “Ministry of Family and Social Services”. 51 Emine T AHSİN work still defined as a political priority . The registration of groups where informal work is widespread remains unsolved. It should be underlined that health reforms come with privatiza- tion in these sectors and encourage private insurance in health (Cosar and Y egenoglu, 2009). Practices under the green card also bring up certain challenges regarding the scope of the social security and health system. The expansion of coverage has also increased demand for a green card, by 201 1, the number of beneficiaries reached 9.1 million (that is 12.7 percent of the total population). In 2003, only about a quarter of the population in the poorest decile had been covered by some kind of health insurance plan (of which about half had been covered through the Green Card), this share rose to 82 percent in 2008 (with over two-thirds of these having access to the Green Card scheme) (Menon et al., 2013:8). The health expenditure of the Green Card was used to be compensated by the payment from the general budget to the Ministry of Health until 2012. After 2012, these expenses started to be covered by the Uni- versal Health Insurance Program. The Green Card scheme was terminated in 2012 and since then the poor have been included in the system through income determination tests 7 held by the Ministry of Family and Social Policies (Social Assistance, 2022). T able 4 . Soc ial a s sis t a n ce s i n T ü r k iye FA M I LY B E N E F I T S SHEL T ER-FOOD AI DS DISA BLE D – ELDE R L Y A I DS - Mat e r n it y Be nef it - F o o d A id - Old Age Pen sio n - Mult iple Mat e r n it y B e nef it - Lu n ch A s sis t a n c e - Home C a r e Pen sio n (T he work s a nd p ro c e du re s rel at e d t o Home C a r e As si st an ce h ave be e n t ra nsfer r ed t o t he G e ne r a l D i r e ct o r at e of Se r vic e s for Di s able d a nd Eld e rly ) - Reg ula r Ca sh A ss is t a n ce P rog ra m fo r De c e a se d W ome n - sou p k it c he n s - Di s abi l it y P e n sio n - O r pha n and O r p ha n Aid - Shelt e r A ssi st an c e - Di s able d Rela t ive Pen sion - Reg ula r Ca sh A ss is t a n ce P rog ra m fo r M il it ar y F a m il ies - So cia l Hou s i ng P r oje ct - Elde rly a n d Di s able d C a r e P roje c t s ( V EF A P rojec t s ) - M il it ar y C h i ld A id - Fuel A id - Di s able d Nee d s Assi s t a n ce - T e r ro r Da m a ge A ssi s t a n ce - Elec t r icit y Con s u mpt ion S up p or t - Elde rly-D is a bled Ho me a nd Per s on al C a r e P r og ra m ( Nat ion a l V E F A Pr og ra m) - Di s a st e r-Eme rge n cy A id - So cia l C ohe sio n As si st an ce (SC A) - Job O r ie nt at ion A s sis t a nce - Induction Assi st a nce - Co mple me nt ar y So ci al C ohe sio n As si st an ce ( T - SU Y ) 7 Green Card beneficiaries are identified based on an income measurement test; according to G0 category; households with per-capita income less than one-third the minimum wage (Menon et al., 2013:10). NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 52 T able 4 . Co nt i nu ed - A id s for M a r t y rs’ Relat ive s a nd V e te r an s - Nat u r al G a s C on s u mpt ion S up p or t - De at h Ben ef it - Tü rk iye F a mi ly Su pp o r t Pro g ram HEA L TH ASSIST ANCES EDUCA T ION GR A N T S PROJ EC T SU PPORT - Ge n e r al He a lt h I n s u ra n ce ( GH I ) Pr e m iu m Paym e nt s - Free T ex tb o ok - F a m i ly Su p p or t Ce nt e r ( A DEM P r o j e c t s) - Co nd it iona l Hea lt h A s sis t a nce ( He alt h a nd Pr eg na n cy) - Co nd it iona l E du ca t ion A s si st an ce - So ci al S olid ar it y C en t er (SOD A M P r o j e c t s) - Pa r tic ip at io n F e e Pay ment s - Co nd it iona l E du ca t ion A s si st an ce for F o re ig n e r s ( C EA) - Homele s s Acc om mod atio n P r ojec t - Ch ron ic Dis e a se A s si st anc e - F r e e T r a n s p or t at ion of Dis able d Stude nts - So cia l S er v ic e P roje c t s - Pay m en t s t o Sil ic os is Pat ient s - E du c at io na l M at e r ial A s sis t a n c e - So cia l Su p po r t for Y ou n g People Le av i ng I n st it ut io n al C a r e P r ojec t - Un i nt e r r upt i ble Pow e r Su p ply Sup p or t a nd Ac cu mul at e d Elec t r icit y Deb t Sup p or t for Ch ron ic Pat ien t s - St u d en t Hou si n g- T r a n s p or t at ion- F ood Aid - Do r mit o r y Con s t r u ct ion - K i nde rg a r te n / Nu r se r y Sc ho ol Sup p or t P rog ra m So u rc e: M i n ist r y of Fam i ly a nd So ci a l Se r v ice s , 2 02 2: 1 34. Another significant controversy with the relevant reforms is whether the Green card prac - tices, as a result of these policies, encourages informal employment. According to empirical findings, it is found that the fact that access to health services is an important requirement for poor households has reduced the likelihood of household heads working in formal jobs (A ygün, 2022). This phenomenon keeps the importance of the links between the scope of social policies, employment conditions and social security , relevant. It is evident that during the 2000s the social expenditure share tripled (T ahsin, 2013). So- cial protection expenditures’ share in GDP has increased. While this ratio was 7.5 in 2000 it has increased to 12.4 in 2019 (OECD, 2022). Although the share of Social Assistance in GDP is only 1.74% in 2021. T able 4 includes irregular and regular transfers and benefits distributed to households based on the means test and owning social insecurity . The number of House- holds Benefiting from Social Assistance is given as 4,419,286 (2022), that is approximately 17% of total household in Türkiye 8 . This number changes according to those that benefit from 8 Author ’ s calculation based on T urkstat (2023) data on the number of the total households in Türkiye. 53 Emine T AHSİN regular Assistance (2,476,457) and those from T emporary (T emporary) Assistance (5,276,998) (Ministry of Family and Social Services, 2022). Figure 2, illustrates how social protection spending have changed over time as a per - centage distribution. According to this, social protection for the family/children, followed by disability and sickness/health care assistances , provided the majority of the means-tested benefits. By 2021, the old age function accounted for 70.1% of cash payments, followed by the survivors function (17.6%) and the unemployment function (5.7%) (T urkstat, 2022). Figure 2. Social protection in Türkiye % share of social protection in total Source: Turkstat (2022) Y entürk (2018) emphasizes that when the scope of social expenditures is analyzed, the coverage rate of certain aids to the poor remains low . The poor in informal employment are employed without premiums and cannot benefit from transfers. The coverage of the in-kind and cash assistances need to be investigated in detail. The extent to which social assistance improves the income conditions of households is questioned. Başlevent (2014) investigated the redistributive effect of social assistance payments and reached the conclusion that they alleviate income inequality . Furthermore, a different condition emerges when we look at the distribution and scope of social expenditures on a regional scale that comes with uneven patterns (T ekgüç, 2018). Although during this period, social transfers in Türkiye have contributed to the decrease in poverty rates, the lar gest transfer item is “pensions.” Başlevent (2014: 38) reveals that house - holds in the top quintile receive half of all jobless benefits and approximately a third of all NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 54 retirement payments. Şeker (2018) emphasizes that the social transfers’ effect is modest and that its impact in permanently reducing poverty is weak. She also underlies that “pension” is not an item directly aimed at reducing poverty . On the other hand it is observed by the time of the B type transfers 9 and it also has been increasing especially for unemployed people both in urban and rural areas. Additionally , a large proportion of the incomes of subsistence farmers is provided by transfers (Kose and Bahce, 2010: 505). Overall the poverty alleviation programs and this “new poverty regime” addresses changes in re-distribution policies through transfers. W ith the social assistance fund, an institutional transformation has taken place in which the concept of social assistance has come to the fore instead of the social security system. Under these given conditions, whether the scope of social expenditures actually covers poor households is a controversial issue. An institutional framework has emerged in which the social security regime is structured on two basic seg- ments. Those who have formal, registered employment conditions have rights and coverage arising from their earned status and those who are included in the assistance based social protection system, are the “poor”. These practices resulted in the re-structuring of social policies and changed the pillars of the welfare regime in Türkiye. Nevertheless, the fact that over 4 million households benefit from this assistance is the most concrete indicator of the emergence of a new “poverty” regime. An aid-oriented social regime has come into ef fect in which those outside the scope of social secu - rity are supported through social assistance. The relationship between citizenship rights defined within the scope of social assistance policies on the basis of “aid orientation” also means that neoliberal policies are carried out through “charity state” (Kose and Bahce, 2010) practices. At the same time, the widespread use of social assistance policies opens space for populist and clientelistic policy practices (Bozkurt, 2013) for JDP . Göçmen (2014) investigates the role of religiosity in social assistance and points out that during this period, religion took on a greater role in the T urkish welfare system. These practices mobilize civil society in terms of aid-based policies that have taken on dif ferent functions through non-government or ganizations and gov - ernment municipalities under JDP rule (Y azıcı, 2012 cited by Başlevent, 2014: 25). Buğra and Keyder (2006: 224) underline that under this new poverty regime municipal governments act as ‘brokers in charity’ who channel the resources, in kind or cash, provided by charitable donations. This policy raises some problems and serves as an environment for negotiations with those who give to municipal charity funds that are of questionable legality or legitimacy . 9 A type transfers; retired wages, tax refund, survivors wages. B type transfers; elderly wages, social assistance fund and family assistances, scholarships for students, war veterans’ salaries, state assistances in kind, foreign exchange income from abroad, donations and inkind assistance, alimony payments. 55 Emine T AHSİN Summing up, the widespread implementation of these practices at the institutional level has meant that the phenomenon of “inclusion” has been based on an “aid-dependent” frame- work, which has been embedded in the social sphere through the JDP’ s political practices. 3.4. The Sustainability and No-poverty Goal in Development Strategies The Sustainable Development agenda was first mentioned in the 7th 5-Y ear Development Plan (1996). W ith the agenda of the Rio conference (1992), attention was drawn to the changes in environmental policies and subsequent plans started to take sustainability as a component of environmental policies. Although sustainability was covered in subsequent development plans, the definition of strategies for SDG targets started in the 1 1th Development Plan. SDG in the eleventh program is based upon 5 pillars; a stable and strong economy , competitive and effi - cient production, qualified human development for a strong society , a sustainable environment with livable cities and the rule of law for democratization and good governance (SBB, 2023). Additionally , Türkiye published V oluntary National Plans for SDG targets in 2017 and 2019. However , there is no direct commitment item distributed to SDGs targets in the national budget. T able 5. A pp roa che s t o no -pover t y goa l i n T ü r k iye V N R ’ s No - p over t y goa l and t arge t s T a rg et 1 . 3 T a r get 1. 5 T he 7t h Pla n i nclude d t h e p olic y of es t a bli sh ing a n effe c t ive st r u c t ur e of t he So c ia l As si st an ce a nd Solid ar it y I n ce nt ive Fun d w it h a ne w or ga n iz a t ion , a n d su b se q ue nt pla ns have m a de p rog re s s i n p olic ie s t o i mp r ove soc ia l pr ot e ct ion sys t e m s a nd m e a su re s. T a rg et 1 . 2 T a r get 1. 4 Relat iv e p over t y; con sid e r in g r u r a l-u rb a n , ch i ld -a dult , wom e n- me n , d i sa dva nt a ge d g roup s su ch a s t h e elde rly , t he d i s able d a n d t ho se u nde r t e mp or ar y pr ot e ct ion, t h e ne e d for p olic y develo pme nt a nd i mple me nt at ion foc u s e d on t h es e g roup s c ont inu e s. T a rg et 1 . 1 T a r ge t 1 . 2 T a rget 1 .4 “Re d uc i ng p ove r t y by a d d r e s si ng r eg io na l i neq u a l it ie s a nd v u l ne r a ble g r ou p s” . Red u ci n g rel at ive p over t y a nd emp owe r i ng di s a dva nta ge d g roup s. I nc r e a si n g e mploy m en t , pa r t ic u la rly w o me n ’ s p a r t icip at ion i n t he l ab or for c e, n ee d s t o b e strengthened. T a rg et 1 . 2 I n t e r ms of t he t ar get of h alv i ng t he p ro po r tio n of pe ople l iv i ng i n p over t y , it is c on sid e r ed i mp o r ta nt to foc u s p a r t icu l a rly o n p olic ies a nd pr a c t ice s r ela t e d to r u ra l a r ea s. Di s a dva nta ge d g roup s , i n p a r t icu l a r wome n a n d ch i ld p over t y , a r e a r e a s whe r e T ü r k iye ne e d s t o m a ke pr og res s. Add re s s re g ion a l i ne q u a l it ie s a nd i ncr e a s e t he ef fe c t ive ne s s of so ci al p ro t e ct ion sys t em s . T a rg et 1 . 3 T a rg et 1 . 5 Rega rdi ng “i mprov i ng soc ia l p rot e c t ion s y st e m s” , sig n if ica nt p rog re ss h a s b e e n a ch ieve d . T he i s su e of ma k i ng so c ia l pr ot e ct ion exp e nd it u r e s mo re ef fect iv e T a rg et 1 . 5 T he n e ed fo r leg i slat io n i n l i ne wit h the s t rat eg y to c om bat cl i m a t e ch a nge a n d t he develo pme nt of pr oje ct s in t h is f ield ar e i m po r t a nt . T a rg et 1 . a a nd 1. b Tü rk iye h a s t he p ot e nt ial t o sh a r e it s n at iona l ex p e r ie n ce w it h oth e r co u nt r ie s , pa r t ic u la rly les s d evelop e d c ou n t r ies , on “ b u i ld i n g glo ba l co o pe r a t io n a nd s ou nd pol icy f ra m ewor k s to f ig ht p over t y . T h i s c a n b e co n side r e d i n t he cont e xt of e n h a n ci ng i nt e r nat iona l develo pme nt c o op e r a t ion u nde r SD G 1 0, SDG 1 6 a nd SD G 1 7 . S ou r ce: Y ap a r (20 19 ) a nd V N R( 20 19 ). NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 56 According to the studies conducted in Türkiye within the scope of SDG targets - SDG 1(no-poverty), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 5 (gender equality) and SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) stand out as targets that are strongly influenced by other SDG targets. SDG 4 (quality of education), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 9 (industry , innovation, infrastructure), SDG 13 (climate action), SDG 16 (peace) and SDG 17 (partner- ships) cover the themes of strengthening physical and human infrastructure and improving the legal and institutional structure. When considered together with Türkiye’ s level of economic, social and cultural development, these targets stand out in the baseline analysis as the “tar gets” that should be prioritized (VNR, 2019). However , the main needs under the SDGs that include expanding the scope of assistance to disadvantaged vulnerable groups, increasing support to bring people who are able to work into the labor market, and making social protection expenditures more ef fective. remind us of the im - portance of the poverty-inequality and growth nexus. The SDG progress report (VNR, 2019: 52) describes the “eradication of extreme poverty , one of the most tangible goals of the 2030 Agenda, as an achieved target for Türkiye”. However other targets under the no-poverty goal remain prior - ities. The goals for 1.2 and 1.3 are found to have higher distances to their tar gets (OECD, 2022). Bayazıt and Önsal (2017) significantly define the priorities under SDG 1 as goals 1.3 and 1.4. W ith regard to goal 1.2 and goal 1.4 on “poverty reduction”, it is considered that there is still a need for policy development and implementation focused on disadvantaged groups such as rural-urban, child-adult, female-male, elderly , disabled and those under temporary protec- tion. In the context of relative poverty , target 1.4 is detrimental. Policies to reduce relative poverty require medium to long-term structural measures other than fiscal policies and social transfers (Y apar , 2019; VNR, 2019). The scope defined under the Leaving no one left principle (Y apar , 2019; VNR, 2019) is in line with the principles of the distribution of social assistance programs. It envisages improving the conditions of vulnerable groups through empowerment, access to certain services and legal arrangements. The effects of the education-based policies described here, as well as the scope and implementation results of policies to reduce child poverty , remain a hot topic. The need to set separate tar gets for children, women and persons with disabilities in line with the 2030 per - spective and to strengthen dif ferentiated policies and practices has been identified (Y apar , 2019). V ulnerable groups are defined as children, women and especially those living in rural areas and those at risk of poverty in urban areas. However , recent Syrian migration makes it necessary to update the relevant data. Among vulnerable groups, Syrian immigration, and es- 57 Emine T AHSİN pecially the education and health conditions of migrant children, may determine the conditions for Türkiye to achieve poverty eradication and other targets. Regarding these vulnerabilities, specific sub-SDG tar gets may need to be adopted for Syrian migrants (Çavlin, 2019). 4. The Framework for Analyzing Interactions in SDGs The SDGs’ theoretical underpinnings imply that the goals of development are interconnected (T osun and Leininger , 2017; Mensah, 2019; Moallemi et al., 2022a, 2022b). Pradhan et. al (2017: 1 169) defines the characteristics of interactions among the SDGs as the actions taken to achieve one objective having an impact on the achievement of one or more of the others (Pradhan et al., 2017: 1 170). According to Nilsson et al. (2016, 2018) the SDGs are multidimensional and highly interrelated networks that led formation of socio-technical and socio-ecological systems (cited by Moallemi et al., 2022: 1). For achieving the SDGs, the management of cross-sectoral interactions comprehensively is crucial (Nilsson et al., 2016). Under these approaches the inter - connections among the SDGs are emphasized. The competing interests or complementarities might create tensions and spillover ef fects so this can be evaluated as their potential of creating syner gies and trade-offs (Kroll et al., 2019; Pradhan et al., 2017; Moallemi et al., 2022a, 2022b). Overall, analysis based on these approaches indicates that the positive interaction process- es within the SDG targets and the differences between countries are significant. Nevertheless, it should be recognized that analysis of the mutual exchange and interaction of SDG targets do not have strong theoretical foundations (Cling and Delecourt, 2022; Sin et al., 2019). The need to identify priorities alignment with the 2030 goals has led to the development of dif ferent methods for analyzing SDGs interactions. Besides, the complexity of the data leads to focusing on statistical techniques to simplify these complexities to understand the steering ef fects of the SDGs (Pradhan et al., 2022). There are several methods for mapping the degree of interactions between various SDGs. Analysis based on (historical or extrapolated) data (Kroll et al., 2019; Pradhan et al., 2017), monitoring SDG interactions (Singha et al., 2021), or quantitatively projecting their trajecto- ries under future scenarios (Gao and Bryan, 2017; Soergel, Kriegler , W eindl, et al., 2021) are defined among the main methods. (cited by Pradhan et al., 2022: 178-179). In this paper , the monitoring approaches are being followed. The scope of these developed methods and their focus on relevant problems is not discussed in detail. It is predicted that data monitoring methods contribute to linking and interpreting the interactions between the SDG tar gets comprehensively and could contribute to the measurement of the progress towards achievements and reveals the dimensions of leading SDGs (Pradhan et al., 2022). NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 58 Considering the pioneer studies based on these approaches, it is possible to mention styl- ized tendencies. Gupta and V egelin (2016) outline that strong sustainability , which implies no trade-off between economic, social, and ecological goals, is rare. On the global scale, governance, time horizons, geography and technology might create dif ferences among the interactions (Nilsson et al., 2016, 2018). Pradhan et al. (2017:1 170) found that some SDGs particularly reveal synergetic relations. These goals are found to be SDGs 1 (no-poverty), 3 (good health and wellbeing), 4 (quality education), 10 (reduced inequalities), 12 (responsible consumption and production), and 13 (climate action) (Pradhan et al., 2017:1 171). Beyond these, some goals are defined as systematic buffers. SDG 1 (no-poverty), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 5 (gender equality), and SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) are accepted to be fundamental goals that can benefit from the implementation of the other goals of the agenda. However , their co-benefits and multiplication ef fects present another challenging topic. It is pointed out that the concentration on these SDGs could restrict progress toward other goals of the 2030 Agenda. This also indicates the importance of coherence among the SDGs is important (Nillson et al.,2016). Goals may be reinforcing and cancelling. In this context Nillson et al. (2018:1491) suggest that 7 points of the scale of the SDGs interactions. In this analysis positive interactions significantly outweigh negative ones for the first six goals. According to Nillson et al. (2018) findings, goals SDG 1–8 and SDG 1 1(sustainable cities), correlate strongly and positively , point - ing to synergies between reaching these goals. SDG 10 correlates negatively with most other goals. Negative interactions are in fact an indication of instutional weakness, and a lack of legal rights and governance that increase vulnerabilities and marginalize groups (Nillson et al., 2016). Furthermore, some goals can act as multipliers of trade-of fs as in the case of SDG2 and SDG8. A rapid boost of these goals could create unintended side effects that also limit achieve- ment and overall progress. Moreover , several goals can act as multipliers and accelerators of change. In particular SDG 7 (energy), SDG 9 (industry , innovation, infrastructure), SDG 1 1 (cities), and SDG 13 (climate action) are classified as multipliers. Hegre et al. (2020:8729) finds out that the first 8 SDGs, respectively goals 1 1 and 17 are predominantly strongly and positively correlated with each other . Oppositely SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) is negatively correlated with most of the other SDGs. Specifically , several goals might have characteris- tics of behaving as “safe” multipliers of positive systemic effects without creating risks of producing trade-offs. These goals are; SDG 4 (quality of education), SDG 6 (water), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), SDG 14 (oceans), SDG 15 (land and ecosystems), SDG 16 (peace), and SDG 17 (partnerships). 