Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of Türki̇ye in the Centennial of the Republic

Engin Balin, Billur (Ed.); Mumcu Akan, Hatice Dilara (Ed.); Karagoz Ozenc, Ferda
(Ed.); Garan, Ozcan (Ed.)
Book
Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The
Performance of Türkiye in the Centennial of the Republic

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Istanbul University Press
Suggested Citation: Engin Balin, Billur (Ed.); Mumcu Akan, Hatice Dilara (Ed.); Karagoz Ozenc, Ferda
(Ed.); Garan, Ozcan (Ed.) (2024) : Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of
Türkiye in the Centennial of the Republic, ISBN 978-605-07-1610-8, Istanbul University Press,
Istanbul, Turkiye,
https://doi.org/10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013
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PURSUING
SUST AINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GO ALS
THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRK İ YE IN THE
CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC
100 th ANNIVERSARY OF THE REPUBLIC BOOKS
Editors
Billur ENG İ N BALIN
H. Dilara MUMCU AKAN
F erda KARAGÖZ ÖZENÇ
Özcan GARAN

PURSUING SUST AINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GOALS
THE PERFORMANCE OF TÜRKİYE IN THE
CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC
Editors
Assoc. Prof. Dr . Billur Engin Balın
İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye
Assoc. Prof. Dr . H. Dilara Mumcu Akan
İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye
Assoc. Prof. Dr . Ferda Karagöz Özenç
İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye
Asst. Prof. Dr . Özcan Garan
İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye

ii
Published by
İstanbul University Press
İstanbul University Central Campus IUPress Office,
34452 Beyazıt, Fatih / İstanbul - Türkiye
https://iupress.istanbul.edu.tr
Pursuing Sustainable Development Goals: The Performance of Türkiye in the
Centennial of the Republic
Editors: Billur Engin Balın, H. Dilara Mumcu Akan, Ferda Karagöz Özenç,
Özcan Garan
E-ISBN: 978-605-07-1610-8
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013
Istanbul University Publication No: 5346
Faculty of Economics Publication No: 673
Published Online in May , 2024
It is recommended that a reference to the DOI is included when citing this work.
This work is published online under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution-
NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY -NC 4.0)
https://creativecommons.or g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
This book was published as part of the Istanbul University Press’ 100 th Anniversary
of the Republic book project.

iii
CONTENTS
PREF ACE... ................................................................................................................................................... vii
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................... ix
Sustainable Development Goal 1: No Poverty
CHAPTER 1
The History and Dimensions of Poverty in Türkı  ye
A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y ....................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 2
No-Poverty Goal of Türkı  ye on the Basis of Leaving No One Behind Principle
Emine T AHSİN ........................................................................................................................................ 33

Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger
CHAPTER 3
Food and Environmental Security in Türkı  ye: T o End Hunger and Promote Sustainable Agriculture
Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN ................................................................................................................ 87
Sustainable Development Goal 3: Good Health and W ell-being
CHAPTER 4
Nudging in Behavioral Development Economics: An Evaluation of Preventive Health Services
in Türkiye
Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ ........................................................................................................................ 11 5
Sustainable Development Goal 4: Quality Education
CHAPTER 5
W omen Empowerment Through Compulsory Schooling Reform: The Case of Türkiye
Emine Kübra UST A, Elif ERBA Y ......................................................................................................... 143
CHAPTER 6
Regulations in the Compulsory Education System in Türkı  ye and Government Support
Ezgim ÇARBOĞA, Nazan SUSAM ...................................................................................................... 169
Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender Equality
CHAPTER 7
Progress on Sustainable Development Goal 5 in Türkiye: Prevention of Violence Against W omen
and Girls and Promotion of Gender Equality
Adviye Damla ÜNLÜ BEKT AŞ ............................................................................................................ 193
CHAPTER 8
Gender Equality as a Sustainable Development Goal: W omen’ s Participation in Decision-Making
Mechanisms in Türkiye
Gizem BİLGİN A YT AÇ, A yda SEZGİN ............................................................................................... 221

iv
CONTENTS
Sustainable Development Goal 6: Clean W ater and Sanitation
CHAPTER 9
A Detailed Analysis of SDG 6 and Türkı  ye
Özlem YORULMAZ .............................................................................................................................. 243
Sustainable Development Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
CHAPTER 10
Renewable Energy Potential of Türkı  ye and Policy Recommendations to Improve Energy Ef ficiency
Damla ÖZEKAN .................................................................................................................................... 263
CHAPTER 1 1
The Role of Geothermal and Hydraulic Ener gy in Türkı  ye’ s Achievement of Sustainable Development
Goal 7: Potential, Opportunities and Barriers
Kenan KOÇ, Yüksel BA YRAKT AR ...................................................................................................... 283
Sustainable Development Goal: 8 Decent W ork and Economic Growth
CHAPTER 12
From the Perspective of Inclusive Growth, the Examination of Türkı  ye’ s Economic Growth After 2002
Hülya DENİZ KARAKOYUN, Safa Eymen YORULMAZ ................................................................. 307
CHAPTER 13
Multiple Disadvantages in the Labor Market of Türkı  ye: A Qualitative Study of W omen with
Disabilities
İlhan DOĞAN, Ezgi ÜNAL ................................................................................................................... 343
Sustainable Development Goal 9: Industry , Innovation and Infrastructure
CHAPTER 14
A Critical Evaluation of Sustainability Criteria in Lar ge-Scale Infrastructure Projects and an Overview
of Türkı  ye’ s Infrastructural Investments Through Critical Thinking
Ferda UZUNY A YLA, Bülent HOCA ..................................................................................................... 371
CHAPTER 15
Evaluating the Significance of Research and Development (R&D) Activities in the T urkish Economy:
A Comparative Study in the Context of SDG 9 - T ar get 9.5
Güzin Emel AKKUŞ .............................................................................................................................. 403
Sustainable Development Goal: 10 Reduced Inequalities
CHAPTER 16
Dimensions of Income Inequality and Evaluation of the Redistributive Role of Fiscal Policies in T erms
of Functional Public Expenditures in Türkı  ye
A ysel ARIKBOĞA ................................................................................................................................. 457
CHAPTER 17
Reducing Income Inequality in Türkı  ye: What Has Changed and What Can Be Done?
Betül MUTLUGÜN ............................................................................................................................... 477

v
CONTENTS
Sustainable Development Goal 1 1: Sustainable Cities and Communities
CHAPTER 18
The Quadruple Helix into the Ef fort of Sustainable Cities and Communities: The Case of Marmara
Urban Forum in Türkı  ye
İrem GÜNEŞ, Özcan GARAN ............................................................................................................... 5 11
Sustainable Development Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
CHAPTER 19
Green Practices and Responsible Consumption by the Hotel Industry in Türkı  ye: A Qualitative Study
on Hotel Managers
Büşra KESİCİ, Mert ÖĞRETMENOĞLU, Gürkan ÇALIŞKAN ......................................................... 553
Sustainable Development Goal 13: Climate Action
CHAPTER 20
Combating Climate Change in Türkı  ye: Integration of Market-Based Instruments to the
Environmental Policy
Billur ENGİN BALIN ............................................................................................................................ 581
CHAPTER 21
The Role of Green Bonds in Achieving SDG 13: The Case of Türkı  ye
Güzhan GÜLA Y , Korkmaz ERGUN ...................................................................................................... 597
Sustainable Development Goal 14: Life Below W ater
CHAPTER 22
T owards a Sustainable Blue Economy in Türkı  ye: An Overview of Key Sectors and SDG 14 T argets
Gülşah KOCAKA Y A .............................................................................................................................. 627
Sustainable Development Goal 15: Life on Land
CHAPTER 23
The Political Economy of the Conservation of Biodiversity and Biodiversity-Based T rade:
The Case of Türkı  ye
Ferda KARAGÖZ ÖZENÇ .................................................................................................................... 655
CHAPTER 24
Sustainable Land and Forest Management in Türkı  ye
Ufuk DEMİRCİ, Idris DURUSOY , Atakan ÖZTÜRK, Bekir KA Y ACAN ........................................... 703
Sustainable Development Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Str ong Institutions
CHAPTER 25
Türkı  ye as an Actor in Sustaining International Peace: The Case of Ukraine W ar
Pınar ERKEM GÜLBOY , Elifcan ÇORUK ........................................................................................... 731

vi
Sustainable Development Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals
CHAPTER 26
Possible Impacts of Innovation on Employment
Sayım YORGUN .................................................................................................................................... 769
CONTENTS

S UST AINABLE
D EVELOPMENT
G OAL

CHAPTER 1
THE HISTOR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF
POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y 1
1 Asst. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye
E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-8337-1 16X
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.001
Abstract
Türkiye is celebrating its one-hundredth anniversary and implementing policies to promote sustainable
development at the same time. With nearly 82 million citizens, Türkiye stands as a dynamic nation that has a distinct
historical context that shapes the country’ s trajectory . As the nation’ s accomplishments and potential are reviewed,
sustainable development goals, including the pioneering goal of ending poverty , must be examined. This complex
phenomenon hinders human potential, maintains inequality , and slows the advancement of inclusive and equitable
societies. The UNDP and its partners in Türkiye 1 are working towards achieving the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGS) by 2030, and the first goal is to end poverty by that time. After 25 years of steady progress in reducing
poverty , the COVID-19 pandemic has reversed that progress, with the number of people living in extreme poverty
rising for the first time in a generation. In comparison to predictions made before the pandemic, the combined crisis
with the Ukranian war could result in an increase of 75 million to 95 million people living in extreme poverty in
2022 (UN, 2022; 26). When compared globally between the years 2000 and 2016, Türkiye was one of those nations
that has significantly reduced poverty and showed delicate success in eradicating severe poverty (BM, 2019; 35).
Unfortunately , that was a fragile progress and today poverty is still a serious problem in our country . Elimination of
poverty in all its forms and dimensions is an indispensable requirement and the policies aimed at reaching this
requirement will be the focus of this chapter .
Keywords: UNDP , Sustainable Development Goals, no poverty , Türkiye, history of poverty
1 The United Nations Country T eam (UNCT), in close consultation with the Government of Türkiye, has
developed a new cooperation framework for the 2021-2025 period. The framework, known as the United
Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF) is a core instrument defining how the
UNCT in Türkiye contributes to the national development priorities set out by the Government of Türkiye in
the National Development Plan 2019-2023 and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. (UNCT Results
Report: 2021)
PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF
TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
4
1. Intr oduction
The Republic of Türkiye is a diligent nation that has achieved a significant milestone by
commemorating its centenary and has been exertive in implementing ef fective policies to
promote sustainable development. W ith a current population exceeding 82 million, Türkiye
has experienced significant changes that have led to its emergence as a dynamic and intent
nation. As one contemplates the advancement and prospects of the country , it becomes im-
perative to explore the goals of sustainable development, with a particular emphasis on the
commendable objective of eliminating poverty . In evaluating Türkiye’ s accomplishments, it is
crucial to recognize the intricate and dynamic character of poverty and the distinct obstacles
that the country encounters. W ith a Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
1
of approximately 807
million U.S. dollars as of 2021 and 905 million dollars in 2022, Türkiye’ s economic struggle
and significant human resource potential continue. Türkiye is an OECD member that has
made significant strides in its economic development. (TURKST A T , 2023)
The complex nature of poverty presents a significant obstacle for countries worldwide.
The elaborate nature of this phenomenon hinders the realization of human potential, sustains
disparities, and obstructs the advancement of societies that prioritize inclusivity and equi-
ty . The establishment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) was a response to the
pressing need to address this issue and was undertaken by the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP). The SDGs serve as a framework for achieving a more sustainable and
improved future.
The present chapter aims to provide insights into Türkiye’ s ef forts to eliminate poverty ,
examining the country’ s undertakings, advancements, and obstacles in achieving the first goal
of “No Poverty”. Through an analysis of Türkiye’ s history , policies, and strategies, our ob-
jective is to acquire a deeper understanding of the nation’ s endeavors to enhance the well-be-
ing of its populace and establish a community in which all members can prosper and make
valuable contributions to the country’ s advancement. In analyzing this vital goal, we will try
to consider the economic and social facets of poverty , enabling individuals, households, and
societies to overcome its entrenchment. When examining the issue of poverty , it may seem
necessary to delve into the causal context of poverty formation and the fight against poverty
based on different economic and political temporal characteristics. However , as to the scope
of this chapter , this causal context will be excluded.
1 GDP increased by 4.0% compared with the same quarter of the previous year in the first quarter of 2023.

5 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
As we commence our investigation into the elimination of poverty within the framework
of Türkiye’ s sustainable development trajectory , it is crucial to acknowledge the importance
of our collaborative endeavors in constructing a society where poverty is relegated to history ,
and all members of the populace can participate in the country’ s centennial festivities as a
symbol of human worth, perseverance, and advancement. Just like in the phenomenon of
poverty , the causal context is also important in the fight against poverty . In the context of
causality , the inevitability of a systemic problem in income distribution and poverty issues is
extremely significant. However , it should be stated that in this study these will not be covered,
and the explanation will be limited to the historical drift of the mere phenomenon of poverty .
2. Poverty in Türkiye
Türkiye’ s foundation as a republic in 1923 marked the beginning of a transformative era
under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal. The young republic sought to enhance its political
and economic foundations, aiming to establish a modern and prosperous society . Türkiye
has witnessed substantial economic changes from the early 1920s. It should be underlined
that poverty in Türkiye has been influenced by various factors, including economic growth,
industrialization, urbanization, and government policies. In the early years of the T urkish
Republic, efforts were made to modernize the economy and society , which impacted poverty
levels. Over the decades, the country experienced significant economic changes, transitioning
from a primarily rural and agrarian society to a more urbanized and industrialized one. The
government policies carried both successes and shortcomings, in addressing poverty . While
Türkiye made progress in improving living standards and reducing extreme poverty , there
were also periods of economic instability that affected vulnerable populations. This study
delves into the challenges of measuring and defining poverty across different periods and
contexts in the history of poverty in Türkiye.
2.1. History of Poverty in Türkiye
One of the significant features of the 19th-century T urkish economy was the low average
income compared to the second half of the 20th century , and a substantial portion of the pop-
ulation remained below the absolute poverty line defined by the standards of the latter half of
the 20th century (Pamuk, 2014: 155, 326). T o understand the socio-economic conditions of
the early Republican period, it is necessary to evaluate the late period of the Ottoman Empire.
Since the young T urkish Republic did not inherit a rich legacy from the Ottoman Empire. The
Ottoman economy was predominantly agricultural, with agricultural production being carried
out through traditional methods. Additionally , the economy could be defined as an exporter

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
6
of raw materials and an importer of industrial goods. (Boratav , 1995; 268) Furthermore, the
external debts the Ottoman Empire was obliged to pay , and the successive wars had brought
the empire to the point of collapse. The Y oung T urkish Republic inherited the Ottoman Pub-
lic Debt Administration which was a $65 million external debt burden (Yılmaz, 2014). The
capitulations had frequently plagued the Ottoman Empire’ s late period, the status of being
an exporter of raw materials and food, and an importer of industrial production. This was the
typical economic structure that had ended the monetary sovereignty and started more of a
colonial period. (T ezel, 2015; 75)
2.1.1. The End of the Ottoman Period
Looking at the income distribution of the Ottoman throughout the 19
th
century , the key
processes influencing this indicator are the decline of traditional crafts in a free trade envi-
ronment with low tarif f barriers and the economy’ s increasing specialization in agriculture.
The tendency of relative prices of manufactured goods in global markets to decline after the
Industrial Revolution led to a general favoring of agricultural prices within the country as
well. The Ottoman Empire’ s integration into European capital control during the opening of
the economy and the centralization of Ottoman finances was marked by significant turning
points. These included the signing of a foreign trade agreement in 1838, the initiation of a
foreign borrowing process in 1854, and the granting of privileges to foreign capital for railway
construction from the 1850s onwards. The favorable development of prices in agriculture
resulted in sectors engaged in market-oriented production, especially medium and lar ge-scale
agricultural producers and traders in W estern Anatolia and coastal regions, receiving a larger
share of income. (Pamuk, 2005; 208-9, 240-1)
It has been estimated that between 1880 and 1913, the average annual growth rate of per
capita income was less than 1 percent in the Ottoman Empire. Furthermore, it is approximat-
ed that during the span of approximately one century , from 1820 to 1913, the total increase
in per capita income was over 50 percent. Nonetheless, over the identical timeframe, the
economies of Europe were experiencing more rapid expansion, thereby exacerbating the dis-
parity between their economy and that of the Ottoman Empire. However , the data suggests
that the Ottoman economy experienced growth while adhering to a model that was based on
agriculture and external trade (Pamuk, 2008; 27). In 1925, the newly established government
eliminated the agricultural tithe, which was widely feared by the populace
2
. Fiscal policies
2 The decision to abolish the tithe tax was made during the Economy Congress held in Izmir in 1925, and its
abolition was realized in the same year . However , the cattle tax (ağnam resmi) rates were increased, and it
continued to be implemented as the Republic’ s number one law .

7 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
implemented during the Ottoman era resulted in a substantial reduction in the overall tax
burden and marked a significant departure from the previous tax regime. Fiscal responsibility
is imposed on individuals residing in rural areas. The current administration prioritized the
mitigation of destitution among the small and medium-sized producers, who constituted the
predominant demographic within the rural populace. Over an extended period, the elimination
of the tithe and tax farming facilitated the consolidation of small-scale peasant ownership.
The revitalization of agricultural practices played a significant role in bolstering the urban
economy , and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita had reached the same levels as
those observed before W orld W ar I by the conclusion of the 1920s. (Pamuk, 2010; 23)
Since 1913, and particularly since 1950, Türkiye has exhibited levels and advancements in
life expectancy that are analogous to those observed in other developing nations with corre-
sponding income levels. Since the years 1913 and 1950, education indicators such as literacy
rates, years of schooling, and school enrollment in Türkiye have consistently fallen behind
those of developing countries with comparable levels of GDP . Simultaneously , Türkiye has
exhibited a lower prevalence of poverty in contrast to developing nations that possess com -
parable income levels. The rate at which rural poverty and population decline in the coming
decades will be contingent upon the extent to which institutional transformations occur and
the amount of education and capital that is infused into rural areas. (Pamuk, 2007: 272-6)
2.1.2. The Early Y ears of the Republic and W orld W ar II
In the early years of the Republic, the state pursued a series of policies for both political
and economic institutionalization. T ezel (2015) ar gues that the impact of these policies on
people’ s living conditions is debatable, based on per capita consumption rates of essential
goods such as wheat, sugar , factory-made cotton textiles, cement, and primary ener gy con-
sumption. The study found that there was no significant increase in per capita consumption
levels of these basic goods over 15 years. It was determined that the occasional increases
were due to improvements in climatic conditions, and overall, there was no notable increase,
particularly in wheat, which is the most consumed product by the people. (T ezel, 2015; 600)
There is almost no data on the dimensions of poverty during the first years of the re-
public. Therefore, some research is based on newspaper and magazine articles of that period.
Çavdar (1983: 74) for example analyzed the writings of the newspapers and magazines of
those years, and found an article in a magazine to report:
“Y esterday morning, two men were found in the basin of the fountain across from Gülhane
Park, one of them sick and the other dead. The examination revealed that the deceased had died

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
8
of hunger . (...) While the police of ficers were dealing with the body of this man, they heard a
moan from the other basin and found that the poor man was experiencing his last moments there.
(...) The life of the man who lived of f the fruits of trees in the forests was more secure. At least
he could satisfy his hunger with the fruits he possessed and would not die of starvation in the
forest”. Another newspaper article is related to child poverty: “Some children in the outskirts
of Istanbul engage in small crafts to help their families during school holidays. These children
make griddles and earn 15-20 kuruş per day .” (Çavdar , 1983)
During the 1930 Great Depression (like previous general crises), when monetary incomes
declined, impoverished peasants were forced to sell their lands and tools, leading to an in-
crease in sharecropping and tenancy . This jeopardized their independence. However , the
emer ging dependency would be a temporary development that could be reversed when prices
started changing in favor of the farmers. The increase in agricultural prices, the availability
of cheap credit, and the rapid introduction of tractors enabling extensive land cultivation led
to a decrease in the significance of sharecropping in agriculture in the post-war period and
the 1950s. The dominant trend observed both in poor and wealthy villages was the expan-
sion of peasant ownership. The number of farms owned by their operators increased from
2.3 million in 1950 to 2.5 million in 1952 and reached 3.1 million in 1961. This indicates an
approximately 30 percent increase in the number of small-scale production units during the
1950-1960 period. The proportion of landless peasant families decreased from 16 percent in
1950 to 10 percent in 1960. It is a bit more challenging to demonstrate the indirect impact
of the agricultural structure. However , it is certain that from the perspective of the capitalist
sector , the peasantry has become an important segment of the domestic market. Those who
migrated from villages to cities did not have to leave their villages because they were land-
less and impoverished. In other words, when they arrived in the city , they were not without
belongings or property; they were not deprived. The average migrant had land in their village
that they either leased out or left to their family members in exchange for something. In most
cases, they had enough money to start building a house in a makeshift settlement closed off
by relatives or fellow villagers from the same village. (Keyder , 2014; 160-5, 195)
2.1.3. Post-W orld W ar II Period
President İnönü ensured the submission and approval of a land reform project in 1945
to the Parliament that aimed to distribute state lands to landless and impoverished peasants.
This shows the desire of the bureaucracy lies in establishing a new alliance with impoverished
peasants in response to the increasingly strengthening opposition of the bour geoisie. It could
be said that the most af fected group by statist policies and mobilization was the impoverished

9 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
peasantry . Therefore, even if they did not independently demand land reform, it would be
logical to select the impoverished peasants as the group whose hearts needed to be won over .
It might have been possible to gain the support of impoverished peasants; however , it became
apparent that in the 1950s, while not to the same extent as middle and wealthy peasants, im-
poverished peasants also preferred the opportunities evaluated by the free market. (Keyder ,
2014; 153-8)
The accumulated wealth of merchants during W orld W ar II reached significant proportions
and became a significant factor in the dissolution of the alliance between the bourgeoisie and
the bureaucracy . V oices against profiteering in the black market and speculation by merchants
began to rise. Bureaucrats whose salaries were falling behind prices and industrialists who
had limited opportunities for profiteering expressed their discomfort. It became evident that
the regime lacked the means to prevent these profiteering activities. The rationing of bread
and other essential goods in cities proved to be an ineffective and sluggish practice. Parallel
markets emerged where the well-off could engage in trade. Newspapers were filled with news
of lucrative activities. In the atmosphere of general scarcity and poverty , the knowledge that
certain individuals were making significant profits quickly turned into opposition against the
government, and the search for culprits began. This search once again directed the government
to confront the non-Muslim commercial bour geoisie in Istanbul. Throughout the Republican
era, the former capital had been associated with undesirable colonial connections and the
comprador bourgeoisie. The new mentality represented by Ankara had become the essence of
national development. In this ideological framework, it was not difficult to confront the com -
mercial capital of colonial Istanbul with the national industry of Ankara (Keyder , 2014; 143)
W ith the increase in economic growth after W orld W ar II, the absolute poverty rate also
began to decline. The poorest segments within the country were peasants with limited or
no land in less economically developed regions such as Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia.
Therefore, it is not easy to determine the direction of regional inequalities during this period.
The tendency of decreasing inequalities between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors
suggests that the dif ference between the Eastern and Southeastern regions, where agriculture
has a higher weight, and the western regions may not have increased. On the other hand,
the concentration of industrialization in the northwest of the country and the inability of the
Eastern and Southeastern regions to benefit from industrialization may have led to an increase
in regional inequalities. (Pamuk, 2014)
In the 1950s, during the rule of the Demokrat Parti [Democratic Party], a growth strategy
based on agriculture was pursued. In the early 1950s, nearly 80% of the country’ s population

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
10
derived their livelihood from agriculture. During this period, intra-agricultural inequalities
had a significant weight within the overall inequality framework of the country . However ,
with the acceleration of rural-urban migration, the importance of agriculture both in the econ-
omy and in the income inequality landscape began to decrease. The analysis of the relative
price movements also reflects the weight of agricultural producers’ votes after the transition
to a multi-party-political regime. The Demokrat Parti and its successor , the Adalet Partisi
[Justice Party], attempted to direct product and input prices in favor of agriculture through
expanding support programs. The relative price favorability towards agriculture benefited
lar ge-scale producers the most, particularly increasing inequalities between those engaged in
market-oriented production within the agricultural sector and those who were not. The trend
favoring agriculture in relative prices also brought medium and small-scale producers into
market relations. (Keyder , 2014; 154-9)
Despite the trend of industrialization and rapid productivity growth in the urban economy ,
the decrease in inequalities between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors can be ob-
served, partially attributed to significant numbers of people transitioning from agriculture to
the urban economy . In other words, significant productivity and income increases occurred in
the urban economy . However , productivity and income increase in the agricultural sector did
not lag the urban economy . In fact, with the acceleration of the shift of labor from agriculture
to non-agricultural sectors, labor productivity , and average incomes in agriculture began to
increase at a faster pace than in the urban economy . The third key indicator reflecting income
distribution within the urban economy , the wage-to-average income ratio, also showed an
increase during this period. W ages, which remained suppressed in the previous period and
did not rise as much as average incomes in the urban sector , increased faster than the average
income growth in the urban economy during this period. If we had a series for manufactur
-
ing industry wages as well as for regular wages, we could more accurately determine the
dimensions of the trend favoring labor . Nevertheless, labor ’ s share in total income increased
significantly within the urban economy . Moreover , we know that protectionism and state in-
tervention led to increased profits for medium and lar ge-scale industrialists who could benefit
from quotas and allocation processes during this period. Pamuk (2014; 330-3)
2.1.4. The Liberalization after the 1980s
The W orld Bank report of Derviş and Robinson (1978) indicates that Türkiye’ s per capita
income in 1977 was approximately $1000, which placed it below the average income of
most semi-industrialized countries. The report also underlines the low wages of traditional
labor and consequent urban poverty . (Derviş and Robinson, 1978; 2, 24). In the early 1980s,

17 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
evaluating the cost of each item annually , the prices for the entire basket were determined,
thus establishing the food poverty threshold. T o determine the cost of non-food essentials,
the cost of the food basket was divided by the proportion of food consumption among indi-
viduals slightly above the poverty threshold. The proportion of non-food consumption varied
from year to year , with a recorded percentage of 60% in 2003 and 65% in 2009. As a result,
the proportion of food consumption also fluctuated accordingly . It’ s important to note that
the official poverty lines in Türkiye vary from year to year and are not strictly considered
absolute poverty lines like the US$1 per day line. Since 2006, TURKST A T has been releasing
income-based relative poverty statistics derived from the T urkish component of EU-SILC,
which complement the poverty estimates obtained through the basic needs approach. (Demir
and Jenkins, 2013; 4)
T able 3 shows the percentage of the population subsisting on less than $2.15 per day at
prices adjusted for 2017. This measure is defined by the W orld Bank’ s methodology as the
proportion of the population that makes less than $2.15 per day in international prices in
2017. Using data from household surveys in 22 countries, the W orld Bank created its first
estimates of worldwide poverty for developing nations for the W orld Development Report
1990: Poverty 3 . Looking at T able 3, one can observe that we have experienced a nearly con-
tinuous reduction in poverty from the early 2000s onwards. However , this progress slowed
down or stabilized from the mid-2010s. The economic challenges faced in 2018-2019 led
to an increase in poverty rates, causing approximately 1.5 million more people to fall into
poverty . (W orld Bank, 2023)
T able 3. Po ver t y hea dc ou nt r a t io at $2. 1 5 a d ay ( 20 1 7 PPP ) (% o f p opu l at ion )
Ye a r s 20 02 20 03 20 04 200 5 200 6 20 07 20 08 20 09 2 0 10
% of pop u la t i on 2 .10 3. 8 6 2 . 01 2. 34 1.7 7 1. 31 0. 56 0. 72 0 .7 7
Ye a r s 2 0 11 2 01 2 201 3 2 0 14 2 01 5 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9
% of pop u la t i on 0 .1 3 0.0 9 0. 30 0. 2 0 0 . 21 0. 2 0 0 .14 0.0 4 0. 36
Sourc e: Th e W orld B a n k, Pove r t y , a n d I n e qu al it y P l at for m (20 23 )
Looking at T able 4, relative poverty is defined as the state of individuals whose incomes
fall below a certain threshold in comparison to the wider population. From 2013 to 2022,
the at-risk-of-poverty rates based on different poverty thresholds were as follows: 7.6% for
the poverty threshold set at 40% of the median equivalised household disposable income
(a decrease of 0.9 points from the previous year), and 29.3% for the poverty threshold set
3 Martin Ravillion was the first one to come up with the idea of comparing levels of poverty based on household
surveys.

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
18
at 70% of the median equivalised household disposable income (an increase of 0.6 points).
Analyzing the poverty rates based on household types and the poverty threshold set at 50%
of the median equivalised household disposable income, the at-risk-of-poverty rate was 7.5%
for one-person households (an increase of 1.0 points), 1 1.7% for multi-person no-family
households (an increase of 2.6 points), 19.6% for extended family households (an increase
of 1.1 points), and 13.9% for one-family households (a decrease of 0.3 points) compared to
the previous year . The TURKST A T data also shows that the poverty rate among children is
particularly high, standing at 12.2% in 2021, a decrease from 12.7% in 2020. This highlights
the importance of addressing poverty among children, as it can have long-term effects on
their social and economic well-being. In terms of income inequality , the data shows that the
Gini coefficient, which measures the distribution of income among individuals or households
within a country , decreased from 0.41 in 2019 to 0.40 in 2020. The Gini coefficient stood at
0.39 in 2021, a decrease from 0.40 in 2020. This indicates that income inequality in Türkiye
has slightly decreased. However , the Gini coef ficient remains relatively high, indicating that
income inequality is still a significant issue in the country .
The TURKST A T data also shows that access to basic services and social protection in
Türkiye has improved in recent years. The poverty rate of households with access to basic
services such as electricity , water , and sanitation is lower than that of households without
access to these services. Moreover , the poverty rate of households receiving social protec-
tion benefits is lower than that of households not receiving these benefits. In terms of access
to affordable and adequate housing, T it can be observed that the percentage of households
living in inadequate housing decreased from 5.2% in 2019 to 4.5% in 2020. This decrease
can be attributed to the government’ s efforts to improve housing conditions and provide af-
fordable housing options for low-income households. In terms of access to social protection,
T able 4 . Po ver t y r a te by e qu iva l is ed ho u sehold di s po sa ble in com e (% ), 20 1 3 - 2022
S u r v e y Ye a r 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 019 2020 2 0 21 2 022
I nco me Refe re nce Y e ar 2 012 2 013 2 014 2 015 2 0 16 2 0 17 2 0 18 2 019 2020 2 0 21
40% of t he me d ian e qu i va l i s e d
i ncom e 9.1 8 .7 8 .7 8.4 7. 4 7. 9 8.3 8.9 8. 5 7. 6
5 0% of the me d ian e qu i va l ise d
i ncom e 15. 0 15. 0 14 .7 14 . 3 13. 5 13. 9 14 . 4 15. 0 14 . 4 14 . 4
60% of t he me d i a n e qu i va l i s e d
i ncom e 22 .4 21. 8 21. 9 21. 2 2 0 .1 21 . 2 21. 3 21. 9 21. 3 21. 6
70% of the me d ian e qu i va l ise d
i ncom e 2 9. 5 2 9. 4 2 9. 5 2 8 .7 2 8 .1 28.5 28.5 29 .0 28.8 2 9. 3
Sourc e: TU R K STA T , I n c om e a nd Li v i n g Co nd itio n s Su r ve y (2022)

19 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
the percentage of households receiving social protection benefits increased from 17.3% in
2019 to 18.3% in 2020. This increase can be attributed to the expansion of social assistance
programs, such as the FISP and CCT , which have provided targeted cash transfers to families
and individuals living in poverty .
The below data is based on the Income and Living Conditions Survey report for 2022 of
TURKST A T which pertains to the income information for the year 2021. In this survey , pov-
erty and living conditions statistics are calculated based on household income. The income
is converted into equivalent household disposable income, considering the household’ s size
and composition. Relative poverty is defined as the state of individuals with incomes below
a specified line compared to the general population. According to the poverty threshold set
at 50% of the median equivalised household disposable income, the at-risk-of-poverty rate
remained unchanged at 14.4% compared to 2021. However , when the poverty threshold was
set at 60% of the median equivalised household disposable income, the at-risk-of-poverty rate
increased by 0.3 points to reach 21.6% compared to the previous year .
Regarding education status, among individuals with incomes below the poverty threshold
set at 50% of the median equivalised household disposable income, 27.7% of illiterates and
24.4% of literates without a degree were classified as poor . The corresponding figures for
individuals with less than a high school education and high school graduates were 13.8% and
7.8%, respectively . Higher education graduates had the lowest poverty rate at 2.6%.
The persistent at-risk-of-poverty rate, which measures individuals living below the poverty
threshold for at least two out of the preceding three years, was 14.0% in 2022, representing a
0.2-point increase compared to the previous year .
T able 5 presents the poverty rates based on the poverty threshold set at 50% and 60%
of median equivalised household disposable income, with consideration given to various
household types. The process of determining income and poverty involves converting the
household’ s income into an equivalent household disposable income, which is adjusted
based on the household’ s size and composition. The findings indicate that the at-risk-of-
poverty rate for one-person households increased by 1.0 points to reach 7.5%. Similarly ,
multi-person no-family households experienced an increase of 2.6 points, resulting in an
at-risk-of-poverty rate of 1 1.7%. Extended family households had an at-risk-of-poverty rate
of 19.6%, which increased by 1.1 points. In contrast, one-family households experienced
a decrease of 0.3 points, resulting in an at-risk-of-poverty rate of 13.9% compared to the
previous year .

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
20
In T able 6 we see the poverty figures calculated based on equivalent household disposable
income and household types, poverty rate, and poverty gap; the poverty figures, poverty rate,
and poverty gap based on the relative poverty line was calculated using Purchasing Power Par-
ity (PPP). Underlining the date for 50%: In Türkiye, as of 2022, a total of 1 1,163 per thousand
people remained below the poverty line (17,219 TL) determined using PPP . The poverty rate,
on the other hand, experienced fluctuations until 2012, and then started to decline, reaching
its lowest point since 2006 at 12.3 % in 2017. The poverty gap ratio serves as an indicator of
the extent of poverty within a given population. The metric denoting poverty severity reaches
a critical level when approaching “100”, while a decrease in this metric indicates a lower
degree of poverty risk. The formula:
Poverty gap = ((Poverty threshold-Median income of poors by EII)/Poverty thresh-
old)*100
The poverty gap, which is the difference between the poverty line adjusted by PPP and
household income, was 20.5% in 2022.
Eurostat has updated the definition of material deprivation by incorporating social depriva -
tion criteria. The variables pertaining to the household level were utilized in the computation
T able 5. Nu mber of t he po or a n d pover t y r at e by hou s ehold t y pe a nd e qu iva l is ed ho u sehold
d is po sa ble in co me, 2022
Ho usehold T y pe
5 0% 6 0%

Pove r t y
th re s hol d
( T L)

Numbe r of
the p o or
( Per
thou sa nd
p e o p le)

Pove r t y
rat e
( %)

Pove r t y
th re s hol d
( T L)

Numbe r of
the p o or
( Per
thou sa nd
p e o p le)

Pove r t y
rat e
( %)
To t a l 17 , 7 4 7 1 2,000 14 . 4 21, 2 9 6 1 8,030 21. 6
One person hou sehold 17, 7 4 7 382 7. 5 21 , 2 9 6 560 10 . 9
One-fam i ly ho useholds 17, 7 4 7 8,925 13. 9 21 , 2 9 6 1 3 , 511 21 . 0
Coupl e w i thou t re s ide nt
ch i ld r en 17, 7 4 7 370 4. 2 21, 2 9 6 6 57 7. 4
Coupl e w i th at l e a st one
re s ide nt ch i ld 17, 7 4 7 7, 9 91 15. 8 21, 2 9 6 11 , 9 9 0 2 3 .7
Lo ne pa re nt s w i th at l e as t one
re s ide nt ch i ld 17, 7 4 7 564 11 .7 21, 2 9 6 8 63 17. 9
Extended-fami ly hou seholds 17, 7 4 7 2 , 58 0 19. 6 21 , 2 9 6 3 , 810 28.9
Mul t i- p er s on no -fa m i ly
house hold s 17, 7 4 7 11 3 11 . 7 21, 2 9 6 15 0 15 . 5
So u rc e: T U R K STA T , I n c om e a n d Liv i n g C on d it io n s Su r ve y (2022)

21 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
T able 6 . Nu mb e r of the p oo r , p over t y r at e s, a n d pover t y g ap by pover t y t h re sholds a dju st e d by PP P for Tü rk iye, 20 0 6 - 2 022
Ye a r s
200 6 20 07 200 8 20 09 2 0 10 2 011 2 012 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 2020 2 0 21 2022
4 0%
Pove r t y
th re s hol d
( T L)
1 , 8 49 2 , 348 2 ,4 6 0 2 ,7 35 2, 886 3 , 16 7 3 , 51 5 3 ,897 4 , 31 2 4,82 6 5 , 5 17 ,16 6 6 , 918 8 , 35 4 9 , 6 21 10 , 8 8 4 1 3 ,77 5
Nu mb e r
of po or s
( T hous a nd
p e r s o n)
8, 228 5, 9 2 0 6 , 2 41 6,869 6 , 8 01 6,6 6 4 6 ,75 9 6 ,12 8 5,9 29 5,9 70 5 ,74 9 ,19 7 5 ,71 2 5, 9 42 6 , 674 6,50 5 5, 729
Pove r t y
r a t e ( %) 12 . 2 8 .6 9. 0 9.7 9. 5 9. 2 9. 2 8.2 7. 8 7. 8 7. 5 6.6 7. 2 7. 4 8.2 7. 9 6.9
Pove r t y g a p 28 .4 2 3. 3 22 .5 2 3. 9 22.3 2 4.3 22 .3 21. 4 21. 3 21 . 8 19. 6 19. 8 2 0 .1 20. 5 22 .4 2 3. 9 2 2 .9
5 0%
Pove r t y
th re s hol d
( T L)
2 , 311 2 , 9 35 3 , 0 75 3,4 1 9 3,60 8 3,9 58 4, 39 4 4 , 8 71 5, 39 0 6 , 0 32 6, 896 ,70 7 8 ,6 47 10 , 4 4 2 2 ,0 26 13, 6 0 5 17, 2 1 9
Nu mb e r
of po or s
( T hous a nd
p e r s o n)
12 , 0 96 10 , 0 0 7 1 0 6 13 11 , 3 9 1 11 , 4 6 1 1, 0 5 8 11 ,1 31 10 , 321 10 , 4 51 0 , 503 10 , 2 9 6 ,690 10 , 6 4 7 10 , 8 3 3 1 ,424 11 , 2 3 3 11 , 16 3
Pove r t y
r a t e ( %) 17. 9 14 . 6 15 . 3 16 . 1 16 .1 15 . 3 15.1 13. 9 13. 8 13. 8 13. 4 12 .3 13. 3 13. 4 14 . 0 13 . 6 13. 4
Pove r t y g a p 3 0 .7 2 5. 0 2 5. 0 26. 1 2 5. 3 2 5 .7 26.0 2 4.5 2 3. 6 2 3. 8 2 3. 0 21 . 5 2 2 .1 22.4 2 5. 4 2 4 .7 20.6
6 0%
Pove r t y
th re s hol d
( T L)
2 ,7 74 3 , 52 2 3,6 89 4 ,10 3 4 , 33 0 4 ,75 0 5, 272 5 , 8 45 6,4 68 7, 2 3 8 8 , 2 75 ,2 49 10 , 3 7 7 2 , 5 31 14 , 4 31 16 , 3 2 6 20, 6 63

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
22
T able 6 . Co nt i nu e d
Ye a r s
200 6 20 07 200 8 20 09 2 0 10 2 011 2 012 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 2020 2 021 2 022
Nu mb e r
of po or s
( T hous a nd
p e r s o n)
16 , 5 61 15 , 0 0 9 15 ,7 7 3 1 6,4 0 9 6 , 2 74 15 , 9 0 3 16 , 0 41 15 , 9 9 0 5 , 8 01 16 , 0 2 4 16 , 0 3 4 1 5 , 318 16 , 3 7 5 16 , 2 9 9 17, 17 6 16 , 8 5 9 17 , 2 0 5
Pove r t y
r a t e ( %) 24. 5 21. 9 22.8 2 3. 3 22 .8 22 .0 21. 8 21 . 5 20.9 21 . 0 2 0.8 1 9. 4 20. 5 20.2 21 . 0 2 0.4 2 0.6
Pove r t y g a p 3 3 .1 26.3 2 7. 2 27 .6 2 7. 7 27 .6 28.3 2 5.5 2 5.9 24 .9 24.4 2 4. 2 24. 3 25. 5 25. 8 26.2 24.4
70%
Pove r t y
th re s hol d
( T L)
3, 2 36 4 ,10 9 4 ,30 4 4 ,7 8 7 5 , 0 51 5, 5 42 6 , 151 6 , 81 9 7, 5 4 5 8 ,4 45 9, 6 55 10 ,7 9 0 1 2 ,10 6 14 , 6 1 9 16 , 8 3 6 19, 0 47 24, 1 07
Nu mb e r
of po or s
( T hous a nd
p e r s o n)
21, 6 8 4 19, 9 0 7 2 0 , 914 21 , 3 2 0 21, 3 6 0 21,1 3 2 21, 8 4 2 21, 3 85 21 , 4 6 5 21, 6 0 5 21, 5 4 7 21 , 6 65 22 ,48 4 2 2 , 39 7 2 3,152 2 3,0 57 2 3, 652
Pove r t y
r a t e ( %) 32 .1 2 9.1 30. 2 30.2 2 9. 9 2 9. 2 2 9.7 2 8 .7 28.4 28.3 2 7. 9 2 7. 5 28.2 2 7. 7 28.3 2 7. 8 28.3
Pove r t y g a p 33. 3 2 8.9 2 9.1 3 0 .7 30. 8 3 0 .1 2 9. 3 2 7. 7 2 7. 9 27 .6 2 7.1 2 5.5 26.9 27 .6 28. 2 2 7. 8 26. 7
Sourc e: TU R K STA T , I n c om e a nd Li v i n g Co nd itio n s Su r ve y (2022)

23 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
of the rates of material and social deprivation. These variables included the incapacity to afford
unforeseen financial expenses related to automobiles, the ability to take an annual holiday away
from home for a week, the payment of mortgage or rent, the consumption of a meal containing
meat, chicken, or fish every other day , the provision of adequate heating to the home, the re -
placement of worn furniture, and the possession of an automobile. The contemporary definition
has undergone modifications by excluding the possession of a washing machine, a color TV ,
and a telephone, which were previously included. The recently incorporated variables at the
individual level encompassed the following: the incapacity to acquire new clothes to replace
worn-out ones, the lack of access to two pairs of appropriately fitting shoes, the inability to en -
gage in leisure activities outside the home that require monetary expenditure, the failure to meet
with family or friends at least once a month, the absence of a weekly allowance for personal
expenses, and the unavailability of a personal internet connection at home.
T able 7 shows the rate of severe material and social deprivation, characterized by the
inability to af ford at least seven of the thirteen items specified. The data pertaining to the
variables utilized for computing social deprivation indicators were first gathered in 2015,
therefore 2006-2014 are null. The severe material deprivation rate (%) showed a steady fall
throughout 2006-2022. Severe material and social deprivation rate (%) decreased between
2015 and 2020. Then in 2021, probably with the impact of COVID-19, it increased to 18.1%
but decreased to 16.6% in 2022.
3. Sustainable Development Goals: “No Poverty” in the W orld
and Türkiye
Prior to the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, advancements toward the attainment of
Goal 1 had decelerated, and the global community was not making sufficient headway in
eradicating extreme poverty by the year 2030. In light of the current global climate, with the
looming possibility of severe economic repercussions comparable to those experienced during
the Great Depression, it is expected that a significant portion of the global population will be
forced into poverty , thereby reversing the progress made in poverty reduction over the past
several years. The significance of resilient social protection systems in protecting individuals
who are impoverished and susceptible is increasingly evident as the economic consequences
of the pandemic intensify . The necessity for proficient emergency preparedness is imperative
for both pandemics and other perils that result in calamities. The proportion of individuals
residing in severe destitution across the globe experienced a reduction from 15.7% in 2010 to
10.0% in 2015. Nevertheless, there has been a slowdown in the rate of global poverty reduc-
tion. According to current estimates, the global poverty rate in 2019 was 8.2%. (UN, 2020)

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
24
T able 7 . Per sis t ent a t-r i sk - o f-p ov e r t y-r at e by 60 % of med ia n e qu iva l is ed ho u sehold di s po sa ble in com e, seve re m at e r i al d e pr ivation , m at e r ial, a nd
so cia l de pr ivat ion r at es , 20 0 6 - 2022
Ye a r s
200 6 20 07 20 08 20 09 2 010 2 0 11 2 01 2 2 01 3 2 0 14 2 015 2 016 2 0 17 2 018 2 01 9 2020 2 0 21 2022
P ersis ten t a t-risk -
of-po vert y-rate
( %)
- (1) - (1) - (1) 17. 3 18 . 5 16 . 0 16 . 0 13 .0 1 5 .1 15. 8 14 . 6 14 . 0 12 .7 1 2 .7 1 3 .7 13. 8 14 . 0
Se vere ma te r i a l
depr ivat ion rat e
( %)
6 0.4 58 . 8 5 7. 7 5 6 .7 59. 4 5 7. 9 55 . 0 43. 8 2 9. 4 30.3 32 .9 2 8 .7 26.5 26.3 2 7. 4 2 7. 2 28 .4
Se vere ma te r i a l
and s o ci a l
depr ivat ion rat e
( %)
- (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - (2) - ( 2) 19. 2 17. 8 15. 4 15. 3 15 . 8 16 .7 18 .1 16 . 6
Sourc e: TU R K STA T , I n c om e a nd Li v i n g Co nd itio n s Su r ve y (2022): - Den ot e s m a g n it u de n u l l. (1 ) T h i s i n d ic at o r ca n be ca lc u l at e d ove r t h e fou r -yea r p a n el d a t a . T h e va r ia ble s u s e d to
ca lc u l at e t h is i nd icat o r st ar te d t o b e c ol le c t e d i n 201 5.