65 Emine T AHSİN ity constraints among the SDGs. In this context the PCA includes 13 SDGs (SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 10, SDG 17 not included). T able 7 illustrates the Pearson correlation matrix for the SDGs. This matrix primarily underlies that there are strong correlations among the SDGs that are used in the sample. Given this fact, it could be suggested that the SDGs in our sample are interlinked and their interactions matter . Pearson correlation matrix outlines those positive correlations mostly occur among the people-centered SDGs. However , SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) significantly has negative correlations with other specific people-centered targets like no-poverty goal (SDG 1) and health (SDG 3). Environmental SDGs are mostly negatively correlated with the other SDGs. Economic goals have weak interactions. Additionally , people-centered goals and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) have negative correlations that need to be considered for the linkages between economic growth and human development. For the case of the no-poverty goal (SDG 1), it can be seen that there is a negative correla - tion between zero hunger (SDG 2), and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production), and SDG 15 (life on land). Quality of education (SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5), and industry , innovation, and infrastructure (SDG 9) have a high positive correlation with the no-poverty goal (SDG 1). T able 7 . Pea r s on c or relat ion m at r i x of th e SDG s The scree plot in Figure 4 illustrates the eigenvalues for the PCA. The eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 85.6 % of the cumulative variations for 13 SDGs in the sample. NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 66 Figure 4. Scree plot for SDGs Overall estimation of the PCA in T able 8 based on factor loadings (PCA components) indicates that SDG 9 (industry , innovation and infrastructure), SDG 5 (gender equality), SDG 4 (quality of education), and SDG 1 have the most important interactions in a positive trend. SDG 15 (life on land) has the highest negative spillover ef fect. Following that, SDG 12 (responsible production and consumption), SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 2 (zero hunger) goals have negative overall interac- tions. The results for Türkiye reveal the importance of no-poverty goal (SDG 1). Among the people-centered goals; SDG 2 (zero hunger) creates negative spillovers that af fect the overall performance of the SDGs. The environmental performance of Türkiye is suggested to be poor . Apart from environmental goals, negative spillover effects of SDG 12 (responsible consump- tion and production) and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) lead us to question the sustainability of the economic growth. Based on the Pearson correlation matrix results and factor loading values, it is possible to argue that overall, the positive synergies between SDG tar gets have stronger effects. The syner gies and tradeoffs related to the SDG scores outline that people-centered goals are among the most important goals that create positive synergies for the overall performance of sustain - able development. The results for Türkiye reveal the importance of SDG 1. 67 Emine T AHSİN T able 8 . PCA di men sion s of the SDG s F ac tor load i ng s Cont r i but ion of the va r i a ble s (% ) Squ ar e d co si nes of t he va r i abl e s F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 Go al 1 S c or e 0.936 - 0.0 0 2 9. 6 31 0.0 00 0 . 8 77 0.0 0 0 Go al 2 S c or e - 0. 72 0 0. 56 0 5.699 15 . 9 41 0 . 519 0 . 31 4 Go al 4 S c or e 0.929 - 0.2 87 9. 4 8 8 4 .19 0 0. 864 0.0 82 Go al 5 S c or e 0.977 - 0.0 65 10 . 4 9 3 0 . 21 2 0.95 5 0.0 0 4 Go al 7 S c or e 0.838 0.49 2 7. 7 1 0 1 2 . 318 0 .7 0 2 0. 242 Go al 8 S c or e - 0.69 6 - 0 . 32 6 5 . 314 5. 398 0. 484 0 .10 6 Go al 9 S c or e 0.968 - 0.033 10 . 3 0 0 0.0 55 0.938 0.0 0 1 Go al 1 1 S co re 0 .7 75 - 0. 1 83 6.6 03 1 .7 0 4 0 . 6 01 0.034 Go al 12 Sc or e - 0.9 02 - 0 . 386 8 .939 7. 5 6 8 0 . 8 14 0 . 14 9 Go al 13 Sco re 0. 20 5 0.92 6 0 . 4 61 43. 59 9 0.0 42 0.858 Go al 1 4 Sc or e - 0.836 0 . 35 3 7. 6 8 0 6.34 6 0. 69 9 0 .12 5 Go al 15 Scor e - 0.92 3 - 0. 1 72 9. 3 6 7 1. 5 0 2 0.8 53 0.030 Go al 1 6 Sc or e 0.8 70 - 0 .152 8 . 314 1 .16 8 0 .7 5 7 0.023 V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t In the second stage of the PCA, the links between the no-poverty goal (SDG 1) and the sub-indicators of the other tar gets were analyzed. The sub-indicators were classified under 5 principles of the SDGs. In this context, 4 PCAs for; people-centered, prosperity (economy), planet (climate) and partnerships and peace goals were performed. People-center ed goals and no-poverty goal : Zero hunger (SDG 2), quality of education (SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5) comprise of 14 sub-indicators for Türkiye and only 10 of them were included to the analysis. Their overall interactions with the SDG 1 (no-poverty goal) were considered in this case. As can be seen from the Pearson correlation matrix results (T able A.4 in Appendix) the sub-indicators of these three targets may have affected the no-poverty goal (SDG 1) in differ - ent directions. W ithin the SDG 2 (zero hunger) tar get, there is a negative correlation between “the prevalence of obesity (sdg2_obesity)”, trophics ( sdg2_trophic)” and “the prevalence of wasting in children under 5 years of age ( sdg2_ wasting)” indicators and the no-poverty goal. Primary school enrollment rate (sdg4_primary) and other education indicators have different ef fects on overall interactions. The Primary school enrollment rate and the no-poverty goal have trade-of fs that need to be considered. The PCA for this sample, reveals that eigenvalues greater than one (F1) explains 87% of the variations. T able 9 demonstrates the primary component results and the overall in- NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 68 teractions of the people-centered goals. “W asting in children (sdg_2 wasting)” and “obesity (sdg2_obesity)” indicators reveal weakness of the overall interactions. The dietary habits of Türkiye’ s children and people in general show that trade-offs are important in the pursuit of poverty eradication goals. Education-related goals also have important ef fects. Furthermore, the literacy score is rather strong in explaining the variations among the people-centered goals. Gender -related goals have positive interactions with overall variations and are also positively correlated with the no-poverty goal. T able 9 . P C A d i men sion s for pe ople - c e nte r ed goa l s a nd SDG 1 F ac tor load i ng s Cont r ibut i on of t he var iabl e s (% ) Squ ar ed c o si nes of t he var iabl e s F1 F2 F2 F1 F2 Go al 1 S c or e 0 . 9 61 - 0.0 05 0.0 05 0.923 0.0 0 0 n_sd g2_stuntin g 0.9 2 2 0 . 2 11 1 0.0 26 0. 85 0 0.0 45 n _ sd g 2 _ wa st i ng - 0.85 4 0.0 4 3 0 . 4 11 0 .7 2 9 0.0 02 n_ sdg 2 _obesi t y - 0.96 0 - 0 . 21 5 10 . 351 0.9 22 0.0 4 6 n _ sdg 2 _t roph ic - 0.9 27 - 0 . 11 6 3. 0 2 0 0 . 859 0.01 3 n_ sdg4_ pr i mar y - 0 . 81 3 0 . 534 6 4 . 210 0.660 0. 28 6 n_ sdg 4_literacy 0.979 0.05 0 0.56 0 0.95 8 0.0 0 2 n_ sdg5_edat 0 . 9 71 - 0.0 9 4 2 .0 0 2 0 . 942 0.0 09 n_ sdg5 _lf pr 0.9 4 0 - 0 .141 4 . 4 81 0. 883 0.0 2 0 n _ sdg5_ p a rl 0.9 63 0 .14 8 4 . 9 35 0.9 27 0.0 2 2 V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h ob s e r vat ion t o th e fa c t or f or w hi c h th e s qu a r e d c os i ne i s t h e la r ge s t Prosperity (economy) centered goals and the no-poverty goal: For the PCA, together with the no-poverty goal (SDG 1), 8 of 13 sub- indicators related to three SDGs (7, 8, 9) were included in the sample. The SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) indicators were omitted. In this PCA, eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 87 % of the cumulative variations. T able 1 0 . PCA di m en sion s for pr os pe r it y-c e nt er e d goal s a nd SDG 1 F ac tor load i ng s Cont r i but ion of the va r i ab le s % Sq uared cosines F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 Go al 1 S c or e 0.898 0.0 06 11 . 9 9 4 0.0 03 0.8 06 0.0 0 0 n _ sd g7_cle an f u el 0. 898 - 0.40 6 11. 9 9 8 14 . 8 32 0 .8 07 0 .16 5 n_ sdg7 _co 2twh 0.884 - 0.42 3 11 . 6 2 0 16 .16 5 0 .7 8 1 0 . 17 9 n_ sdg8_ accounts 0. 727 0 . 59 7 7. 8 7 1 3 2 .16 5 0. 529 0 . 357 n _ sdg8_u nemp - 0 . 619 - 0.2 27 5 .7 0 8 4 . 6 52 0. 38 4 0.052 n_sdg 8_r i ghts - 0 . 81 9 - 0.4 63 9. 9 7 3 1 9. 3 6 5 0 . 671 0 . 21 5 n_sd g9 _in t us e 0.9 8 4 - 0.09 3 14 . 3 9 6 0 .7 8 5 0 .968 0.0 09 n_sd g9 _mo b use 0. 9 47 0 . 17 9 13. 3 4 0 2. 878 0. 897 0.0 32 n _ s d g 9_ a r t ic l e s 0.9 39 - 0 . 31 9 1 3 .101 9.1 5 3 0 . 881 0 .10 2 V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t 69 Emine T AHSİN Considering the results of the PCA on the economy-based goals, two main results are evident. There are strong interactions between the performance of the quality of growth in SDG 9 (industry , innovation and infrastructure), especially infrastructure-related indicators, and the no-poverty goal. However , the indicators on “protection of fundamental labor rights (worst 0–1 best) (sdg8_rights)” and “unemployment (sdg8_unemployment)” have negative interactions with the sample. There are positive syner gies that come from the SDG 7 (clean economy) indicators. Adults with accounts (sdg8_accounts) 11 interactions are positive, but its impact is weaker compared to other indicators. Planet (climate-environmental) goals and no-poverty goal: For the PCA, only 1 1 of the 17 sub-indicators under 5 environmental targets were used in this category . eigenvalues that are greater than one for this PCA, explain 84% of the variations. As can be seen in T able 1 1, in its broadest terms, unlike the relationship between the other sub-indicators and the no-poverty goal, the overall result is negative. This indicates a low level of environmental performance and a negative syner gy with the no-poverty target. The “air pollution indicator (sdg1 1_pm25)” has a negative correlation with the no-poverty goal, but its overall interaction is positive in explaining the variations of the sample. SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land) and their sub-indicators own negative spillovers. In particular , “sdg13_co2import (CO₂ emissions embod - ied in imports)”, “sdg15_cpta (mean area that is protected for biodiversity%)”, “sdg14_clean - water (ocean health index)” and “sdg14_ trawl (fish caught by trawling or dredging (%))”and “sdg1 1_transport (satisfaction with public transport (%))” have negative interactions. T able 1 1 . PC A d i men sions for pla ne t- ce nt e re d goa ls a nd SD G 1 F ac tor load i ng s Contr ibut i on of t he var iabl e s % Sq uared cosines F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 Go al 1 S c or e - 0.9 6 6 0.030 11 . 2 2 8 9 0 4 8 1 0.0 499 1 639 4 0.934 0.0 0 1 n _ s d g 11 _ p m 2 5 0 .7 3 3 0 . 457 6 . 452 8 2 9 79 5 1 1 . 72060254 0 . 537 0. 2 0 9 n _ s d g 11 _ t r a n s p o r t - 0.073 0. 838 0.0 63738267 3 9. 45 9 9 53 74 0.0 05 0 .7 0 3 n_ sdg 12_ewaste 0 .7 8 9 0 . 452 7 . 49 55 701 78 11 . 4 7 7 6 4 217 0 . 623 0. 20 4 n _ s d g12 _ n p r o d 0.982 0.0 4 1 1 1.59 703 459 0.0 962328 0 6 0.9 64 0.0 02 n _ s d g12 _ n i m p o r t 0.93 4 - 0 .1 2 0 10 .4 8 8 4 010 7 0 . 814 4 0 4 9 21 0. 872 0.0 15 n_ sdg 1 3_co 2impor t - 0.80 4 - 0 . 41 8 7 . 76 9 4 132 32 9. 8 2 3 0 6 35 7 3 0.646 0 . 17 5 n_ sdg 1 4_cl eanwa t - 0 . 9 32 - 0.086 10. 4 4574701 0 . 41 6 9 2 11 2 4 0 . 8 69 0.0 07 n_ sdg 1 4_f ishstocks 0. 871 - 0 . 355 9 . 124 69270 6 7 . 0 6 4 6 35555 0 .7 5 9 0 .1 2 6 n _ s d g 14 _ t r a w l - 0. 80 8 0.1 83 7 .84250285 6 1. 8 7 9 9 715 35 0 . 6 52 0.033 n _ s d g15 _ c p t a - 0. 727 0 . 5 45 6 . 3 6 4 5 618 3 8 1 6 .6 6777 626 0 . 529 0.29 7 n _ s d g15 _ c pf a - 0.9 62 0.0 97 11 .1 2 6 6 0 3 6 5 0.5288 793 78 0.925 0.0 0 9 V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h ob s e r vat ion t o th e fa c t or f or w hi c h th e s qu a r e d c os i ne i s t h e la r ge s t 11 Adults with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider (% of population aged 15 or over) NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 70 Partnerships -Peace and no-poverty goal: All the relevant sub-indicators, 9 of them for SDG 16 (peace) and SDG 17 (Partnerships) were used in this PCA. In this PCA, eigen- values (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 80% of the cumulative variations. The overall interaction of these sub-indicators together with the no-poverty goal is positive. The highest positive interactions come from the “sdg16_homicides”. “sdg16_justice (access to affordable justice)”, “sdg16_detain16 (unsentenced detainees)”, and “sdg16_safe (population who feel safe walking alone at night in the city or area where they live (%))” also have positive im- pacts. However , some of the sub-indicators of SDG 16 have negative interactions. Especially “sdg16_cpi (corruption perception index)” and “sdg16_rsf (press freedom)” have a high neg- ative impact on overall interactions. SDG 16 which is decisive for inclusive society targets led us to question the dimensions of the corruption and freedoms in Türkiye. In this regard, “sdg17_govrev (government revenues for health and education (GDP%))” is also decisive. Moreover , “sdg_17statperf (statistical performance index)” is found to have a positive impact. Under SDG 17, “sdg17_govrev” also has a negative impact on the overall interactions. T able 12 . PCA di men sion s for pe ac e a nd p a r t n er h sh ip goa ls a n d SDG 1 F ac tor Load i ng s Cont ri but i on of t he va r i abl e s % Squared cosi nes F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 Go al 1 S c or e 0 . 8 91 - 0. 322 11 . 91 0 5 4 1 5 7 7.7 0 7 0 .7 9 5 0 .10 3 n _ s d g 16 _ h o m i c i d e s 0 .9 53 0.043 13. 61377 71 1 0 .13 7 0.9 0 8 0.0 0 2 n _s dg 1 6_ deta in 0. 72 8 - 0 .14 6 7. 9 4 3 7 6 0 6 8 9 1. 5 8 9 0. 530 0.0 2 1 n_ sdg 1 6_ safe 0.69 1 - 0 . 458 7 . 1 49 4 65988 1 5 . 614 0 . 477 0 . 210 n _ s d g 16 _ c p i - 0.950 0.0 5 1 13. 53332 10 9 0 .19 6 0.903 0.0 03 n _ s d g 16 _ r s f - 0.88 1 0.02 4 1 1 .6269 20 9 1 0.0 4 4 0 .7 7 6 0.0 01 n _sdg 1 6 _ just ice 0.86 4 0 . 43 9 11 . 1 8 5 0 3 0 41 14 . 3 4 4 0 .74 6 0 .19 2 n _ s d g 17_ g o v e x 0 . 618 0. 727 5. 7 1 7 8883 1 6 3 9. 3 5 2 0 . 3 81 0 . 528 n _sdg 1 7 _ go v rev - 0 .5 94 0.4 83 5 . 2 8 4 4 9 013 17. 3 9 7 0. 353 0 . 233 n_sd g 1 7 _sta tperf 0.896 0. 2 2 0 12.0348 0379 3.62 0 0. 803 0.0 49 V al u e s in b o ld c or re sp o nd fo r e a ch o b se r va t io n t o th e fa ct o r for wh ic h t he s qu a r e d co si n e i s th e a rge s t The third sample for PCA is based on sub-components linked to the LNOB score for the period 2010-2021. W ithin the scope of this data, “sdg1_transfer1(people at risk of income pov - erty after social transfers (%))”, “sdg1_550pov (poverty headcount ratio at $5.50/day (%))”, “sdg1_material (severely materially deprived people (%))” is included in the analysis that is dif - ferent from the other two samples. These metrics represent different tendencies from the extreme poverty figures. Although there is a declining trend, these metrics indicate that the no-poverty goal performance needs to be analyzed considering multidimensional poverty conditions rather than extreme poverty . Here, the static trend of post-transfer data is noteworthy . This, in fact, is considered as an indicator of the persistence of poverty adjusted for transfer revenues. 71 Emine T AHSİN Figure 5. Poverty indicators used for LNOB Source: Sachs et al. (2022) In this analysis, the PCA tracks the interactions among extreme poverty and material deprivation, gender inequality , access to and quality of services and income inequality indi- cators (T able A.2 in Appendix). T able 13. Pea r so n cor rela t ion ma t r i x for LNOB ind icator s Variables LNOB g 1_t ransfer g 1_550p ov g 1 _mat erial g3 _ le ga p g 3_suicide g 3_hg ap g 3_incg ap g 3_insucov g 4_chi ld g 5_cari ng g 5_wp arl g 5_w mana g e g 6_show er g 7_w arm g 8_rig ht s g 8_euy neet g 8_inwork g 9_bband g 11_crowding L NOB 1 -0.666 -0.790 -0.825 -0.664 0.886 -0.743 -0.803 0.694 0.881 0.405 0.847 0.729 -0.832 -0.722 -0.577 -0.438 -0.803 0.814 -0.926 g 1_t ransfer -0.666 1 0.920 0.884 0.801 -0.690 0.521 0.847 -0.875 -0.727 -0.831 -0.734 -0.532 0.893 0.818 0.870 0.885 0.922 -0.786 0.650 g 1_550p ov -0.790 0.920 1 0.904 0.871 -0.805 0.620 0.893 -0.857 -0.755 -0.723 -0.734 -0.563 0.905 0.782 0.822 0.824 0.943 -0.826 0.737 g 1 _mat erial -0.825 0.884 0.904 1 0.894 -0.743 0.658 0.877 -0.787 -0.783 -0.778 -0.690 -0.592 0.859 0.955 0.818 0.773 0.911 -0.886 0.784 g3 _ le ga p -0.664 0.801 0.871 0.894 1 -0.662 0.555 0.845 -0.816 -0.647 -0.690 -0.514 -0.481 0.768 0.802 0.823 0.762 0.873 -0.810 0.665 g 3_suicide 0.886 -0.690 -0.805 -0.743 -0.662 1 -0.831 -0.826 0.643 0.946 0.364 0.737 0.867 -0.772 -0.566 -0.747 -0.390 -0.764 0.868 -0.903 g 3_hg ap -0.743 0.521 0.620 0.658 0.555 -0.831 1 0.839 -0.467 -0.815 -0.175 -0.611 -0.923 0.685 0.483 0.681 0.197 0.688 -0.892 0.913 g 3_incg ap -0.803 0.847 0.893 0.877 0.845 -0.826 0.839 1 -0.831 -0.841 -0.541 -0.786 -0.790 0.930 0.729 0.868 0.633 0.962 -0.954 0.894 g 3_insucov 0.694 -0.875 -0.857 -0.787 -0.816 0.643 -0.467 -0.831 1 0.648 0.626 0.783 0.476 -0.925 -0.686 -0.703 -0.782 -0.929 0.689 -0.668 g 4_chil d 0.881 -0.727 -0.755 -0.783 -0.647 0.946 -0.815 -0.841 0.648 1 0.441 0.785 0.915 -0.786 -0.663 -0.799 -0.388 -0.774 0.913 -0.913 g 5_cari ng 0.405 -0.831 -0.723 -0.778 -0.690 0.364 -0.175 -0.541 0.626 0.441 1 0.439 0.191 -0.621 -0.808 -0.691 -0.915 -0.665 0.536 -0.289 g 5_wp arl 0.847 -0.734 -0.734 -0.690 -0.514 0.737 -0.611 -0.786 0.783 0.785 0.439 1 0.670 -0.914 -0.573 -0.540 -0.531 -0.829 0.697 -0.816 g 5_wmanag e 0.729 -0.532 -0.563 -0.592 -0.481 0.867 -0.923 -0.790 0.476 0.915 0.191 0.670 1 -0.666 -0.427 -0.721 -0.140 -0.638 0.873 -0.887 g 6_show er -0.832 0.893 0.905 0.859 0.768 -0.772 0.685 0.930 -0.925 -0.786 -0.621 -0.914 -0.666 1 0.731 0.744 0.737 0.976 -0.829 0.831 g 7_warm -0.722 0.818 0.782 0.955 0.802 -0.566 0.483 0.729 -0.686 -0.663 -0.808 -0.573 -0.427 0.731 1 0.716 0.745 0.793 -0.764 0.636 g 8_rig ht s -0.577 0.870 0.822 0.818 0.823 -0.747 0.681 0.868 -0.703 -0.799 -0.691 -0.540 -0.721 0.744 0.716 1 0.664 0.821 -0.899 0.680 g 8_euy neet -0.438 0.885 0.824 0.773 0.762 -0.390 0.197 0.633 -0.782 -0.388 -0.915 -0.531 -0.140 0.737 0.745 0.664 1 0.786 -0.520 0.344 g 8_inwork -0.803 0.922 0.943 0.911 0.873 -0.764 0.688 0.962 -0.929 -0.774 -0.665 -0.829 -0.638 0.976 0.793 0.821 0.786 1 -0.871 0.820 g 9_bband 0.814 -0.786 -0.826 -0.886 -0.810 0.868 -0.892 -0.954 0.689 0.913 0.536 0.697 0.873 -0.829 -0.764 -0.899 -0.520 -0.871 1 -0.910 g 11_crowdin g -0.926 0.650 0.737 0.784 0.665 -0.903 0.913 0.894 -0.668 -0.913 -0.289 -0.816 -0.887 0.831 0.636 0.680 0.344 0.820 -0.910 1 Val ues in bold are diff erent f r om 0 with a signi fic ance le v el alpha=0,05 The Pearson correlations in T able 13 illustrate that the sub-indicators of poverty with the LNOB score have negative and strong correlations. Especially the “poverty headcount ratio at $5.50/day (%)),” “sdg1_material (severely materially deprived people (3%)”, and “sdg1_ post-transfer poverty” data have negative effects. Again, “sdg1 1_overcrowding (overcrowding rate among people living with below 60% of median equivalent income (%)) “data that relates to sustainable cities are among the indicators that determine the LNOB value in a negative direction. Health-related indicators are another determinant that affects LNOB positively/ negatively according to its sub-components. Following that the PCA is interpreted for only two sub-categories due to the constraints of the data. NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 72 Extr eme poverty and material deprivations under LNOB : In this category , 8 sub-indicators out of 9 are used for the PCA. eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 84% of the cumulative variations. The results given in T able 14 indicate the importance of the no-poverty goal. There is a negative correlation between poverty-related indicators and the LNOB. Fur- thermore, it is found that material poverty indicators create high spillover ef fects. Other sub-indicators represent the dimensions of the material deprivations. The overall result of the PCA underlies that material deprivations and the LNOB score creates negative syner gies. In this context, “sdg3_insucov (people covered by health insurance for a core set of services (%))” and “sdg8_inwork (in work at-risk-of-poverty rate (%))”, “sdg6_shower (a household with no shower and toilet)”, are the indicators that have strong spillover effects. Despite this, “sdg3_insucov” has a negative impact on the overall interactions. Furthermore, “sdg1 1_overcrowding” and “sdg7_warm (population unable to keep home adequately warm (%)” are other indicators that are negatively correlated. The LNOB score is severely impacted by the total interaction of all these data. The most obvious conclusion drawn from these findings is that certain areas in Türkiye need to be improved when poverty is viewed as an issue that is multidimensional. The significance of poverty metrics that describe the effects of social transfers is demonstrated by post-transfer poverty indicators. The PCA highlights how important it is to address the issue of improving the living situations of the poor . In addition to the definition of material deprivations, a deeper investigation into the characteristics of poverty must take into account the changes brought about by urbanization and living conditions. T able 1 4 . PCA di men sion s for ext reme p over t y a nd m at e r ial de p r ivat i o ns F ac tor load i ng s Cont r ibut i on of th e var iabl e s(% ) S qua re d c o si nes of t he var iabl e s F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 LNOB - 0 . 8 75 - 0.4 4 0 10.069 0 278 3 1. 3 8174 6 8 9 0 .7 6 6 0 .19 3 s d g1_ t r a n s f e r 0.925 - 0 . 31 3 1 1 .26 4 26 47 15.9 38 0 8 915 0. 857 0.0 98 s d g 1 _ 55 0 p o v 0.9 50 - 0 .12 0 11 . 8 7 2 6 1 0 7 2 . 3 459 0 0 479 0.90 3 0.0 1 4 sdg 1_mater ial 0. 9 57 - 0.034 1 2 .0 33 4 45 0 .18 7 7 0 5 6 0. 915 0.0 0 1 s d g 11 _ c r o w d i n g 0 .850 0. 49 2 9. 5 0 4 01 3 67 3 9 . 2 8 51 4521 0 .72 3 0. 2 42 s d g 7_w a r m 0 . 8 61 - 0 .12 8 9.74 2 0 4 4 9 7 2 . 6 3 9 5 910 33 0 .74 1 0.0 1 6 sd g8 _ i nw o rk 0 . 9 81 - 0.0 6 8 1 2 . 6 5 9 7 611 0 .7439 1 1477 0.9 63 0.0 05 sdg3_insucov - 0.9 0 0 0 . 21 5 1 0.6552865 7. 4 7 61 6 7 3 9 6 0 . 8 10 0.0 46 sd g6 _ showe r 0.963 0.0 03 12 .19 9 5 45 6 0.0 0 1 7 42764 0 .928 0.0 0 0 V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t 73 Emine T AHSİN Access to and quality of services under LNOB: For this PCA only 7 sub-indicators out of 12 could be used with the LNOB score. The eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 90% the cumulative variations. In this sample, as can be seen from T able 15, health-related indicators apart from the “suicide rates”, have a negative impact. These indicators; specific health indicators address the “gap in life expectancy (sdg3_incgap)” and “self-reported health (sdg3_hgap)”, and access to “medical care indicates the existence of inequalities in health services (sdg3_legap)” indicates negative interactions. More specifically , improvements in “early childhood education (sdg4_child)” have con- tributed positively to the LNOB and have a big positive impact. During this period the internet access indicators “(sdg9_bband)” seem to have positively correlated with the LNOB. The “suicide rate (sdg3_suicide)” has created positive syner gies with the LNOB. T able 15. PCA di m en sion s for a cc es s t o a nd q u al it y o f se r v ice s F ac tor load i ng s Cont r ibut i on of th e var iabl e s(% ) Squ ar e d co s i ne s of t he var iabl e s F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 LNOB 0.8 98 0 .1 3 6 13.0 20 1 . 7 17 0.80 6 0.0 19 sdg3_legap - 0.836 0 . 4 43 11 . 2 9 5 18 . 0 9 5 0. 69 9 0 .1 9 6 sd g3_ su icide 0.9 27 0. 227 13 . 9 01 4 .75 0 0.8 60 0.05 1 sdg3_hgap - 0. 858 - 0. 388 11 . 9 0 4 13 . 8 9 9 0 .7 37 0 .151 sdg3_incgap - 0.963 0 .101 14 . 9 8 4 0.93 4 0 .9 27 0.01 0 sdg 4_child 0. 9 32 0. 22 8 1 4.033 4 .7 9 6 0.868 0.052 s d g 9_ bb a n d 0 . 9 74 0.0 45 15 . 31 9 0.1 83 0.948 0.0 02 sdg8_euy neet - 0. 586 0 .7 7 6 5. 5 4 4 55 . 6 2 6 0. 343 0 .602 V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t In addition to the indicators connected with decent work (SDG 8); poverty risk for those at work (sdg8_inwork) is found to have a negative impact. Furthermore, “sdg8_euyneet (youth not in employment, education or training (NEET))” have weak but negative ef fects. Results assessed under limited data constraints show that the greatest trade-of fs come from material poverty and deprivations and access and the quality of public service indicators. It could be noticed that gender inequality indicators outline positive interactions that are not included in the PCA. The number of seats held by women in parliament (sdg5wparl) indicator and the number of senior women managers (sdg5wmanage) indicate achievement. The income inequality data own weak interactions and their impact on inclusiveness is limited. The case of Türkiye’ s inclusiveness outlines weakness in poverty- decent work nexus and inequalities in access to basic services. Additionally , the LNOB indicators underlie the importance of NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 74 health, education, and gender -sensitive policies. Education policies, policies for vulnerable groups, and a definition of rights are vital for the case of Türkiye. Moreover , the lack of access to basic services and the dynamics of urbanization that excludes poor households need to be investigated in detail. 