25 A yda Rona A ylin AL TINA Y
Türkiye has experienced a consistent decline in poverty rates since the early 2000s, how-
ever , this trend has exhibited a deceleration or plateauing ef fect since the mid-2010s. The
period of economic decline observed between 2018 and 2019 increased poverty rates, as
measured by consumption-based welfare aggregates and the upper -middle-income poverty
line, from 10.9 percent to 12.6 percent in 2019. This led to an estimated 1.5 million individuals
falling below the poverty line. Türkiye experienced the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in
close succession, leading to significant employment reductions that disproportionately affect-
ed individuals employed in informal, low-skilled, and youthful occupations. The Household
Budget Survey , which encompasses consumption microdata, was not gathered during the
years 2020 and 2021. However , the Survey of Income and Living Conditions (SILC) for the
same period indicates that the poverty rate based on income remained stable in 2020. This can
be attributed to the augmented government transfers that counterbalanced the adverse impact
of the reduction in labor and investment incomes. (W orld Bank, 2023)
The phenomenon of inequality has experienced an upward trend in Türkiye in the past.
The Gini index exhibited a decline from 0.42. in 2003 to 0.39 before the onset of the economic
crisis in 2008. However , it subsequently experienced an upswing, reaching 0.41 in 2019. The
level of income-based inequality in the year 2020 was observed to remain unaltered, owing to
the augmented government transfers. In 2022, there is evidence of a rise in inequality , which
can be attributed to the distribution of national income being skewed towards gross operat-
ing surplus as opposed to compensation of employees. In 2022, the proportion of employee
compensation in GNI attained a historic minimum of 23.7 %, which is a notable decline from
the 31.3% recorded in 2019. It is estimated that the impact of the earthquake on regions with
higher poverty rates than the national average will exacerbate measures of inequality in the
upcoming years. (W orld Bank, 2023)
Related to the achievement of SGD 1 in Türkiye, one can assert that poverty remains a
significant issue, with an estimated 19% of the population living below the poverty line in
2019. The government of Türkite has implemented various policies and programs to address
poverty , including social assistance programs, employment policies, and education and train-
ing programs. One of the main poverty reduction strategies in Türkiye has been the expansion
of social assistance programs, such as the Family Income Support Program (FISP) and the
Conditional Cash T ransfer Program (CCT). These programs provide targeted cash transfers
to families and individuals living in poverty , to increase their purchasing power and improve
their standard of living. Another key strategy has been the implementation of employment
policies and programs, such as the Employment Strategy for the EU Harmonization Period

THE HIST OR Y AND DIMENSIONS OF POVER TY IN TÜRKİYE
26
and the National Employment Action Plan. These policies aim to increase the participation of
disadvantaged groups in the labor market, such as women and young people, and to improve
the quality and productivity of jobs.
Historically , poverty in Türkiye has been high and persistent, with the poverty rate re-
maining above 20% for most of the 20th century . The poverty rate began to decline in the
early 2000s, reaching a low of 12.5% in 2008 before increasing slightly in the aftermath of
the global financial crisis. However , the poverty rate has remained relatively stable in the
2010s, hovering around 19%. The T urkish Statistical Institute (TURKST A T) data also shows
that poverty rates vary significantly across regions in Türkiye. The highest poverty rates are
found in the eastern and southeastern regions of the country , where over 30% of the population
lives below the poverty line. In contrast, the western and central regions of Türkiye have the
lowest poverty rates, with less than 15% of the population living in poverty .
These regional disparities in poverty rates can be attributed to several factors, including
dif ferences in economic development, access to education and training opportunities, and em -
ployment opportunities. The eastern and southeastern regions of Türkiye have traditionally been
less developed economically and have had lower levels of educational attainment and higher
unemployment rates compared to other regions of the country . T o address these disparities,
the government of Türkiye has implemented several poverty reduction strategies, such as the
expansion of social assistance programs, the implementation of employment policies and pro -
grams, and education and training programs. The Family Income Support Program (FISP) and
the Conditional Cash T ransfer Program (CCT) are two examples of social assistance programs
that have been implemented to provide targeted cash transfers to families and individuals living
in poverty , to increase their purchasing power and improve their standard of living.
The Employment Strategy for the EU Harmonization Period and the National Employment
Action Plan are examples of employment policies that have been implemented to increase
the participation of disadvantaged groups in the labor market, such as women and young
people, and to improve the quality and productivity of jobs. Education and training programs
have also been a significant focus of poverty reduction efforts in Türkiye. The government
has implemented various initiatives, such as the Education T ransformation Program and the
Lifelong Learning Program, to improve access to education and training opportunities for
disadvantaged individuals and families.
T able 8 shows Türkiye’ s distance only to the first goal, covering the poverty tar gets and
recent trends in OECD. The institution remarks data availability as a challenge for measuring

CHAPTER 2
NO -POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS
OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE*
Emine T AHSİN 1
1 Assoc. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye
E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-0349-2381
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.002
Abstract
The primary purpose of this article is to define interactions between sustainable development goals based on
inclusiveness in the case of Türkiye. Inclusiveness plays a key role in sustainability and even inclusiveness is
directly linked with the ‘leaving no one behind’ principle, that is defined among the guiding principles led by the
sustainable development goals. In this context, a no-poverty goal is an important indicator in achieving inclusiveness
based on these universal principles of the SDGs’ given that the synergies and trade-offs between SDG1(no-poverty)
and other goals are an important priority in the assessment of achievements through the SDGs. As the empirical
findings indicate the importance of the synergies among SDG tar gets, it is also outlined that the no-poverty goal has
strong spillover effects on other SDGs. In this context, this study aims to outline whether these facts are relevant to
Türkiye’ s SDG performance. For this purpose, PCA (principal component analysis) methods, which are among the
main tools that analyze the performance of SDGs based on synergies and trade-offs will be implemented. W ithin this
framework, Türkiye’ s development plans and an overview of the relevant SDGs will be summarized to set up the
links between the past and present performance of the development policies based on inclusiveness and the ‘Leaving
no one behind’ principle. The main objectives of the development plans and the strengths and weaknesses of the
policies relevant to given SDGs will be taken into account. As a final result of the analysis, the priorities among the
SDG goals and the scope of possible policies for the achievement of the SDGs will be discussed.
Keywords: LNOB and SDGs, SDGs performance of Türkiye, No-poverty goal and Türkiye, PCA, poverty and
inequality in Türkiye
* I would like to express my thanks to two anonymous reviewers for their valuable and helpful comments.
PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF
TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
34
1. Intr oduction
In the pursuit of sustainable development, the United Nations introduced 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) as a comprehensive framework, addressing diverse aspects of
global challenges (UN, 2015). SDGs cover three broad categories and three basic bottom lines
(economic development, environmental sustainability , and social inclusion) (Sachs,2012) and
are classified under 5 principles (5 Ps, people, prosperity , planet, peace and partnerships).
Their achievement depends on the governance of these goals under this guidance of princi-
ples. In this context, the primary goal is known as the no poverty tar get (SDG 1) and mostly
addresses material deprivations (Sachs, 2012). However , the scope of achievements for human
development along with economic growth and the compatibility of this progress within a sus-
tainable environment is defined as an important topic, especially in terms of people-centered
goals.
In 2015 the UN declared that this framework has an “underlying commitment to cr eate
conditions for sustainable, inclusive and sustained gr owth, shar ed pr osperity and decent work
for all”. It is stated that “on this collective journey… no one will be left behind” (UN, 2015).
These targets emphasize the need to ensure that progress and development are accessible to
all individuals, especially the most vulnerable and marginalized populations. For this purpose,
universal values in achieving sustainability were defined. Among the 17 SDGs, the princi-
ples of inclusiveness and leaving no one behind have gained significance regarding the 2030
tar gets. LNOB (Leaving No One Behind) is defined as one of the six “Guiding Principles of
the United Nations Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework “and a specific target
of 2030’ ’ (UNSDG, 2023).
The scope of the sustainable development goals and the fact that global efforts are deci-
sive in these topics have brought about transformations in the framework of both global and
national-based development goals. Although this study partially excludes discussions on these
dimensions (see Mensah, 2019), the SDG targets are considered to be an important paradigm
change in that they define the development efforts of countries in line with common principles
at the international level. The SDG goals, their scope, and practical implementation imply the
adaptation of the principles underpinning 21st-century modernization theory through “goal”
oriented policies. Hence, these modernization interventions through SDGs might be challeng -
ing and controversial. While SDGs behave in all countries as “similar” units in some aspects,
dimensions of the public-private partnership and project-led financing and macroeconomic
governance are among the main controversies.

35 Emine T AHSİN
Türkiye has also accelerated its efforts to comply with the SDG targets since the Rio
+20 Conference (2012). Based on these facts, the study aims to analyze the SDG targets for
Türkiye by taking into account the principles of inclusiveness and LNOB. The phenomenon
of growth together with human development has been an important topic throughout the his-
tory of the Republic of Türkiye. Despite advances in income level, Türkiye’ s performance in
human development and persistent inequalities, reveal opposite trends.
This paper seeks to contribute to the understanding of inclusiveness and leaving no one
behind in Türkiye by utilizing PCA methodology and growth with equity approach to explore
historical poverty dynamics. By examining Türkiye’ s progress, challenges, and policy initia-
tives, the paper aims to provide insights that will support the global pursuit of sustainable
development.
Accordingly , this chapter ’ s structure is based on three main sections. In the first section,
the importance and scope of the no-poverty goal are considered. Following that the chapter
covers the evolution of Türkiye’ s poverty dynamics over time and the SDGs’ links. Thirdly ,
taking into account the literature on SDG interactions, the chapter will focus on analyzing the
links between the no-poverty goal and the LNOB in Türkiye. In this context, the PCA (Prin-
cipal Component Analysis) method is applied to identify Türkiye’ s syner gies and trade-of fs
within the scope of SDG targets, based on SDG-based data (Sachs et al., 2022; Lafortune et
al., 2022) for the period 2000-2021.
2. No-Poverty Goal and its Challenges
As the first goal of the SDGs, pillars of the “no-poverty” tar get are built on the goal of
“ending extreme poverty and hunger”, which was previously defined under the MDG (Mil-
lennium Development Goals) tar gets and includes broader dimensions. The MDGs related to
poverty aimed to halve the proportion of people living in extreme poverty by 2015, compared
to the baseline year of 1990 (UN, 2015). In contrast to MDGs, SDG1, aims to end poverty in
all its forms and dimensions (UN, 2015) and as seen in T able 1, goes beyond ending extreme
poverty .

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
36
T able 1. No- pover t y G oa l T a rget s Unde r SD Gs
1 . 1 B y 2030, e r a d ic at e ex t rem e p over t y for a l l p eo ple eve r y wh e re , cu r rent ly m ea s u re d a s pe o ple l iv i ng o n le ss
t h a n $ 1 .25 a d ay .
1 . 2 By 2 030, re d uc e at le a s t by ha l f , t he p ro p or t ion of me n , wome n a n d ch i ld ren of a ll a ge s l iv i ng in p ove r t y i n
al l it s d i men sio n s a c co rd i ng to n at iona l def i n it ions .
1 . 3 I m ple me nt n at iona ll y ap pr o pr iat e so c ia l pr ot e ct ion sys t e m s a nd m e a su re s for a ll , i n clud ing f lo o r s, a nd by
2030 a ch ieve s ub st ant ial c over a ge of th e p oo r a nd t he v u l ner a ble.
1 .4 B y 2030, e n su re t h at a l l me n a n d wome n , i n p a r t ic u la r t he po or a n d t he v ul ne r able, h ave e qu a l r ight s t o
ec o nom ic res ou rce s , a s wel l a s a cc e s s to b a sic s e r vic e s, ow ner s h ip a n d co nt rol over la n d a nd ot her for m s
of pro pe r t y , i n her it a nc e, n a t ur al re s ou r c e s, a p pr op r iat e new t e ch nolog y a n d f i na ncia l se r v ice s , i nclud i ng
m i c r of i n a nc e.
1 . 5 By 2 030, bu i ld t he r e si l ien c e of th e po or a nd th os e i n v u l ne r able sit u a t ion s a nd re du c e t he i r ex p os u re a nd
v ul n e r abi l it y to cl i m at e -rela t ed e xt re me e vent s and o t he r e c on om ic, s o ci al a nd env i ron ment al sho ck s a nd
disasters .
1 . A E n su re sig ni f ica nt m obi l i z at ion of res ou rce s f rom a va rie t y o f s ou rce s , i n clud i ng th rou g h e n ha n ce d
develo pme nt c o op e r a t ion , i n orde r t o p rov id e a de q u at e a nd pre d ict able m ea ns for d evelopi n g co u nt r ie s ,
i n p a r tic u l a r le a st d evelop e d c ou nt r ies, t o i mpleme nt p rog ra m me s a nd p ol icie s t o e nd p over t y in a l l it s
dimens io ns.
1 . B Cr e at e s ou n d p olic y f ra me work s at t he n at io n al , r eg ion a l a nd i nte r na t ion a l levels , b a se d o n pr o - p oo r a nd
ge nde r-se n sit iv e d evelop me nt s t rat eg ies, t o s up p or t a c cele r a te d i nvest ment i n pover t y e r a d icat ion a c t io n s.
So u rc e: U N (2 015 ).
The conceptualization of poverty in SDG1 is in line with a theoretical framework that
emer ged from the W orld Bank in the 1990s and the UNDP’ s human development approach.
The definition of “extreme poverty” is defined according to poverty thresholds identified by
the W orld Bank. In these tar gets, the choice of extreme poverty threshold-headcount ratio
$1.25 at a day- as a yardstick is questioned (Ravallion, 2022: 47). It is ar gued that focusing
on the fact of poverty based on this context may lead to underestimation of poverty and create
certain limits in achieving the tar gets.
No-poverty target; ending poverty means decreasing the poverty rate by 3% by 2030 could
be also challenging (Ravallion, 2022: 46). During this period, the cost of decreasing poverty
is another fact that needs to be evaluated in detail. Additionally , it is claimed that some goals
are “unattainable” (Easterly , 2015a, 2015b). Reinert (2020: 126) brings up the idea of relative
poverty and claims that it is unrealistic to expect to eradicate all forms of poverty worldwide.
Easterly (2015a), on the other hand, draws attention to the fact that the specific timetables
(2030 target year) set for the SDG tar gets may limit their realization. Even this, he points out
that the goal of ending extreme poverty could potentially be more easily attained than many
other goals. Also, he draws attention to the boundaries of the threshold values set within the
scope of this tar get as a measure of poverty and reminds us that extreme poverty values have
already been on a downward trend in recent years.

37 Emine T AHSİN
Besides, the definition of some of the targets is found to be unclear . For the case of target
1.3, it is argued that social protection can have dif ferent scopes and practices for different
countries. The definition and dimensions of social services in target 1.4, need to be clarified.
At the same time access problems in reaching these services are thought to be considered
specific to countries’ conditions (Reinert, 2020:126). The scale of poverty may differ across
countries and the “homogeneous” character of these tar gets may impede the specific charac-
teristics of the countries. Such as, focusing on poverty in rural areas may require the imple-
mentation of country specific, holistic policies. On the other hand, for countries problems in
measuring poverty can make it difficult to measure the performance of policies in this area.
Another challenging dimension in achieving the poverty target is the lack of political and
financial commitment to the formulation of holistic policies (Cichos and Salvia, 2018).
All these covered targets under SDG 1 (no-poverty goal) make it vital to discuss the scope
of poverty alleviation strategies. Ravallion (2022) argues that rather than focusing on extreme
poverty , pro-poor growth is more important in reaching these tar gets (see tar get 1. B in T able
1). The pro-poor growth target highlights the necessity of growth, inequality and poverty
linkages and emphasizes the need for countries to implement more holistic policies specific
to their conditions. The fact that there is no linear relationship between growth and poverty
(Easterly , 2009); growth dynamics might not always lead to recovery in poverty conditions,
needs to be tackled for the countries.
Sachs’ vision of the SDGs is based on a reorganization of the goals based on certain
principles in the transition from MDGs to SDGs. In this context, the SDG targets should be
or ganized, particularly to secure basic material needs and human rights. Sachs’ (2012) vision
emphasizes the required bottom lines for the success of the SDGs. These bottom lines are cate-
gorized into the three broad categories of economic development, environmental sustainability
and social inclusion, and their success depends on each other . Accordingly , the economic
dimension should build on the MDGs, which have helped to advance the world’ s agenda in
the fight against poverty , hunger , and disease, and SGDs should include basic material needs
and human rights. In this framework, the fact that the no-poverty target has been identified
under the first goal is related to the indication that it is one of the elements that should be
provided as a minimum within the scope of meeting basic needs (Sachs, 2012: 2208). Given
this approach, it is possible to argue that the no-poverty tar get constitutes a “red line” in terms
of basic needs and in achieving sustainable development goals in general.
The outcome of these approaches is discussed in terms of which fundamental principles
will be adopted under the SDGs. Human rights and capabilities-based approaches are also

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
38
considered within this framework. A multidimensional poverty approach is included in the
analysis so it is possible to go beyond income deprivation in setting up no-poverty goals.
Education healthcare and social protection matters for the no-poverty goal. The no-poverty
tar get also considers environmental vulnerabilities, pro–poor growth (growth and inequality),
and gender-sensitive developments. More importantly , reference is made to vulnerable people
as a separate category- “other than being poor”- under the no-poverty goal. Paragraph 23 of
the 2030 Agenda defines vulnerable peoples as:
“all children, youth, persons with disabilities (of whom more than 80% live in poverty), people
living with HIV/AIDS, older persons, indigenous peoples, refugees and internally displaced
persons and migrants and people living in areas affected by complex humanitarian emergencies
and in areas af fected by terrorism” (UN, 2015).
Leaving no one behind principle, which will be introduced in the following section, comes
to the agenda as a result of these dimensions included in the no -poverty goal.
2.1. The No-Poverty Goal at the Interaction of Inclusiveness and
LNOB
The no-poverty goal as one of the key indicators of the interactions between the SDG targets,
is also one of the main indicators guiding the principles of inclusiveness and leaving no one
behind (UN, 2015). The principles of “to create inclusive societies is among the main tar gets”,
which defines the vision of the SDGs, and “Leaving no one left”, which is among the central
transformative promises of the 2030 Agenda (UN, 2015), can also be considered complemen -
tary to each other . Inclusiveness and leaving no one behind are mutually reinforcing principles.
Although inclusiveness is a controversial concept, it is generally used in the SDG tar gets
as a goal of creating an inclusive society (see T able 2, Goal 16). Unlike the inclusive growth
(Anand et al., 2013), the inclusiveness defined under the SDGs refers to a broader set of con-
cepts. As seen in T able 2, the SDGs are based on four dimensions of inclusiveness; social,
economic, political, and environmental. Relevant to these dimensions, inequality , exclusion,
and vulnerability for sustainable development are the main principles that are covered under
inclusiveness (UNDP , 2018). Inclusiveness ensures that the most marginalized and vulnerable
individuals have equal opportunities, rights, and access to resources. This is an important step
in ensuring conditions that guarantee respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
for all, respect for cultural and religious diversity , and social justice in line with the goal of
achieving an inclusive society (UN, 1995) 1 .
1 Inclusive society as “a society for all’, in which every individual, each with rights and responsibilities, has an
active role to play (United Nations, 1995, para 66).

39 Emine T AHSİN
According to Gupta and V egelin (2016), the inclusive development concept, which com-
prises social, ecological, and relational inclusiveness, mostly covers the dimensions of inclu-
siveness in the SDGs. According to them, the definition of inclusive development per sé calls
for leaving ‘no one behind’, which means equitably including the most vulnerable people in
the development process within countries and internationally (Gupta et al., 2014: 3).
This principle underlies rights-based (Klasen and Fleurbaey , 2019) approaches as a commit -
ment of all UN members to eradicate poverty in all its forms, end discrimination and exclusion
(Stuart and Samman, 2017), and reduce inequalities and vulnerabilities, including the impact
of climate change and environmental degradation. The United Nations’ approach to leaving no
one behind entails “reaching the poorest of the poor” and seeks to “combat” discrimination and
rising inequalities within and amongst countries and their root causes (UNSDG, 2019).
T able 2 . I n clusivene ss c on ce pt i n the SDG s
I nclu si vene s s a nd SD G s
Go al 4. E n su re i n clu sive a nd e q u it a ble qu a l it y ed uc at io n a nd p ro mot e l i felong l ea r n i ng op po r t u nit ies for al l .
Go al 8 . P ro mot e s u s t a i n ed , in clu sive a nd s u st ai n a ble ec on om ic g row t h, f ul l a nd p r od u ct ive e mploy ment a nd
de c e nt work for a l l.
Go al 9 . Bu ild re si l ie nt i n f r a st r uct u r e, p ro mot e i n clu sive a nd s u st ai n a ble i nd u st r ia l i z a t ion a nd fost e r
in no vat ion.
Go al 1 1 . M a ke cit ies a nd hu ma n s et tle me nt s i nclus ive, sa fe, r e si l ien t a nd s u st ai n a ble.
Go al 1 6. P r omo te p e a c ef ul a nd i nclu sive so ciet ies for s u st ai n able d evelop me nt , p rov id e a cc e s s to j u st ice for al l
a nd bu i ld ef fect ive, a c c ou nt able a n d i nclu sive i n s t it ut ion s a t a ll le vels.
Sourc e: U N (20 15)
Leaving no one behind aims to address two related concerns: ending absolute poverty
in all its forms and ensuring that those who have been ‘left behind’ (in relative or absolute
terms) can ‘catch up’ with those who have experienced greater progress (Stuart and Samman,
2017:2). The lack of choices and capabilities that enable others to participate in or benefit
from human development is defined as the consequence of leaving left (UNDP , 2018). In
this context, absolute deprivations and relative disadvantages may occur . As a measurement
of absolute deprivations, multidimensional poverty or below other minimally accepted stan-
dards of security , income, income public service, infrastructure, or well-being are considered.
Given the no-poverty goal, for material deprivation, a multidimensional poverty (Alkire and
Foster , 201 1) approach is considered rather than extreme poverty indicators (UNDP , 2018:
9). Relative disadvantage is defined as facing exclusion, discrimination, and/or entrenched
inequalities that make people less able to gain influence, get educated, survive setbacks, ac-
quire wealth, access job markets or technologies, have shorter riskier lives, and rank below
the median in SDG outcomes and opportunities (UNDP , 2018: 7).

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
40
Summing up, discrimination, inequality , governance, socio-economic status, shocks, and
vulnerability are defined as the key reasons for being left behind. Across countries, women
and girls, people in rural areas, indigenous peoples, ethnic and linguistic minorities, people
with disabilities, migrants, gender and sexual minorities, youth, and older people are dispro-
portionately among those left behind (UNDP , 2018: 9). However , the measurement of LNOB
and inclusiveness is still methodologically controversial. The development of dif ferent criteria
for assessing progress in this area has also come to the fore. The LNOB index score is among
these indicators. This index tracks the inqualities based on 4 main dimensions; poverty , ser -
vices, gender , and income. The relevant SDG tar gets are sub-categorized under these given 4
dimensions of inequalities, as can be seen in T able A.2.
Extreme poverty and material deprivation is the first category that focuses on the goal of
eliminating poverty , which is extreme poverty and material deprivation (Mackie and Allwood,
2022). SDG 1 of fers a transformative vision to eradicate poverty . First of all, this goal cannot
be achieved without embracing inclusiveness and leaving no one behind. Secondly , income
inequality addresses inclusiveness based on economic growth and income distribution. Third-
ly , “access to and quality of services” is considered. In this framework, social inclusiveness
requires ensuring that all individuals have equal access to essential services such as healthcare,
education, housing, transportation, and legal assistance. It also involves improving the quality
of these services to ensure they meet the diverse needs of the population (Lafortune et al.,
2022). Finally , gender inequality includes SDG indicators that focus on discrimination and
vulnerabilities regarding gender (Appendix, T able A.2).
The definition of leaving no one score as a quantitative indicator could be a complementa-
ry indicator produced within the SDGs. This index assesses who is excluded or discriminated
against and outlines the basis of discrimination and the dimensions of discrimination and
inequalities. The method of constructing LNOB index is similar with SDGs index (for details
see the methodology section).
3. Gr owth, Inequality and Poverty Links in Türkiye
The dimensions of poverty alleviation strategies in Türkiye could not be interpreted inde -
pendently from the emer ging international literature and practices. More precisely , the policies
that have come to the agenda within the scope of poverty alleviation strategies have theoret-
ical and practical indicators of the W orld Bank (WB, 1990, 2001) -based poverty alleviation
strategies developed since the 1990s. The history of poverty in Türkiye certainly does not
begin with the 1990s. As a phenomenon inherited from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic,

41 Emine T AHSİN
poverty , as Çavdar (2015) emphasizes, refers to the living conditions of the “silent majority”
of Anatolia’ s population, which is dependent on agricultural production. The fact of the poor
–rural Anatolian population and their living conditions is one of the specific initial conditions
in analyzing poverty dynamics depending on the economic transformation stages in Türkiye.
Hence, the basic framework of poverty dynamics is not shaped independently of growth
dynamics. Changes in the dynamics of distribution with growth in Türkiye essentially de-
termine the scope of the phenomenon of equality with growth and, as a consequence, the
dynamics of poverty . When we focus on Türkiye’ s growth and distribution dynamics within
the framework of the equality phenomenon, and in particular on the changes in “poverty”
as a result of this, different dynamics emer ge. The dynamics of poverty , the links between
income-based inequalities and poverty , changes between agricultural and non-agricultural
sectors, differentiation of urbanization dynamics, and migration waves have taken on dif ferent
dimensions through time.
According to the analytical framework defined by Pamuk (2005), intra-agricultural distri -
bution, average income dif ferences between the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, and
the dynamics of distribution within the non-agricultural sector have determined the growth
and distribution dynamics of income distribution for 200 years.
In the early years of the Republic, instead of policies that directly addressed income distri-
bution, surplus transfers between sectors and interventions to markets for these purposes were
decisive. As a result, income distribution mechanisms developed as a result of preferences
based on political economy . Price intervention policies and taxation policies were directly or
indirectly influential on income distribution mechanisms in this process. For example, among
these taxation policies in the agricultural sector was the abolition of “ âşar (tithe)” , which
altered income distribution mechanisms (Önder , 2019).
The land reform debate that came to the agenda in the mid-1940s is considered to be an
attempt at direct intervention in income distribution mechanisms, although the links from
growth to income distribution have been decisive (Özbudun, 1980).
While in the 1950s and 1960s the main source of income inequality was explained by
changes in the productivity of the agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, with the indus-
trialization taking place in the 1970s, urban dynamics changed. Under these phases of the
economy , inequalities also increased within the industrial struggle for shares between capital
and labor (Dervis and Robinson, 1980: 83). Although, intersectoral terms of trade and agri-
cultural distribution remain important (Dervis and Robinson, 1980: 121) inequalities among

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
42
non-agricultural groups became more determinant in the post-1980 period due to the increas -
ing weight of cities in the economic structure and dif ferences in the employment structure.
Gini data for Türkiye can be found for the post-2001 period in a continuous trend. How-
ever , when certain calculations made by different institutions and researchers are taken into
account, it is observed that income distribution improved between 1968 and 1987, but dete-
riorated in the 1990s 2 .
The impact of the Özal years on the dynamics of distribution, together with the opening
up stage of the T urkish economy , is also called a specific period that causes the differentiation
of secondary (re-distribution) distribution relations (Boratav , 1991). In this period, beyond
taxation practices as a component of the redistribution policies, the dynamics that have altered
rent-interest earnings have had a decisive role.
According to Boratav , who defines distribution relations as the sharing of the surplus
obtained in capital accumulation and analyzes income sharing between classes, the changes in
the sub-groups of the ruling /dominant classes 3 differed markedly in this period. In the 1990s,
the allocation of title deeds to urban slums and zoning amnesty practices are also identified
among the policies af fecting the dynamics of distribution (Boratav , 1991). While it has also
been described as a populist policy for the poor , the allocation of title deeds has led to the
creation of new rental opportunities.
As a result of the growth strategies implemented in this period, going beyond traditional
rural-agricultural poverty also meant the emergence of new forms of poverty (Buğra and
Keyder , 2003). During this period, the emergence of the financial crisis also contributed to
the phenomenon of urban poverty becoming more visible. Türkiye reached the highest Gini
coef ficient in 1994 (DPT , 2001).
The new urban poor reveal the inability of growth strategies to create new employment
in the post-80s period and the spatial spread of poverty (Önder and Şenses, 2006). During
this period, the rural-urban divide with new types of urban and poor started to characterize
the poverty dynamics. In particular , urban poverty increases in cities where precarious living
conditions are transferred from rural areas through migration (Şenses, 2005). Şenses (2005)
emphasizes that the differences in income distribution in this period were mainly determined
by the differences in sectoral structures in the city . Labor and non-labor income, skilled and
unskilled labor on the other hand determines the disparities on the urban scale. Evidently , the
2 For a review of these pioneer studies, see DPT (2001: 16).
3 industrial-agricultural, financial, commercial capitals, and rentiers.