5. Conclusion Under the constraints of data continuity , the main findings of the PCA indicate the per - sistence of inequality & poverty-based vulnerabilities in Türkiye and historically affect the interactions between the SDGs. Although there has been progress in certain human-centered indicators, overall poverty and material deprivation continue to be determinants. This fact is a good example of the challenges of sustainability itself necessitating different transformations for Türkiye as an upper middle-income country . On the other hand, weaknesses in people-led indicators and the creation of policies compatible with the “growth environment and social” sphere, reveal certain contradictions. The quality of economic growth and, more importantly , the bases on which growth is based can have negative implications for the links between the economy and people-centered goals. Dimensions of discrimination and working conditions need to be considered. The target of becoming an inclusive society has bottlenecks on the basis of fundamental rights and freedoms. One of the most fundamental contradictions is related to the weakness of the poverty , decent work and income equality nexus. Regardless of data quality , the links perform poorly . The other main evidence is related to the urbanization dynamics and living conditions of the citizens, especially the “poor”. Another main theme is related to the design of education and health policies especially focusing on vulnerable groups and defining “equality” in access to these services in the public sphere. Beyond improving the conditions of Türkiye’ s “vulnerable” groups, important policy choices may include providing guarantees for access to certain services and focusing the allocation of resources specifically on these issues. Given the changes in the scope of social transfer policies in Türkiye mentioned in this chapter , it can be argued that these transfers have in fact produced limited results in addressing material deprivation and discrimination. The findings are considered to highlight the need for access to basic services and rights-based policies to strengthen the conditions of citizens of Türkiye in general. Specifically , women and children, and people facing informality both in economic and social spheres have problems in reaching specific services. All these facts bring with them the need to improve the conditions of those living in informal areas (in rural and urban) of Türkiye, beyond supporting them with 81 Emine T AHSİN Appendix Figure A1. 5 Principles of the SDGs Source: UN (2015) T able A 2 . LNO B I ndicat or s Sourc e: Lafo r t u n e et a l ., (2022) NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 82 T able A 3. B a rlet t’ s Sphe r i c it y T e st s a n d K MO Resu lt s Sub -i nd icat or s of t he SD G s LNO B SDG s Pe o p l e Prosper it y Pl a net Pe ac e and Par t ne r sh ip Mate r ial De pr i vat ion Ace s s to ser v i ces B a r t l e t t ’s sp he r icit y t e st Chi -sq uare ( Obse r v e d value ) 4 0 8 .1 3 9 7 7 3 75 . 53 0 32 3.9 02 4 0 9. 5 47 4 6 2 4 0 . 4 81 134.3035 267 98.420 4 13 7 4 Chi -sq uare ( Cr itic a l va lue ) 99 .6 1 69 27 6 1 .656 50.998 8 5.9 6 4 9 07 6 1.6 56 50.998 4 6 0 1 7 41 . 3 3 71 3 81 5 DF 78 45 36 66 45 36 28 p -va lue ( Tw o - t a i l e d ) < 0.0 0 0 1 < 0.0 0 0 1 <0.0 0 01 <0.0 0 0 1 < 0.0 0 01 < 0.0 0 0 1 < 0.0 0 01 alph a 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 O ver a l l K MO 0 .7 31 2 6 31 0 . 8 6 7 15 31 0.69 0 0. 7 4 49395 0.73 0 77 9 333 0. 5 658 46 586 0 . 5 75 T able A4. Pea r son C or relat ion Mat r i x for SDG 1 a nd Sub -In d icat or s of th e SDG s Va r i a b l e s G oa l 1 S c ore Go al 1 S c or e 1 n_sd g2_stuntin g 0. 8 80 n _ sd g 2 _ wa st i ng - 0.8 80 n_ sdg 2 _obesi t y - 0.902 n _ sdg 2 _t roph ic - 0. 853 n _ s d g 2 _ c rlyld 0. 845 n_sd g2_snmi 0. 824 n _ sdg3_ mat mor t 0. 833 n _ sdg3_ neon at 0 . 8 41 n _ s d g 3_ u 5m o r t 0 . 8 33 n _sdg3_tb 0.94 0 n _ s d g3_ ncd s 0 . 8 29 n_ sdg3 _lifee 0.905 n_ sdg3 _fer tility 0.888 n _ s d g3_ bi r t h s 0 . 8 18 n _ s d g 3 _v a c 0 . 515 n _ s d g3_ u h c 0.8 64 n _ s d g4_ e a rlyed u 0. 893 n_ sdg4_ pr i mar y - 0 .74 4 n_ sdg4_second - 0.0 10 n_ sdg 4_literacy 0.904 83 Emine T AHSİN T able A4. Co nt i nu ed n_ sdg5 _family pl 0. 910 n_ sdg5_edat 0. 9 42 n_ sdg5 _lf pr 0 . 919 n _ sdg5_ p a rl 0. 898 n_ sdg6_ wa ter 0. 893 n_ sdg6_ sa nita 0 . 894 n _sdg6 _f reshwat - 0.95 4 n _ sd g7_cle an f u el 0 .7 6 9 n_ sdg7 _co 2twh 0 .7 5 5 n _sdg7 _re n 0 . 371 n_ sdg8_ accounts 0 . 6 42 n _ sdg8_u nemp - 0 . 416 n_sdg 8_r i ghts - 0 .7 7 5 n_ sdg8_i mpacc 0 .1 35 n_sd g9 _in t us e 0. 89 0 n_sd g9 _mo b use 0.960 n _ s d g 9_ lp i 0.6 89 n _ s d g 9_ u n i - 0 . 61 0 n _ s d g 9_ a r t ic l e s 0. 8 33 n _ s d g 9_ r d ex 0. 863 n _sdg 1 0_ gin i - 0. 4 49 n _sdg 1 0_ palm a 0. 25 4 n_sd g 1 1 _s l u ms 0 . 8 01 n _ s d g 11 _ p m 2 5 - 0 .6 62 n _ s d g 11 _ p i p e d w a t 0.9 02 n _ s d g 11 _ t r a n s p o r t 0.0 49 n_ sdg 12_ewaste - 0 .7 0 2 n _ s d g12 _ n p r o d - 0.95 0 n _ s d g12 _ n i m p o r t - 0 . 9 61 n_ sdg 1 3_co 2g cp - 0. 803 n_ sdg 1 3_co 2impor t 0 .7 3 2 n_ sdg 1 4_cpma 0.504 n_ sdg 1 4_cl eanwa t 0.9 05 n_ sdg 1 4_f ishstocks - 0. 871 n _ s d g 14 _ t r a w l 0 .7 6 5 n _sdg1 4_d iscard - 0 . 552 n _ s d g15 _ c p t a 0 . 679 n _ s d g15 _ c pf a 0.930 NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE 84 T able A4. Co nt i nu ed n _sdg 1 5_red list - 0.898 n _ s d g 16 _ h o m i c i d e s 0. 805 n _s dg 1 6_ deta in 0 .7 6 4 n_ sdg 1 6_ safe 0 .7 6 4 n _ s d g 16 _ c p i - 0 . 8 61 n _ s d g 16 _ r s f - 0 .7 5 1 n _sdg 1 6 _ just ice 0 . 616 n _ s d g 17_ g o v e x 0.3 48 n _sdg 1 7 _ go v rev - 0 . 611 n_sd g 1 7 _sta tperf 0.687 V al u e s i n bol d a r e d i f fe r e nt f ro m 0 w i th a sig nif ic a n c e l e ve l alp h a= 0,05 S UST AINABLE D EVELOPMENT G OAL CHAPTER 3 FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKİYE : TO END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE AGRICUL TURE Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN 1 1 Assoc. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-5698-5748 DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.003 Abstract The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by the UN addresses global challenges. The global prevalence of hunger and poverty is increasing daily . The concept of food security is gaining importance. A lar ge amount of the food supply comes from agricultural land, which also provides essential ecosystem services. Agriculture is vital for food security and achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2. Food security challenges are predicted to worsen due to demographic growth, urbanization, unsustainable resource exploitation, climate change, and changing consumption patterns. By 2050, the global population will reach 10 billion, necessitating sustainable farming for food security . Urbanization challenges food distribution, requiring reliable access to nutritious food in cities. Increased use of non- renewable resources in agriculture threatens the ecosystem, requiring a transition to sustainable techniques. Extreme weather from climate change threatens food security . Increased consumption of resource-intensive foods strains agriculture. Addressing these difficulties needs collaboration among stakeholders. Sustainable farming, like organic practices, minimizes environmental harm. Investing in research and technology can boost crop yields and resilience. Food waste can be reduced by ef ficient transport and storage. Resilient farming and consumer education are crucial to address climate-related food poverty . Meanwhile, environmental contamination threatens biodiversity , water , and public health. Major contributors are deforestation, industrial waste, and air pollution. Global collaboration is crucial for reducing emissions and protecting the environment sustainably . According to the Global Food Security Index, Türkiye ranks 49 th out of 1 13 countries in food security . W ater and food security are important topics of discussion in the context of climate change. One problem in sustainable development is environmental security . Food security , a crucial aspect of environmental security , has gained relevance in recent years due to the COVID-19 epidemic af fecting supply chains and causing a food crisis. Countries must create strategies to ensure food security in anticipation of the global food crisis. The purpose of this study is to analyze current food and environmental security policies and initiatives in Türkiye. This section will emphasize the measures needed to maintain policy consistency in this area. The challenge of sustainable food security and agriculture is exacerbated by the growing global and T urkish populations. The subject concerns political and economic policies applied by governments, corporations, institutions, and organizations. SDG3 focuses on fostering excellent health and well-being, while efforts to improve food security and achieve SDG2 may hinder its achievement. Food system sustainability depends on ensuring future generations’ food security . Keywords: Food Security , Environmental Security , Sustainable Development, Sustainable Agriculture, SDG2, Türkiye PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 88 1. Intr oduction A series of multiple crises threaten the globalizing world, like wars, terror , poverty , inc- reasing inequality , and unemployment, besides the scarcity of resources such as food, water , and land affected by climate change, leading to environmental problems such as water and food security . The sectors more vulnerable to climate change are those highly dependent on environmental conditions, such as agriculture. W ater and food security is af fected by climate change because it reduces agricultural productivity . Population growth causes food and wa- ter demand to increase. In the context of the growing population in the world and Türkiye, sustaining food security is a significant challenge. According to the F AO (2023), 9.8% of the world population was undernourished in 2022. Food security is described as a condition in which all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that fits their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life at all times (Peng & Berry , 2019). Sustainability and food security are linked to each other via the notion of sustainable diets. Sustainable diets are defined as “protective, respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable, accessible, economically fair and affordable, nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy; while optimizing natural and human resources” (F AO, 2012). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the Member States of the United Nations (UN) in 2015 consist of seventeen main topics, some of which are ending global hunger and poverty , combating climate change, and promoting responsible production and consumption in order to eliminate social, cultural, and ecological problems by 2030. Since the beginning of 2018, the UN Sustainable Development Goals have become priority areas to pull out action both internationally and nationally . Among the 17 goals, goal number 2 reads, “End hunger , achieve food security , improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.” F AO (n.d.) defines hunger as an uncomfortable or painful physical sensation caused by insuf - ficient consumption of dietary ener gy . Hunger may also be referred to as undernourishment. Türkiye is classified as a developing nation, boasting a population of 85.3 million indivi- duals and exhibiting an average population growth rate of 0.7% in the year 2022, as reported by T urkstat (2022). The Mediterranean Basin has been classified as a highly susceptible regi - on, as stated by the Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022). Türkiye’ s agri- cultural sector will be strongly af fected by drought, precipitation changes, heat waves, floods, and wildfires. Projected increases in population and decreasing agricultural areas create food insecurity . T o sustain a country’ s food security , it is crucial to ensure water security because 89 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN the agricultural sector is a large consumer of water . In The High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2016, Türkiye was a volunteer country presenting its national reviews; the 10th Development Plan was implemented with the objective of addressing the issue of climate change and its impact on water resources, as well as promoting sustainable agriculture and ensuring food security . Furthermore, the integration of the country’ s goals into National Development Plans was initiated through the 2030 Agenda. What is more notable is to transform the SDGs into action to tackle water and food insecurity . This chapter aims to discuss food security and environmental security in Türkiye regarding SDG2-Zero Hunger by putting forward the facts related to sustainable agriculture, water se- curity , and climate change. Consistency of SDGs and Development Plans, V oluntary National Review of SDG and Türkiye and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development will be used to put forward Türkiye’ s Current Situation in terms of SDG2 and give details concerning furt- her steps to be taken. This chapter is organized as follows: The second section puts forward sustainable food security policies in Türkiye. The third section states the consistencies of SDG2 with of ficial documents, and finally , section four clarifies the current situation of food systems in Türkiye. 2. Sustainable Food Security Policies in Türkiye A sustainable food system can be defined as a system that ensures the provision of food security and nutrition to all individuals while simultaneously preserving the economic, social, and environmental foundations necessary for the continued generation of food security and nutrition for future generations (F AO, 2018) It has a positive or neutral impact on the natural environment (environmental sustainability). Using natural resources like water , energy , and food with their supply and fair distribution is germane to environmental security . This term has gained importance on the world agenda with the COVID-19 pandemic and will be pre- sent at least until 2030. Producing policies to ensure sustainable food security for the coming food crisis will be notable. Within this realm, we have five important subjects to be looked upon deeply: agricultural productivity , agricultural support, stock/waste management, climate change, and water security . 2.1. Agricultural Pr oductivity Agriculture is vital for food security as it provides the largest share of food supplies and supports the SDGs, especially SDG 2- zero hunger . Since the 1996 W orld Food Summit (WFS), massive efforts have been made to increase agriculture, food production, and secu- rity (Ericksen, 2009). In 2015, the United Nations (UN) set the 17 Sustainable Development FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 90 Goals (SDGs), where an essential goal is Zero Hunger (SDG2). F AO (2023) reveals that about 29.6 percent of the global population – 2.4 billion people – were moderately or seve- rely food insecure in 2022. On the other hand, sustainable agriculture is essential to improve other SDGs like SDG1 (No poverty) and SDG3 (Good health and well-being). Urban areas become more livable places with the green spaces increasing with the contribution of agri- cultural applications like urban gardens and green roofs, thus reducing the impact of natural events and pollution and ensuring food security (Viana et al., 2022). The current agri-food systems (agricultural practices, food preferences, and consumption shifts), unfortunately , are increasing greenhouse gas emissions and causing ecosystem degradation like soil degradation, loss of biodiversity , and water scarcity (Goucher et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2018; Sanchez & W yckhuys, 2019; Zuo et al., 2018). The trade-offs associated with agriculture may cause a global crisis in food security or environmental degradation at an unprecedented scale (Mi- chel-Villarreal et al., 2019; Y ang et al., 2020). Investing in sustainable practices like crop diversification, use of or ganic fertilizers, increased rotation periods, and cover cropping is necessary to increase crop resilience to pests (Feng et al., 2018; Murrell, 2017). In addition, by using sustainable agricultural practices, food quality can be improved. Local, diverse, and sustainable agriculture respectful of the environment can only adapt to the climate crisis and reduce crop vulnerability to pests and disease risks (The Royal Society , 2009). One recogni- zed strategy to maintain and amplify food supply and reduce hunger is boosting agricultural production and productivity of agricultural land (The Royal Society , 2009; W u et al., 2014). The progress being made in this area will contribute both to SDG2 (Zero hunger) and SDG1 (No poverty). Crop yields decreased drastically due to increased pests and pathogens (Oerke, 2006; Popp et al., 2013). This may slow down the progress of SDG2. One of the factors that can limit total agricultural productivity is the low soil carbon con- tent in Türkiye. In addition to this, there are decreases in precipitation and extreme weather events. Türkiye’ s usable agricultural area is falling of f because of climate change, urbanizati - on, and massive usage of pesticides and mineral fertilizers. T otal agricultural land decreased from 40.9 MHA in 2001 to 38.5 MHA in 2015 (Ağaçayak & Keyman, 2018). Agricultural productivity is related to the concepts of competitiveness, human capital, renewable energy , and low cost. The ef ficiency of agricultural enterprises and agricultural employment is vital for agricultural productivity . In the 9 th Development Plan, the scale efficiency of agricultural enterprises has been included. From 2007 to 2012, agricultural employment increased by 1.1 million people, although rural poverty remained a primary problem. This was due to enterprises having scale ef ficiency and marketing problems (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of 97 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN Institute issued the SDG Indicators Set comprising 83 indicators in February 2019. SDG 2 has three main objectives: (i) Meeting nutritional demands and ensuring adequate food access; (ii) increasing agricultural productivity and resilient farming practices; and (iii) preserving genetic resources and traditional knowledge. In this regard, Türkiye’ s biggest issue is malnutrition, nutritional quality , and overnutrition. According to VNR (2019), while total protein consump- tion per person is acceptable, and only a small proportion of families are undernourished in terms of energy-rich nutrients, the majority of proteins are plant-based, with low consumption of animal protein. In the subject of child nutrition, significant measures have been achieved, such as boosting breastfeeding and supplementary feeding micronutrient supplement prog- rams (iron and vitamin D supplements, iodized salt). Agriculture support programs that are in accordance with demographic trends, economic development goals related to rural poverty reduction, and ensuring the essential degree of dietary diversity for optimal nutrition are compatible with the EU negotiation process and WT O commitments A number of steps were taken to improve the effectiveness of the assistance policy . “A basin-based support” strategy was used to collect accurate agricultural statistics, increase agricultural inventories, and build the infrastructure required for rural development strategies. Ongoing programs on food banks and the prevention of food waste and loss were projected to contribute positively to increased food security attainment. T urkish farms are smaller and more divided than others. T o prevent inheritance-related agricultural enterprise fragmentation, legislation was passed. Land consolidation solves this. Land consolidation reached 6.1 million hectares in 2018 (VNR, 2019). A new agricultural in- surance law changed risk management and provided insurance premium support for farmers’ losses. T o determine food price hikes’ causes, the Food and Agriculture Products Markets Monitoring and Evaluation Committee was created. One structural issue with agricultural output price volatility will be reduced by this committee. T o centrally supervise vegetable and fruit commerce, the Fresh Fruit and V egetable Wholesale Market registration system was implemented in 2012. The 2017 National Starter Culture Gene Bank protects biodiversity and ensures food security for future generations. VNR (2019) indicates the following additional steps to be implemented in terms of SDG2 Goals: (i) Expanding enterprise sizes to increase production and productivity and hence sel- f-suf ficiency . (ii) T o maintain agricultural production continuity while promoting local jobs for individuals living in rural areas. (iii) Improving the efficiency of R&D services and as - FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 98 sisting in the development of legislation to protect genetic resources and biodiversity . (iv) T o address climate change, new methods for improving agricultural production are being develo- ped. (v) Consider agricultural product costs and revenue balance. (vi) Meeting the nutritional needs of vulnerable groups. (vii) Promoting the long-term viability of the agricultural labor force through assisting youngsters and women. Finally , (viii) enhancing agricultural statistics infrastructure. 3.3. Consistency of SDGs with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and Türkiye The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development provides a comprehensive framework for nations to ef fectively address sustainable development concerns by integrating relevant policies into their domestic agendas while also addressing global dif ficulties. Since 1992, Türkiye has incorporated sustainable development policies into its National Development Plan (NDP) following the Rio Summit. The T urkish Government has exhibited unwavering dedication to the international pledge established by global leaders at the Millennium Summit. This commitment is evident via the alignment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with Türkiye’ s national development priorities. Türkiye successfully achieved the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) pertaining to maternal and newborn health, ef fectively reducing both infant mortality rates and maternal death rates by the year 2015. The primary objective of the programs implemented by the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) was the elimination of extreme poverty and hunger . The food poverty ratio, representing the proportion of individuals within a given population who lack the financial means or availability to obtain a nutritionally adequate diet, saw a drop from 1.35% in 2002 to 0.48% in 2009. Furthermore, the population living below the poverty line of $1.25 per day was completely eradicated by 2006. The 2030 Agenda served as an initial measure for the nation to incorporate its objectives into its National Development Plans. The outcome of the Summit held in New Y ork in September 2015, which was the approval of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, was initially mentioned by the T urkish Govern- ment in the 2016 Annual Program. Aligned with Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the natio- nal pathways have identified specific areas of focus to enhance the national food systems. These priorities are established through a collaborative approach with the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF 2021-2025). The identified tracks include policy analysis and development, knowledge transfer , capacity development, 99 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN and advocacy . These tracks aim to strengthen the national food systems and contribute to the achievement of the SDGs. T rack 2 under the Action T racks pertains to the transition towards a sustainable consumpti- on pattern. Several significant efforts in this domain include (i) promoting the sustainability of the supply value chain within the agri-food sector , (ii) mitigating food loss and waste, enhan- cing consumer consciousness, and advocating sustainable consumption, and (iii) establishing equitable access to safe and nutritious food. This can be achieved through the implementation of school lunch initiatives and school food programs. The process of digitizing the food value chain and enhancing accessibility and transparency throughout all phases of the food value chain is of utmost importance. An additional worry pertaining to T rack 2 is the enhancement of public health, ensuring food safety , and fortifying inspection and control measures. The primary objective of the Scientific and Research Council of Türkiye is to prioritize food-feed safety , encompassing the safeguarding of animals and individuals responsible for their nourishment against potential harm or illness arising from the handling or consumption of feed products. Additionally , the council emphasizes the significance of employing contemporary food and feed production methodologies, storage and packaging techniques, as well as the valorization of food waste and traditional culinary practices to ensure optimal quality standards. The feasibility of tran- sitioning food systems towards greater sustainability can be achieved by the implementation of a comprehensive framework of commitments and activities, with a sustained emphasis on long-term goals. The interconnection between malnutrition, health, and the environment necessitates the presence of robust policy coherence among these domains. In the context of enhancing the food traceability infrastructure through the extensive adoption of digital technology and solutions, it is crucial to prioritize several key measures. These include the monitoring of pesticide residues, the establishment of more efficient and comprehensive mo- nitoring systems for fishing activities, the promotion of aquaculture, and the provision of training to all relevant stakeholders in the food supply chain regarding food safety and quality management (Republic of Türkiye, MoAF , 2021). Türkiye included the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development into its objectives throu- gh the implementation of the 1 1th National Development Plan (2019-2023). The SDGs en- compassed five primary pillars, namely: a robust and stable economy , enhanced productivity and competitiveness in production, a skilled and capable workforce, a resilient and cohesive society , sustainable and habitable urban areas, an environmentally sustainable ecosystem, and the promotion of the rule of law , democratization, and effective governance. The agen- FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 100 cy tasked with the generation of dependable and consistent data, as well as the monitoring of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators, is the T urkish Statistical Institute. The realization of the 2030 Agenda necessitates sustained endeavors by various actors, including governmental bodies, scholars, non-governmental organizations, and the business community (Y apar , 2019). The necessity of coherence and cooperation among institutions and sectors at both national and local levels cannot be overstated. 