49 Emine T AHSİN
the most vulnerable populations, such as cash transfers, food subsidies, and conditional cash
transfers (Cammack, 2004). The aim is to empower the coping mechanisms of the poor and
meet their basic needs. Social safety nets are considered an important parameter that mitigates
poverty (W orld Bank, 2001). In this framework, it is assumed that the poor have risks against
certain phenomena and lack the conditions to cope with these risks. A lack of social security
mechanisms and a lack of public support against risks such as natural events, health, etc. make
them vulnerable to risks (Zabcı, 2003; Şener , 2015).
In 2001, the Social Risk Mitigation Project (SRMP) was launched to contribute to poverty
reduction in Türkiye in the short and medium term (Zabcı, 2003; WB, 2003). W ith the ef fects
of the 1999 earthquake and the 2001 crisis, it is envisaged to contribute to the development of
protection mechanisms for those affected by the crisis. An emer gency assistance policy and
a rapid assistance component were put in place.
The main purpose of SRMP is outlined as follows.
a. Building up the capacity of state institutions providing basic social services and social
assistance to the poor (social risk management); b. Implementing a social assistance system
(Conditional Cash T ransfers - CCT) targeted to the poorest 6 percent of the population con-
ditional on improved use of basic health and education services (social risk mitigation and
prevention); and c. Increasing the income generation, employment opportunities, and social
service access of the poor (social risk prevention) (T urkey SRPM, 2008:2).
The SRMP was the pioneering policy framework that formed the basis for today’ s poverty
strategies. This project is also the first implementation of conditional cash transfers in Türkiye.
Since the introduction of this program, the institutional structure of anti-poverty programs in
Türkiye has also undergone fundamental changes. The scope of social welfare regime prac-
tices has differentiated. Institutional transformation and poverty strategies have resulted in
the development of assistance-oriented strategies instead of social welfare state practices. The
focus has been on improving inclusion and achieving empowerment mechanisms.
The primary fundamental institutional change is related to the re-establishment of the
SASF (Social Assistance and Solidarity Encouragement Fund, 1986). When the structure of
the social security 5 , system in Türkiye is examined, it can be seen that social policies for the
5 The social security system for pensions and health insurance consists of the ‘retirement chest’ for civil servants,
established in 1949; the Social Insurance Institution, established in 1945 to cover workers, and Bağ-Kur , which
was founded in 1971 to cover the self-employed. The scope of Türkiye’ s social security system resembles that of
Southern European welfare regimes in its highly hierarchical and fragmented structure and corporatist features.
In particular , the systems provide health and pension benefits to formally employed heads of households
according to their employment status. Self-employment, unpaid family labor and informal employment practices

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
50
segments not covered by the social security system have been on the agenda since the end
of the 1970s. The scope of social assistance, which was first introduced in Türkiye in 1976
aimed to help the elderly and disabled poor , and latter the framework of the assistance was
expanded in 1986 under the name of SASF (Buğra, 2017). The Social Assistance Foundation
was established with the aim of gathering the social services that had already been led by
“Çocuk Esirgeme Kurumu” and “Emekli Sandığı” under a more centralized structure. T em-
porary assistance for citizens who are in “poverty” and in need and who are unable to receive
any income from of ficial social security institutions. In 1992, the “Green Card” program was
launched for the poor who were outside the scope of the social security system.
SASF (1986) was defined as the main coordinator of the SRAP (Şenses, 2015). Social
assistance was managed nationally by the Fund Secretariat General within the Prime Min-
ister ’ s Office and administered locally by the SASFs. In 201 1, with the establishment of the
Ministry of Family and Social Policies 6 , the directorate was incorporated into this ministry .
The other specific transformation that has been observed in the health system, is the social
security system that is funded by WB credits. Under the Health T ransformation Programme
launched in 2003, family practitioners were assigned to families to strengthen basic health
services, with primary and emergency health care provided free of charge. In 2004, benefits
under the Green card program were expanded. Green card holders have started to benefit
from both outpatient and inpatient services at Ministry of Health and university hospitals.
Through these changes, green card holders benefited from all health-related services without
having to make any payments and family practitioners provide free public services to the
households (T ahsin, 2013). In 2005, the Government expanded and enhanced the Universal
Health Insurance program, which was Türkiye’ s largest targeted social assistance program up
to that time. Also outpatient prescription drugs were included in the benefits of Green card
holders in line with Universal Health Insurance program. In 2006, within the framework of
the Health T ransformation Program, the Social Insurance Institution, the Pension Fund and
Bağ-Kur (social security or ganization for artisans and the self-employed)were merged under
a single umbrella under the name “General Health Insurance” (GHI) (SYGM, 2010).
Along with these reforms; low-income artisans and craftsmen, unpaid family workers,
domestic workers, etc.the steps to be taken for the registration of groups where unregistered
are not covered. This feature also increases the centrality of the family in welfare regimes (Buğra and Keyder ,
2006; Buğra, 2017).
6 In 2018, the ministry was merged with the Ministry of Labor and Social Security and renamed as the “Ministry
of Family , Labor and Social Services. And recently with the establishment of the Ministry of Labor and Social
Security in 2021, the name of the ministry was changed to the “Ministry of Family and Social Services”.

51 Emine T AHSİN
work still defined as a political priority . The registration of groups where informal work is
widespread remains unsolved. It should be underlined that health reforms come with privatiza-
tion in these sectors and encourage private insurance in health (Cosar and Y egenoglu, 2009).
Practices under the green card also bring up certain challenges regarding the scope of the
social security and health system. The expansion of coverage has also increased demand for
a green card, by 201 1, the number of beneficiaries reached 9.1 million (that is 12.7 percent of
the total population). In 2003, only about a quarter of the population in the poorest decile had
been covered by some kind of health insurance plan (of which about half had been covered
through the Green Card), this share rose to 82 percent in 2008 (with over two-thirds of these
having access to the Green Card scheme) (Menon et al., 2013:8). The health expenditure of
the Green Card was used to be compensated by the payment from the general budget to the
Ministry of Health until 2012. After 2012, these expenses started to be covered by the Uni-
versal Health Insurance Program. The Green Card scheme was terminated in 2012 and since
then the poor have been included in the system through income determination tests 7 held by
the Ministry of Family and Social Policies (Social Assistance, 2022).
T able 4 . Soc ial a s sis t a n ce s i n T ü r k iye
FA M I LY B E N E F I T S SHEL T ER-FOOD AI DS DISA BLE D – ELDE R L Y A I DS
- Mat e r n it y Be nef it - F o o d A id - Old Age Pen sio n
- Mult iple Mat e r n it y B e nef it - Lu n ch A s sis t a n c e - Home C a r e Pen sio n (T he work s
a nd p ro c e du re s rel at e d t o Home C a r e
As si st an ce h ave be e n t ra nsfer r ed t o
t he G e ne r a l D i r e ct o r at e of Se r vic e s
for Di s able d a nd Eld e rly )
- Reg ula r Ca sh A ss is t a n ce
P rog ra m fo r De c e a se d W ome n
- sou p k it c he n s - Di s abi l it y P e n sio n
- O r pha n and O r p ha n Aid - Shelt e r A ssi st an c e - Di s able d Rela t ive Pen sion
- Reg ula r Ca sh A ss is t a n ce
P rog ra m fo r M il it ar y F a m il ies
- So cia l Hou s i ng P r oje ct - Elde rly a n d Di s able d C a r e P roje c t s
( V EF A P rojec t s )
- M il it ar y C h i ld A id - Fuel A id - Di s able d Nee d s Assi s t a n ce
- T e r ro r Da m a ge A ssi s t a n ce - Elec t r icit y Con s u mpt ion S up p or t - Elde rly-D is a bled Ho me a nd
Per s on al C a r e P r og ra m ( Nat ion a l
V E F A Pr og ra m)
- Di s a st e r-Eme rge n cy A id - So cia l C ohe sio n As si st an ce (SC A)
- Job O r ie nt at ion A s sis t a nce -
Induction Assi st a nce
- Co mple me nt ar y So ci al C ohe sio n
As si st an ce ( T - SU Y )
7 Green Card beneficiaries are identified based on an income measurement test; according to G0 category;
households with per-capita income less than one-third the minimum wage (Menon et al., 2013:10).

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
52
T able 4 . Co nt i nu ed
- A id s for M a r t y rs’ Relat ive s
a nd V e te r an s
- Nat u r al G a s C on s u mpt ion S up p or t
- De at h Ben ef it
- Tü rk iye F a mi ly Su pp o r t
Pro g ram
HEA L TH ASSIST ANCES EDUCA T ION GR A N T S PROJ EC T SU PPORT
- Ge n e r al He a lt h I n s u ra n ce
( GH I ) Pr e m iu m Paym e nt s
- Free T ex tb o ok - F a m i ly Su p p or t Ce nt e r ( A DEM
P r o j e c t s)
- Co nd it iona l Hea lt h A s sis t a nce
( He alt h a nd Pr eg na n cy)
- Co nd it iona l E du ca t ion A s si st an ce - So ci al S olid ar it y C en t er (SOD A M
P r o j e c t s)
- Pa r tic ip at io n F e e Pay ment s - Co nd it iona l E du ca t ion A s si st an ce
for F o re ig n e r s ( C EA)
- Homele s s Acc om mod atio n P r ojec t
- Ch ron ic Dis e a se A s si st anc e - F r e e T r a n s p or t at ion of Dis able d
Stude nts
- So cia l S er v ic e P roje c t s
- Pay m en t s t o Sil ic os is Pat ient s - E du c at io na l M at e r ial A s sis t a n c e - So cia l Su p po r t for Y ou n g People
Le av i ng I n st it ut io n al C a r e P r ojec t
- Un i nt e r r upt i ble Pow e r Su p ply
Sup p or t a nd Ac cu mul at e d
Elec t r icit y Deb t Sup p or t for
Ch ron ic Pat ien t s
- St u d en t Hou si n g- T r a n s p or t at ion-
F ood Aid
- Do r mit o r y Con s t r u ct ion
- K i nde rg a r te n / Nu r se r y Sc ho ol
Sup p or t P rog ra m
So u rc e: M i n ist r y of Fam i ly a nd So ci a l Se r v ice s , 2 02 2: 1 34.
Another significant controversy with the relevant reforms is whether the Green card prac -
tices, as a result of these policies, encourages informal employment. According to empirical
findings, it is found that the fact that access to health services is an important requirement
for poor households has reduced the likelihood of household heads working in formal jobs
(A ygün, 2022). This phenomenon keeps the importance of the links between the scope of
social policies, employment conditions and social security , relevant.
It is evident that during the 2000s the social expenditure share tripled (T ahsin, 2013). So-
cial protection expenditures’ share in GDP has increased. While this ratio was 7.5 in 2000 it
has increased to 12.4 in 2019 (OECD, 2022). Although the share of Social Assistance in GDP
is only 1.74% in 2021. T able 4 includes irregular and regular transfers and benefits distributed
to households based on the means test and owning social insecurity . The number of House-
holds Benefiting from Social Assistance is given as 4,419,286 (2022), that is approximately
17% of total household in Türkiye 8 . This number changes according to those that benefit from
8 Author ’ s calculation based on T urkstat (2023) data on the number of the total households in Türkiye.

53 Emine T AHSİN
regular Assistance (2,476,457) and those from T emporary (T emporary) Assistance (5,276,998)
(Ministry of Family and Social Services, 2022).
Figure 2, illustrates how social protection spending have changed over time as a per -
centage distribution. According to this, social protection for the family/children, followed
by disability and sickness/health care assistances , provided the majority of the means-tested
benefits. By 2021, the old age function accounted for 70.1% of cash payments, followed by
the survivors function (17.6%) and the unemployment function (5.7%) (T urkstat, 2022).
Figure 2. Social protection in Türkiye % share of social protection in total
Source: Turkstat (2022)
Y entürk (2018) emphasizes that when the scope of social expenditures is analyzed, the
coverage rate of certain aids to the poor remains low . The poor in informal employment are
employed without premiums and cannot benefit from transfers. The coverage of the in-kind
and cash assistances need to be investigated in detail. The extent to which social assistance
improves the income conditions of households is questioned. Başlevent (2014) investigated
the redistributive effect of social assistance payments and reached the conclusion that they
alleviate income inequality . Furthermore, a different condition emerges when we look at the
distribution and scope of social expenditures on a regional scale that comes with uneven
patterns (T ekgüç, 2018).
Although during this period, social transfers in Türkiye have contributed to the decrease in
poverty rates, the lar gest transfer item is “pensions.” Başlevent (2014: 38) reveals that house -
holds in the top quintile receive half of all jobless benefits and approximately a third of all

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
54
retirement payments. Şeker (2018) emphasizes that the social transfers’ effect is modest and
that its impact in permanently reducing poverty is weak. She also underlies that “pension” is
not an item directly aimed at reducing poverty . On the other hand it is observed by the time of
the B type transfers 9 and it also has been increasing especially for unemployed people both in
urban and rural areas. Additionally , a large proportion of the incomes of subsistence farmers
is provided by transfers (Kose and Bahce, 2010: 505).
Overall the poverty alleviation programs and this “new poverty regime” addresses changes
in re-distribution policies through transfers. W ith the social assistance fund, an institutional
transformation has taken place in which the concept of social assistance has come to the fore
instead of the social security system. Under these given conditions, whether the scope of
social expenditures actually covers poor households is a controversial issue. An institutional
framework has emerged in which the social security regime is structured on two basic seg-
ments. Those who have formal, registered employment conditions have rights and coverage
arising from their earned status and those who are included in the assistance based social
protection system, are the “poor”.
These practices resulted in the re-structuring of social policies and changed the pillars of the
welfare regime in Türkiye. Nevertheless, the fact that over 4 million households benefit from
this assistance is the most concrete indicator of the emergence of a new “poverty” regime. An
aid-oriented social regime has come into ef fect in which those outside the scope of social secu -
rity are supported through social assistance. The relationship between citizenship rights defined
within the scope of social assistance policies on the basis of “aid orientation” also means that
neoliberal policies are carried out through “charity state” (Kose and Bahce, 2010) practices.
At the same time, the widespread use of social assistance policies opens space for populist
and clientelistic policy practices (Bozkurt, 2013) for JDP . Göçmen (2014) investigates the role
of religiosity in social assistance and points out that during this period, religion took on a greater
role in the T urkish welfare system. These practices mobilize civil society in terms of aid-based
policies that have taken on dif ferent functions through non-government or ganizations and gov -
ernment municipalities under JDP rule (Y azıcı, 2012 cited by Başlevent, 2014: 25). Buğra and
Keyder (2006: 224) underline that under this new poverty regime municipal governments act as
‘brokers in charity’ who channel the resources, in kind or cash, provided by charitable donations.
This policy raises some problems and serves as an environment for negotiations with those who
give to municipal charity funds that are of questionable legality or legitimacy .
9 A type transfers; retired wages, tax refund, survivors wages. B type transfers; elderly wages, social assistance
fund and family assistances, scholarships for students, war veterans’ salaries, state assistances in kind, foreign
exchange income from abroad, donations and inkind assistance, alimony payments.

55 Emine T AHSİN
Summing up, the widespread implementation of these practices at the institutional level
has meant that the phenomenon of “inclusion” has been based on an “aid-dependent” frame-
work, which has been embedded in the social sphere through the JDP’ s political practices.
3.4. The Sustainability and No-poverty Goal in Development
Strategies
The Sustainable Development agenda was first mentioned in the 7th 5-Y ear Development
Plan (1996). W ith the agenda of the Rio conference (1992), attention was drawn to the changes
in environmental policies and subsequent plans started to take sustainability as a component of
environmental policies. Although sustainability was covered in subsequent development plans,
the definition of strategies for SDG targets started in the 1 1th Development Plan. SDG in the
eleventh program is based upon 5 pillars; a stable and strong economy , competitive and effi -
cient production, qualified human development for a strong society , a sustainable environment
with livable cities and the rule of law for democratization and good governance (SBB, 2023).
Additionally , Türkiye published V oluntary National Plans for SDG targets in 2017 and 2019.
However , there is no direct commitment item distributed to SDGs targets in the national budget.
T able 5. A pp roa che s t o no -pover t y goa l i n T ü r k iye V N R ’ s
No - p over t y goa l and t arge t s
T a rg et 1 . 3 T a r get
1. 5
T he 7t h Pla n i nclude d t h e p olic y of es t a bli sh ing a n effe c t ive st r u c t ur e of t he So c ia l
As si st an ce a nd Solid ar it y I n ce nt ive Fun d w it h a ne w or ga n iz a t ion , a n d su b se q ue nt pla ns
have m a de p rog re s s i n p olic ie s t o i mp r ove soc ia l pr ot e ct ion sys t e m s a nd m e a su re s.
T a rg et 1 . 2 T a r get
1. 4
Relat iv e p over t y; con sid e r in g r u r a l-u rb a n , ch i ld -a dult , wom e n- me n , d i sa dva nt a ge d g roup s
su ch a s t h e elde rly , t he d i s able d a n d t ho se u nde r t e mp or ar y pr ot e ct ion, t h e ne e d for p olic y
develo pme nt a nd i mple me nt at ion foc u s e d on t h es e g roup s c ont inu e s.
T a rg et 1 . 1 T a r ge t
1 . 2 T a rget 1 .4
“Re d uc i ng p ove r t y by a d d r e s si ng r eg io na l i neq u a l it ie s a nd v u l ne r a ble g r ou p s” .
Red u ci n g rel at ive p over t y a nd emp owe r i ng di s a dva nta ge d g roup s.
I nc r e a si n g e mploy m en t , pa r t ic u la rly w o me n ’ s p a r t icip at ion i n t he l ab or for c e, n ee d s t o b e
strengthened.
T a rg et 1 . 2
I n t e r ms of t he t ar get of h alv i ng t he p ro po r tio n of pe ople l iv i ng i n p over t y , it is c on sid e r ed
i mp o r ta nt to foc u s p a r t icu l a rly o n p olic ies a nd pr a c t ice s r ela t e d to r u ra l a r ea s.
Di s a dva nta ge d g roup s , i n p a r t icu l a r wome n a n d ch i ld p over t y , a r e a r e a s whe r e T ü r k iye
ne e d s t o m a ke pr og res s. Add re s s re g ion a l i ne q u a l it ie s a nd i ncr e a s e t he ef fe c t ive ne s s of
so ci al p ro t e ct ion sys t em s .
T a rg et 1 . 3
T a rg et 1 . 5
Rega rdi ng “i mprov i ng soc ia l p rot e c t ion s y st e m s” , sig n if ica nt p rog re ss h a s b e e n a ch ieve d .
T he i s su e of ma k i ng so c ia l pr ot e ct ion exp e nd it u r e s mo re ef fect iv e
T a rg et 1 . 5 T he n e ed fo r leg i slat io n i n l i ne wit h the s t rat eg y to c om bat cl i m a t e ch a nge a n d t he
develo pme nt of pr oje ct s in t h is f ield ar e i m po r t a nt .
T a rg et 1 . a a nd
1. b
Tü rk iye h a s t he p ot e nt ial t o sh a r e it s n at iona l ex p e r ie n ce w it h oth e r co u nt r ie s , pa r t ic u la rly
les s d evelop e d c ou n t r ies , on “ b u i ld i n g glo ba l co o pe r a t io n a nd s ou nd pol icy f ra m ewor k s
to f ig ht p over t y . T h i s c a n b e co n side r e d i n t he cont e xt of e n h a n ci ng i nt e r nat iona l
develo pme nt c o op e r a t ion u nde r SD G 1 0, SDG 1 6 a nd SD G 1 7 .
S ou r ce: Y ap a r (20 19 ) a nd V N R( 20 19 ).