3.4. Consistency of SDGs with National Pathway of Türkiye In September 2021, the United Nations conducted a Food Systems Summit in New Y ork to reinforce the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals. The Summit’ s goal was to ensure access to safe and nutritious food, increase sustainable consumption and production, and strengthen resilience to food security gaps. The Economist has developed the Global Food Security Index (GFSI) for 1 13 countries. The index is a dynamic quantitative and qualitative model that considers food affordability , availability , quality and safety , and sustainability and adaptation. There are 68 unique indicators for measuring food security for both developed and developing countries. Figure 2 demonstrates Türkiye’ s position in terms of food security indicators in 2022. Türkiye has an overall food security environment score of 66.3 and ranks 49th out of 1 13 countries and 8th out of 15 in the Mena region. The quality and safety pillar is strong (78.5 scores) but relatively weak on affordability (58.4 scores). Though its global Quality and Safety ranking is good (26th), it needs to make both the food prices more stable and, at the same time, af fordable to achieve a more secure overall food security environment. The sustainability of the food security environment is also crucial, which makes it manda- tory to preserve natural resources like oceans, lakes, and rivers and manage water stress and contamination levels. 101 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN Figure 2. Food Security Environment in Türkiye (2022) Source: Economist Impact (2022) There exist several strengths and opportunities for potential action. While acknowledging the commendable food quality and safety measures in place, it is imperative to address the issue of rising food prices. T o mitigate this concern, it is recommended to implement food safety-net initiatives that aim to enhance the accessibility and af fordability of food for the general population. Türkiye has achieved a cumulative score of 28.6 in the domain of food safety-net initiatives. The sufficiency of the country’ s food supply has exhibited a consistent upward trend since 2016, culminating in a score of 100. Over the course of an 1 1-year period, there has been a notable improvement of 61 positions in nutritional standards. This impro- vement is reflected in a score of 100, indicating the presence of robust dietary guidelines, a comprehensive national nutritional plan, enhanced labeling practices, and regular monitoring of nutritional aspects. The measure of average food cost change poses challenges in countries with a zero score. The cost of food is subject to fluctuations in global prices and events that lead to food inflation. However , it is imperative for Türkiye to prioritize ensuring cheap access to food by placing greater emphasis on this domain. Political and social impediments to ac- cess are an additional determinant influencing food security . Türkiye is positioned at the 87th rank, with a score of 43 on this particular indicator . The low score might be attributed to the country’ s susceptibility to political instability and persistent levels of corruption since 2012. The agricultural trade indicator score is 26.6 points lower than the global average, placing it at the 109th rank. The primary factor contributing to the inadequacy of this score can be attributed to the implementation of elevated taxes on agricultural imports in 2012. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 102 The National Pathway of Türkiye also highlights the inequitable distribution of resources among smaller farmers, who face challenges in obtaining a fair share, as well as the issue of unaf fordable input prices. This observation indicates that the diminution in farm size in Türkiye is contributing to the increasing dif ficulty of sustaining a livelihood. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MoAF , 2021), smallholders in Türkiye face several key obstacles. These challenges include limited access to financial resources, a lack of cooperation among smallholders, risk aversion, a dearth of effective leadership, difficulties in accessing markets, and the burdensome administrative procedures associated with grant programs. Figure 3 displays the agricultural input price index 1, as provided by the T urkish Statistical Institute. As depicted in the image, a significant fluctuation in agricultural prices is observed throughout the years 2022 and 2023. The non-residential farm structures experienced the most substantial increase, reaching a growth rate of 779.89% compared to the year 2005. Conversely , veterinary expenses exhibited the lowest increase, amounting to a growth rate of 150.93%. There was a significant increase of 747% in the cost of fertilizers and soil improvers. Figure 3. Agricultural Price Index in Türkiye (2015=100) (*) as of May 2023 Source: TurkStat (2023) Enhancing the efficiency of the food chain has the potential to augment food supply throu- gh the mitigation of losses incurred during primary production to retail stages, encompassing both harvest and post-harvest phases. Losses primarily arise as a consequence of insufficient infrastructure, encompassing deficiencies in water and electricity provisions, subpar transit networks, and a dearth of storage capacities. The establishment of a digital infrastructure has the potential to enhance the overall efficiency of the entire food chain. Investments in transportation systems and infrastructure, as well as the implementation of effective moni- toring systems utilizing artificial intelligence, have the potential to mitigate food insecurity . 103 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN In accordance with the National Rural Development Strategy of Türkiye for the period of 2021 to 2023, several measures can be undertaken in relation to agriculture. These include the promotion of small-scale enterprises, enhancement of agricultural productivity , improvement of quality of life in rural regions, and the facilitation of rural workforce participation, particu- larly among women and young individuals residing in rural areas. The emphasis on rural de- velopment policies underscores the need to empower the youth in rural areas. This aligns with the United Nations’ sustainable development goals for young farmers, which are expected to be achieved by 2030, as well as the European Union’ s targets for the Common Agricultural Policy after 2022 (Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry , 2021). The application of digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and big data solutions has the potential to facilitate the digital transformation of food systems, specifically in the realm of agriculture. This can serve as a means to modernize the agri-food system as outlined by the W orld Bank in 2021. The process of digital transformation encoun - ters several challenges, including insufficient financial investment, issues pertaining to data security and protection, and limited levels of digital literacy . Türkiye will persistently endeavor to attain the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 through the reinforcement of national, regional, and international collaboration in accordance with the National Pathway . Regions and cities may demonstrate a willingness to build policies for regional food systems through alignment with development agencies and local authorities. In order to achieve these objectives, it is imperative to enhance the resilience of the food supply chain by implementing innovative technology and digitalization, with a specific focus on agricultural services, as facilitated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MoAF). One potential approach involves enhancing the productivity of small-scale farmers, who are often considered the most vulnerable component within the food supply chain. The implementation of the Agricultural Land Conservation Program for Environmental Purposes has been in ef fect in Türkiye since 2006. In 2019, the Agricultural Land Conser- vation Program for Environmental Purposes extended its coverage to encompass a total of 58 provinces. The National W ater Plan placed significant emphasis on safeguarding both the quality and quantity of groundwater resources. Over the course of the past ten years, a considerable portion of the land has been made available for the purpose of irrigation. T able 1 presents the agri-environmental indicators in Türkiye. Based on the data presented in the table, there was an observed rise in the proportion of irrigated land within agricultural regions, which grew from 8% to 10.8% throughout the period spanning from 2000 to 2020. The 1 1 th National Development plan also aims to achieve an expansion of irrigated land by 2 million hectares during the period from 2018 to 2023. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 104 T able 1. Ag r i- env i ro n ment a l I nd ic at or s i n T ü rk iye 2000 20 20 Nit r oge n ba la nce ( k g / ha) 2 7. 8 32 . 2 Phos ph or u s ba la nce ( k g / ha) 8.0 8 .7 Ag r icu lt u r e sh a r e of tot al en e rg y us e (% ) 5.0 4. 3 Ag r icu lt u r e sh a r e of GHG em i ssio n s (% ) 14 . 2 13. 4 Sha re of ir r igate d l a nd i n ag r icu lt u r al a rea (%) 8.0 10 . 8 Sha re of ag r icu lt u re i n wat er a b st ra c t ion s ( %) 75. 4 8 4 .7 W at e r s t res s i n d ic at or 18 . 6 26. 1 S ou r ce: OEC D (2022 ) Figure 4 points out that pesticide use reached a peak in 2018, and after that, there was relatively lower use of pesticides. T otal pesticide use in 2018 was 60.020 tonnes and decreased to 55.374 tonnes in 2022, with a percentage of 7.7%. One of the aims of extending sustainable agricultural practices is to lessen the excessive use of pesticides in agricultural production. Figure 4. Pesticides Use in Türkiye (2006-2022) Source: TurkStat (2023b) The National Climate Change Strategy for the period of 2010 to 2023 delineates a set of objectives spanning short-, medium-, and long-term timeframes, serving as the foundation for implementing measures aimed at addressing the challenges posed by climate change. In 201 1, the preparation of the National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) was overseen by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, with the aim of facilitating the execution of the Climate Change Strategy . As depicted in Figure 1, the data reveals a notable surge of 157% in greenhouse gas emissions throughout the period spanning from 1990 to 2021. The ener gy sector had a significant transformation, characterized by a substantial growth of 264%. 105 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN Within the context of food systems transformation, there are novel mechanisms pertai- ning to the mitigation of climate change and the sustainable utilization of natural resources, specifically focusing on the ef fective management of groundwater , pesticides, and fertilizers within the agricultural sector . These advancements are expected to be incorporated into the educational curriculum of agricultural programs. In relation to regional food systems, there will be a promotion of urban agriculture methods within cities to enhance the accessibility of nutritionally rich food. 3.5. Curr ent Situation of Food Systems in Türkiye According to the Food and Agriculture Or ganization (F AO), it is projected that there would be a need to augment food production by a minimum of 50% in order to adequately satisfy the escalating demands of the expanding global population, particularly in relation to the heightened consumption of meat. Numerous variables contribute to the endangerment of food systems, including but not limited to the expanding population, food loss and waste, climate change, shifting consumer preferences, and evolving socioeconomic circumstances of consumers. The rising expense of nutritious diets is closely correlated with the enduring prevalence of poverty and income disparity . According to the projections provided by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for the year 2030, it is anticipated that over 840 million individuals will experience the detrimental ef fects of hunger . Türkiye possesses a comprehensive land area encompassing 769,630 square kilometers. The aggregate land area allocated for agricultural purposes, encompassing both permanent meadows and pastures, amounts to 37,762,000 hectares. Approximately 41.4% of the total area in question is comprised of grain and crop products. The rate of fruit area has experienced a significant increase of 36.4% during the period spanning from 2001 to 2020. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of the Republic of Türkiye (2021), agricultural employment accounted for 16% of the overall workforce in the year 2020. According to the W orld Bank, it is projected that by the year 2050, the proportion of the global population residing in urban areas will surpass 82%, a significant increase from the 75% recorded in 2018. The majority of agricultural farms exceeding 80% in number are classified as small-scale. It is observed that there exists an inverse relationship between the size of agricultural holdings and the income earned by farmers. The T urkish Agricultural Policies encompass various objectives, including enhancing productivity , promoting crop diversification, enhancing the nutritional quality of food, and fostering women’ s participation FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. .. 106 in agricultural production. In order to enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems, it is imperative to bolster the technical and institutional capabilities of agricultural cooperatives, as they function as both producer and irrigation unions. Türkiye is a nation that possesses favorable conditions for the rearing of sheep and goats, and it also demonstrates competitiveness in the broiler and egg poultry sectors. Based on the 2019 F AO statistics, Türkiye has the second position in honey production, following China. The nation exhibits notable biological diversity , as seen by the significant rise in af forested land from 2002 to 2019, with a growth rate of 8.7 percent. Furthermore, there are plans in place to further expand afforested land to reach a projected area of 23.4 million hectares by the year 2023. The primary issues faced by the T urkish agriculture sector pertain to harvest and post-har - vest losses, which are exacerbated by the looming threats of desertification and drought, as well as the sector ’ s susceptibility to erosion. The demand for food has seen a greater incre- ase compared to the supply of agricultural products in Türkiye, primarily due to population growth. This demographic shift has consequently led to changes in consumption habits, par- ticularly a preference for poultry and fish. Irrigated land is widely recognized as a crucial determinant in the enhancement of agricultural yield. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of the Republic of Türkiye (2021), as of the year 2021, approximately 6.7 million hectares out of a total of 8.5 million hectares of land have been made accessible for irrigation purposes. As the remaining agricultural lands become irrigated, it is expected that other produ - cts will also contribute to achieving self-sufficiency . The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MoAF) undertakes significant initiatives that involve the implementation of technology in several agricultural domains, including agricultural apps, agricultural information systems, registration systems, and database systems. Figure 5 illustrates the existing food systems and the primary obstacles encountered in the process of transitioning food systems in Türkiye. On the production front, farmers encounter significant challenges, primarily stemming from elevated input costs, including fertilizers, oil, and pesticides, as well as issues related to low productivity and marketing. Small-scale far - mers are compelled to sell their products through intermediaries at prices that are lower than prevailing market rates. This implies the absence of ideal market circumstances and the lack of structured agricultural cooperatives. It is imperative for colleges to enhance their involve- ment in extension services for farmers, in addition to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MoAF). There exists a deficiency in the coordination among academia, state institutions, and the commercial sector . There is an increasing interest among start-up companies in the S UST AINABLE D EVELOPMENT G OAL CHAPTER 4 NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS : AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH SER VICES IN TÜRKİYE Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ 1,2 1 V isiting Scholar , Open University of The Netherlands, Faculty of Management, Organization Department, Heerlen, The Netherlands 2 Assoc. Prof. Dr . Kırklareli University , Faculty of Applied Science, Finance and Banking Department, Kırklareli, Türkiye E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-1028-7135 DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.004 Abstract The well-being ef fects of human health on the economy are undeniable. While health affects people’ s productivity and income in the short and long term, preventive health policies prevent an increase in health expenditures. However , some individuals experience limited access to health services due to living and economic conditions and may not have enough information about preventive health services. Even if they have information, they may procrastinate using these services for various economic, social, or psychological reasons. Behavioral economic development experiments related to the health of individuals living in rural areas of developing countries and developed countries are done. In these scientific studies, individuals are nudged to get vaccinated, screened, use preventive drugs, etc., through incentives or persuasive tools. After these methods were applied, it was revealed that most individuals paid more attention to their health than they had before. The aim of this study was to 1) emphasize the need to inform individuals about preventive health services associated with cancer in Türkiye, 2) make suggestions on how to reach people who could benefit from professional health services, and 3) provide guidance to health professionals. The aim to improve preventive health policies in T urkiye, which is one of the sustainable development goals of the United Nations, was considered, and the nudge and incentive studies carried out around the world were used as the basis for the research. W ith the implementation of these recommendations by policymakers, it is predicted that life expectancy would be extended, the quality of life would be better and health expenditures would decrease. In this study , the evaluations and suggestions are presented in this context. Keywords: Behavioral development economics, behavioral economics, preventive health services, nudging, health behavior PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 11 6 1. Intr oduction In the last two decades, there was a tremendous increase in interest in behavioral eco- nomics. Its criticism of orthodox economics drew notice. The Nobel Prize in Economics awarded to Kahneman in 2002 for his work on behavioral economics was a major element in the expanding popularity of the field. Studies that analyzed people’ s emotional behavior and cognitive errors and used them advantageously boosted interest. Behavioral economics is not confined to economics; it has found applications in domains ranging from finance to health, and from law to fiscal system. Through applications such as nudging, behavioral economics added to both economic progress and a better understanding of economic events. Mainstream economics, which excluded human beings from theory and method, started to develop in recent years to include these criticisms of behavioral economics. Thaler received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2017 for his work on nudge policies in behavioral economics. Behavioral economics is not restricted to the micro discipline of economics; it also found a home in studies of economic development aimed at modifying human behavior for their benefit. Banerjee, Duflo, and Kremer conducted experiments in rural areas of countries such as Kenya and India to improve the health of poor children under a certain age, giving free vaccinations and chewable tablets for intestinal worms. For these experiments in behavioral development economics, the researchers were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2019. These studies pioneered the field of behavioral development economics and contributed to the development of the field. Health-related developments in behavioral economics are broadly in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. It calls for ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all ages. It aims to ensure safe, effective, and quality health coverage for all, as well as sustainable access to quality primary health care services (The United Nations W eb- site, 2023, Sustainable Development Goals). As a result of these health development goals, ef forts are being made in Türkiye to increase people’ s welfare and quality of life and extend life expectancy through preventive health services. Nudging methods were applied to make the scope of these studies targeted to a specific population based on the United Nations goals related to health and to ensure participation in the healthcare system. Most people in Türkiye are aware of the importance of early detection and diagnosis of cancer , but there is no system to encourage them using nudging methods. Therefore, the most susceptible group could be targeted for cancer screening using nudging methods and practices in the field of health. As a result, with early detection and diagnosis the quality and duration 11 7 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ of life could be improved. In addition, the cost of health expenditures for other diseases that occur due to cancer could be reduced or prevented through early diagnosis. The word Cancer often creates negative thoughts and feelings in people. It is common for people to avoid taking action in getting a cancer screening because they associate it with negative emotions such as fear , embarrassment or negative thoughts such as death. However , having information about your health, whether positive or negative, can affect a person’ s productivity , income, and even life expectancy in the short and long term. Thus, preventive health policies could prevent an increase in health expenditures. There are many people in T urkiye with inadequate living and economic conditions who do not have full access to health services and do not have suf ficient knowledge about preventive health services. Therefore, encouraging them with nudge policies by the country’ s health policymakers and behavioral economists/behavioral scientists is im- portant for both economics and health. In order to achieve this, the system must be changed, and new preventive health policies must be implemented. First, I explained cognitive biases and shortcuts in behavioral economics as they relate to preventive and preventive health services. Understanding cognitive shortcuts and biases in health-related issues is the first step toward behavioral change. In the third part of our study , nudge studies in behavioral economics and behavioral development economics are discussed. Nudging studies in the field of health are explained with examples. In the fourth part, the Ministry of Health’ s cancer early detection and screening studies in Türkiye are mentioned. Behavioral interventions or nudges are designed to change human behavior to provide better and healthier outcomes for them. In the fifth section, health nudging techniques are explained, their relationship with screening methods is mentioned and nudge suggestions are made for early detection and diagnosis of cancer . In the sixth section, nudges that could be used by the Ministry of Health for its website are mentioned. 2. Heuristics and Biases in Decision-Making in Behavioral Economics Tversky and Kahneman (1974) criticized the definition of a rational person in mainstream economics. One of these criticisms was that with uncertainty , people do not act rationally , but emotionally . Tversky and Kahneman (1974) conducted many experiments to trace the cognitive processes underlying people’ s decisions and to prove that they were not complete- ly rational. They stated that people resort to heuristics when making decisions in uncertain situations. For example, people make decisions based on the first information they access in their minds (availability heuristic), representativeness or anchoring (see. T able 1 first and second columns) (Kahneman & Tversky , 1979). People who make decisions this way do not think and research deeply and therefore do not act logically; they act according to these NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 11 8 mental shortcuts. Sometimes they act on basic emotional reactions (affect), such as liking or disliking something, finding it good or bad (see T able 1 first column) (Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor , 2002). In the field of behavioral economics, the many biases that people have were explained, and nudging policies started to be formulated accordingly (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008). These biases are observations or realities that are inconsistent with theory and difficult to rationalize. People often make decisions based on these biases. Since acting on these biases or prejudic- es does not often benefit a person, it would be beneficial for the government to implement nudging efforts on important issues such as health and the economy . The anomalies and biases within the scope of our study consisted of overconfidence, unrealistic optimism, framing ef fect, loss aversion, present bias, stereotyping bias, status quo bias, ostrich bias, opt-in and opt-out, omission bias, projection bias, peak, and end rule, learned helplessness belief, social identity bias, social/cultural norm, and procrastination (For explanation of biases about our topic, see. T able 2 second column). 3. The Nudge in Behavioral Economics Thaler and Sunstein (2009) in “Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, W ealth and Happiness” argued that in uncertain situations, individuals could not control themselves and could not make the right choices. It was therefore necessary to guide or , as Thaler called it, nudge people in decisions they need to make to save money , improve finances, and improve health. Adjustments to the choice architecture can change people’ s lives for the better . Nudge- based policy interventions are designed to help people decide what is best for them, thereby reducing human error . Nudging is when individuals are directed towards something that is positive for them with - out taking away their right to choose (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009). Because people’ s cognitive abilities are limited and they do not have access to all information at all times, they may not always choose what is the most beneficial. These claims of behavioral economists were the starting point of nudge policies (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009; Camerer et al., 2003). According to mainstream economics, decision-makers who act in line with their true rational preferenc- es are non-existent econs or homoeconomicus. Since people do not have full information, unlimited cognitive ability , and complete self-control, nudging practices are designed by governments or private institutions. Nudge-based policy practices do not interfere with a decision-makers’ choice or take away their freedom. Nudge policies are determined based on the perspective of the decision-maker . 11 9 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ The success of nudge policies in improving people’ s decisions is related to the extent in which options are aligned with people’ s desires (Sunstein, 2018). What matters is the self-interest of individuals. For Thaler and Sunstein (2008), whether the nudging technique adopted by a country was based on an explicit choice or a default choice was an important issue. Those who designed the choice architecture set the conditions under which choices were made. In pre- paring options, choice architects can control the way they are presented, as well as the extent of information provided to decision-makers. One of the most important options for nudging techniques is the default option. If the target audience does not take action, a default option is presented to them in their favor , taking into account their cognitive shortcuts and prejudices. Choice architects have a significant impact on people’ s decisions in many areas of their lives, from choosing between using stairs or escalators, being examined now or on a specific date, deciding how much to save for one’ s retirement by including it in the pension system (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009; Sunstein, 2016). Therefore, by providing people with default options, they directly involve them in the system. Since incentive policies are related to behavioral economics, studies on individuals’ saving behavior are conducted frequently . The most prominent ar gument was that individuals gener- ally found it more attractive to save in the future than to save now (Thaler & Benartzi, 2004). Based on these studies, when individuals wanted to do things that were beneficial and healthy for themselves, they did not take any action and postponed it (O’Donoghue & Rabin, 2015). It is important that individuals are presented with a default option when making decisions, because individuals tend to procrastinate or have a status quo bias. In addition, individuals make preferences based on a certain reference point, i.e. preferences close to the default option, and may exhibit loss aversion behavior based on this option (Kahneman et al., 1991; Camerer et al., 2003; Johnson & Goldstein 2003; McKenzie et al., 2006). In addition, a policy of forced choice in health-related situations was proposed. This forced choice required people to actively decide and make choices on substantive issues throughout their lives, rather than assuming the default choice. Thinking and deciding what should happen to our or gans after we die is considered a policy of forced choice (Beraldo & Karpus, 2021). However , since such choices cause negative emotions such as stress, these negative emotions are eliminated by default options created by policymakers. Chater and Loewenstein (2022) referred to individual frame (i-frame) interventions, which focused on individuals’ thoughts and behaviors, as classical nudge policies. They stated that the most important way in which behavioral scientists could contribute to public policy was to make and implement changes in the system. According to Chater and Loewenstein (2022), NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 120 many behavioral scientists proposed policy interventions that fixed problems with individual behavior (an “i-frame”) rather than addressing the system within which individuals operate (an “s-frame”). Chater and Loewenstein (2022) emphasized the importance of systemic frame (s-frame) in nudge policies. For example, preventing obesity required high sugar taxes and subsidization of healthy food (s-frame), in addition to changes in portion size (i-frame). It is important that nudge interventions are supported by the s-framework to address the problem and produce solutions (see T able 1 and T able 2). 3.1. The Nudge in Behavioral Development Economics Behavioral development economics uses the theories and applications of behavioral eco- nomics, a combination of economics and psychology , to examine questions in development economics. A detailed study of behavioral development economics addressed preventive health as well as many development issues (Kremer , Rao & Schilbach, 2019). New literature emer ged ar guing that diversity in social preferences is an important driver of development and that providing incentives through policies that benefit people’ s health and well-being influence their behavior (Kremer , Rao & Schilbach, 2019). In behavioral development economics, a variety of experimental studies were designed and implemented (see Morris, Flores, Olinto, & Medina, 2004; Banerjee, Duflo, Glennerster , & Kothari, 2010; Banerjee & Duflo, 201 1), especially in light of the fact that the negative ef fects of poverty causally affect people’ s cognitive functions, decision-making, and pro- ductivity . As a result of these studies, people’ s quality of life, health-related well-being, and incomes are improved, and nudging is practiced ensuring their sustainability . 3.2. Health-r elated Nudges in Behavioral Development Economics W ith nudges, one of the application areas of behavioral economics, solutions were found to reduce biases that prevented people from engaging in behaviors that improved long-term health outcomes (Mehta & Asch, 2014). These biases were often predictable and used to promote healthy activities (Loewenstein, Brennan & V olpp, 2007). One belief is that it is unethical to of fer health-related choices and nudge people into the system. However , default options in healthcare are often unavoidable. For example, oncologists, emergency medical physicians, and cardiologists have a policy on how to care for patients who require emergency intervention. They offer medical and sur gical treatment options to these patients (Halpern, Ubel & Asch, 2007; Frank, 2016 [2007]). Determining which of the nudging methods is the most reasonable is more important in early detection, screening, protection, and preventive policymaking. 121 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ Giving people choices, changing behavior positively , and improving the well-being of patients or society are things that governments should care about. In general, nudges that im- prove the well-being of individuals or society are considered ethical. Nudge policies make a behavior a social norm. For example, in one state in America, according to the organ donation registration system, family consent is not required if the organ, of the person who agreed and registered to be an or gan donor , is to be removed at the appropriate time. This is important because, in another nudge, signing the back of a driver ’ s license is not considered legal accep- tance for organ donation. Family members can revoke the donor ’ s acceptance if they wish. T o prevent revocation, a signed donor card or a document signed by two witnesses is given to au- thorities. This can be done easily via the Internet. Donation pages on the Internet demonstrate social norms through the power of social influences: “87% of adults think that registering as an organ donor is the right way to go”, “60% of adults have registered to donate”, etc. (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009). This is because people easily accept and approve of doing what the major - ity approves and thinks is right. In this example, those who apply the nudge policy direct the existing norms toward life-saving options and do so without forcing anyone. Many people prefer to avoid making an active decision about donation, often accepting the default option. Making choices is stressful in some situations, such as or gan donation. For example, in the Netherlands, mailing people at home to ask them to become organ donors did not change the rate of active consent, but in some European countries of fering or gan donation as the default option on a document such as a driver ’ s license has increased participation. Making it costly to change the default (filling out a form to exit the system, making a phone call, sending mail, etc.) af fects retention (Johnson & Goldstein, 2003). A study on nudging and incentives was conducted in collaboration with the government in India. The potential and potential challenges of adopting such interventions as large-scale policies were assessed. Small incentives were given to parents and an impact evaluation was conducted. It was found that parents were engaged because of the incentives they received (Banerjee et al., 2010; Banerjee & Duflo, 201 1). In vaccination studies conducted to reduce infant and child mortality rates, experiments using various nudging methods such as food assistance to families, transportation to homes with mobile vaccine trucks, reducing drug prices, and educating families about immunity were found to increase vaccination rates and af fected children’ s success in education as they became healthier . T rusted camps with in- centives achieved significantly higher rates of full immunization for children aged 1-3 years compared to control sites with no camps and compared to trusted camps without incentives (Banerjee et al., 2010). NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 122 Several previous studies showed that the adoption of preventive and protective health behaviors was sensitive to small incentives or small costs. This suggests that incentives play an important role in improving health. 4. Early Diagnosis and Scr eening of Cancer in Türkiye People instinctively avoid situations where there is uncertainty . This is why many people skip or postpone regular annual health check-ups to avoid the detection of a particular disease. Cancer screening is one of the most important tools to reduce cancer deaths by facilitating early detection and prevention. There has been a significant increase in cancer -related deaths in Türkiye over the last two decades (The Ministry of Health of Türkiye W ebsite, 2023, Health Statistics Y earbook 2021). In fact, funding (see T able 3) and participation in cancer screening is inadequate (See T able 4). Nevertheless, the target for early detection of cancer is partially achieved. People who are screened are directed to advanced diagnostic centers, but it is up to them to decide whether they follow-up or not. In this context, it is important to increase people’ s health literacy . In Türkiye, cancer registry centers have collected cancer data in every province since 2013. The statistics obtained for this study data were made from the data of 14 provinces, so the representation of the country was ensured. In T able 3, the dif ference between the requested and allocated funds for cancer control activities was quite high (The Ministry of Health of the Republic of Türkı  ye W ebsite, 2023, Annual Report for 2022.). The allocation needs to be increased. The determinants of health demand were the GDP per capita, total health expendi - tures which means health investments, the total number of hospital beds and physicians per capita, life expectancy at birth, and the proportion of the elderly population (Sey & Demiröz, 2023). There is no publicly available record of cancer expenditures in Türkiye. Therefore, it was not possible to compare expenditures by year . T o ensure sustainability in the healthcare system, cancer -related expenditure data should be shared transparently . In this way , the cost of early diagnosis screening activities can be compared. In addition to the awareness-raising ef forts to combat cancer , there is a need to increase the number of specialized physicians, technicians, and cancer screening devices. In Türkiye, Cancer Early Diagnosis, Screening and Education Centers (CEDSTC) were established in 2004 to provide training to raise awareness of cancer among citizens and to provide free breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer screenings to the target population. CED- STC, which had 1 1 centers when it was first established, had a total of 364 centers by the end of 2022, 90 of which were independent, 230 of which were within Healthy Life Centers, and 129 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ as mentioned in the behavioral economics literature. First, the mental shortcuts they use to protect their health are defined. Then, a nudge suggestion is made by associating it with the nudge technique. In T able 2, within the framework of anomalies and biases in behavioral eco- nomics, nudge suggestions are made to encourage people to participate in cancer screening. 7. Conclusion A sustainable program that incorporates behavioral economics ideas applied to health care services could lead to changes through intelligently designed nudge policies. W ith this idea in mind, the early detection and screening studies on cancer in Türkiye were analyzed. Then, suggestions are made about nudge policies in behavioral development economics. People have negative feelings and thoughts about cancer and tend to avoid cancer screening for eco- nomic, social, and psychological reasons. Nudge policies designed based on descriptions of how people think and behave are in T ables 1 and 2. It is important to reach the target group directly and individually through messages, letters, and mobile transportation methods. The tools must be created to ensure that screening invitations are sent via message and mail and that a rejection form is received for those who do not want to be screened. The Ministry of Health stated that mobile transportation services are implemented in certain regions. This should be expanded throughout the country . Efforts should be made to ensure that individuals who are on leave from their workplace on the day of the screening should have letters sent to their homes to encourage participation in the screening on certain dates. In other words, screening should be the default option. If people want to opt out of the system, they should be asked to apply . In Türkiye, the opposite is the case, where people wait for months to apply for screening and to get an appointment at hospitals. In cases where appointments cannot be made, the screening is done by charging private examination fees at public hospitals. This situation should be reversed through nudging ef forts. When the entire tar get population is included for cancer screenings in Türkiye, the shortage of specialized physicians and techni- cians becomes obvious. In addition, there is also a lack of technical equipment for tests and screening. Therefore, it is essential to invest in this area to improve preventive and protective healthcare services. The necessary infrastructure should be prepared for the implementation of the nudge policies I propose in the field of health. For this reason, it is unlikely that they can be implemented immediately across the country , but efforts should be made quickly to implement them in regions with suf ficient physicians, technicians, and equipment. When the website of the Ministry of Health was analyzed based on the studies in the liter - ature, I think that the design of the website should be supported by professionals. It is among our recommendations that new images of people representing and reassuring people living in NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 130 Türkiye and screening videos should be added to the website. Explanations could be added to the website allowing individuals to normalize the situation and assume the risk and responsibility autonomously . Considering that not all individuals have access to the internet, television, etc., participation in cancer screening should be done with personalized nudging tools. T o better un - derstand which incentives and nudging practices have a positive effect on the target audience, and information about their emotional state could be obtained through a short survey on e-pulse, and personalized nudge messages and letters could then be sent. Although this is thought to be costly , the cost will decrease as people participate in the system. There is a need for more stud - ies and implementation of policies on nudging in the field of health. It is important to include specialized physicians, radiologists, and other health professionals among the policymakers as architects in the design of the nudging system for cancer screening. 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NA TO ASI Series, 56. Springer , Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-74919-3_4 W ebb, T .L., Chang, B.P .I., & Benn, Y . (2013), ‘The ostrich problem’: Motivated avoidance or rejection of information about goal progress. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 794-807. https://doi. org/10.1 1 1 1/spc3.12071 NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 134 T able 1. Nudge Exa m ples a nd Re co m m en d at ion s for P r event ive Ca nc e r Sc re e n i ng f or C og n itive Shor t c ut s i n B ehav ior a l E con om ics Heuri st ics De scr ipti on Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) * A nchor i ng I n ma ny ca se s , i nd ivid u a ls s et a st ar t i ng p oi n t , i.e. a n a nc hor, i n t hei r mi nd s befor e e st im a t i ng a qu a ntit y a nd a dju s t t he i r es t i mat io n a ro u n d t h i s a nc hor (1) . T he r e a so n s for s t a r t i n g sc r e e n i n g at a n e a rly a ge sho u ld be n or ma l i z e d a nd em ph a si z e d t o t he t ar get e d a ud ie n ce. If t he ma m mog r a m r e s u lt is go o d , t h ey may p e r ce ive t h i s a s a n a n chor a nd may no t co me a ga i n , s o t he y sho u ld be r e m i nde d why it is n e ce s s a r y for t he f ut u re (2 ). It ca n b e re m em be r e d t h at c a n ce r c a n b e d ia g nose d no t on ly at a n a d va n ce d a ge but a l so a t a you ng a ge o r eve n a s a ba by , so t h e i mp o r t a nc e of ea rl y d ia g n osi s c a n b e nor m al i z e d a n d em ph a si z e d (2 ). Affect I nd iv idu al s e val u at e o pt io n s ac c or d i n g t o ba sic e mo t ion a l re a c t ion s su ch a s goo d / ba d, li ke/ d isl i ke, an d ap p ro a ch / avoida nce (3) . St r on g po sit ive fe el i ng s ab ou t sc r e e n i n g ca n b e evoke d . Ex p e ct at ion s of neg at ive af fe c t s uch a s s ha me an d fea r ca n be co u nt e r e d ( 4). Posit ive em ot io na l a s p e ct s s u ch a s t he r el ief t he y w i l l feel af te r t h e sc r e e n i n g, h av i ng i nfor m at io n ab ou t t hei r hea lt h , a nd t ak in g a ct io n for t h i s c a n b e em ph a si z e d . Re a so na ble co u nt e r a r g u me nt s o r ways of co pi n g w it h ne ga t ive em ot io n s su ch a s fe a r, sha m e, a n d pa i n c a n b e p rov ide d ( 4). A v ail ab ility I nd iv idu al s som et im e s eval u at e t he f r e q ue nc y or li keli h oo d of a n even t ac c ord ing t o t he f r e q ue nc y or e a se of re c a l l i ng si mi l a r pa s t exp e r ienc e s a nd exa mples rel at e d to t h at eve nt ( 1 ). T he f re q ue nc y of po sit ive me s sa ge s en c ou rag ing s c r e en in g w i l l e n su re t h at t h ey st ick a nd com e t o m i n d i m med i at ely . Ea s y-t o - u nde r st an d pe r s on a l st o r ie s , powe r f ul a nd viv id im a ge s t h at ap p e a l to em ot io n s, a nd mem or a ble st i mul i c a n b e u se d ( 4) . W hen c om mu n ic at i ng ab out c a n ce r s c re e n i ng, st rong em ot io n s ca n b e e voked by u si ng po sit ive a nd v iv id la ng u age a nd me mor a ble p er son al s t or ies ( 4). Repre se ntat ivenes s I n d iv id u a ls s om et i mes e va lu at e t he p rob ab il it y or f req ue n cy of a n eve nt ba s e d on h ow si m i la r it is t o si m ila r exp e r ie n ce s a n d a ss u mpt ion s t h ey h ave ha d i n t he p a st ( 1 ). Emp h a si z i n g t he si mi la r it ie s b et wee n t he cha ra c t e r i st ics of scr e e ne r s s u ch a s ge nd e r, et h n ic ide nt it y , e t c. a nd t h e p eo ple t o be sc r e e ne d m ay c re at e b e hav io r al c ha nge ( 4) . Sc r ee n in g ca n b e p re s e nt e d to t he t a rg et e d au d ie nc e for ca n c er s c r e en in g i n a n ide nt if iable way a n d re p r es e nt ative of t he m . I nd icat e whe t he r wom en o r me n a r e doi ng th e sc r e e n i n g, a dd re ss t hem a c c ord ing ly i f t he y have a d i f fe r en t et h n ic ide nt it y a nd , i f p o ssi ble, h ave pe o ple f r om t h e s a me e t h nic g r ou p do t h e sc r e e n i n g ( 4). P rov id i ng i m m igr a nts a n d ref uge e s w it h t h e op t ion of a he alt hca r e pr ofes sion a l or physic ia n w ho s pe a ks t h ei r la ng u age (2 ). ( s -f r a