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
56
According to the studies conducted in Türkiye within the scope of SDG targets - SDG
1(no-poverty), SDG 3 (good health and well-being), SDG 5 (gender equality) and SDG 10
(reduced inequalities) stand out as targets that are strongly influenced by other SDG targets.
SDG 4 (quality of education), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 9 (industry ,
innovation, infrastructure), SDG 13 (climate action), SDG 16 (peace) and SDG 17 (partner-
ships) cover the themes of strengthening physical and human infrastructure and improving the
legal and institutional structure. When considered together with Türkiye’ s level of economic,
social and cultural development, these targets stand out in the baseline analysis as the “tar gets”
that should be prioritized (VNR, 2019).
However , the main needs under the SDGs that include expanding the scope of assistance to
disadvantaged vulnerable groups, increasing support to bring people who are able to work into
the labor market, and making social protection expenditures more ef fective. remind us of the im -
portance of the poverty-inequality and growth nexus. The SDG progress report (VNR, 2019: 52)
describes the “eradication of extreme poverty , one of the most tangible goals of the 2030 Agenda,
as an achieved target for Türkiye”. However other targets under the no-poverty goal remain prior -
ities. The goals for 1.2 and 1.3 are found to have higher distances to their tar gets (OECD, 2022).
Bayazıt and Önsal (2017) significantly define the priorities under SDG 1 as goals 1.3 and 1.4.
W ith regard to goal 1.2 and goal 1.4 on “poverty reduction”, it is considered that there is
still a need for policy development and implementation focused on disadvantaged groups such
as rural-urban, child-adult, female-male, elderly , disabled and those under temporary protec-
tion. In the context of relative poverty , target 1.4 is detrimental. Policies to reduce relative
poverty require medium to long-term structural measures other than fiscal policies and social
transfers (Y apar , 2019; VNR, 2019).
The scope defined under the Leaving no one left principle (Y apar , 2019; VNR, 2019) is in
line with the principles of the distribution of social assistance programs. It envisages improving
the conditions of vulnerable groups through empowerment, access to certain services and legal
arrangements. The effects of the education-based policies described here, as well as the scope
and implementation results of policies to reduce child poverty , remain a hot topic. The need to
set separate tar gets for children, women and persons with disabilities in line with the 2030 per -
spective and to strengthen dif ferentiated policies and practices has been identified (Y apar , 2019).
V ulnerable groups are defined as children, women and especially those living in rural
areas and those at risk of poverty in urban areas. However , recent Syrian migration makes it
necessary to update the relevant data. Among vulnerable groups, Syrian immigration, and es-

57 Emine T AHSİN
pecially the education and health conditions of migrant children, may determine the conditions
for Türkiye to achieve poverty eradication and other targets. Regarding these vulnerabilities,
specific sub-SDG tar gets may need to be adopted for Syrian migrants (Çavlin, 2019).
4. The Framework for Analyzing Interactions in SDGs
The SDGs’ theoretical underpinnings imply that the goals of development are interconnected
(T osun and Leininger , 2017; Mensah, 2019; Moallemi et al., 2022a, 2022b). Pradhan et. al (2017:
1 169) defines the characteristics of interactions among the SDGs as the actions taken to achieve
one objective having an impact on the achievement of one or more of the others (Pradhan et
al., 2017: 1 170). According to Nilsson et al. (2016, 2018) the SDGs are multidimensional and
highly interrelated networks that led formation of socio-technical and socio-ecological systems
(cited by Moallemi et al., 2022: 1). For achieving the SDGs, the management of cross-sectoral
interactions comprehensively is crucial (Nilsson et al., 2016). Under these approaches the inter -
connections among the SDGs are emphasized. The competing interests or complementarities
might create tensions and spillover ef fects so this can be evaluated as their potential of creating
syner gies and trade-offs (Kroll et al., 2019; Pradhan et al., 2017; Moallemi et al., 2022a, 2022b).
Overall, analysis based on these approaches indicates that the positive interaction process-
es within the SDG targets and the differences between countries are significant. Nevertheless,
it should be recognized that analysis of the mutual exchange and interaction of SDG targets
do not have strong theoretical foundations (Cling and Delecourt, 2022; Sin et al., 2019).
The need to identify priorities alignment with the 2030 goals has led to the development of
dif ferent methods for analyzing SDGs interactions. Besides, the complexity of the data leads
to focusing on statistical techniques to simplify these complexities to understand the steering
ef fects of the SDGs (Pradhan et al., 2022).
There are several methods for mapping the degree of interactions between various SDGs.
Analysis based on (historical or extrapolated) data (Kroll et al., 2019; Pradhan et al., 2017),
monitoring SDG interactions (Singha et al., 2021), or quantitatively projecting their trajecto-
ries under future scenarios (Gao and Bryan, 2017; Soergel, Kriegler , W eindl, et al., 2021) are
defined among the main methods. (cited by Pradhan et al., 2022: 178-179).
In this paper , the monitoring approaches are being followed. The scope of these developed
methods and their focus on relevant problems is not discussed in detail. It is predicted that data
monitoring methods contribute to linking and interpreting the interactions between the SDG
tar gets comprehensively and could contribute to the measurement of the progress towards
achievements and reveals the dimensions of leading SDGs (Pradhan et al., 2022).

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
58
Considering the pioneer studies based on these approaches, it is possible to mention styl-
ized tendencies. Gupta and V egelin (2016) outline that strong sustainability , which implies
no trade-off between economic, social, and ecological goals, is rare. On the global scale,
governance, time horizons, geography and technology might create dif ferences among the
interactions (Nilsson et al., 2016, 2018). Pradhan et al. (2017:1 170) found that some SDGs
particularly reveal synergetic relations. These goals are found to be SDGs 1 (no-poverty), 3
(good health and wellbeing), 4 (quality education), 10 (reduced inequalities), 12 (responsible
consumption and production), and 13 (climate action) (Pradhan et al., 2017:1 171). Beyond
these, some goals are defined as systematic buffers. SDG 1 (no-poverty), SDG 3 (good health
and well-being), SDG 5 (gender equality), and SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) are accepted
to be fundamental goals that can benefit from the implementation of the other goals of the
agenda. However , their co-benefits and multiplication ef fects present another challenging
topic. It is pointed out that the concentration on these SDGs could restrict progress toward
other goals of the 2030 Agenda.
This also indicates the importance of coherence among the SDGs is important (Nillson et
al.,2016). Goals may be reinforcing and cancelling. In this context Nillson et al. (2018:1491)
suggest that 7 points of the scale of the SDGs interactions. In this analysis positive interactions
significantly outweigh negative ones for the first six goals. According to Nillson et al. (2018)
findings, goals SDG 1–8 and SDG 1 1(sustainable cities), correlate strongly and positively , point -
ing to synergies between reaching these goals. SDG 10 correlates negatively with most other
goals. Negative interactions are in fact an indication of instutional weakness, and a lack of legal
rights and governance that increase vulnerabilities and marginalize groups (Nillson et al., 2016).
Furthermore, some goals can act as multipliers of trade-of fs as in the case of SDG2 and
SDG8. A rapid boost of these goals could create unintended side effects that also limit achieve-
ment and overall progress. Moreover , several goals can act as multipliers and accelerators of
change. In particular SDG 7 (energy), SDG 9 (industry , innovation, infrastructure), SDG 1 1
(cities), and SDG 13 (climate action) are classified as multipliers. Hegre et al. (2020:8729)
finds out that the first 8 SDGs, respectively goals 1 1 and 17 are predominantly strongly and
positively correlated with each other . Oppositely SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) is negatively
correlated with most of the other SDGs. Specifically , several goals might have characteris-
tics of behaving as “safe” multipliers of positive systemic effects without creating risks of
producing trade-offs. These goals are; SDG 4 (quality of education), SDG 6 (water), SDG 12
(responsible consumption and production), SDG 14 (oceans), SDG 15 (land and ecosystems),
SDG 16 (peace), and SDG 17 (partnerships).

65 Emine T AHSİN
ity constraints among the SDGs. In this context the PCA includes 13 SDGs (SDG 3, SDG 6,
SDG 10, SDG 17 not included).
T able 7 illustrates the Pearson correlation matrix for the SDGs. This matrix primarily
underlies that there are strong correlations among the SDGs that are used in the sample.
Given this fact, it could be suggested that the SDGs in our sample are interlinked and their
interactions matter . Pearson correlation matrix outlines those positive correlations mostly
occur among the people-centered SDGs. However , SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) significantly has
negative correlations with other specific people-centered targets like no-poverty goal (SDG
1) and health (SDG 3). Environmental SDGs are mostly negatively correlated with the other
SDGs. Economic goals have weak interactions. Additionally , people-centered goals and SDG
8 (decent work and economic growth) have negative correlations that need to be considered
for the linkages between economic growth and human development.
For the case of the no-poverty goal (SDG 1), it can be seen that there is a negative correla
-
tion between zero hunger (SDG 2), and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth), SDG 12
(responsible consumption and production), and SDG 15 (life on land). Quality of education
(SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5), and industry , innovation, and infrastructure (SDG 9) have
a high positive correlation with the no-poverty goal (SDG 1).
T able 7 . Pea r s on c or relat ion m at r i x of th e SDG s
The scree plot in Figure 4 illustrates the eigenvalues for the PCA. The eigenvalues (F1 and
F2) greater than one explain 85.6 % of the cumulative variations for 13 SDGs in the sample.

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
66
Figure 4. Scree plot for SDGs
Overall estimation of the PCA in T able 8 based on factor loadings (PCA components)
indicates that SDG 9 (industry , innovation and infrastructure), SDG 5 (gender equality), SDG
4 (quality of education), and SDG 1 have the most important interactions in a positive trend.
SDG 15 (life on land) has the highest negative spillover ef fect. Following that, SDG 12
(responsible production and consumption), SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 8 (decent
work and economic growth) and SDG 2 (zero hunger) goals have negative overall interac-
tions. The results for Türkiye reveal the importance of no-poverty goal (SDG 1). Among the
people-centered goals; SDG 2 (zero hunger) creates negative spillovers that af fect the overall
performance of the SDGs. The environmental performance of Türkiye is suggested to be poor .
Apart from environmental goals, negative spillover effects of SDG 12 (responsible consump-
tion and production) and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) lead us to question the
sustainability of the economic growth.
Based on the Pearson correlation matrix results and factor loading values, it is possible
to argue that overall, the positive synergies between SDG tar gets have stronger effects. The
syner gies and tradeoffs related to the SDG scores outline that people-centered goals are among
the most important goals that create positive synergies for the overall performance of sustain -
able development. The results for Türkiye reveal the importance of SDG 1.

67 Emine T AHSİN
T able 8 . PCA di men sion s of the SDG s
F ac tor load i ng s Cont r i but ion of the va r i a ble s (% ) Squ ar e d co si nes of t he va r i abl e s
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
Go al 1 S c or e 0.936 - 0.0 0 2 9. 6 31 0.0 00 0 . 8 77 0.0 0 0
Go al 2 S c or e - 0. 72 0 0. 56 0 5.699 15 . 9 41 0 . 519 0 . 31 4
Go al 4 S c or e 0.929 - 0.2 87 9. 4 8 8 4 .19 0 0. 864 0.0 82
Go al 5 S c or e 0.977 - 0.0 65 10 . 4 9 3 0 . 21 2 0.95 5 0.0 0 4
Go al 7 S c or e 0.838 0.49 2 7. 7 1 0 1 2 . 318 0 .7 0 2 0. 242
Go al 8 S c or e - 0.69 6 - 0 . 32 6 5 . 314 5. 398 0. 484 0 .10 6
Go al 9 S c or e 0.968 - 0.033 10 . 3 0 0 0.0 55 0.938 0.0 0 1
Go al 1 1 S co re 0 .7 75 - 0. 1 83 6.6 03 1 .7 0 4 0 . 6 01 0.034
Go al 12 Sc or e - 0.9 02 - 0 . 386 8 .939 7. 5 6 8 0 . 8 14 0 . 14 9
Go al 13 Sco re 0. 20 5 0.92 6 0 . 4 61 43. 59 9 0.0 42 0.858
Go al 1 4 Sc or e - 0.836 0 . 35 3 7. 6 8 0 6.34 6 0. 69 9 0 .12 5
Go al 15 Scor e - 0.92 3 - 0. 1 72 9. 3 6 7 1. 5 0 2 0.8 53 0.030
Go al 1 6 Sc or e 0.8 70 - 0 .152 8 . 314 1 .16 8 0 .7 5 7 0.023
V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t
In the second stage of the PCA, the links between the no-poverty goal (SDG 1) and the
sub-indicators of the other tar gets were analyzed. The sub-indicators were classified under 5
principles of the SDGs. In this context, 4 PCAs for; people-centered, prosperity (economy),
planet (climate) and partnerships and peace goals were performed.
People-center ed goals and no-poverty goal : Zero hunger (SDG 2), quality of education
(SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5) comprise of 14 sub-indicators for Türkiye and only 10 of
them were included to the analysis. Their overall interactions with the SDG 1 (no-poverty
goal) were considered in this case.
As can be seen from the Pearson correlation matrix results (T able A.4 in Appendix) the
sub-indicators of these three targets may have affected the no-poverty goal (SDG 1) in differ -
ent directions. W ithin the SDG 2 (zero hunger) tar get, there is a negative correlation between
“the prevalence of obesity (sdg2_obesity)”, trophics ( sdg2_trophic)” and “the prevalence of
wasting in children under 5 years of age ( sdg2_ wasting)” indicators and the no-poverty goal.
Primary school enrollment rate (sdg4_primary) and other education indicators have different
ef fects on overall interactions. The Primary school enrollment rate and the no-poverty goal
have trade-of fs that need to be considered.
The PCA for this sample, reveals that eigenvalues greater than one (F1) explains 87%
of the variations. T able 9 demonstrates the primary component results and the overall in-

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
68
teractions of the people-centered goals. “W asting in children (sdg_2 wasting)” and “obesity
(sdg2_obesity)” indicators reveal weakness of the overall interactions. The dietary habits of
Türkiye’ s children and people in general show that trade-offs are important in the pursuit of
poverty eradication goals. Education-related goals also have important ef fects. Furthermore,
the literacy score is rather strong in explaining the variations among the people-centered goals.
Gender -related goals have positive interactions with overall variations and are also positively
correlated with the no-poverty goal.
T able 9 . P C A d i men sion s for pe ople - c e nte r ed goa l s a nd SDG 1
F ac tor load i ng s Cont r ibut i on of t he var iabl e s (% ) Squ ar ed c o si nes of t he var iabl e s
F1 F2 F2 F1 F2
Go al 1 S c or e 0 . 9 61 - 0.0 05 0.0 05 0.923 0.0 0 0
n_sd g2_stuntin g 0.9 2 2 0 . 2 11 1 0.0 26 0. 85 0 0.0 45
n _ sd g 2 _ wa st i ng - 0.85 4 0.0 4 3 0 . 4 11 0 .7 2 9 0.0 02
n_ sdg 2 _obesi t y - 0.96 0 - 0 . 21 5 10 . 351 0.9 22 0.0 4 6
n _ sdg 2 _t roph ic - 0.9 27 - 0 . 11 6 3. 0 2 0 0 . 859 0.01 3
n_ sdg4_ pr i mar y - 0 . 81 3 0 . 534 6 4 . 210 0.660 0. 28 6
n_ sdg 4_literacy 0.979 0.05 0 0.56 0 0.95 8 0.0 0 2
n_ sdg5_edat 0 . 9 71 - 0.0 9 4 2 .0 0 2 0 . 942 0.0 09
n_ sdg5 _lf pr 0.9 4 0 - 0 .141 4 . 4 81 0. 883 0.0 2 0
n _ sdg5_ p a rl 0.9 63 0 .14 8 4 . 9 35 0.9 27 0.0 2 2
V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h ob s e r vat ion t o th e fa c t or f or w hi c h th e s qu a r e d c os i ne i s t h e la r ge s t
Prosperity (economy) centered goals and the no-poverty goal: For the PCA, together with
the no-poverty goal (SDG 1), 8 of 13 sub- indicators related to three SDGs (7, 8, 9) were
included in the sample. The SDG 10 (reduced inequalities) indicators were omitted. In this
PCA, eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 87 % of the cumulative variations.
T able 1 0 . PCA di m en sion s for pr os pe r it y-c e nt er e d goal s a nd SDG 1
F ac tor load i ng s Cont r i but ion of the va r i ab le s % Sq uared cosines
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
Go al 1 S c or e 0.898 0.0 06 11 . 9 9 4 0.0 03 0.8 06 0.0 0 0
n _ sd g7_cle an f u el 0. 898 - 0.40 6 11. 9 9 8 14 . 8 32 0 .8 07 0 .16 5
n_ sdg7 _co 2twh 0.884 - 0.42 3 11 . 6 2 0 16 .16 5 0 .7 8 1 0 . 17 9
n_ sdg8_ accounts 0. 727 0 . 59 7 7. 8 7 1 3 2 .16 5 0. 529 0 . 357
n _ sdg8_u nemp - 0 . 619 - 0.2 27 5 .7 0 8 4 . 6 52 0. 38 4 0.052
n_sdg 8_r i ghts - 0 . 81 9 - 0.4 63 9. 9 7 3 1 9. 3 6 5 0 . 671 0 . 21 5
n_sd g9 _in t us e 0.9 8 4 - 0.09 3 14 . 3 9 6 0 .7 8 5 0 .968 0.0 09
n_sd g9 _mo b use 0. 9 47 0 . 17 9 13. 3 4 0 2. 878 0. 897 0.0 32
n _ s d g 9_ a r t ic l e s 0.9 39 - 0 . 31 9 1 3 .101 9.1 5 3 0 . 881 0 .10 2
V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t

69 Emine T AHSİN
Considering the results of the PCA on the economy-based goals, two main results are
evident. There are strong interactions between the performance of the quality of growth in
SDG 9 (industry , innovation and infrastructure), especially infrastructure-related indicators,
and the no-poverty goal. However , the indicators on “protection of fundamental labor rights
(worst 0–1 best) (sdg8_rights)” and “unemployment (sdg8_unemployment)” have negative
interactions with the sample. There are positive syner gies that come from the SDG 7 (clean
economy) indicators. Adults with accounts (sdg8_accounts)
11
interactions are positive, but its
impact is weaker compared to other indicators.
Planet (climate-environmental) goals and no-poverty goal: For the PCA, only 1 1 of the 17
sub-indicators under 5 environmental targets were used in this category . eigenvalues that are
greater than one for this PCA, explain 84% of the variations. As can be seen in T able 1 1, in its
broadest terms, unlike the relationship between the other sub-indicators and the no-poverty goal,
the overall result is negative. This indicates a low level of environmental performance and a
negative syner gy with the no-poverty target. The “air pollution indicator (sdg1 1_pm25)” has a
negative correlation with the no-poverty goal, but its overall interaction is positive in explaining
the variations of the sample. SDG 14 (life below water) and SDG 15 (life on land) and their
sub-indicators own negative spillovers. In particular , “sdg13_co2import (CO₂ emissions embod -
ied in imports)”, “sdg15_cpta (mean area that is protected for biodiversity%)”, “sdg14_clean -
water (ocean health index)” and “sdg14_ trawl (fish caught by trawling or dredging (%))”and
“sdg1 1_transport (satisfaction with public transport (%))” have negative interactions.
T able 1 1 . PC A d i men sions for pla ne t- ce nt e re d goa ls a nd SD G 1
F ac tor load i ng s Contr ibut i on of t he var iabl e s % Sq uared cosines
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
Go al 1 S c or e - 0.9 6 6 0.030 11 . 2 2 8 9 0 4 8 1 0.0 499 1 639 4 0.934 0.0 0 1
n _ s d g 11 _ p m 2 5 0 .7 3 3 0 . 457 6 . 452 8 2 9 79 5 1 1 . 72060254 0 . 537 0. 2 0 9
n _ s d g 11 _ t r a n s p o r t - 0.073 0. 838 0.0 63738267 3 9. 45 9 9 53 74 0.0 05 0 .7 0 3
n_ sdg 12_ewaste 0 .7 8 9 0 . 452 7 . 49 55 701 78 11 . 4 7 7 6 4 217 0 . 623 0. 20 4
n _ s d g12 _ n p r o d 0.982 0.0 4 1 1 1.59 703 459 0.0 962328 0 6 0.9 64 0.0 02
n _ s d g12 _ n i m p o r t 0.93 4 - 0 .1 2 0 10 .4 8 8 4 010 7 0 . 814 4 0 4 9 21 0. 872 0.0 15
n_ sdg 1 3_co 2impor t - 0.80 4 - 0 . 41 8 7 . 76 9 4 132 32 9. 8 2 3 0 6 35 7 3 0.646 0 . 17 5
n_ sdg 1 4_cl eanwa t - 0 . 9 32 - 0.086 10. 4 4574701 0 . 41 6 9 2 11 2 4 0 . 8 69 0.0 07
n_ sdg 1 4_f ishstocks 0. 871 - 0 . 355 9 . 124 69270 6 7 . 0 6 4 6 35555 0 .7 5 9 0 .1 2 6
n _ s d g 14 _ t r a w l - 0. 80 8 0.1 83 7 .84250285 6 1. 8 7 9 9 715 35 0 . 6 52 0.033
n _ s d g15 _ c p t a - 0. 727 0 . 5 45 6 . 3 6 4 5 618 3 8 1 6 .6 6777 626 0 . 529 0.29 7
n _ s d g15 _ c pf a - 0.9 62 0.0 97 11 .1 2 6 6 0 3 6 5 0.5288 793 78 0.925 0.0 0 9
V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h ob s e r vat ion t o th e fa c t or f or w hi c h th e s qu a r e d c os i ne i s t h e la r ge s t
11 Adults with an account at a bank or other financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider (% of
population aged 15 or over)

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
70
Partnerships -Peace and no-poverty goal: All the relevant sub-indicators, 9 of them for
SDG 16 (peace) and SDG 17 (Partnerships) were used in this PCA. In this PCA, eigen-
values (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 80% of the cumulative variations. The overall
interaction of these sub-indicators together with the no-poverty goal is positive. The highest
positive interactions come from the “sdg16_homicides”. “sdg16_justice (access to affordable
justice)”, “sdg16_detain16 (unsentenced detainees)”, and “sdg16_safe (population who feel
safe walking alone at night in the city or area where they live (%))” also have positive im-
pacts. However , some of the sub-indicators of SDG 16 have negative interactions. Especially
“sdg16_cpi (corruption perception index)” and “sdg16_rsf (press freedom)” have a high neg-
ative impact on overall interactions. SDG 16 which is decisive for inclusive society targets
led us to question the dimensions of the corruption and freedoms in Türkiye. In this regard,
“sdg17_govrev (government revenues for health and education (GDP%))” is also decisive.
Moreover , “sdg_17statperf (statistical performance index)” is found to have a positive impact.
Under SDG 17, “sdg17_govrev” also has a negative impact on the overall interactions.
T able 12 . PCA di men sion s for pe ac e a nd p a r t n er h sh ip goa ls a n d SDG 1
F ac tor Load i ng s Cont ri but i on of t he va r i abl e s % Squared cosi nes
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
Go al 1 S c or e 0 . 8 91 - 0. 322 11 . 91 0 5 4 1 5 7 7.7 0 7 0 .7 9 5 0 .10 3
n _ s d g 16 _ h o m i c i d e s 0 .9 53 0.043 13. 61377 71 1 0 .13 7 0.9 0 8 0.0 0 2
n _s dg 1 6_ deta in 0. 72 8 - 0 .14 6 7. 9 4 3 7 6 0 6 8 9 1. 5 8 9 0. 530 0.0 2 1
n_ sdg 1 6_ safe 0.69 1 - 0 . 458 7 . 1 49 4 65988 1 5 . 614 0 . 477 0 . 210
n _ s d g 16 _ c p i - 0.950 0.0 5 1 13. 53332 10 9 0 .19 6 0.903 0.0 03
n _ s d g 16 _ r s f - 0.88 1 0.02 4 1 1 .6269 20 9 1 0.0 4 4 0 .7 7 6 0.0 01
n _sdg 1 6 _ just ice 0.86 4 0 . 43 9 11 . 1 8 5 0 3 0 41 14 . 3 4 4 0 .74 6 0 .19 2
n _ s d g 17_ g o v e x 0 . 618 0. 727 5. 7 1 7 8883 1 6 3 9. 3 5 2 0 . 3 81 0 . 528
n _sdg 1 7 _ go v rev - 0 .5 94 0.4 83 5 . 2 8 4 4 9 013 17. 3 9 7 0. 353 0 . 233
n_sd g 1 7 _sta tperf 0.896 0. 2 2 0 12.0348 0379 3.62 0 0. 803 0.0 49
V al u e s in b o ld c or re sp o nd fo r e a ch o b se r va t io n t o th e fa ct o r for wh ic h t he s qu a r e d co si n e i s th e a rge s t
The third sample for PCA is based on sub-components linked to the LNOB score for the
period 2010-2021. W ithin the scope of this data, “sdg1_transfer1(people at risk of income pov -
erty after social transfers (%))”, “sdg1_550pov (poverty headcount ratio at $5.50/day (%))”,
“sdg1_material (severely materially deprived people (%))” is included in the analysis that is dif -
ferent from the other two samples. These metrics represent different tendencies from the extreme
poverty figures. Although there is a declining trend, these metrics indicate that the no-poverty
goal performance needs to be analyzed considering multidimensional poverty conditions rather
than extreme poverty . Here, the static trend of post-transfer data is noteworthy . This, in fact, is
considered as an indicator of the persistence of poverty adjusted for transfer revenues.