m e ) *s-f ra m e re c o m m e nd at ion s a re i n p a r e nt h e se s; a l l ot her s ar e i-f ra m e. Sourc e: ( 1 ) ( T ve r sk y & Ka h ne m a n , 197 4); ( 2) cr e at e d by t he aut hor; (3 ) (Slovic , Fi nuc a n e, Pe t e r s , & Ma c G rego r, 20 02); ( 4) ( P u r n el l et a l ., 20 15) 135 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ T able 2 . Ex a mples a n d Sug ges t ion s of Nudges for P r event ive Ca nc e r Sc re e n i ng f or S ome Cog nit ive Bias es a n d A n oma l ies i n Behav ior al E c onom ics Biases and Ano ma l ies De scr ipt ion N udge De scr ipti on Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) * Overconf idence People’ s s u bje ct ive con f ide nc e i n t he i r a bi l it ie s is h ighe r t ha n t hei r objec t ive p e r for m a nc e ( 1 ). P re v iou s p o sit ive ex p er ien ce s of t he t ar get g rou p may le a d t o over c on f id en c e i n t he i r t houg ht s ab out t he po ssi bi l it y o f b ei ng il l (2 ). T he y sho u ld b e g iven r e p e at e d i n fo r mat io n ab ou t t he d i ag nosi s a nd p rog nosi s b e ca u se t hey a re n ot awa r e of th ei r lack of k nowledge . T he y sho u ld be re m i nde d of th e sc r e e n i n g d at e b e c au s e t he y m ay be overc o n f ide nt t h at t hey w i ll n ot for get t h e d a te (2 ). U nr ea lis tic Op timi sm It is t h e t e nde n cy t o b el ieve t h at i n d iv id u a ls a re les s l i kely to e xp e r ienc e ne ga t ive even t s a nd mo r e li kely to ex p e r ie n ce po sit ive eve nt s t h a n o t he r pe o ple ( 3 ). T he t ar get g rou p m ay be o pt i mi st ic th at t hey w i l l not ge t ca nce r, but sc r e e n i ng m ay s how ot he r w i se (4 ) . I nd ivid u a l r i sk e s t i m a te s s u ch a s fa m ily h i st o r y , li fe st yle, a nd l iv ing e nv i ron ment c a n b e p rov id ed a nd a n a p pr op r iat e ex pla n at ion ca n b e ma de ( 4). Fr am in g Ef fe c t T he w ay choic e s a r e pr e se nt e d de t er m i nes wh ich opt io n t he t a r get a ud ienc e w i l l pr efe r ( 5). Mes s age s c ou ld b e s e nt e mph a si z ing t hat rou t i n e sc r e e n i n g de t e ct s ca nc e r ea rly pre vent s de at h a nd shor t e n s t he d u r atio n of th e d i se a s e. A n ot he r w ay of f r a m ing c ou ld b e t o d es ig n t h e f r a mi ng que s t ion f rom b eh av ior al ec o nom ics for sc r e e n i n g a nd s e nd it a s a me s s age: “ W ou ld you r at h e r be 9 0 % su re t h at you d o not h ave ca n ce r o r not b e ab solu t ely su re ? ” “ W ou ld you b e w i l l i ng t o los e 30 yea r s o f you r li fe to avoid sp e nd in g ha l f a d ay w it h l it tle or n o d is c om for t? ” ( 4) . Fra m e t he b e nef it s of sc re e n ing r e s u lt s t h rou g h me ss a ge s t o pr omo t e sc r e e n i n g ( 4). L o s s Av e r s i o n I nd iv idu al s fe el t he p a i n of los se s a l m os t t wic e a s muc h a s t he ple a su re of t he s a me nu mbe r of gai ns. T her efor e, t h ey p refe r to avoid los s e s r at h e r t h a n po te n t ia l ga i ns , even i f t h e va lue a nd p rob ab il it y of bot h choic e s a re t he sa me (6). It is ne c e ss a r y t o d r aw a t te nt ion t o lo s se s s uch a s well- s p e nt l i fe ac t iv it ies i f sc r e e n i n g is n ot pe r for m e d a nd g ai ns s uch a s pea c e of m i n d if sc r e e n i n g is p e r fo r med ( 4) . Ex pla i n t h e be n ef its of sc r e e n i n g. Emp ha siz e t he lo ss of he a lt hy l i fe ex pe c t a ncy i f t he y a r e not s c re e ne d (2 ). I n c a se s wh e re a sc r e e n i n g ap p oi nt ment ca n not b e ma de, a pa id e xamina tio n/ scr eenin g opt ion is ava i la ble. However, th i s p r a ct ice shou ld b e d on e away w it h , a nd t he sys t e m shou ld b e d e sig n e d to alw ays p rov id e f r e e exa mi nat io n for e a rly d ia g n osi s (2 ). ( s -f ra me ) v NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 136 T able 2 . C ont i nued Biases and Ano ma l ies De scr i pt ion Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) * Pr e se nt bi a s It is t he t e nd en cy t o b e co nt e nt w it h a s m al l re wa r d i n t h e pr e se nt r at h e r t h a n loo k i ng for wa rd t o a la rger re wa r d i n t h e f ut u re (7 ). People m ay not u nde r s t a n d t he h a r m of not ge t t in g sc r e e ne d . P r ovid ing cle a r i n st r uct ions c a n help. D e spit e t h is, som et im e s pe o ple may r e a ct by d oi n g t he op p osit e of wh at t h ey a r e a d v is e d. I n th is ca s e, r e m i n d i n g t he m t h at t hey have a s ay i n t he i r b eh av io r a nd t h a t t he y ca n m a ke a choic e ca n i ncr e a se t hei r c om mit me nt to t he hea lt h s ys t e m a nd r e du c e t hei r re a c t ion s (2 ). It is ap p ro pr iat e t o ex pla i n t o t h e t a r ge t g r ou p t he p o sit ive co nt r ibu t ion of t he d e ci sion t o b e sc r e e ne d t o t he i r h ea lt h i n th e pr e se nt (2 ). Ster e oty ping Bias It o c cu rs w he n i nd iv idu al s u s e so c ia l cat e gor ies ( e.g. r a c e/ et h n icit y an d ge nd e r ) to a c q u i r e, m e nt a l ly pr oc e s s, a nd re me mb e r in for m at ion about ot he r s (8 ). Physici a n s m ay h ave pr ec o nc e pt io n s of bei n g le ss w il l i ng t o i n t er act w ith m i n or it y g r ou p s. Peo ple f r om d i f fe r e nt et h n ic g r ou ps /r a c e or g en de r m ay h ave be e n p re v iou sly ev al u at e d d i f fe r e ntly by physic ia n s (9 ). It is re c om me nd ed t o c r e at e i nclu sive a n d u n de r s t a n d a ble me ss a ge s for p e ople of d if fere nt e t h n ic g r ou ps /r a c e s or ge nde r s (2 ). Ap pr op r iat e re p r e se nt at ion s a nd ex pla n at ions t h a t i m mig ra nt s, ref uge e s, a nd pe ople of d i f fe re nt et h n ic g r ou ps /r a c e s or ge n de r s ca n u nde r s t a n d ca n b e a d d ed t o t he i m a ge s on t h e web sit e (2 ). (s - f r a m e) St at us quo bi as I n d iv id u a ls c o nt i n ue t o ma i n t a i n t h ei r cu r re nt sit uat ion or do n ot t a ke a ny a ct ion to ch a n ge t hei r cu r r en t sit uat ion (10) . Som e pe o ple ig no r e or t ole r at e so me sy mpt om s of il l nes s u nti l t h ey b e c ome se r ious a n d pa i nf ul , so it m ay b e ne c e ss a r y to p r ovid e t he m w ith i n ce nt ives to c a r e for t he m s elves (2 ). Go t o t h e loc at ions of t he t ar get g r ou p w it h mo bile s c r e en in g veh icles o r i nv it e t hem t o t he rele va nt lo c at io n a nd p rov id e i n for ma t ion a nd re m i nde r s v ia let te r, em ai l , or t e xt a b out how long t h e sc r e e n i ng vehicle s w i ll b e t h e re. O f fe r au t om at ic en rol l me n t i n t he s c r e en in g sy st e m , i.e. a s a def au lt o pt io n. If t hey wa nt t o o pt ou t of sc r e e n i n g, t he y ca n f i l l i n a for m. T he y ca n be a ske d for t hei r prefe r re d s c re e n i ng d at e t h roug h appl ica t ion s (2 ). I nves t ment s hou ld b e m a d e to develo p d r ug s or v a cc i n es t o c u re c a n c e r. Scie nt ist s a n d su rge on s s hou ld b e t r a i ned i n t hi s f ield. T o p r even t ca n ce r, i nc e nt ive s shou ld b e p rov id e d to p r od u ce he alt hy f o o d ( fo o d s w it h a d d it ive s shou ld a lway s b e i n s p e ct e d). Env i ron ment al fa c to r s t h at c au se ca n ce r s hou ld b e b a n ned (2 ). (s - f r a m e) 137 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ T able 2 . C ont i nued Biases and Ano ma l ies Des cr ipt i on Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) * Ost r ich bias It is a cog n it ive bia s t h at s t a t e s t h at pe o ple avoid or reje c t neg at ive i n f o r mat ion whe n mo n it or i ng t hei r cu r r en t sit uat ion ( 11) . Som et ime s p e o ple close t h ei r mi n d s t o p os si ble me d ic al p ro blem s t o avoid em ot io na l p ai n. Ev e n wh e n i nd iv idu al s sh ow sig n s of ca n ce r, t hey m ay ig nore it . T h i s is w hy ma ny ser iou s but p r even t a ble co nd it io n s , su ch a s b re a s t ca n c e r, ar e of t e n d ia g n os e d at a mu ch lat e r a nd more s eve r e st age be c au s e p e ople do n ot pr ior it i ze ex a m i n a t ion s a nd sc re e n i ng for t hei r hea lt h . Bei ng awa re of os t r ich ef fe c t s ca n l ea d t o e a rl ie r d is e a se d et e c t io n a nd c a n eve n pr e vent a c on d it io n f r om ge t ti ng wors e. Peo ple avoid mon it or in g, m a k in g it d if f ic u lt t o t a ke act ion a nd f i nd t h e mo st a p pr op r i at e way t o do s o (2 ). Emp h a si z e t he i r r eleva nce of st ate me nt s such a s “ ig nor a nc e i s bli s s” . Em ph a si z e p e ople’ s d e si r e for sel f-p ro t ec t io n a nd s el f- i mp r oveme nt . En s u re t ha t t he y co nt i n ue a l l p osit iv e a n d neg at iv e follow-up s rel at e d t o s c re e n i ng. Ex pla i n t h e po sit ive a s p e ct s of hav i ng f u l l i nfor ma t ion a b out t hei r he alt h ( 2 ). Opt- i n a nd opt- out O pt-in r e q u i r e s a pe r s on t o a c t ively ag re e to p a r t ici pa te , whe r e a s opt- out a ss u mes t h at a p e r s on pa r t ici pa t es u n le ss t he y ref us e ( 12 ). Set t i ng def au lt op t ion s h a s be e n show n t o i nc r ea se en ga ge me nt i n ca nce r di ag nos t ic i m ag ing ( 12 ). Defa u lt opt ions a r e offe re d ( 1 3 ). Autom a t ic i nclu sio n i n th e sc r e e n i n g sys t em , wa it i ng f o r an ap pl ic at io n to opt ou t of t he syst e m . Of fe r it a s t h e def au lt o pt io n , i.e. aut o e n rolle d i n the sc r e e n i n g sy st e m . Sc r ee n in g is of fe re d “on d em a nd” , w it h a r ef u sal for m if t hey w is h t o opt o ut of sc r e e n i n g (2) . Om is si on bias It is t h e t e nde n cy to c ho os e t he b a d co n se q ue n ce s of i n a ct ion ra t he r t h a n cho osi ng ac t io n ( 1 4) . Def au lt o pt io n s a r e offe r e d ( 13 ). Aut om at ic i nclus ion i n t he s c r e en in g sy st e m , wa it i ng for a n ap pl ica t ion t o opt- out ( 2) . Projec t ion bia s It refe r s t o t he te n de n cy of i nd iv idu al s t o er ro ne ou s ly a s s u m e t h at t he i r p r efer e nc e s w i ll r e m a i n t he s a m e i n t he f ut u re ( 15). Co n se nt c a n b e obt ai ne d by i nfor m i n g i nd ivid u a ls . T he d efa u lt op t ion s hou ld b e de sig ned t o e n s u re t h at i n d iv id u a ls a re f u l ly aw a r e of th e po t e nt ia l co n se q ue n ce s of t hei r hea lt h -r ela t e d de ci sion s ( 1 5). I nd ivid u a ls c a n b e pr e se n te d w it h a na r r at ive t h at i nclu de s t h e sho r t- an d long- t er m e mot ions of pe o ple w it h si m ila r e xp e r ien ce s i n t he pa st . A d efau lt o pt ion ca n b e p re s e nt e d t h at p rov id es i nfor m at io n ab out t he de ci sion s of t he s e a no ny mou s pe o ple w it h ex p e r ie n ce (15 ) . NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . . 138 T able 2 . C ont i nued Biases and Ano ma l ies Des cr ipt i on Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) * Peak a nd En d Ru le P e o ple te n d t o re me m be r t h ei r ex pe r ien ce s l a rgely ac c or d i n g t o how t he y felt at t he p e a k a nd a t t he e nd , rat her t h a n a cc o rd i ng to t h e su m or aver a ge of ea ch m om e nt of th e ex pe r ien ce ( 1 6 ). If t hey have c a nc e r, the y m ay re m em be r t he pe a k mom e nt s of th e eve nt ; if n ot , t he y m ay re m em be r t hat t he m a m mog r a m w a s a bit pa i n f u l (2 ). A lt ho ug h s c r e en in g may c au se shor t-t e r m pa i n , it c a n b e em ph a si z e d t h at it i s ne c e ss a r y for a he a lt hy l i fe i n t he f u t u re (2 ). Le a r ne d he lp le s sn e ss bel ief T he b el ief t h at o ne ha s l it tle c ont rol over a sit ua t ion a nd t h at no a c t io n ca n i mp r ove or cha n ge t he ou t co me ( 1 7 ). I n t h i s c a se , t he p e r ce p t ion t hat t h e pr og r e s sion of a d is e a se i s b eyond o ne’ s con t r ol may le a d t o a l a ck of co mpl ia n c e w it h ap p ro pr iat e mo n it o r i ng or t r e at me nt (2) . I nd ivid u a ls c a n b e g iven l et te r s e mp ha siz i n g t h at d is e a se s a r e c ont roll able a n d t h at t he y sho u ld t a ke c ont rol of th ei r l ive s. E xp e r t su p po r t ca n b e pr ov ide d , a nd sc r e e n i n g ca n b e m a d e t he d efau lt o pt ion ( 2 ). So ci a l i dent it y bia s People a c t ba s e d on g roup id e nt it ie s . It is t he t e nd e nc y to s e e t he m s elves i n a g roup a m ong ot he r s w ith si m ila r cha ra c t e r i st ics ( 1 8) . T h i s se n s e of belon g i n g or not b elo ng i n g t o a g r ou p may i nf lu e nc e pa t ie nt s’ de ci sion s t o se e k or a c c e pt me d ic al c a r e ( 1 9 ). Ex pla n at o r y let t e r s a nd me ss ag es c a n b e s en t t o mobi l i z e d if fere nt e t h n ic/soc ia l g r ou ps l iv ing i n th e co u nt r y , m ig r a nts , et c. i n a way th a t t he y w i l l u nd e r s t a n d (2 ). So ci a l / c u lt u r a l norm Peo ple w i l l obs e r ve wh at mo st of t ho se i n t he i r p e e r g roup a re d oi n g a nd i m ita t e t hei r beh av ior (20) . L ow-in co me a d u lt s w i l l b e le ss l i kely to be s c r e en e d if t hey do no t k now abou t ca nce r i f t he y k now th at ot he r s i n sim ila r in co me g roup s do n ot s c re e n for ca n ce r, or i f t he y do no t k now anyon e who h a s b e e n sc r e e ne d (2 ). W hen p e ople t h ey t r u s t , s uch a s h e alt h w o rke r s a n d physic ia n s , i n s t r u c t t he m t o t a ke act ion, t h ey u s u a l ly li s t en . P r ov ide e v ide n ce a b out s o cia l no r ms o r st or ies f r om si mi l a r p e ople sc r e e ne d (2 ). S UST AINABLE D EVELOPMENT G OAL CHAPTER 9 A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE Özlem YORULMAZ 1 1 Assoc. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Econometrics, İstanbul, Türkiye E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-1029-5749 DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.009 Abstract One of the most basic human needs is access to clean water and sanitation. The availability of adequate drinking water is essential for societies’ health, economic development, and social welfare. However , decreasing water resources due to urbanization, pollution, climate change, and insufficient investment in this regard threaten water resources. For this reason, the water issue has been moved to the top of the world agenda and became part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6) in 2015. The EIA (2020) report highlights that the most critical environmental problem in Türkiye is water pollution. In this chapter , access to clean water and sanitation in Türkiye between 2000-2020 was evaluated with Boxplots compared to OECD countries. In the next stage, the relationship between SDG 6 and poverty , education, health, and gender inequality indicators for OECD countries was investigated. Based on these indicators, OECD countries were divided into clusters, and it was investigated whether there was a difference between these clusters in terms of SDG 6. Keywords: Cluster Analysis, Kruskal W alis T est, SGD 6, W ater and Sanitation PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE 244 1. Intr oduction Although the growth rate of the world population has slowed down compared to previous decades, it continues to increase. As a result of this situation, societies face many problems, such as poverty , famine, health problems, climate crises, and decreasing biodiversity . T o overcome these problems and to live in a cleaner , more equitable, more prosperous, more peaceful, and better environment, United Nations Member States agreed on 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 as a universal call to action. SDGs, aimed to be achieved by 2030, are based on ending poverty and hunger , strengthening healthy and prosperous societies and women, ending climate change, decreasing biodiversity , and increasing envi- ronmental pollution. At the point of realizing these goals, global solidarity is very important, as well as the ef forts of citizens and governments. Policymakers and academics have adopted the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals in order to realize the concepts of “equality , efficiency , and sustainability” (Ghosh, Bhowmick & Saha, 2020). All SDGs are built on optimizing hu- man-human and human-nature interactions and their interconnections (Ghosh, Bhowmick & Saha, 2020); access to education, employment opportunities, health services, access to food, drinking water , and sanitation are prominent parameters in the development of countries (Oswald, 1997; Sen, 2000). On the other hand, there is a positive and significant correla- tion between public spending and the achievement of SDG targets (Sachs et al.,2022). The correlation between government spending and the SDG Index score is relatively stronger in low-income countries (Sachs et al., 2022). The recent Covid-19 epidemic, natural disasters, armed conflict, and wars have cost many lives. These difficulties have negatively affected almost every aspect of human life, from health to livelihoods, food security , job loss, human rights, and gender equality (ESCAP , 2021). For this reason, years of progress in ending poverty , access to food, safe water and sanitation, and access to energy have slowed down (UN, 2023). The world is behind the tar gets set for 2030 as these crises affect many intertwined environmental, economic, and social events (UN, 2023). The SDG index score average has fallen over the past two years as Covid 19, war , and natural disasters have delayed the recovery of poor countries (Sachs et al.,2022). Furthermore, the projections made by the researchers for the coming periods will be that the ef fects of climate change will be more serious than the previous forecasts (Kikstra et al., 2022), the expected way to reduce poverty will not be taken (Si et al. 2020), and the water scarcity problem will deepen (He et al., 2021). 245 Özlem YORULMAZ The sixth of the 17 SDG tar gets, prominent for developing societies, relates to vital water and sanitation. SDG 6 is about “Ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” (Assembly , 2015). SDG 6 has an important relationship with natural, social, and physical capital (Ghosh, Bhowmick & Saha, 2020). W ater resources and sanitation are closely related to other development issues such as food hygiene, health, agri- culture, industrial growth, ener gy production, and ecosystem (UN, 2018). As a result of cli- mate change, reasons such as increasing temperatures, increasing population, desertification, urbanization, and pollution cause water-related problems to expand. Inadequate water supply and unsafe sanitation cause serious health problems. There is a strong relationship between water , sanitation, and public health (Roy and Pramanick, 2019). For example, it is important to improve water and sanitation to solve cases such as diarrhea, ascariasis, cholera, scabies, trachoma, and amebiasis encountered in poor countries (Bartram and Cairncross, 2010). In the long run, increased access to food due to water and sanitation improvement will result in better educational performance and an improved labor market (Paunio and Acharya, 2008). SDG 6 and other Sustainable Development Goals are related; improvement in one posi- tively af fects other sustainability goals. Access to safe water and improved sanitation af fects these goals: eradicating poverty (SDG 1), ending hunger with enhanced nutrition (SDG 2), promoting wellness (SDG 3), quality education (SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5), cities of inclusion (SDG 1 1), underwater life (SDG 14), and terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15) (Bharat, Dkhar and Abraham, 2020). In this sense, realizing SDG 6 targets will also improve other SDG indicators. In this sense, it is important to actualize the SDG 6 targets, as they are both vital and pave the way for realizing other sustainability goals. In the past 20 years, the proportion of the world population using safely managed drinking water has increased from 62% to 74%, and similarly , recovery has been observed to access safe sanitation. However , today , 2.2 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water , and 3.4 billion people do not have access to safe sanitation (UN, 2023). These numbers show that there is still a long way to go to reach the 2030 targets. Additionally , it is predicted that one out of every four people will experience water scarcity in 2050 (SUEV , 2020). There are six SDG 6 goals planned to be achieved by 2030. These are as follows (UN, 2018): “Safe and affor dable drinking water; end open defecation and pr ovide access to sanitation and hygiene; impr ove water quality , wastewater tr eatment and safe r euse; incr ease water use efficiency and secur e fr eshwater r esour ces; implement integrated water r esour ces management; pr otect and r estor e aquatic ecosystems.” A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE 246 Some of the indicators used to measure these six targets are as follows: “Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services”, “Proportion of the population us- ing safely managed sanitation services”, “Proportion of safely treated domestic and industrial wastewater streams”, “W ater stress indicator: freshwater as a proportion of available fresh- water resources gravity”, “Proportion of transboundary catchment area with an operational arrangement for water cooperation” and “Change in the extent of water -related ecosystems over time”. The water stress indicator , one of the targets used in the measurement of SDG 6, has se- rious negative effects on human life and livelihoods (WRI, 2023). W ater stress is “extremely high” in 17 countries that comprise a quarter of the world’ s population. On the other hand, Türkiye’ s water stress level is defined as the “high baseline” and ranks 32 nd among 164 coun- tries (WRI, 2023). This chapter aims to examine in detail the issue of access to safe water and sanitation in Türkiye. For this purpose, the development of Türkiye in the last 20 years according to SDG 6 indicators, the comparison of this development process with other OECD countries, the relationship between SDG 6 and other sustainability tar gets, the determination of dif ferent OECD country groups in terms of SDG 6 indicators, and recommendations are included. 2. SDG 6 and Türkiye Türkiye is a country that does not have rich water resources, and it is estimated that the amount of water per capita will decrease by 32% in 2030 compared to the previous decade due to increasing population, urbanization, and drought (EIA, 2020). Ranking 72 out of 166 countries in the SDG 2023 report, it has been stated that Türkiye has a moderately improving trend in SDG 6 and still faces significant challenges. According to the EIA 2020 report, water pollution, the prior environmental problem in 27 of the 81 provinces in Türkiye, the second priority in 30, and the third priority environ- mental problem in 16, stands out as an important ecological problem in 73 provinces in total. According to this report, 26% of surface water resources contain high-quality water , 18% slightly polluted water , 21% contaminated water , and 35% heavily polluted water , while 69% of groundwater resources are of good quality and 31% are of poor quality . Domestic wastes, agricultural wastes, and industrial wastes are shown as the most important causes of pollution of water resources and seas, respectively . It is stated that the most important cause of domestic wastewater -sourced pollution is the insufficient sewerage network in the provincial centers and the lack of treatment in the districts. In addition, according to the survey results of the 247 Özlem YORULMAZ EIA 2020 report, the difficulties encountered in the prevention of water pollution are, in order of importance, treatment plants that could not be established due to financial impossibilities, lack of awareness, insuf ficient inspection, and legal deficiencies. Although the amount of water used per capita in Türkiye is lower than 20 years ago, the amount of wastewater produced increased in this process. On the left side of the panel in Figure 1 is a graph of the amount of water withdrawn by the municipalities and the amount of wastewater discharged (per capita, liter). Graphs are based on T urkStat statistics for the years 1995-2020. It is observed that wastewater has an increasing trend until 2012, and after 2015, it follows a partially horizontal course. While the amount of wastewater withdrawn was 126 liters per person in 1995, it increased to 189 liters in 2020. While the amount of sewage per capita is 189 liters in Türkiye in 2020, it is 1 17 liters in Germany , an OECD country . When the amount of water used per capita in Türkiye is analyzed, an increasing trend is observed between 1995-2000. It followed a decreasing trend after 2005 and reached its lowest level in 2015. After 2015, it entered an increasing trend. The amount of water distributed from munic- ipalities in 2020 is 228 liters per person. In response to this, the amount of water consumed per capita is 125 liters in Germany and 101 liters in Denmark (Statista, 2020). The number of drinking water and wastewater treatment plants increased rapidly in Tür- kiye, which can be seen in the right part of Figure 1 panel. W ith the increase in the number of plants, an increase has been observed in the ratio of those who receive safe drinking water and sanitation services to the total population (TURKST A T , 2020). W ith the increasing population in Türkiye, there has been an increase in the total amount of water drawn by the municipalities from year to year . However , as seen in Figure 2, there was a break in the total amount of water withdrawn in 2005. W ith the decrease in the total amount of water withdrawn per capita (Figure 1), there has been a change in the slope. In 2020, municipalities drew 6.5 billion m3 of water from water sources to drinking and utility water networks. 40.9% of the withdrawn water was obtained from dams, 29.3% from wells, 15.6% from springs, 10.1% from rivers, and 4% from lakes, ponds, or seas (TURKST A T , 2020). Similarly , the total amount of wastewater drawn by municipalities has increased in parallel with the increase in population (Figure 3). 4.4 billion m3 of 5 billion m3 of sewage discharged from the sewerage network by municipalities in 2020 was treated in wastewater treatment plants. Advanced treatment was applied to 50.7%, biological treatment to 27.1%, physical treatment to 21.9%, and natural treatment to 0.3% of the treated wastewater . Of the treated A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE 248 wastewater , 46.4% goes to the river , 42.8% to the sea, 3% to the dam, 1.2% to the lake pond, 0.3% to the land, and 6.2% to other receivers discharged into the environment. 1.6% of this treated wastewater is used for industry , agricultural irrigation, etc. It was determined that it was reused in some areas (TURKST A T , 2020). Figure 1. The amount of water withdrawn by the municipalities and the amount of wastewater discharged (Left side). Number of drinking water treatment plants and the number of wastewater treatment plants (Right side). 249 Özlem YORULMAZ 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Total 60000 65000 70000 75000 80000 85000 Population 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Years Population Total Population & Total Water abstraction for municipal water supply network Figure 2. T otal water abstraction for municipal water supply network A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE 250 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Total 60000 65000 70000 75000 80000 85000 Population 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Years Population Total Total amount of wastewater discharged from municipal sewerage Figure 3. T otal amount of wastewater discharged from municipal sewerage Although Türkiye’ s SDG index score has been on an increasing trend in the last 20 years (66.1 in 2000, 66.8 in 2005, 69.26 in 2010, 69.53 in 2015, and 70.6 in 2020), it ranks 36th in the group of 38 OECD countries, below the OECD average. Considering the “Proportion of the population using safely managed water services,” “Proportion of the population using safely managed sanitation services,” and “Proportion of the population using at least basic drinking water services, when the changes in OECD countries between 2000-2020 are examined, it is seen that Türkiye stands out as an outlier (Figure 4 & 5). Since there is no “Proportion of the population using safely managed water services” data for Türkiye, “Proportion of the population using unimproved drinking water sources” statistics are considered. The boxplots in Figure 4 and Figure 5 provide information about the average scores and variability (development process) of the 20-year SDG6 indicators of the countries. All the average scores are based on the median, resistant to outliers. Figures 4 & 5 only cover the 19 oldest OECD countries. 257 Özlem YORULMAZ Ta b l e 2 . Pa i r w is e C omp a r ion s of clus te r s ( Dw a ss - St e el- Cr it ch low-F l ig n e r ) a . sa fel y ma na ge d s an ita t i on s er v ic e s b. a t least basic sanitat ion ser v ices Clust er s W p Clust er s W p 1 2 -1 .16 0.6 89 1 2 -1. 6 6 0.4 6 8 1 3 - 4.25 0.0 08 1 3 -3 . 2 8 0.05 3 2 3 -3. 8 0 0.020 2 3 -1. 4 0 0. 583 c . at le a st ba s ic wa te r se r v ice s d. s a fel y ma na ge d wat er s er v ic e s Clust er s W p Clust er s W p 1 2 -3 .7 1 0.0 24 1 2 - 4.4 8 0.0 0 4 1 3 -3. 9 6 0.01 4 1 3 -3. 9 0 0.0 1 6 2 3 -1. 8 0 0 . 411 2 3 -3 . 59 0.03 0 The relationship between SDG 6 and other sustainability goals (education, health, poverty , and gender equality) mentioned in the literature has also been confirmed for OECD countries. In particular , the strong relationship between gender inequality and SDG 6 components stands out. On the other hand, we cannot say that all OECD countries have the same standards in terms of SDG 6 components (except for “at least basic sanitation services”). 4. Conclusions and Recommendations W ater and sanitation are not only essential for human survival but are also necessary to support other sustainable development goals. Reasons such as increasing population, changing climatic conditions, wrong policies, and pollution cause a decrease in water resources. SDG 6, adopted by the member states of the United Nations, aims to improve safe drinking water and sanitation by 2030 and to make them accessible to all. Türkiye does not have rich water resources; according to the projections, the amount of water per capita in 2030 will decrease by 32% compared to the previous decade (EIA, 2020). The daily per capita water and wastewater amounts are higher in Europe than in many coun- tries with low water stress levels. Indiscriminate and excessive use of water resources causes natural resources to face depletion. The importance of the SDG goals for national develop- ment should often be stressed. Indicators used to evaluate SDG 6 have improved for Türkiye in the last 20 years, and progress has been made. However , these indicators are still below OECD countries. The study found significant relationships between SDG 6 indicators of OECD countries and GNI, edu- cation, health, and gender inequality indicators. This finding is consistent with the literature. The strongest relationship is between gender inequality and SDG 6 indicators. When SDG 6 and GNI, education, health, and gender inequality variables are taken into account, it is seen A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE 258 that OECD countries are grouped into 3 clusters. When these country groups were evaluated in terms of SDG 6 indicators, it was seen that they had statistically dif ferent averages. While 33% of water resources in Europe are used for irrigation purposes, this rate is 73% in Türkiye (TURKST A T , 2020). T reated water is widely used for irrigation worldwide, and wastewater recovery activities are common. However , 1.7% of the total wastewater is reused in Türkiye. According to the EIA 2020 report, water pollution is one of the most important problems in Türkiye’ s provinces. Domestic wastewater is one of the most important causes of water pollution. There needs to be more treatment facilities for domestic wastewater for recovery (EIA, 2020). In Türkiye, there is a problem with excessive use of natural resources, wastes arising from unplanned and rapid industrialization and urbanization, and water treatment plants with low capacity (ÇED, 2020). The increase in treatment facilities will help improve SDG 6 indicators for Türkiye. The consequences of water and sanitation on the quality of life associated with better health systems and poverty reduction should be measured and evaluated by policymak - ers and NGOs. Campaigns and information meetings should be organized to share the results of these evaluations. Preventing pollution is important for water resources because working on contaminated resources will be more dif ficult. Therefore, it is important to support awareness-raising and behavior change campaigns by stakeholders such as educational institutions and the media on wise water use, the separation of household waste, the problems caused by water pollution, the importance of SDG 6 goals, and their relationship with other sustainability goals. On the other hand, farmers should be informed about efficient water use, and investments should be made in modernizing irrigation infrastructures and using treated wastewater . Legal arrange- ments should be made regarding the optimal use of water and wastewater recycling policies. Refer ences Assembly , G. (2015). Sustainable development goals. SDGs T ransform Our W orld , 2030 , 6-28. Bartram, J., & Cairncross, S. (2010). Hygiene, sanitation, and water: for gotten foundations of health. PLoS medicine , 7 (1 1), e1000367. EIA report, 2020. Ç evresel Etki Değerlendirme Raporu, Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı. https://ced.csb.gov .tr/ turkiye-cevre-sorunlari-ve-oncelikleri-raporu-i-82679 . ESCAP , U. (2021). Responding to the COVID-19 pandemic leaving no country behind. Ghosh, N., Bhowmick, S., & Saha, R. (2020). Clean W ater and Sanitation: India’ s Present and Future Prospe- cts. Sustainable Development Goals: An Indian Perspective , 95-105. 259 Özlem YORULMAZ He, C., Liu, Z., W u, J., Pan, X., Fang, Z., Li, J., & Bryan, B. A. (2021). Future global urban water scarcity and potential solutions. Natur e Communications , 12 (1), 4667. Kikstra, J. S., Nicholls, Z. R., Smith, C. J., Lewis, J., Lamboll, R. D., Byers, E., ... & Riahi, K. (2022). The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report WGIII climate assessment of mitigation pathways: from emissions to global temperatures. Geoscientific Model Development , 15 (24), 9075-9109. Oswald, A. J. (1997). Happiness and economic performance. The Economic Journal , 107 (445), 1815-1831. Paunio, M. & Acharya, A., 2008. Envir onmental Health and Child Survival: Epidemiology , Economics, Expe - riences . Environment and Department, The W orld Bank, W ashington. Roy , A., & Pramanick, K. (2019). Analysing progress of sustainable development goal 6 in India: Past, present, and future. Journal of Envir onmental Management , 232 , 1049-1065. Sachs, J., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller , G., & W oelm, F . (2022). Sustainable Development Report 2022 . Cambridge University Press. Sen, A. (2000). A decade of human development. Journal of Human Development , 1 (1), 17-23. Si, S., Ahlstrom, D., W ei, J., & Cullen, J. (2020). Business, entrepreneurship and innovation toward poverty reduction. Entr epr eneurship & Regional Development , 32 (1-2), 1-20. Statista, 2020. Retrieved from https://www .statista.com/statistics/802200/daily-per-capita-water -consumpti- on-in-germany/ TURKST A T , 2020. Retrieved from https://data.tuik.gov .tr/Bulten/Index?p=W ater-and-W astewater-Statisti - cs-2020-37197&dil=2 . UN, 2018. SDG Report 2018. Retrieved from https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/report/2018/thesustainabledeve- lopmentgoalsreport2018-en.pdf UN, 2023. Advance, unedited 2023 Global Sustainable Development Report https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr/gsdr2023 WDI, 2020. W orld Development Indicators. Retrieved from https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-de- velopment-indicators W orld Resources Institute (WRI) (2023) Aqueduct tools, WRI Aqueduct. S UST AINABLE D EVELOPMENT G OAL CHAPTER 10 RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY Damla ÖZEKAN 1 1 Asst. Prof. Dr ., Y editepe University , Faculty of Economy and Administrative Sciences, E-Commerce and Management Department, İstanbul, Türkiye E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-9952-129X DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.010 Abstract Development does not only depend on the quantitative increase of the goods and services produced but also defines a development that should have social aspects and environmental protection bases and results, which means sustainable development. The widespread use of “sustainable development” as a technical concept started with the adoption of the “Our Common Future” Report published by the W orld Commission on Environmental Development in 1987 by the United Nations (UN). In the UN General Assembly convened in September 2000, it was accepted that the strengthening of the principles of human dignity , equality , and well-being at the global level is the common responsibility of the world’ s societies, and the Millennium Declaration was announced in consensus on ensuring improvement in economic, environmental and social conditions in the world by 2015. Eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were determined to implement these principles. At the UN’ s Sustainable Development Summit convened in September 2015, the 15-year performance of the MDGs adopted in 2000 was evaluated on a global scale, and it was announced that the performance put forward in terms of achieving these goals is far from bringing the expected solutions to the economic, social and environmental problems our world is facing. At the summit, it was emphasized that in light of the experiences gained from the sustainable development process initiated with the MDGs, there is a necessity to determine inclusive sustainable development goals that would bring solutions to the current problems of our world. In this direction, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 2030), which were accepted with the signatures of 193 member countries, including Türkiye, consist of 17 basic objectives and 169 related targets. This new global agenda envisages shaping the development plans and policies of countries with an understanding that emphasizes the principle of human rights for all by 2030. The concept of sustainable development entered Türkiye’ s agenda with the 1992 Rio Conference and was included in the 6 th Five-Y ear Development Plan, and this concept has continued to maintain its importance until today . In terms of Türkiye’ s reserves and capacity compared to non-renewable energy sources, the potential for renewable energy sources is high. In this study , within the scope of Affordable and Clean Energy , which is the 7 th Goal of the SDGs; firstly , a general analysis of Türkiye’ s renewable energy resources has been made, and the current situation of renewable energy in terms of both potential and production has been revealed mostly focusing on biomass, solar and wind energy . Then, the development of af fordable and clean ener gy with respect to time has been evaluated, and policy proposals for increasing energy ef ficiency have been discussed. Keywords: Sustainable development goals, renewable ener gy , ener gy ef ficiency , sustainable development, clean energy , Türkiye PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. .. 264 1. Intr oduction As a result of the industrial revolution, the shift towards non-renewable energy sources has replaced the previous reliance on mechanical energy-based production methods.There is concern about the long-term sustainability of the energy-intensive lifestyle in industrialized regions in all countries. Additionally , considering available resources, there are doubts about the Earth’ s ability to sustain the same level of development for the majority of the human population. These concerns stem from the pressures of continued population growth and high per capita energy use on a planet with limited resources and waste capacity (Bent, Baker & Orr , 2002). Ener gy has always been a political element from history to the present. Significantly , the oil crisis in the 1970s made ener gy and politics inseparable. The reason for this is primarily because energy is a strategic element. Countries with high energy reserves are countries with strategic superiority . In addition, shortages and cutbacks in the ener gy sector are experienced at the economic, social, and political levels. The concept of sustainability first came to the fore in 1977 in Dennis Pirages’ book “Sus- tainable Society”. This was followed by Dennis Hayes’ book “Repairs, Reuse, Recycling: First Steps T owards Sustainable Society” published in 1978. The definition of sustainable development, which was first officially used in 1980 in the “W orld Conservation Strate- gy” prepared for UNEP by the “International Union for Conservation of Nature” (IUCN), as “conserving natural resources for future generations”, is the center of the environmental movement. It became the subject of the “Our Common Future” report (Brundtland Report) published by the UN W orld Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. It is defined as “meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987). The relationship between sustainable development and energy resources is essential in addressing the challenges of our rapidly changing world. Ener gy resources play a vital role in boosting economies, improving living standards, and driving technological advances. The link between sustainable development and ener gy resources lies in the recognition that the way we produce, distribute, and consume energy has significant impacts on the environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainability . Understanding the relationship between sustainable development and ener gy resources is critical for policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders to improve effective strategies and policies that support a more sustainable and equitable future. 265 Damla ÖZEKAN The role of ener gy in sustainable development can be summarized as follows: 1. The importance of sustainable ener gy for sustainable development: Sustainable en- er gy is recognized as one of the pillars of sustainable development, acting as a catalyst for achieving multiple sustainable development goals (SDGs). The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) specifically emphasizes the importance of ensuring access to af fordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all (UN, 2021). This highlights the critical role of energy in removing poverty , improving health care, supporting education, and promoting economic growth. 2. The r ole of r enewable ener gy in sustainable development: Renewable energy sourc- es such as solar , wind, hydro, and biomass are essential components of sustainable energy systems. By providing a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, they reduce greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and dependence on limited resources (REN21, 2021). The International Renewable Ener gy Agency (IRENA) highlights the transformative potential of renewable ener gy in achieving sustainable development goals while mitigating climate change (2020). 3. Ener gy efficiency as a sustainability driver: Ener gy efficiency plays a crucial role in the pursuit of sustainable development. Improving ener gy ef ficiency across sectors helps reduce ener gy consumption, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and improve resource conservation (IEA, 2020). The International Energy Agency (IEA) recognizes the importance of ener gy ef ficiency measures in achieving multiple SDGs, including poverty reduction, health promo- tion, and climate action. The interdependence between sustainable development and ener gy resources is clear , as ener gy serves as a cornerstone for achieving sustainable and equitable societies. Promoting sustainable energy , including renewable resources and energy efficiency , is vital to addressing environmental challenges, promoting social well-being, and supporting economic well-being. Understanding and using this relationship is crucial to shaping policies, investments, and practices that lead us toward a more sustainable future. The consumption and the distribution of ener gy resources have a crucial role, especially in developing countries such as Türkiye, because these countries need to increase their ener gy consumption in order to achieve their economic and social development. The ener gy resources and technologies they prefer and the distribution of these resources will affect future living conditions. These preferences also have a significant effect on the climate policies of these countries (Geller et al., 2004). Although there is no direct relationship between renewable RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. .. 266 ener gy resource consumption and ener gy efficiency , diversifying ener gy resources, reducing import dependence, and cutting inef ficiency and energy waste are the core tar gets that devel- oping countries should reach. That is the reason why Türkiye’ s case is worthy of studying as a developing country that should foster the consumption of renewable energy resources and ensure ener gy efficiency . The study is or ganized as follows: after the introduction, in section 2, an analysis of Tür - kiye’ s renewable energy resources is examined. Since there are two chapters under the SDG7 section within the scope of this book, only biomass, solar , and wind energy are examined in this chapter , and the remaining renewable resources are left to the other chapter . In section 3, as a sustainable development goal, the development of “affordable and clean ener gy” in Türkiye from a historical perspective is investigated. The importance of ener gy ef ficiency and increasing energy efficiency in Türkiye is examined in section 4, and the 5 th section includes the conclusion and recommendations. 2. Analysis of Türkiye’ s Renewable Energy Resources Türkiye supplies 27.6% of its total energy needs from oil, 30.2% from natural gas, 25.5% from coal, 7.6% from hydro electricity and 8.9% from renewable ener gy sources (BP Statis- tical Review , 2022). As of the end of 2021, Türkiye’ s primary energy supply is 159.4 million TO E 1 , of which domestic production is 46.7 million TOE, total primary ener gy consumption is 123.9 million TOE, and imports are 124.2 million T OE. Of this import amount, 42% belongs to oil, 39% to natural gas and 19% to coal. The rate of locality in primary ener gy supply is at the level of 29% (MENR, 2021). In terms of Türkiye’ s reserve and capacity; it can be claimed that compared to non-renewable ener gy sources, it is more fortunate in terms of renewable ener gy sources such as hydroelectric energy , geothermal energy , bioener gy , solar ener gy and wind ener gy . As seen in Figure 1, renewable energy resources meet 19.1% of the total electricity pro- duction in 2021. 1 T onne of oil equivalent 273 Damla ÖZEKAN than industry . Kerosene was used for lighting. Starting from the speech of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk at the 1st Izmir Economics Congress in the 1923-1930 period, it was emphasized that an independent economic model should be created with all its sectors (İnan, 1972). However , foreign capital was not completely excluded in the ener gy sector , and ener gy investments were focused on partnerships with the state-private sector . Along with the statist economic policies implemented in the 1930s, this period is important in terms of organization and first initiatives in ener gy . However , since sufficient private capital accumulation could not be achieved in Türkiye during this period, a “moderate statism policy” was implemented in the ener gy sector (TÜSİAD, 1998). The First and Second Five-Y ear Development Plans were prepared for the 1933-1942 period and it was aimed to increase ener gy production and reduce foreign dependency . In the First Five-Y ear Development Plan, it was requested to investigate hydraulic and thermal ener gy sources. Thus, in 1935, the “Electrical W orks Survey Administration” and “Mineral Research and Exploration Institute” were established (Kepenek & Y entürk, 2005). In the post-W orld W ar II period, it is seen that ener gy was given a special priority . In this period, the increase in energy demand with the accelerated urbanization and industrialization ef forts caused the ener gy sector to be given priority . In 1947, the “Türkiye Economic Develop - ment Plan” came into effect, and Etibank’ s energy projects were included in this plan. W ith the coming to power of the Democratic Party in 1950, the “liberal economy” policy was put into practice; however , the role of the state was aimed to be reduced. However , the developments have been on the contrary , and the public sector has developed in the field of energy . State Hydraulic W orks was established in 1953, and T urkish Coal Enterprises Institution and T urk- ish Petroleum Corporation were established in 1957. During this period, public investments were made in the field of hydraulic power generation. In addition, the share of oil in energy resources based on trading was quite high. In the planned period in general, since the 1960s, we see that Türkiye has developed an en- er gy policy inversely proportional to its development needs. The industry , which has shown a rapid increase in these years in Türkiye, has led to an increase in energy demand which created an increase in the demand for petroleum products. However , the development in the energy sector over the years has not been able to provide the amount and quality of energy required by the development. In addition, the existing reserves of hydraulic ener gy resources at that time could not be utilized sufficiently . Ener gy production could not meet the consumption. Besides all these, the share of petroleum products that we imported for consumption increased RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. .. 