71 Emine T AHSİN
Figure 5. Poverty indicators used for LNOB
Source: Sachs et al. (2022)
In this analysis, the PCA tracks the interactions among extreme poverty and material
deprivation, gender inequality , access to and quality of services and income inequality indi-
cators (T able A.2 in Appendix).
T able 13. Pea r so n cor rela t ion ma t r i x for LNOB ind icator s
Variables LNOB g 1_t ransfer g 1_550p ov g 1 _mat erial g3 _ le ga p g 3_suicide g 3_hg ap g 3_incg ap g 3_insucov g 4_chi ld g 5_cari ng g 5_wp arl g 5_w mana g e g 6_show er g 7_w arm g 8_rig ht s g 8_euy neet g 8_inwork g 9_bband g 11_crowding

L NOB 1 -0.666 -0.790 -0.825 -0.664 0.886 -0.743 -0.803 0.694 0.881 0.405 0.847 0.729 -0.832 -0.722 -0.577 -0.438 -0.803 0.814 -0.926
g 1_t ransfer -0.666 1 0.920 0.884 0.801 -0.690 0.521 0.847 -0.875 -0.727 -0.831 -0.734 -0.532 0.893 0.818 0.870 0.885 0.922 -0.786 0.650
g 1_550p ov -0.790 0.920 1 0.904 0.871 -0.805 0.620 0.893 -0.857 -0.755 -0.723 -0.734 -0.563 0.905 0.782 0.822 0.824 0.943 -0.826 0.737
g 1 _mat erial -0.825 0.884 0.904 1 0.894 -0.743 0.658 0.877 -0.787 -0.783 -0.778 -0.690 -0.592 0.859 0.955 0.818 0.773 0.911 -0.886 0.784
g3 _ le ga p -0.664 0.801 0.871 0.894 1 -0.662 0.555 0.845 -0.816 -0.647 -0.690 -0.514 -0.481 0.768 0.802 0.823 0.762 0.873 -0.810 0.665
g 3_suicide 0.886 -0.690 -0.805 -0.743 -0.662 1 -0.831 -0.826 0.643 0.946 0.364 0.737 0.867 -0.772 -0.566 -0.747 -0.390 -0.764 0.868 -0.903
g 3_hg ap -0.743 0.521 0.620 0.658 0.555 -0.831 1 0.839 -0.467 -0.815 -0.175 -0.611 -0.923 0.685 0.483 0.681 0.197 0.688 -0.892 0.913
g 3_incg ap -0.803 0.847 0.893 0.877 0.845 -0.826 0.839 1 -0.831 -0.841 -0.541 -0.786 -0.790 0.930 0.729 0.868 0.633 0.962 -0.954 0.894
g 3_insucov 0.694 -0.875 -0.857 -0.787 -0.816 0.643 -0.467 -0.831 1 0.648 0.626 0.783 0.476 -0.925 -0.686 -0.703 -0.782 -0.929 0.689 -0.668
g 4_chil d 0.881 -0.727 -0.755 -0.783 -0.647 0.946 -0.815 -0.841 0.648 1 0.441 0.785 0.915 -0.786 -0.663 -0.799 -0.388 -0.774 0.913 -0.913
g 5_cari ng 0.405 -0.831 -0.723 -0.778 -0.690 0.364 -0.175 -0.541 0.626 0.441 1 0.439 0.191 -0.621 -0.808 -0.691 -0.915 -0.665 0.536 -0.289
g 5_wp arl 0.847 -0.734 -0.734 -0.690 -0.514 0.737 -0.611 -0.786 0.783 0.785 0.439 1 0.670 -0.914 -0.573 -0.540 -0.531 -0.829 0.697 -0.816
g 5_wmanag e 0.729 -0.532 -0.563 -0.592 -0.481 0.867 -0.923 -0.790 0.476 0.915 0.191 0.670 1 -0.666 -0.427 -0.721 -0.140 -0.638 0.873 -0.887
g 6_show er -0.832 0.893 0.905 0.859 0.768 -0.772 0.685 0.930 -0.925 -0.786 -0.621 -0.914 -0.666 1 0.731 0.744 0.737 0.976 -0.829 0.831
g 7_warm -0.722 0.818 0.782 0.955 0.802 -0.566 0.483 0.729 -0.686 -0.663 -0.808 -0.573 -0.427 0.731 1 0.716 0.745 0.793 -0.764 0.636
g 8_rig ht s -0.577 0.870 0.822 0.818 0.823 -0.747 0.681 0.868 -0.703 -0.799 -0.691 -0.540 -0.721 0.744 0.716 1 0.664 0.821 -0.899 0.680
g 8_euy neet -0.438 0.885 0.824 0.773 0.762 -0.390 0.197 0.633 -0.782 -0.388 -0.915 -0.531 -0.140 0.737 0.745 0.664 1 0.786 -0.520 0.344
g 8_inwork -0.803 0.922 0.943 0.911 0.873 -0.764 0.688 0.962 -0.929 -0.774 -0.665 -0.829 -0.638 0.976 0.793 0.821 0.786 1 -0.871 0.820
g 9_bband 0.814 -0.786 -0.826 -0.886 -0.810 0.868 -0.892 -0.954 0.689 0.913 0.536 0.697 0.873 -0.829 -0.764 -0.899 -0.520 -0.871 1 -0.910

g 11_crowdin g

-0.926 0.650 0.737 0.784 0.665 -0.903 0.913 0.894 -0.668 -0.913 -0.289 -0.816 -0.887 0.831 0.636 0.680 0.344 0.820 -0.910 1
Val ues in bold are diff erent f r om 0 with a signi fic ance le v el alpha=0,05

The Pearson correlations in T able 13 illustrate that the sub-indicators of poverty with the
LNOB score have negative and strong correlations. Especially the “poverty headcount ratio
at $5.50/day (%)),” “sdg1_material (severely materially deprived people (3%)”, and “sdg1_
post-transfer poverty” data have negative effects. Again, “sdg1 1_overcrowding (overcrowding
rate among people living with below 60% of median equivalent income (%)) “data that relates
to sustainable cities are among the indicators that determine the LNOB value in a negative
direction. Health-related indicators are another determinant that affects LNOB positively/
negatively according to its sub-components. Following that the PCA is interpreted for only
two sub-categories due to the constraints of the data.

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
72
Extr eme poverty and material deprivations under LNOB : In this category , 8 sub-indicators
out of 9 are used for the PCA. eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain 84% of the
cumulative variations. The results given in T able 14 indicate the importance of the no-poverty
goal. There is a negative correlation between poverty-related indicators and the LNOB. Fur-
thermore, it is found that material poverty indicators create high spillover ef fects.
Other sub-indicators represent the dimensions of the material deprivations. The overall
result of the PCA underlies that material deprivations and the LNOB score creates negative
syner gies. In this context, “sdg3_insucov (people covered by health insurance for a core set
of services (%))” and “sdg8_inwork (in work at-risk-of-poverty rate (%))”, “sdg6_shower (a
household with no shower and toilet)”, are the indicators that have strong spillover effects.
Despite this, “sdg3_insucov” has a negative impact on the overall interactions. Furthermore,
“sdg1 1_overcrowding” and “sdg7_warm (population unable to keep home adequately warm
(%)” are other indicators that are negatively correlated.
The LNOB score is severely impacted by the total interaction of all these data. The most
obvious conclusion drawn from these findings is that certain areas in Türkiye need to be
improved when poverty is viewed as an issue that is multidimensional. The significance of
poverty metrics that describe the effects of social transfers is demonstrated by post-transfer
poverty indicators. The PCA highlights how important it is to address the issue of improving
the living situations of the poor . In addition to the definition of material deprivations, a deeper
investigation into the characteristics of poverty must take into account the changes brought
about by urbanization and living conditions.
T able 1 4 . PCA di men sion s for ext reme p over t y a nd m at e r ial de p r ivat i o ns
F ac tor load i ng s Cont r ibut i on of th e var iabl e s(% ) S qua re d c o si nes of t he var iabl e s
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
LNOB - 0 . 8 75 - 0.4 4 0 10.069 0 278 3 1. 3 8174 6 8 9 0 .7 6 6 0 .19 3
s d g1_ t r a n s f e r 0.925 - 0 . 31 3 1 1 .26 4 26 47 15.9 38 0 8 915 0. 857 0.0 98
s d g 1 _ 55 0 p o v 0.9 50 - 0 .12 0 11 . 8 7 2 6 1 0 7 2 . 3 459 0 0 479 0.90 3 0.0 1 4
sdg 1_mater ial 0. 9 57 - 0.034 1 2 .0 33 4 45 0 .18 7 7 0 5 6 0. 915 0.0 0 1
s d g 11 _ c r o w d i n g 0 .850 0. 49 2 9. 5 0 4 01 3 67 3 9 . 2 8 51 4521 0 .72 3 0. 2 42
s d g 7_w a r m 0 . 8 61 - 0 .12 8 9.74 2 0 4 4 9 7 2 . 6 3 9 5 910 33 0 .74 1 0.0 1 6
sd g8 _ i nw o rk 0 . 9 81 - 0.0 6 8 1 2 . 6 5 9 7 611 0 .7439 1 1477 0.9 63 0.0 05
sdg3_insucov - 0.9 0 0 0 . 21 5 1 0.6552865 7. 4 7 61 6 7 3 9 6 0 . 8 10 0.0 46
sd g6 _ showe r 0.963 0.0 03 12 .19 9 5 45 6 0.0 0 1 7 42764 0 .928 0.0 0 0
V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t

73 Emine T AHSİN
Access to and quality of services under LNOB: For this PCA only 7 sub-indicators out of
12 could be used with the LNOB score. The eigenvalues (F1 and F2) greater than one explain
90% the cumulative variations. In this sample, as can be seen from T able 15, health-related
indicators apart from the “suicide rates”, have a negative impact. These indicators; specific
health indicators address the “gap in life expectancy (sdg3_incgap)” and “self-reported health
(sdg3_hgap)”, and access to “medical care indicates the existence of inequalities in health
services (sdg3_legap)” indicates negative interactions.
More specifically , improvements in “early childhood education (sdg4_child)” have con-
tributed positively to the LNOB and have a big positive impact. During this period the internet
access indicators “(sdg9_bband)” seem to have positively correlated with the LNOB. The
“suicide rate (sdg3_suicide)” has created positive syner gies with the LNOB.
T able 15. PCA di m en sion s for a cc es s t o a nd q u al it y o f se r v ice s
F ac tor load i ng s Cont r ibut i on of th e var iabl e s(% ) Squ ar e d co s i ne s of t he var iabl e s
F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2
LNOB 0.8 98 0 .1 3 6 13.0 20 1 . 7 17 0.80 6 0.0 19
sdg3_legap - 0.836 0 . 4 43 11 . 2 9 5 18 . 0 9 5 0. 69 9 0 .1 9 6
sd g3_ su icide 0.9 27 0. 227 13 . 9 01 4 .75 0 0.8 60 0.05 1
sdg3_hgap - 0. 858 - 0. 388 11 . 9 0 4 13 . 8 9 9 0 .7 37 0 .151
sdg3_incgap - 0.963 0 .101 14 . 9 8 4 0.93 4 0 .9 27 0.01 0
sdg 4_child 0. 9 32 0. 22 8 1 4.033 4 .7 9 6 0.868 0.052
s d g 9_ bb a n d 0 . 9 74 0.0 45 15 . 31 9 0.1 83 0.948 0.0 02
sdg8_euy neet - 0. 586 0 .7 7 6 5. 5 4 4 55 . 6 2 6 0. 343 0 .602
V al u e s in b o ld c o r r e s p on d fo r e a c h va r i a bl e to t h e fa c to r fo r wh i ch t h e sq u a re d c o s in e i s t he l a r ge s t
In addition to the indicators connected with decent work (SDG 8); poverty risk for those at
work (sdg8_inwork) is found to have a negative impact. Furthermore, “sdg8_euyneet (youth
not in employment, education or training (NEET))” have weak but negative ef fects.
Results assessed under limited data constraints show that the greatest trade-of fs come from
material poverty and deprivations and access and the quality of public service indicators. It
could be noticed that gender inequality indicators outline positive interactions that are not
included in the PCA. The number of seats held by women in parliament (sdg5wparl) indicator
and the number of senior women managers (sdg5wmanage) indicate achievement. The income
inequality data own weak interactions and their impact on inclusiveness is limited. The case
of Türkiye’ s inclusiveness outlines weakness in poverty- decent work nexus and inequalities
in access to basic services. Additionally , the LNOB indicators underlie the importance of

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
74
health, education, and gender -sensitive policies. Education policies, policies for vulnerable
groups, and a definition of rights are vital for the case of Türkiye. Moreover , the lack of access
to basic services and the dynamics of urbanization that excludes poor households need to be
investigated in detail.
5. Conclusion
Under the constraints of data continuity , the main findings of the PCA indicate the per -
sistence of inequality & poverty-based vulnerabilities in Türkiye and historically affect the
interactions between the SDGs. Although there has been progress in certain human-centered
indicators, overall poverty and material deprivation continue to be determinants. This fact is a
good example of the challenges of sustainability itself necessitating different transformations
for Türkiye as an upper middle-income country . On the other hand, weaknesses in people-led
indicators and the creation of policies compatible with the “growth environment and social”
sphere, reveal certain contradictions. The quality of economic growth and, more importantly ,
the bases on which growth is based can have negative implications for the links between the
economy and people-centered goals. Dimensions of discrimination and working conditions
need to be considered. The target of becoming an inclusive society has bottlenecks on the
basis of fundamental rights and freedoms.
One of the most fundamental contradictions is related to the weakness of the poverty ,
decent work and income equality nexus. Regardless of data quality , the links perform poorly .
The other main evidence is related to the urbanization dynamics and living conditions of
the citizens, especially the “poor”. Another main theme is related to the design of education
and health policies especially focusing on vulnerable groups and defining “equality” in access
to these services in the public sphere.
Beyond improving the conditions of Türkiye’ s “vulnerable” groups, important policy
choices may include providing guarantees for access to certain services and focusing the
allocation of resources specifically on these issues. Given the changes in the scope of social
transfer policies in Türkiye mentioned in this chapter , it can be argued that these transfers
have in fact produced limited results in addressing material deprivation and discrimination.
The findings are considered to highlight the need for access to basic services and rights-based
policies to strengthen the conditions of citizens of Türkiye in general. Specifically , women and
children, and people facing informality both in economic and social spheres have problems in
reaching specific services. All these facts bring with them the need to improve the conditions
of those living in informal areas (in rural and urban) of Türkiye, beyond supporting them with

81 Emine T AHSİN
Appendix
Figure A1. 5 Principles of the SDGs
Source: UN (2015)
T able A 2 . LNO B I ndicat or s
Sourc e: Lafo r t u n e et a l ., (2022)

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
82
T able A 3. B a rlet t’ s Sphe r i c it y T e st s a n d K MO Resu lt s
Sub -i nd icat or s of t he SD G s LNO B
SDG s Pe o p l e Prosper it y Pl a net Pe ac e and
Par t ne r sh ip
Mate r ial
De pr i vat ion
Ace s s to
ser v i ces
B a r t l e t t ’s
sp he r icit y t e st
Chi -sq uare
( Obse r v e d value ) 4 0 8 .1 3 9 7 7 3 75 . 53 0 32 3.9 02 4 0 9. 5 47 4 6 2 4 0 . 4 81 134.3035 267 98.420 4 13 7 4
Chi -sq uare
( Cr itic a l va lue ) 99 .6 1 69 27 6 1 .656 50.998 8 5.9 6 4 9 07 6 1.6 56 50.998 4 6 0 1 7 41 . 3 3 71 3 81 5
DF 78 45 36 66 45 36 28
p -va lue
( Tw o - t a i l e d ) < 0.0 0 0 1 < 0.0 0 0 1 <0.0 0 01 <0.0 0 0 1 < 0.0 0 01 < 0.0 0 0 1 < 0.0 0 01
alph a 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
O ver a l l K MO 0 .7 31 2 6 31 0 . 8 6 7 15 31 0.69 0 0. 7 4 49395 0.73 0 77 9 333 0. 5 658 46 586 0 . 5 75
T able A4. Pea r son C or relat ion Mat r i x for SDG 1 a nd Sub -In d icat or s of th e SDG s
Va r i a b l e s G oa l 1 S c ore
Go al 1 S c or e 1
n_sd g2_stuntin g 0. 8 80
n _ sd g 2 _ wa st i ng - 0.8 80
n_ sdg 2 _obesi t y - 0.902
n _ sdg 2 _t roph ic - 0. 853
n _ s d g 2 _ c rlyld 0. 845
n_sd g2_snmi 0. 824
n _ sdg3_ mat mor t 0. 833
n _ sdg3_ neon at 0 . 8 41
n _ s d g 3_ u 5m o r t 0 . 8 33
n _sdg3_tb 0.94 0
n _ s d g3_ ncd s 0 . 8 29
n_ sdg3 _lifee 0.905
n_ sdg3 _fer tility 0.888
n _ s d g3_ bi r t h s 0 . 8 18
n _ s d g 3 _v a c 0 . 515
n _ s d g3_ u h c 0.8 64
n _ s d g4_ e a rlyed u 0. 893
n_ sdg4_ pr i mar y - 0 .74 4
n_ sdg4_second - 0.0 10
n_ sdg 4_literacy 0.904

83 Emine T AHSİN
T able A4. Co nt i nu ed
n_ sdg5 _family pl 0. 910
n_ sdg5_edat 0. 9 42
n_ sdg5 _lf pr 0 . 919
n _ sdg5_ p a rl 0. 898
n_ sdg6_ wa ter 0. 893
n_ sdg6_ sa nita 0 . 894
n _sdg6 _f reshwat - 0.95 4
n _ sd g7_cle an f u el 0 .7 6 9
n_ sdg7 _co 2twh 0 .7 5 5
n _sdg7 _re n 0 . 371
n_ sdg8_ accounts 0 . 6 42
n _ sdg8_u nemp - 0 . 416
n_sdg 8_r i ghts - 0 .7 7 5
n_ sdg8_i mpacc 0 .1 35
n_sd g9 _in t us e 0. 89 0
n_sd g9 _mo b use 0.960
n _ s d g 9_ lp i 0.6 89
n _ s d g 9_ u n i - 0 . 61 0
n _ s d g 9_ a r t ic l e s 0. 8 33
n _ s d g 9_ r d ex 0. 863
n _sdg 1 0_ gin i - 0. 4 49
n _sdg 1 0_ palm a 0. 25 4
n_sd g 1 1 _s l u ms 0 . 8 01
n _ s d g 11 _ p m 2 5 - 0 .6 62
n _ s d g 11 _ p i p e d w a t 0.9 02
n _ s d g 11 _ t r a n s p o r t 0.0 49
n_ sdg 12_ewaste - 0 .7 0 2
n _ s d g12 _ n p r o d - 0.95 0
n _ s d g12 _ n i m p o r t - 0 . 9 61
n_ sdg 1 3_co 2g cp - 0. 803
n_ sdg 1 3_co 2impor t 0 .7 3 2
n_ sdg 1 4_cpma 0.504
n_ sdg 1 4_cl eanwa t 0.9 05
n_ sdg 1 4_f ishstocks - 0. 871
n _ s d g 14 _ t r a w l 0 .7 6 5
n _sdg1 4_d iscard - 0 . 552
n _ s d g15 _ c p t a 0 . 679
n _ s d g15 _ c pf a 0.930

NO- POVER TY GOAL OF TÜRKİYE ON THE BASIS OF LEA VING NO ONE BEHIND PRINCIPLE
84
T able A4. Co nt i nu ed
n _sdg 1 5_red list - 0.898
n _ s d g 16 _ h o m i c i d e s 0. 805
n _s dg 1 6_ deta in 0 .7 6 4
n_ sdg 1 6_ safe 0 .7 6 4
n _ s d g 16 _ c p i - 0 . 8 61
n _ s d g 16 _ r s f - 0 .7 5 1
n _sdg 1 6 _ just ice 0 . 616
n _ s d g 17_ g o v e x 0.3 48
n _sdg 1 7 _ go v rev - 0 . 611
n_sd g 1 7 _sta tperf 0.687
V al u e s i n bol d a r e d i f fe r e nt f ro m 0 w i th a sig nif ic a n c e l e ve l alp h a= 0,05

S UST AINABLE
D EVELOPMENT
G OAL

CHAPTER 3
FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN
TÜRKİYE : TO END HUNGER AND PROMOTE
SUST AINABLE AGRICUL TURE
Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN 1
1 Assoc. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Economics, İstanbul, Türkiye
E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-5698-5748
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.003
Abstract
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by the UN addresses global challenges. The global prevalence of
hunger and poverty is increasing daily . The concept of food security is gaining importance. A lar ge amount of the food
supply comes from agricultural land, which also provides essential ecosystem services. Agriculture is vital for food
security and achieving Sustainable Development Goal 2. Food security challenges are predicted to worsen due to
demographic growth, urbanization, unsustainable resource exploitation, climate change, and changing consumption
patterns. By 2050, the global population will reach 10 billion, necessitating sustainable farming for food security .
Urbanization challenges food distribution, requiring reliable access to nutritious food in cities. Increased use of non-
renewable resources in agriculture threatens the ecosystem, requiring a transition to sustainable techniques. Extreme
weather from climate change threatens food security . Increased consumption of resource-intensive foods strains
agriculture. Addressing these difficulties needs collaboration among stakeholders. Sustainable farming, like organic
practices, minimizes environmental harm. Investing in research and technology can boost crop yields and resilience.
Food waste can be reduced by ef ficient transport and storage. Resilient farming and consumer education are crucial to
address climate-related food poverty . Meanwhile, environmental contamination threatens biodiversity , water , and
public health. Major contributors are deforestation, industrial waste, and air pollution. Global collaboration is crucial
for reducing emissions and protecting the environment sustainably . According to the Global Food Security Index,
Türkiye ranks 49 th out of 1 13 countries in food security . W ater and food security are important topics of discussion in
the context of climate change. One problem in sustainable development is environmental security . Food security , a
crucial aspect of environmental security , has gained relevance in recent years due to the COVID-19 epidemic af fecting
supply chains and causing a food crisis. Countries must create strategies to ensure food security in anticipation of the
global food crisis. The purpose of this study is to analyze current food and environmental security policies and initiatives
in Türkiye. This section will emphasize the measures needed to maintain policy consistency in this area. The challenge
of sustainable food security and agriculture is exacerbated by the growing global and T urkish populations. The subject
concerns political and economic policies applied by governments, corporations, institutions, and organizations. SDG3
focuses on fostering excellent health and well-being, while efforts to improve food security and achieve SDG2 may
hinder its achievement. Food system sustainability depends on ensuring future generations’ food security .
Keywords: Food Security , Environmental Security , Sustainable Development, Sustainable Agriculture, SDG2,
Türkiye
PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF
TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC

FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. ..
88
1. Intr oduction
A series of multiple crises threaten the globalizing world, like wars, terror , poverty , inc-
reasing inequality , and unemployment, besides the scarcity of resources such as food, water ,
and land affected by climate change, leading to environmental problems such as water and
food security . The sectors more vulnerable to climate change are those highly dependent on
environmental conditions, such as agriculture. W ater and food security is af fected by climate
change because it reduces agricultural productivity . Population growth causes food and wa-
ter demand to increase. In the context of the growing population in the world and Türkiye,
sustaining food security is a significant challenge. According to the F AO (2023), 9.8% of the
world population was undernourished in 2022.
Food security is described as a condition in which all people have physical, social, and
economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that fits their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life at all times (Peng & Berry , 2019). Sustainability
and food security are linked to each other via the notion of sustainable diets. Sustainable diets
are defined as “protective, respectful of biodiversity and ecosystems, culturally acceptable,
accessible, economically fair and affordable, nutritionally adequate, safe and healthy; while
optimizing natural and human resources” (F AO, 2012).
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the Member States of the United
Nations (UN) in 2015 consist of seventeen main topics, some of which are ending global
hunger and poverty , combating climate change, and promoting responsible production and
consumption in order to eliminate social, cultural, and ecological problems by 2030. Since
the beginning of 2018, the UN Sustainable Development Goals have become priority areas to
pull out action both internationally and nationally . Among the 17 goals, goal number 2 reads,
“End hunger , achieve food security , improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.”
F AO (n.d.) defines hunger as an uncomfortable or painful physical sensation caused by insuf -
ficient consumption of dietary ener gy . Hunger may also be referred to as undernourishment.
Türkiye is classified as a developing nation, boasting a population of 85.3 million indivi-
duals and exhibiting an average population growth rate of 0.7% in the year 2022, as reported
by T urkstat (2022). The Mediterranean Basin has been classified as a highly susceptible regi -
on, as stated by the Inter governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022). Türkiye’ s agri-
cultural sector will be strongly af fected by drought, precipitation changes, heat waves, floods,
and wildfires. Projected increases in population and decreasing agricultural areas create food
insecurity . T o sustain a country’ s food security , it is crucial to ensure water security because

89 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN
the agricultural sector is a large consumer of water . In The High-Level Political Forum on
Sustainable Development in 2016, Türkiye was a volunteer country presenting its national
reviews; the 10th Development Plan was implemented with the objective of addressing the
issue of climate change and its impact on water resources, as well as promoting sustainable
agriculture and ensuring food security . Furthermore, the integration of the country’ s goals into
National Development Plans was initiated through the 2030 Agenda. What is more notable
is to transform the SDGs into action to tackle water and food insecurity .
This chapter aims to discuss food security and environmental security in Türkiye regarding
SDG2-Zero Hunger by putting forward the facts related to sustainable agriculture, water se-
curity , and climate change. Consistency of SDGs and Development Plans, V oluntary National
Review of SDG and Türkiye and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development will be used to
put forward Türkiye’ s Current Situation in terms of SDG2 and give details concerning furt-
her steps to be taken. This chapter is organized as follows: The second section puts forward
sustainable food security policies in Türkiye. The third section states the consistencies of
SDG2 with of ficial documents, and finally , section four clarifies the current situation of food
systems in Türkiye.
2. Sustainable Food Security Policies in Türkiye
A sustainable food system can be defined as a system that ensures the provision of food
security and nutrition to all individuals while simultaneously preserving the economic, social,
and environmental foundations necessary for the continued generation of food security and
nutrition for future generations (F AO, 2018) It has a positive or neutral impact on the natural
environment (environmental sustainability). Using natural resources like water , energy , and
food with their supply and fair distribution is germane to environmental security . This term
has gained importance on the world agenda with the COVID-19 pandemic and will be pre-
sent at least until 2030. Producing policies to ensure sustainable food security for the coming
food crisis will be notable. Within this realm, we have five important subjects to be looked
upon deeply: agricultural productivity , agricultural support, stock/waste management, climate
change, and water security .
2.1. Agricultural Pr oductivity
Agriculture is vital for food security as it provides the largest share of food supplies and
supports the SDGs, especially SDG 2- zero hunger . Since the 1996 W orld Food Summit
(WFS), massive efforts have been made to increase agriculture, food production, and secu-
rity (Ericksen, 2009). In 2015, the United Nations (UN) set the 17 Sustainable Development

FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT AL SECURITY IN TÜRKIYE: T O END HUNGER AND PROMOTE SUST AINABLE. ..
90
Goals (SDGs), where an essential goal is Zero Hunger (SDG2). F AO (2023) reveals that
about 29.6 percent of the global population – 2.4 billion people – were moderately or seve-
rely food insecure in 2022. On the other hand, sustainable agriculture is essential to improve
other SDGs like SDG1 (No poverty) and SDG3 (Good health and well-being). Urban areas
become more livable places with the green spaces increasing with the contribution of agri-
cultural applications like urban gardens and green roofs, thus reducing the impact of natural
events and pollution and ensuring food security (Viana et al., 2022). The current agri-food
systems (agricultural practices, food preferences, and consumption shifts), unfortunately , are
increasing greenhouse gas emissions and causing ecosystem degradation like soil degradation,
loss of biodiversity , and water scarcity (Goucher et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2018; Sanchez
& W yckhuys, 2019; Zuo et al., 2018). The trade-offs associated with agriculture may cause
a global crisis in food security or environmental degradation at an unprecedented scale (Mi-
chel-Villarreal et al., 2019; Y ang et al., 2020). Investing in sustainable practices like crop
diversification, use of or ganic fertilizers, increased rotation periods, and cover cropping is
necessary to increase crop resilience to pests (Feng et al., 2018; Murrell, 2017). In addition,
by using sustainable agricultural practices, food quality can be improved. Local, diverse, and
sustainable agriculture respectful of the environment can only adapt to the climate crisis and
reduce crop vulnerability to pests and disease risks (The Royal Society , 2009). One recogni-
zed strategy to maintain and amplify food supply and reduce hunger is boosting agricultural
production and productivity of agricultural land (The Royal Society , 2009; W u et al., 2014).
The progress being made in this area will contribute both to SDG2 (Zero hunger) and SDG1
(No poverty). Crop yields decreased drastically due to increased pests and pathogens (Oerke,
2006; Popp et al., 2013). This may slow down the progress of SDG2.
One of the factors that can limit total agricultural productivity is the low soil carbon con-
tent in Türkiye. In addition to this, there are decreases in precipitation and extreme weather
events. Türkiye’ s usable agricultural area is falling of f because of climate change, urbanizati -
on, and massive usage of pesticides and mineral fertilizers. T otal agricultural land decreased
from 40.9 MHA in 2001 to 38.5 MHA in 2015 (Ağaçayak & Keyman, 2018). Agricultural
productivity is related to the concepts of competitiveness, human capital, renewable energy ,
and low cost. The ef ficiency of agricultural enterprises and agricultural employment is vital
for agricultural productivity . In the 9 th Development Plan, the scale efficiency of agricultural
enterprises has been included. From 2007 to 2012, agricultural employment increased by
1.1 million people, although rural poverty remained a primary problem. This was due to
enterprises having scale ef ficiency and marketing problems (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of

97 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN
Institute issued the SDG Indicators Set comprising 83 indicators in February 2019. SDG 2 has
three main objectives: (i) Meeting nutritional demands and ensuring adequate food access; (ii)
increasing agricultural productivity and resilient farming practices; and (iii) preserving genetic
resources and traditional knowledge. In this regard, Türkiye’ s biggest issue is malnutrition,
nutritional quality , and overnutrition. According to VNR (2019), while total protein consump-
tion per person is acceptable, and only a small proportion of families are undernourished in
terms of energy-rich nutrients, the majority of proteins are plant-based, with low consumption
of animal protein. In the subject of child nutrition, significant measures have been achieved,
such as boosting breastfeeding and supplementary feeding micronutrient supplement prog-
rams (iron and vitamin D supplements, iodized salt).
Agriculture support programs that are in accordance with demographic trends, economic
development goals related to rural poverty reduction, and ensuring the essential degree of
dietary diversity for optimal nutrition are compatible with the EU negotiation process and
WT O commitments
A number of steps were taken to improve the effectiveness of the assistance policy . “A
basin-based support” strategy was used to collect accurate agricultural statistics, increase
agricultural inventories, and build the infrastructure required for rural development strategies.
Ongoing programs on food banks and the prevention of food waste and loss were projected
to contribute positively to increased food security attainment.
T urkish farms are smaller and more divided than others. T o prevent inheritance-related
agricultural enterprise fragmentation, legislation was passed. Land consolidation solves this.
Land consolidation reached 6.1 million hectares in 2018 (VNR, 2019). A new agricultural in-
surance law changed risk management and provided insurance premium support for farmers’
losses. T o determine food price hikes’ causes, the Food and Agriculture Products Markets
Monitoring and Evaluation Committee was created. One structural issue with agricultural
output price volatility will be reduced by this committee. T o centrally supervise vegetable
and fruit commerce, the Fresh Fruit and V egetable Wholesale Market registration system was
implemented in 2012. The 2017 National Starter Culture Gene Bank protects biodiversity and
ensures food security for future generations.
VNR (2019) indicates the following additional steps to be implemented in terms of SDG2
Goals: (i) Expanding enterprise sizes to increase production and productivity and hence sel-
f-suf ficiency . (ii) T o maintain agricultural production continuity while promoting local jobs
for individuals living in rural areas. (iii) Improving the efficiency of R&D services and as -

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98
sisting in the development of legislation to protect genetic resources and biodiversity . (iv) T o
address climate change, new methods for improving agricultural production are being develo-
ped. (v) Consider agricultural product costs and revenue balance. (vi) Meeting the nutritional
needs of vulnerable groups. (vii) Promoting the long-term viability of the agricultural labor
force through assisting youngsters and women. Finally , (viii) enhancing agricultural statistics
infrastructure.
3.3. Consistency of SDGs with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and Türkiye
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development provides a comprehensive framework
for nations to ef fectively address sustainable development concerns by integrating relevant
policies into their domestic agendas while also addressing global dif ficulties. Since 1992,
Türkiye has incorporated sustainable development policies into its National Development
Plan (NDP) following the Rio Summit. The T urkish Government has exhibited unwavering
dedication to the international pledge established by global leaders at the Millennium Summit.
This commitment is evident via the alignment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
with Türkiye’ s national development priorities.
Türkiye successfully achieved the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) pertaining to
maternal and newborn health, ef fectively reducing both infant mortality rates and maternal
death rates by the year 2015. The primary objective of the programs implemented by the
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) was the elimination of extreme poverty and hunger .
The food poverty ratio, representing the proportion of individuals within a given population
who lack the financial means or availability to obtain a nutritionally adequate diet, saw a drop
from 1.35% in 2002 to 0.48% in 2009. Furthermore, the population living below the poverty
line of $1.25 per day was completely eradicated by 2006. The 2030 Agenda served as an initial
measure for the nation to incorporate its objectives into its National Development Plans. The
outcome of the Summit held in New Y ork in September 2015, which was the approval of the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, was initially mentioned by the T urkish Govern-
ment in the 2016 Annual Program.
Aligned with Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the natio-
nal pathways have identified specific areas of focus to enhance the national food systems.
These priorities are established through a collaborative approach with the United Nations
Sustainable Development Cooperation Framework (UNSDCF 2021-2025). The identified
tracks include policy analysis and development, knowledge transfer , capacity development,

99 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN
and advocacy . These tracks aim to strengthen the national food systems and contribute to the
achievement of the SDGs.
T rack 2 under the Action T racks pertains to the transition towards a sustainable consumpti-
on pattern. Several significant efforts in this domain include (i) promoting the sustainability of
the supply value chain within the agri-food sector , (ii) mitigating food loss and waste, enhan-
cing consumer consciousness, and advocating sustainable consumption, and (iii) establishing
equitable access to safe and nutritious food. This can be achieved through the implementation
of school lunch initiatives and school food programs. The process of digitizing the food value
chain and enhancing accessibility and transparency throughout all phases of the food value
chain is of utmost importance.
An additional worry pertaining to T rack 2 is the enhancement of public health, ensuring
food safety , and fortifying inspection and control measures. The primary objective of the
Scientific and Research Council of Türkiye is to prioritize food-feed safety , encompassing the
safeguarding of animals and individuals responsible for their nourishment against potential
harm or illness arising from the handling or consumption of feed products. Additionally , the
council emphasizes the significance of employing contemporary food and feed production
methodologies, storage and packaging techniques, as well as the valorization of food waste
and traditional culinary practices to ensure optimal quality standards. The feasibility of tran-
sitioning food systems towards greater sustainability can be achieved by the implementation
of a comprehensive framework of commitments and activities, with a sustained emphasis
on long-term goals. The interconnection between malnutrition, health, and the environment
necessitates the presence of robust policy coherence among these domains. In the context
of enhancing the food traceability infrastructure through the extensive adoption of digital
technology and solutions, it is crucial to prioritize several key measures. These include the
monitoring of pesticide residues, the establishment of more efficient and comprehensive mo-
nitoring systems for fishing activities, the promotion of aquaculture, and the provision of
training to all relevant stakeholders in the food supply chain regarding food safety and quality
management (Republic of Türkiye, MoAF , 2021).
Türkiye included the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development into its objectives throu-
gh the implementation of the 1 1th National Development Plan (2019-2023). The SDGs en-
compassed five primary pillars, namely: a robust and stable economy , enhanced productivity
and competitiveness in production, a skilled and capable workforce, a resilient and cohesive
society , sustainable and habitable urban areas, an environmentally sustainable ecosystem,
and the promotion of the rule of law , democratization, and effective governance. The agen-

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cy tasked with the generation of dependable and consistent data, as well as the monitoring
of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators, is the T urkish Statistical Institute. The
realization of the 2030 Agenda necessitates sustained endeavors by various actors, including
governmental bodies, scholars, non-governmental organizations, and the business community
(Y apar , 2019). The necessity of coherence and cooperation among institutions and sectors at
both national and local levels cannot be overstated.
3.4. Consistency of SDGs with National Pathway of Türkiye
In September 2021, the United Nations conducted a Food Systems Summit in New Y ork to
reinforce the 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals. The Summit’ s goal was
to ensure access to safe and nutritious food, increase sustainable consumption and production,
and strengthen resilience to food security gaps. The Economist has developed the Global Food
Security Index (GFSI) for 1 13 countries. The index is a dynamic quantitative and qualitative
model that considers food affordability , availability , quality and safety , and sustainability and
adaptation. There are 68 unique indicators for measuring food security for both developed
and developing countries. Figure 2 demonstrates Türkiye’ s position in terms of food security
indicators in 2022. Türkiye has an overall food security environment score of 66.3 and ranks
49th out of 1 13 countries and 8th out of 15 in the Mena region. The quality and safety pillar
is strong (78.5 scores) but relatively weak on affordability (58.4 scores). Though its global
Quality and Safety ranking is good (26th), it needs to make both the food prices more stable
and, at the same time, af fordable to achieve a more secure overall food security environment.
The sustainability of the food security environment is also crucial, which makes it manda-
tory to preserve natural resources like oceans, lakes, and rivers and manage water stress and
contamination levels.

101 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN
Figure 2. Food Security Environment in Türkiye (2022)
Source: Economist Impact (2022)
There exist several strengths and opportunities for potential action. While acknowledging
the commendable food quality and safety measures in place, it is imperative to address the
issue of rising food prices. T o mitigate this concern, it is recommended to implement food
safety-net initiatives that aim to enhance the accessibility and af fordability of food for the
general population. Türkiye has achieved a cumulative score of 28.6 in the domain of food
safety-net initiatives. The sufficiency of the country’ s food supply has exhibited a consistent
upward trend since 2016, culminating in a score of 100. Over the course of an 1 1-year period,
there has been a notable improvement of 61 positions in nutritional standards. This impro-
vement is reflected in a score of 100, indicating the presence of robust dietary guidelines, a
comprehensive national nutritional plan, enhanced labeling practices, and regular monitoring
of nutritional aspects. The measure of average food cost change poses challenges in countries
with a zero score. The cost of food is subject to fluctuations in global prices and events that
lead to food inflation. However , it is imperative for Türkiye to prioritize ensuring cheap access
to food by placing greater emphasis on this domain. Political and social impediments to ac-
cess are an additional determinant influencing food security . Türkiye is positioned at the 87th
rank, with a score of 43 on this particular indicator . The low score might be attributed to the
country’ s susceptibility to political instability and persistent levels of corruption since 2012.
The agricultural trade indicator score is 26.6 points lower than the global average, placing
it at the 109th rank. The primary factor contributing to the inadequacy of this score can be
attributed to the implementation of elevated taxes on agricultural imports in 2012.

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The National Pathway of Türkiye also highlights the inequitable distribution of resources
among smaller farmers, who face challenges in obtaining a fair share, as well as the issue of
unaf fordable input prices. This observation indicates that the diminution in farm size in Türkiye
is contributing to the increasing dif ficulty of sustaining a livelihood. According to the Ministry
of Agriculture and Forestry (MoAF , 2021), smallholders in Türkiye face several key obstacles.
These challenges include limited access to financial resources, a lack of cooperation among
smallholders, risk aversion, a dearth of effective leadership, difficulties in accessing markets,
and the burdensome administrative procedures associated with grant programs. Figure 3 displays
the agricultural input price index 1, as provided by the T urkish Statistical Institute. As depicted
in the image, a significant fluctuation in agricultural prices is observed throughout the years
2022 and 2023. The non-residential farm structures experienced the most substantial increase,
reaching a growth rate of 779.89% compared to the year 2005. Conversely , veterinary expenses
exhibited the lowest increase, amounting to a growth rate of 150.93%. There was a significant
increase of 747% in the cost of fertilizers and soil improvers.
Figure 3. Agricultural Price Index in Türkiye (2015=100)
(*) as of May 2023
Source: TurkStat (2023)
Enhancing the efficiency of the food chain has the potential to augment food supply throu-
gh the mitigation of losses incurred during primary production to retail stages, encompassing
both harvest and post-harvest phases. Losses primarily arise as a consequence of insufficient
infrastructure, encompassing deficiencies in water and electricity provisions, subpar transit
networks, and a dearth of storage capacities. The establishment of a digital infrastructure
has the potential to enhance the overall efficiency of the entire food chain. Investments in
transportation systems and infrastructure, as well as the implementation of effective moni-
toring systems utilizing artificial intelligence, have the potential to mitigate food insecurity .

103 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN
In accordance with the National Rural Development Strategy of Türkiye for the period of
2021 to 2023, several measures can be undertaken in relation to agriculture. These include the
promotion of small-scale enterprises, enhancement of agricultural productivity , improvement
of quality of life in rural regions, and the facilitation of rural workforce participation, particu-
larly among women and young individuals residing in rural areas. The emphasis on rural de-
velopment policies underscores the need to empower the youth in rural areas. This aligns with
the United Nations’ sustainable development goals for young farmers, which are expected to
be achieved by 2030, as well as the European Union’ s targets for the Common Agricultural
Policy after 2022 (Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry , 2021).
The application of digital technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, and
big data solutions has the potential to facilitate the digital transformation of food systems,
specifically in the realm of agriculture. This can serve as a means to modernize the agri-food
system as outlined by the W orld Bank in 2021. The process of digital transformation encoun -
ters several challenges, including insufficient financial investment, issues pertaining to data
security and protection, and limited levels of digital literacy .
Türkiye will persistently endeavor to attain the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030
through the reinforcement of national, regional, and international collaboration in accordance
with the National Pathway . Regions and cities may demonstrate a willingness to build policies
for regional food systems through alignment with development agencies and local authorities.
In order to achieve these objectives, it is imperative to enhance the resilience of the food
supply chain by implementing innovative technology and digitalization, with a specific focus
on agricultural services, as facilitated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MoAF).
One potential approach involves enhancing the productivity of small-scale farmers, who are
often considered the most vulnerable component within the food supply chain.
The implementation of the Agricultural Land Conservation Program for Environmental
Purposes has been in ef fect in Türkiye since 2006. In 2019, the Agricultural Land Conser-
vation Program for Environmental Purposes extended its coverage to encompass a total of
58 provinces. The National W ater Plan placed significant emphasis on safeguarding both
the quality and quantity of groundwater resources. Over the course of the past ten years, a
considerable portion of the land has been made available for the purpose of irrigation. T able
1 presents the agri-environmental indicators in Türkiye. Based on the data presented in the
table, there was an observed rise in the proportion of irrigated land within agricultural regions,
which grew from 8% to 10.8% throughout the period spanning from 2000 to 2020. The 1 1 th
National Development plan also aims to achieve an expansion of irrigated land by 2 million
hectares during the period from 2018 to 2023.

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T able 1. Ag r i- env i ro n ment a l I nd ic at or s i n T ü rk iye
2000 20 20
Nit r oge n ba la nce ( k g / ha) 2 7. 8 32 . 2
Phos ph or u s ba la nce ( k g / ha) 8.0 8 .7
Ag r icu lt u r e sh a r e of tot al en e rg y us e (% ) 5.0 4. 3
Ag r icu lt u r e sh a r e of GHG em i ssio n s (% ) 14 . 2 13. 4
Sha re of ir r igate d l a nd i n ag r icu lt u r al a rea (%) 8.0 10 . 8
Sha re of ag r icu lt u re i n wat er a b st ra c t ion s ( %) 75. 4 8 4 .7
W at e r s t res s i n d ic at or 18 . 6 26. 1
S ou r ce: OEC D (2022 )
Figure 4 points out that pesticide use reached a peak in 2018, and after that, there was
relatively lower use of pesticides. T otal pesticide use in 2018 was 60.020 tonnes and decreased
to 55.374 tonnes in 2022, with a percentage of 7.7%. One of the aims of extending sustainable
agricultural practices is to lessen the excessive use of pesticides in agricultural production.
Figure 4. Pesticides Use in Türkiye (2006-2022)
Source: TurkStat (2023b)
The National Climate Change Strategy for the period of 2010 to 2023 delineates a set of
objectives spanning short-, medium-, and long-term timeframes, serving as the foundation
for implementing measures aimed at addressing the challenges posed by climate change. In
201 1, the preparation of the National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP) was overseen
by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization, with the aim of facilitating the execution
of the Climate Change Strategy . As depicted in Figure 1, the data reveals a notable surge of
157% in greenhouse gas emissions throughout the period spanning from 1990 to 2021. The
ener gy sector had a significant transformation, characterized by a substantial growth of 264%.

105 Hatice Dilara MUMCU AKAN
Within the context of food systems transformation, there are novel mechanisms pertai-
ning to the mitigation of climate change and the sustainable utilization of natural resources,
specifically focusing on the ef fective management of groundwater , pesticides, and fertilizers
within the agricultural sector . These advancements are expected to be incorporated into the
educational curriculum of agricultural programs. In relation to regional food systems, there
will be a promotion of urban agriculture methods within cities to enhance the accessibility of
nutritionally rich food.
3.5. Curr ent Situation of Food Systems in Türkiye
According to the Food and Agriculture Or ganization (F AO), it is projected that there
would be a need to augment food production by a minimum of 50% in order to adequately
satisfy the escalating demands of the expanding global population, particularly in relation to
the heightened consumption of meat. Numerous variables contribute to the endangerment
of food systems, including but not limited to the expanding population, food loss and waste,
climate change, shifting consumer preferences, and evolving socioeconomic circumstances
of consumers.
The rising expense of nutritious diets is closely correlated with the enduring prevalence
of poverty and income disparity . According to the projections provided by the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) for the year 2030, it is anticipated that over 840 million
individuals will experience the detrimental ef fects of hunger .
Türkiye possesses a comprehensive land area encompassing 769,630 square kilometers.
The aggregate land area allocated for agricultural purposes, encompassing both permanent
meadows and pastures, amounts to 37,762,000 hectares. Approximately 41.4% of the total
area in question is comprised of grain and crop products. The rate of fruit area has experienced
a significant increase of 36.4% during the period spanning from 2001 to 2020. According
to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of the Republic of Türkiye (2021), agricultural
employment accounted for 16% of the overall workforce in the year 2020.
According to the W orld Bank, it is projected that by the year 2050, the proportion of the
global population residing in urban areas will surpass 82%, a significant increase from the
75% recorded in 2018. The majority of agricultural farms exceeding 80% in number are
classified as small-scale. It is observed that there exists an inverse relationship between the
size of agricultural holdings and the income earned by farmers. The T urkish Agricultural
Policies encompass various objectives, including enhancing productivity , promoting crop
diversification, enhancing the nutritional quality of food, and fostering women’ s participation

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106
in agricultural production. In order to enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems, it is
imperative to bolster the technical and institutional capabilities of agricultural cooperatives,
as they function as both producer and irrigation unions.
Türkiye is a nation that possesses favorable conditions for the rearing of sheep and goats,
and it also demonstrates competitiveness in the broiler and egg poultry sectors. Based on the
2019 F AO statistics, Türkiye has the second position in honey production, following China.
The nation exhibits notable biological diversity , as seen by the significant rise in af forested
land from 2002 to 2019, with a growth rate of 8.7 percent. Furthermore, there are plans in
place to further expand afforested land to reach a projected area of 23.4 million hectares by
the year 2023.
The primary issues faced by the T urkish agriculture sector pertain to harvest and post-har -
vest losses, which are exacerbated by the looming threats of desertification and drought, as
well as the sector ’ s susceptibility to erosion. The demand for food has seen a greater incre-
ase compared to the supply of agricultural products in Türkiye, primarily due to population
growth. This demographic shift has consequently led to changes in consumption habits, par-
ticularly a preference for poultry and fish. Irrigated land is widely recognized as a crucial
determinant in the enhancement of agricultural yield. According to the Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry of the Republic of Türkiye (2021), as of the year 2021, approximately 6.7 million
hectares out of a total of 8.5 million hectares of land have been made accessible for irrigation
purposes. As the remaining agricultural lands become irrigated, it is expected that other produ -
cts will also contribute to achieving self-sufficiency . The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
(MoAF) undertakes significant initiatives that involve the implementation of technology in
several agricultural domains, including agricultural apps, agricultural information systems,
registration systems, and database systems.
Figure 5 illustrates the existing food systems and the primary obstacles encountered in the
process of transitioning food systems in Türkiye. On the production front, farmers encounter
significant challenges, primarily stemming from elevated input costs, including fertilizers, oil,
and pesticides, as well as issues related to low productivity and marketing. Small-scale far
-
mers are compelled to sell their products through intermediaries at prices that are lower than
prevailing market rates. This implies the absence of ideal market circumstances and the lack
of structured agricultural cooperatives. It is imperative for colleges to enhance their involve-
ment in extension services for farmers, in addition to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
(MoAF). There exists a deficiency in the coordination among academia, state institutions,
and the commercial sector . There is an increasing interest among start-up companies in the