274 gradually over the years. By the end of the 1970s, only half of the ener gy demand could be obtained from national resources. In addition to all this, the inability to implement the neces- sary saving measures in the ener gy sector put the sector in a deep bottleneck. The first consideration of renewable ener gy sources coincides with the fourth plan period (1979-1983). However , the first attempts at this could only be realized in the early 1990s. W ith the entry into force of the Electricity Market Law No. 4628 in 2001, free market practice in the electricity sector started, and a significant decrease was observed in genera- tion facility investments. In a new market structure, the construction of electricity generation facilities by the public was actually stopped, and private investors did not show the expected interest in investing in the anticipated competitive environment. Because over 6,000 MW ca- pacity constructed under the Build-Operate model until 2002 became operational, and the rise in electricity demand was not as high as anticipated, the existing capacity at that point satisfied the requirement for a period. However , in 2006-2007 new capacity was needed, and studies were carried out on dif ferent support mechanisms. One of them is the Capacity Mechanism application. As another way of support, studies have been carried out to support electricity generation based on renewable resources. Some initiatives have been established to include especially small-capacity but productive sites in the system where investors are not willing to invest. W ithin the scope of Law No. 5346, which entered into force on 10.05.2005, the first support mechanism studies for renewable resources started, but its implementation only took place in the year 201 1. T o re-emphasize, electricity generation from renewable sources was initiated mainly for the purpose of utilizing low-capacity but productive resources located in dif ficult areas. For this reason, the tariffs are kept quite high. In the high tarif fs applied, it should not be overlooked that the lobbying activities of the technology owners and some investors are effective. Over time, many hydroelectric and wind power plants have been included in the system and have benefited from the support, with features that would contradict the real purpose of the support mechanism. Private companies that made these investments were influential in the formation and im- plementation processes of the decisions to support electricity generation based on renewable ener gy sources. W ith the Law amendment made on 29.12.2010 after Law No. 5346 came into force, appli- cations for the Renewable Energy Resources Support Mechanism (YEKDEM) were received for 201 1 before the relevant regulations were published and the actual application started. 275 Damla ÖZEKAN The Regulation on Certification and Support of Renewable Ener gy Resources entered into force on 01.10.2013. In this regulation, changes were made on 29.04.2016, 28.10.2016, 23.02.2017, 1 1.05.2017, 21.04.2018 and 09.10.2018. The Regulation on Unlicensed Electricity Production in the Electricity Market entered into force on 03.12.2010, and later on, amendments were made to this regulation on 02.10.2013, 23.03.2016, 22.10.2016, 15.05.2017 and 17.01.2018 (Bayrak, 2022). W ith the start of the first implementation of YEKDEM in 201 1, the number and capacity of power plants participating in this mechanism increased every year . While participation was relatively low until 2015, a rapid increase occurred in participation after 2015. Al - though there has been a rise in the number of power plants producing electricity from all renewable sources, the highest increase was realized in hydraulic power plants. In 2015, there was a massive increase in the number of power plants that joined the system. The entry into force of the Regulation on Certification and Support of Renewable Energy Re - sources on 01.10.2013 is considered to be the most important factor in the increase in these applications (Bayrak, 2022). The number of YEKDEM participating power plants exceeded 500 in 2016 and reached 1,036 in 2022. The size of the installed power is more important than the number of power plants registered to the YEKDEM system because the amount to be paid to these power plants within the scope of the mechanism are made according to the amount of generation they re- alize during the year which depends on their installed power . The total capacity , which was 713.1 MW in 201 1, the first year of implementation, reached 25,524.0 MW in 2022. In 2021, 138 power plants with a total installed power of 1941.9 MW were registered to the YEKDEM system. As it is known, the YEKDEM tariff support, which was in Dollars, was changed to T urkish Lira for the power plants that will be put into operation after 01.01.2021. In order to benefit from the system before the support payment unit was converted into T urk- ish Lira, 135 power plants with a total installed power of 1,933.6 MW were put into operation before 30.06.2021, and from 01.07.2021 until the end of the year , only three power plants with an installed power of 8.3 MW were put into operation. YEKDEM supports, whose primary purpose is to provide support for the generation of electricity from renewable resources in small capacity but efficient fields that are more diffi- cult to evaluate, started to be implemented in 201 1. However , over time, the principle deter- mined at the beginning was violated, and almost all electricity generation facilities connected to renewable resources built by private companies were included in the scope of this support. RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. .. 276 Some dam hydroelectric power plants with very lar ge installed capacities and lar ge-capacity wind power plants are also included. The amount of support applied in this context is normally much higher than the electricity generation cost. The cost increase was caused by the fact that 74,254 GWh, which corresponds to 22.4% of Türkiye’ s total electricity production, which was 331,492 GWh compared to the end of 2021, was produced within the scope of YEKDEM. It has been quite high and reached the level of 61.5 Billion TL in 2021 (Bayrak, 2022). Naturally , as this high cost is reflected in consumer electricity prices, the electricity bills of all consumers in Türkiye have increased. The cost of electrical ener gy used for residences in daily life has exceeded the bearable level for all consumers. Moreover , in the industrial sector , where almost half of the country’ s electricity consump - tion is realized, high electricity prices cause very heavy economic consequences and weaken the competitiveness of the industry in production. While determining the support principles for electricity producers, protecting the rights of consumers against high electricity prices should be addressed first. 4. Incr easing Energy Efficiency in Türkiye Ener gy ef ficiency is a key element in the transformation of energy and production systems and provides improvements in sustainability by reducing the need for new ener gy sources. While energy efficiency increases energy production, it also reduces greenhouse gas emis - sions, air pollution, and energy costs. While the contributions of energy ef ficiency go far beyond financial dimensions, it can provide energy security , higher efficiency for businesses, and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The International Energy Agency estimates that, with the right policies and investments, energy efficiency can contribute to around 40% of the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Different energy sources have a significant impact on the climate, and most of the greenhouse gas emissions in the world come from the ener gy sector alone. Energy ef ficiency improvements have been proven to provide a variety of benefits, including energy security , job creation, poverty reduction, improved health, and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (PWC, 2021/a). Although increasing investments in renewable ener gy sources show an encouraging mo- mentum for adaptation to climate targets, the slow pace of the last decade in the calculated improvement in global energy efficiency , especially for 2020, distorts all calculations and is alarming. In countries that set serious targets to improve ener gy efficiency , this is not only considered as the dominant measure of climate policies, but also that efficiency measures can 277 Damla ÖZEKAN support economic growth and increase employment, contribute to reducing the budgets they allocate to ener gy , especially imported energy , in the program packages designed to mitigate the economic crisis, and many secondary benefits are also taken into consideration. The pace of global ener gy intensity recovery , which has already followed a stagnant trend in ener gy ef ficiency in the last five years, has slowed further in the first period of the pandemic as a result of the economic effects of the COVID-19 crisis, deepening the challenge of achieving international ener gy and climate targets and making the actions of governments more critical. The studies on ener gy ef ficiency in Türkiye, which started in the 1980s, have gone through various organiza tional processes, and since 2019, they have been carried out under the man- agement of the Department of Ener gy Ef ficiency and Environment (EVÇED) under the Min- istry of Ener gy and Natural Resources General Directorate of Energy Affairs. This recent structural change has, in a way , blocked a more effective and functional structuring for ener - gy efficiency , and energy ef ficiency has lost its institutional visibility to a great extent. The EVÇED carries out its studies, especially in the implementation and monitoring center of the National Ener gy Efficiency Action Plan to be implemented between 2018-2023. The National Ener gy Efficiency Action Plan aims to reduce Türkiye’ s primary energy consumption by 14% in 2023 with 55 actions defined in 6 areas, including five final consump - tion areas in total as buildings and services, energy , transportation, industry and technology , agriculture, and horizontal issues that can be common to the sectors. In line with this target, it is foreseen to save 23.9 MTEP cumulatively until 2023 and to invest USD 10.9 billion for these savings. The cumulative savings targeted until 2033 with 2017 prices is 30.2 billion USD, and the impact of some savings is expected to continue until 2040. According to EVÇED evaluations, a total of USD 4.78 billion was invested in energy ef ficiency in the 2017-2020 period, resulting in a cumulative energy savings of 3,190 kTOE, equivalent to USD 1 17 million in monetary terms. Considering that the total primary energy supply was 147.2 million TOE in 2020, it is seen that only 1.06 MTEP is saved on an annual cumulative average. This value can be evaluated as insufficient when compared to both the cumulative saving of 23.9 MTEP in 6 years and the total primary energy supply . In addition, approximately 1,500 dollars was spent for 1 TEP ener gy saving, which sug- gests that it is incompatible with the much lower sample saving costs that emerged from program evaluations abroad. On the other hand, it is stated that 3,190 kTOE savings, which is a monetary equivalent of 1 17 million USD, was achieved, while the value of 1 TEP was calculated as 36.7 USD (Güven, 2022). RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. .. 278 The pandemic process and its economic effects have led to the postponement of energy ef ficiency investment decisions on a global scale. In Türkiye, energy efficiency investments decreased in 2020, which is similar to the world trend. As a result, energy efficiency should be accepted as a sector full of opportunities for the public and industrialists, where all benefit. For ener gy efficiency , an effective or ganizational structure should be made, and the financial support given on the production side should be given to the public and industrialists for applications on the demand side. As in other areas, digital development should be supported with domestic services and domestic materials. Ef- fective policies should be determined with more monitoring and analysis, tar gets and actions such as energy , climate, industry , and transportation in various strategies and action plans should be reviewed and shared, and development of all sectors towards these goals should be ensured. 5. Conclusion There is a massive deficit in non-renewable energy resources in Türkiye. When we con- sider it economically , there is a very significant foreign dependency on energy . In addition, the traditional energy resources we use cause important environmental problems such as pollution and deforestation. However , Türkiye has a very rich potential in terms of clean and renewable energy resources. Unfortunately , this potential is not utilized to the required extent. W ith the developments in energy production technologies, the issue of renewables and sustainability of ener gy resources has started to gain importance. The increasing need for ener gy day by day and the limit and exhaustion of fossil fuels bring the need for alternative ener gy sources to the fore. In meeting the ener gy need with alternative resources, it is of great importance to ensure sustainability without harming nature. At this point, renewable energy sources are an alternative to the rapidly increasing energy need. Increasing the use of renew- able ener gy sources plays an important role in maintaining sustainability . Renewable energy resources are cheap resources, apart from the initial investment cost. The development of technologies in which these resources are included over the years sup- ports this. These resources do not create foreign dependency , are abundant, do not create pollution, are free from the effects of all kinds of crises, and can be easily obtained where needed since there is no transportation problem. Although progress has been made in improving energy efficiency and improving access to electricity , current developments are insuf ficient to achieve sustainable development goals. 279 Damla ÖZEKAN Although the promotion of clean energy provides an increase in the use of renewable re- sources in global ener gy production, the need for clean and renewable energy production is expected to increase as the electricity demand continues to increase. The Sustainable Development Goals adopted under the United Nations Development Pro - gram in 2015 provide a framework for eliminating global warming and poverty , protecting our planet, and reducing inequalities. Although the “Affordable and Clean Energy” goal, one of the 17 goals of sustainable development that is aimed to be achieved by 2030, is related to most of the other development goals, it shows how important the role of ener gy in achieving sustainable development is. Affordable and clean ener gy supports all SDGs. Among the renewable ener gy resources, the second most suitable resource for Türkiye is solar energy after hydroelectric energy , which is left for another chapter . Although Türkiye is at the forefront of the world in terms of using solar ener gy with thermal technology , it should include the production of electricity through photovoltaic cells as soon as possible, as well as using this source for heating. For wind ener gy , whose investment costs are quite high, incen- tives should be increased as soon as possible with laws enacted so that more investments can be made throughout the country . In energy production and use in Türkiye, first of all, national and international legal reg- ulations should be restructured, ener gy production areas should be brought into the economy by taking into account the environmental effects of energy production technologies and re- source selection, and great importance should be given to efficiency in ener gy use. Therefore, instead of classical fossil fuel-based energy production systems and traditional production technologies that cause environmental pollution and climate change on a global scale, it is necessary to evaluate environmentally friendly , sustainable renewable energy sources and develop their technologies. W ith regard to renewable energy sources that create economic potential in Türkiye, nec- essary legal measures should be taken to complete the licensed projects within the stipulated time. Production plans, should also be prepared depending on technological developments and legislative regulations. Türkiye is well-positioned to be a leader in Europe in terms of renewable energy sources. W ith the new legal regulations, studies, and investments to be made, important steps should be taken in ener gy by realizing the local resources, technology , and technical staf f with these high potentials and raising awareness. RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. .. 280 Ener gy and foreign exchange savings should be made in Türkiye. The country has a very high potential of at least 25% in terms of increasing ener gy ef ficiency , and this potential needs to be utilized in the best and quickest way . Air , water , and soil pollution should be reduced. Comprehensive technological and sci- entific studies should be carried out with the aim of protecting people, the environment, and all assets that are a part of it. In addition, it is necessary to diversify energy , to increase the use of solar , wind, and biomass energy as domestic resources, to ensure security in energy , and to minimize losses in ener gy production, transmission, distribution, and consumption. Refer ences Akova, İ. (2008). Y enilenebilir Enerji Kaynakları (1st ed.). Nobel Publication. Bayrak, Y . (2022). Y enilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarından Elektrik Üretimini Destekleme Mekanizması (YEK- DEM). In Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü. Uctea Chamber of Mechanical Engineers Publication No: MMO/731. Ankara. Bent, R., Baker , R., & Orr , L. (Eds.). (2002). Ener gy: Science, Policy and the Pursuit of Sustainability . Island Press. Özdingis Bayrakçı, A. G., & Koçar , G. (2018). Current and future aspects of bioethanol production and utilization in T urkey . Renewable and Sustainable Ener gy Review , 81, 2196-2203. Biyogaz Y atırımları Geliştime Derneği (Biyogazder). (2022). 2022 Yılı Biyogaz Y ekdem Listesi . Retrieved from https://biyogazder .org/biyogaz-tesisleri/ on June 1, 2023. BP . (2022). BP Statistical Review . Retrieved from https://www .bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/ corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2022-full-report.pdf on May 25, 2023 Büyükbozkırlı, L. (2022). Türkiye’de Güneş Enerjisi. In Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü . Uctea Chamber of Mechanical Engineers Publication No: MMO/731. Ankara. Canan, S., & Ceyhan, V . (2017). Türkiye’de biyokütle fiyatındaki değişimin biyoetanol maliyeti üzerine etkileri. Anadolu T arım Bilimleri Der gisi , 32(c. 32), 16-22. Geller , H., Schaeffer , R., Szklo, A., & T olmasquim, M. (2004). Policies for advancing energy efficiency and renewable energy use in Brazil. Ener gy Policy , 32(12), 1437-1450. General Directorate of State Hydraulic W orks (GDHW), Department of Renewable Energy . W ater Usage Agr ee - ments of Hydraulic Power Plants . Retrieved from https://enerji.dsi.gov .tr/Sayfa/Detay/774# on May 26, 2023. Güven, A. (2022). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Enerji V erimliliği. In Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü. Uctea Chamber of Mechanical Engineers Publication No: MMO/731. Ankara. International Energy Agency (IEA). (2020). Ener gy Efficiency . Retrieved from https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/ assets/59268647-0b70-4e7b-9f78-269e5ee93f26/Energy_Ef ficiency_2020.pdf on May 28, 2023. İnan, A. (1972). Devletçilik İlkesi ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin Birinci Sanayi Planı 1933. T urkish Historical Society Publications , Serial XVI, No: 14. Ankara. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). (2020). W orld Energy T ransitions Outlook. 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Price W aterhouse Coopers (PWC). (2021b). Türkiye ve Dünyada Güneş Enerjisi Sektörü . Retrieved from https:// www .pwc.com.tr/tr/sektorler/enerji/turkiye-ve-dunyada-gunes-enerjisi-sektoru-raporu.pdf on May 31, 2023. Renewable Ener gy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21). (2021). Renewables 2021 Global Status Report . Retrieved from https://www .ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2021_Full_Report.pdf on May 24, 2023. T eneler , G. (2022). Türkiye’de Rüzgar Enerjisi. In Türkiye’nin Enerji Görünümü Uctea Chamber of Mechanical Engineers Publication No: MMO/731. Ankara. The W orld Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). (1987). Our Common Futur e . Oxford University Press. T urkish Electricity Transmission Corporation (TETC). (2021). Türkiye Elektrik Ür etim-İletim 2021 Yılı İstatis - tikleri . Retrieved from https://www .teias.gov .tr/turkiye-elektrik-uretim-iletim-istatistikleri T urkish Industrialists and Businessmen Association (TÜSİAD). (1998). 21. Yüzyıla Gir erken Türkiye’nin Enerji Stratejisinin Değerlendirilmesi . TÜSİAD Publications, No: TÜSİAD-T/98-12/239. T urkish Wind Energy Association. (2021). T urkish W ind Ener gy Statistic Report . Retrieved from https://tureb. com.tr//lib/uploads/55081baf3b9a1091.pdf on June 3, 2023. United Nations (UN). (2021). Sustainable Development Goal 7. Retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal7 on May 25, 2023. W orld Bank Group. (2019). Going Global - Expanding Offshore W ind T o Emer ging Markets . Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/716891572457609829/pdf/Going-Global-Expanding-Of fsho- re-Wind-T o-Emerging-Markets.pdf on June 2, 2023. 289 Kenan KOÇ, Yüksel BA YRAKT AR 3. Hydraulic and Geothermal Energy Sour ces T owards Sustainable Development Goals? The diminishing reserves of fossil-based ener gy resources and their formation taking years raises concerns about sustainability and the need to switch to renewable energy sources rather than fossil-based ones due to their negative impact on the environment (Dincer , 2000). Re- newable energy comes from ongoing natural processes that replenish it. It derives directly from the sun, wind, rain, ocean tides, biomass, and geothermal resources, which are heat sources produced deep within the earth (Mohtasham, 2015). According to the definition of renewable energy , it is “an energy source that can be available the same the next day within the evolution of nature itself.” The critical characteristics of renewable ener gy sources are that they contribute to environmental protection by lowering carbon dioxide emissions, lessen reliance on imported ener gy , create more jobs because they are domestic resources, and enjoy widespread and enthusiastic public support. In other words, accessible, available, and accept- able qualities describe renewable energy sources (General Directorate of Mineral Exploration and Research, 2023). Due to their lack of toxic gas and particle dischar ges that pollute the atmosphere, their low operating costs compared to non-renewable ener gy sources, and their use in agriculture, hydropower and dams are considered essential. However , only a third of the potential of hy- dropower is currently used. This is equivalent to 17% of the electricity produced worldwide. Some argue that since lar ge dams generate more environmental harm than small ones, they cannot be regarded as renewable ener gy sources. However , the W orld Bank, which had previ- ously advocated against the construction of sizable dams, has begun to alter its stance. More power and energy are needed in nations where ener gy consumption is much lower than the global average (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023). Geothermal ener gy , on the other hand, is thermal energy generated naturally in the planet’ s interior , primarily by the decay of radioactive potassium, uranium, and thorium isotopes (Y ounger , 2015). It is the only renewable ener gy source not dependent on solar radiation or the moon’ s or the sun’ s gravitational pull (McCay , 2014). Among the renewable ener gy sources, hydropower and geothermal energy hold a significant position. T o lessen reliance on fossil fuels, ensure energy security , safeguard the environment, and combat climate change, these resources are crucial. W e require both hydropower and geothermal ener gy for the following reasons: Reducing dependence on fossil fuels: Hydraulic and geothermal energy replace fossil fuels and increase the diversity of our energy sources. This increases energy supply security and reduces dependence on fossil fuels. [Document text truncated for crawler view.]