S UST AINABLE
D EVELOPMENT
G OAL

CHAPTER 4
NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT
ECONOMICS : AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE
HEAL TH SER VICES IN TÜRKİYE
Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ 1,2
1 V isiting Scholar , Open University of The Netherlands, Faculty of Management,
Organization Department, Heerlen, The Netherlands
2 Assoc. Prof. Dr . Kırklareli University , Faculty of Applied Science, Finance and Banking Department,
Kırklareli, Türkiye
E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-1028-7135
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.004
Abstract
The well-being ef fects of human health on the economy are undeniable. While health affects people’ s
productivity and income in the short and long term, preventive health policies prevent an increase in health
expenditures. However , some individuals experience limited access to health services due to living and economic
conditions and may not have enough information about preventive health services. Even if they have information,
they may procrastinate using these services for various economic, social, or psychological reasons. Behavioral
economic development experiments related to the health of individuals living in rural areas of developing countries
and developed countries are done. In these scientific studies, individuals are nudged to get vaccinated, screened, use
preventive drugs, etc., through incentives or persuasive tools. After these methods were applied, it was revealed that
most individuals paid more attention to their health than they had before. The aim of this study was to 1) emphasize
the need to inform individuals about preventive health services associated with cancer in Türkiye, 2) make
suggestions on how to reach people who could benefit from professional health services, and 3) provide guidance to
health professionals. The aim to improve preventive health policies in T urkiye, which is one of the sustainable
development goals of the United Nations, was considered, and the nudge and incentive studies carried out around
the world were used as the basis for the research. W ith the implementation of these recommendations by
policymakers, it is predicted that life expectancy would be extended, the quality of life would be better and health
expenditures would decrease. In this study , the evaluations and suggestions are presented in this context.
Keywords: Behavioral development economics, behavioral economics, preventive health services, nudging,
health behavior
PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF
TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC

NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . .
11 6
1. Intr oduction
In the last two decades, there was a tremendous increase in interest in behavioral eco-
nomics. Its criticism of orthodox economics drew notice. The Nobel Prize in Economics
awarded to Kahneman in 2002 for his work on behavioral economics was a major element
in the expanding popularity of the field. Studies that analyzed people’ s emotional behavior
and cognitive errors and used them advantageously boosted interest. Behavioral economics
is not confined to economics; it has found applications in domains ranging from finance to
health, and from law to fiscal system. Through applications such as nudging, behavioral
economics added to both economic progress and a better understanding of economic events.
Mainstream economics, which excluded human beings from theory and method, started to
develop in recent years to include these criticisms of behavioral economics. Thaler received
the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2017 for his work on nudge policies in behavioral economics.
Behavioral economics is not restricted to the micro discipline of economics; it also found
a home in studies of economic development aimed at modifying human behavior for their
benefit. Banerjee, Duflo, and Kremer conducted experiments in rural areas of countries such
as Kenya and India to improve the health of poor children under a certain age, giving free
vaccinations and chewable tablets for intestinal worms. For these experiments in behavioral
development economics, the researchers were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2019.
These studies pioneered the field of behavioral development economics and contributed to
the development of the field.
Health-related developments in behavioral economics are broadly in line with the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals. It calls for ensuring healthy lives and promoting
well-being for all ages. It aims to ensure safe, effective, and quality health coverage for all, as
well as sustainable access to quality primary health care services (The United Nations W eb-
site, 2023, Sustainable Development Goals). As a result of these health development goals,
ef forts are being made in Türkiye to increase people’ s welfare and quality of life and extend
life expectancy through preventive health services. Nudging methods were applied to make
the scope of these studies targeted to a specific population based on the United Nations goals
related to health and to ensure participation in the healthcare system.
Most people in Türkiye are aware of the importance of early detection and diagnosis of
cancer , but there is no system to encourage them using nudging methods. Therefore, the most
susceptible group could be targeted for cancer screening using nudging methods and practices
in the field of health. As a result, with early detection and diagnosis the quality and duration

11 7 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ
of life could be improved. In addition, the cost of health expenditures for other diseases that
occur due to cancer could be reduced or prevented through early diagnosis. The word Cancer
often creates negative thoughts and feelings in people. It is common for people to avoid taking
action in getting a cancer screening because they associate it with negative emotions such as
fear , embarrassment or negative thoughts such as death. However , having information about
your health, whether positive or negative, can affect a person’ s productivity , income, and even
life expectancy in the short and long term. Thus, preventive health policies could prevent an
increase in health expenditures. There are many people in T urkiye with inadequate living and
economic conditions who do not have full access to health services and do not have suf ficient
knowledge about preventive health services. Therefore, encouraging them with nudge policies
by the country’ s health policymakers and behavioral economists/behavioral scientists is im-
portant for both economics and health. In order to achieve this, the system must be changed,
and new preventive health policies must be implemented.
First, I explained cognitive biases and shortcuts in behavioral economics as they relate
to preventive and preventive health services. Understanding cognitive shortcuts and biases in
health-related issues is the first step toward behavioral change. In the third part of our study ,
nudge studies in behavioral economics and behavioral development economics are discussed.
Nudging studies in the field of health are explained with examples. In the fourth part, the
Ministry of Health’ s cancer early detection and screening studies in Türkiye are mentioned.
Behavioral interventions or nudges are designed to change human behavior to provide better
and healthier outcomes for them. In the fifth section, health nudging techniques are explained,
their relationship with screening methods is mentioned and nudge suggestions are made for
early detection and diagnosis of cancer . In the sixth section, nudges that could be used by the
Ministry of Health for its website are mentioned.
2. Heuristics and Biases in Decision-Making in Behavioral Economics
Tversky and Kahneman (1974) criticized the definition of a rational person in mainstream
economics. One of these criticisms was that with uncertainty , people do not act rationally ,
but emotionally . Tversky and Kahneman (1974) conducted many experiments to trace the
cognitive processes underlying people’ s decisions and to prove that they were not complete-
ly rational. They stated that people resort to heuristics when making decisions in uncertain
situations. For example, people make decisions based on the first information they access
in their minds (availability heuristic), representativeness or anchoring (see. T able 1 first and
second columns) (Kahneman & Tversky , 1979). People who make decisions this way do
not think and research deeply and therefore do not act logically; they act according to these

NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . .
11 8
mental shortcuts. Sometimes they act on basic emotional reactions (affect), such as liking
or disliking something, finding it good or bad (see T able 1 first column) (Slovic, Finucane,
Peters, & MacGregor , 2002).
In the field of behavioral economics, the many biases that people have were explained,
and nudging policies started to be formulated accordingly (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008). These
biases are observations or realities that are inconsistent with theory and difficult to rationalize.
People often make decisions based on these biases. Since acting on these biases or prejudic-
es does not often benefit a person, it would be beneficial for the government to implement
nudging efforts on important issues such as health and the economy . The anomalies and biases
within the scope of our study consisted of overconfidence, unrealistic optimism, framing
ef fect, loss aversion, present bias, stereotyping bias, status quo bias, ostrich bias, opt-in and
opt-out, omission bias, projection bias, peak, and end rule, learned helplessness belief, social
identity bias, social/cultural norm, and procrastination (For explanation of biases about our
topic, see. T able 2 second column).
3. The Nudge in Behavioral Economics
Thaler and Sunstein (2009) in “Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, W ealth and
Happiness” argued that in uncertain situations, individuals could not control themselves and
could not make the right choices. It was therefore necessary to guide or , as Thaler called it,
nudge people in decisions they need to make to save money , improve finances, and improve
health. Adjustments to the choice architecture can change people’ s lives for the better . Nudge-
based policy interventions are designed to help people decide what is best for them, thereby
reducing human error .
Nudging is when individuals are directed towards something that is positive for them with -
out taking away their right to choose (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009). Because people’ s cognitive
abilities are limited and they do not have access to all information at all times, they may not
always choose what is the most beneficial. These claims of behavioral economists were the
starting point of nudge policies (Thaler & Sunstein, 2009; Camerer et al., 2003). According
to mainstream economics, decision-makers who act in line with their true rational preferenc-
es are non-existent econs or homoeconomicus. Since people do not have full information,
unlimited cognitive ability , and complete self-control, nudging practices are designed by
governments or private institutions.
Nudge-based policy practices do not interfere with a decision-makers’ choice or take away
their freedom. Nudge policies are determined based on the perspective of the decision-maker .

11 9 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ
The success of nudge policies in improving people’ s decisions is related to the extent in which
options are aligned with people’ s desires (Sunstein, 2018). What matters is the self-interest
of individuals. For Thaler and Sunstein (2008), whether the nudging technique adopted by a
country was based on an explicit choice or a default choice was an important issue. Those who
designed the choice architecture set the conditions under which choices were made. In pre-
paring options, choice architects can control the way they are presented, as well as the extent
of information provided to decision-makers. One of the most important options for nudging
techniques is the default option. If the target audience does not take action, a default option is
presented to them in their favor , taking into account their cognitive shortcuts and prejudices.
Choice architects have a significant impact on people’ s decisions in many areas of their lives,
from choosing between using stairs or escalators, being examined now or on a specific date,
deciding how much to save for one’ s retirement by including it in the pension system (Thaler
& Sunstein, 2009; Sunstein, 2016). Therefore, by providing people with default options, they
directly involve them in the system.
Since incentive policies are related to behavioral economics, studies on individuals’ saving
behavior are conducted frequently . The most prominent ar gument was that individuals gener-
ally found it more attractive to save in the future than to save now (Thaler & Benartzi, 2004).
Based on these studies, when individuals wanted to do things that were beneficial and healthy
for themselves, they did not take any action and postponed it (O’Donoghue & Rabin, 2015).
It is important that individuals are presented with a default option when making decisions,
because individuals tend to procrastinate or have a status quo bias. In addition, individuals
make preferences based on a certain reference point, i.e. preferences close to the default
option, and may exhibit loss aversion behavior based on this option (Kahneman et al., 1991;
Camerer et al., 2003; Johnson & Goldstein 2003; McKenzie et al., 2006). In addition, a policy
of forced choice in health-related situations was proposed. This forced choice required people
to actively decide and make choices on substantive issues throughout their lives, rather than
assuming the default choice. Thinking and deciding what should happen to our or gans after
we die is considered a policy of forced choice (Beraldo & Karpus, 2021). However , since
such choices cause negative emotions such as stress, these negative emotions are eliminated
by default options created by policymakers.
Chater and Loewenstein (2022) referred to individual frame (i-frame) interventions, which
focused on individuals’ thoughts and behaviors, as classical nudge policies. They stated that
the most important way in which behavioral scientists could contribute to public policy was
to make and implement changes in the system. According to Chater and Loewenstein (2022),

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many behavioral scientists proposed policy interventions that fixed problems with individual
behavior (an “i-frame”) rather than addressing the system within which individuals operate
(an “s-frame”). Chater and Loewenstein (2022) emphasized the importance of systemic frame
(s-frame) in nudge policies. For example, preventing obesity required high sugar taxes and
subsidization of healthy food (s-frame), in addition to changes in portion size (i-frame). It is
important that nudge interventions are supported by the s-framework to address the problem
and produce solutions (see T able 1 and T able 2).
3.1. The Nudge in Behavioral Development Economics
Behavioral development economics uses the theories and applications of behavioral eco-
nomics, a combination of economics and psychology , to examine questions in development
economics. A detailed study of behavioral development economics addressed preventive
health as well as many development issues (Kremer , Rao & Schilbach, 2019). New literature
emer ged ar guing that diversity in social preferences is an important driver of development
and that providing incentives through policies that benefit people’ s health and well-being
influence their behavior (Kremer , Rao & Schilbach, 2019).
In behavioral development economics, a variety of experimental studies were designed
and implemented (see Morris, Flores, Olinto, & Medina, 2004; Banerjee, Duflo, Glennerster ,
& Kothari, 2010; Banerjee & Duflo, 201 1), especially in light of the fact that the negative
ef fects of poverty causally affect people’ s cognitive functions, decision-making, and pro-
ductivity . As a result of these studies, people’ s quality of life, health-related well-being, and
incomes are improved, and nudging is practiced ensuring their sustainability .
3.2. Health-r elated Nudges in Behavioral Development Economics
W ith nudges, one of the application areas of behavioral economics, solutions were found
to reduce biases that prevented people from engaging in behaviors that improved long-term
health outcomes (Mehta & Asch, 2014). These biases were often predictable and used to
promote healthy activities (Loewenstein, Brennan & V olpp, 2007). One belief is that it is
unethical to of fer health-related choices and nudge people into the system. However , default
options in healthcare are often unavoidable. For example, oncologists, emergency medical
physicians, and cardiologists have a policy on how to care for patients who require emergency
intervention. They offer medical and sur gical treatment options to these patients (Halpern,
Ubel & Asch, 2007; Frank, 2016 [2007]). Determining which of the nudging methods is the
most reasonable is more important in early detection, screening, protection, and preventive
policymaking.

121 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ
Giving people choices, changing behavior positively , and improving the well-being of
patients or society are things that governments should care about. In general, nudges that im-
prove the well-being of individuals or society are considered ethical. Nudge policies make a
behavior a social norm. For example, in one state in America, according to the organ donation
registration system, family consent is not required if the organ, of the person who agreed and
registered to be an or gan donor , is to be removed at the appropriate time. This is important
because, in another nudge, signing the back of a driver ’ s license is not considered legal accep-
tance for organ donation. Family members can revoke the donor ’ s acceptance if they wish. T o
prevent revocation, a signed donor card or a document signed by two witnesses is given to au-
thorities. This can be done easily via the Internet. Donation pages on the Internet demonstrate
social norms through the power of social influences: “87% of adults think that registering as
an organ donor is the right way to go”, “60% of adults have registered to donate”, etc. (Thaler
& Sunstein, 2009). This is because people easily accept and approve of doing what the major -
ity approves and thinks is right. In this example, those who apply the nudge policy direct the
existing norms toward life-saving options and do so without forcing anyone.
Many people prefer to avoid making an active decision about donation, often accepting
the default option. Making choices is stressful in some situations, such as or gan donation. For
example, in the Netherlands, mailing people at home to ask them to become organ donors did
not change the rate of active consent, but in some European countries of fering or gan donation
as the default option on a document such as a driver ’ s license has increased participation.
Making it costly to change the default (filling out a form to exit the system, making a phone
call, sending mail, etc.) af fects retention (Johnson & Goldstein, 2003).
A study on nudging and incentives was conducted in collaboration with the government
in India. The potential and potential challenges of adopting such interventions as large-scale
policies were assessed. Small incentives were given to parents and an impact evaluation was
conducted. It was found that parents were engaged because of the incentives they received
(Banerjee et al., 2010; Banerjee & Duflo, 201 1). In vaccination studies conducted to reduce
infant and child mortality rates, experiments using various nudging methods such as food
assistance to families, transportation to homes with mobile vaccine trucks, reducing drug
prices, and educating families about immunity were found to increase vaccination rates and
af fected children’ s success in education as they became healthier . T rusted camps with in-
centives achieved significantly higher rates of full immunization for children aged 1-3 years
compared to control sites with no camps and compared to trusted camps without incentives
(Banerjee et al., 2010).

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122
Several previous studies showed that the adoption of preventive and protective health
behaviors was sensitive to small incentives or small costs. This suggests that incentives play
an important role in improving health.
4. Early Diagnosis and Scr eening of Cancer in Türkiye
People instinctively avoid situations where there is uncertainty . This is why many people
skip or postpone regular annual health check-ups to avoid the detection of a particular disease.
Cancer screening is one of the most important tools to reduce cancer deaths by facilitating
early detection and prevention. There has been a significant increase in cancer -related deaths
in Türkiye over the last two decades (The Ministry of Health of Türkiye W ebsite, 2023, Health
Statistics Y earbook 2021). In fact, funding (see T able 3) and participation in cancer screening
is inadequate (See T able 4). Nevertheless, the target for early detection of cancer is partially
achieved. People who are screened are directed to advanced diagnostic centers, but it is up
to them to decide whether they follow-up or not. In this context, it is important to increase
people’ s health literacy .
In Türkiye, cancer registry centers have collected cancer data in every province since
2013. The statistics obtained for this study data were made from the data of 14 provinces, so
the representation of the country was ensured. In T able 3, the dif ference between the requested
and allocated funds for cancer control activities was quite high (The Ministry of Health of
the Republic of Türkı  ye W ebsite, 2023, Annual Report for 2022.). The allocation needs to be
increased. The determinants of health demand were the GDP per capita, total health expendi -
tures which means health investments, the total number of hospital beds and physicians per
capita, life expectancy at birth, and the proportion of the elderly population (Sey & Demiröz,
2023). There is no publicly available record of cancer expenditures in Türkiye. Therefore, it
was not possible to compare expenditures by year . T o ensure sustainability in the healthcare
system, cancer -related expenditure data should be shared transparently . In this way , the cost
of early diagnosis screening activities can be compared. In addition to the awareness-raising
ef forts to combat cancer , there is a need to increase the number of specialized physicians,
technicians, and cancer screening devices.
In Türkiye, Cancer Early Diagnosis, Screening and Education Centers (CEDSTC) were
established in 2004 to provide training to raise awareness of cancer among citizens and to
provide free breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer screenings to the target population. CED-
STC, which had 1 1 centers when it was first established, had a total of 364 centers by the end
of 2022, 90 of which were independent, 230 of which were within Healthy Life Centers, and

129 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ
as mentioned in the behavioral economics literature. First, the mental shortcuts they use to
protect their health are defined. Then, a nudge suggestion is made by associating it with the
nudge technique. In T able 2, within the framework of anomalies and biases in behavioral eco-
nomics, nudge suggestions are made to encourage people to participate in cancer screening.
7. Conclusion
A sustainable program that incorporates behavioral economics ideas applied to health care
services could lead to changes through intelligently designed nudge policies. W ith this idea
in mind, the early detection and screening studies on cancer in Türkiye were analyzed. Then,
suggestions are made about nudge policies in behavioral development economics. People
have negative feelings and thoughts about cancer and tend to avoid cancer screening for eco-
nomic, social, and psychological reasons. Nudge policies designed based on descriptions of
how people think and behave are in T ables 1 and 2. It is important to reach the target group
directly and individually through messages, letters, and mobile transportation methods. The
tools must be created to ensure that screening invitations are sent via message and mail and
that a rejection form is received for those who do not want to be screened. The Ministry of
Health stated that mobile transportation services are implemented in certain regions. This
should be expanded throughout the country . Efforts should be made to ensure that individuals
who are on leave from their workplace on the day of the screening should have letters sent
to their homes to encourage participation in the screening on certain dates. In other words,
screening should be the default option. If people want to opt out of the system, they should
be asked to apply . In Türkiye, the opposite is the case, where people wait for months to apply
for screening and to get an appointment at hospitals. In cases where appointments cannot be
made, the screening is done by charging private examination fees at public hospitals. This
situation should be reversed through nudging ef forts. When the entire tar get population is
included for cancer screenings in Türkiye, the shortage of specialized physicians and techni-
cians becomes obvious. In addition, there is also a lack of technical equipment for tests and
screening. Therefore, it is essential to invest in this area to improve preventive and protective
healthcare services. The necessary infrastructure should be prepared for the implementation
of the nudge policies I propose in the field of health. For this reason, it is unlikely that they
can be implemented immediately across the country , but efforts should be made quickly to
implement them in regions with suf ficient physicians, technicians, and equipment.
When the website of the Ministry of Health was analyzed based on the studies in the liter -
ature, I think that the design of the website should be supported by professionals. It is among
our recommendations that new images of people representing and reassuring people living in

NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . .
130
Türkiye and screening videos should be added to the website. Explanations could be added to the
website allowing individuals to normalize the situation and assume the risk and responsibility
autonomously . Considering that not all individuals have access to the internet, television, etc.,
participation in cancer screening should be done with personalized nudging tools. T o better un -
derstand which incentives and nudging practices have a positive effect on the target audience,
and information about their emotional state could be obtained through a short survey on e-pulse,
and personalized nudge messages and letters could then be sent. Although this is thought to be
costly , the cost will decrease as people participate in the system. There is a need for more stud -
ies and implementation of policies on nudging in the field of health. It is important to include
specialized physicians, radiologists, and other health professionals among the policymakers as
architects in the design of the nudging system for cancer screening.
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T able 1. Nudge Exa m ples a nd Re co m m en d at ion s for P r event ive Ca nc e r Sc re e n i ng f or C og n itive Shor t c ut s i n B ehav ior a l E con om ics
Heuri st ics De scr ipti on Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) *
A nchor i ng I n ma ny ca se s , i nd ivid u a ls s et a
st ar t i ng p oi n t , i.e. a n a nc hor, i n
t hei r mi nd s befor e e st im a t i ng
a qu a ntit y a nd a dju s t t he i r
es t i mat io n a ro u n d t h i s a nc hor
(1) .
T he r e a so n s for s t a r t i n g sc r e e n i n g at
a n e a rly a ge sho u ld be n or ma l i z e d a nd
em ph a si z e d t o t he t ar get e d a ud ie n ce.
If t he ma m mog r a m r e s u lt is go o d , t h ey
may p e r ce ive t h i s a s a n a n chor a nd may no t
co me a ga i n , s o t he y sho u ld be r e m i nde d
why it is n e ce s s a r y for t he f ut u re (2 ).
It ca n b e re m em be r e d t h at c a n ce r c a n b e d ia g nose d no t on ly
at a n a d va n ce d a ge but a l so a t a you ng a ge o r eve n a s a ba by ,
so t h e i mp o r t a nc e of ea rl y d ia g n osi s c a n b e nor m al i z e d a n d
em ph a si z e d (2 ).
Affect I nd iv idu al s e val u at e o pt io n s
ac c or d i n g t o ba sic e mo t ion a l
re a c t ion s su ch a s goo d / ba d, li ke/
d isl i ke, an d ap p ro a ch / avoida nce
(3) .
St r on g po sit ive fe el i ng s ab ou t sc r e e n i n g
ca n b e evoke d . Ex p e ct at ion s of neg at ive
af fe c t s uch a s s ha me an d fea r ca n be
co u nt e r e d ( 4).
Posit ive em ot io na l a s p e ct s s u ch a s t he r el ief t he y w i l l feel
af te r t h e sc r e e n i n g, h av i ng i nfor m at io n ab ou t t hei r hea lt h ,
a nd t ak in g a ct io n for t h i s c a n b e em ph a si z e d . Re a so na ble
co u nt e r a r g u me nt s o r ways of co pi n g w it h ne ga t ive em ot io n s
su ch a s fe a r, sha m e, a n d pa i n c a n b e p rov ide d ( 4).
A v ail ab ility I nd iv idu al s som et im e s eval u at e
t he f r e q ue nc y or li keli h oo d of a n
even t ac c ord ing t o t he f r e q ue nc y
or e a se of re c a l l i ng si mi l a r
pa s t exp e r ienc e s a nd exa mples
rel at e d to t h at eve nt ( 1 ).
T he f re q ue nc y of po sit ive me s sa ge s
en c ou rag ing s c r e en in g w i l l e n su re t h at t h ey
st ick a nd com e t o m i n d i m med i at ely .
Ea s y-t o - u nde r st an d pe r s on a l st o r ie s ,
powe r f ul a nd viv id im a ge s t h at ap p e a l to
em ot io n s, a nd mem or a ble st i mul i c a n b e
u se d ( 4) .
W hen c om mu n ic at i ng ab out c a n ce r s c re e n i ng, st rong
em ot io n s ca n b e e voked by u si ng po sit ive a nd v iv id
la ng u age a nd me mor a ble p er son al s t or ies ( 4).
Repre se ntat ivenes s I n d iv id u a ls s om et i mes e va lu at e
t he p rob ab il it y or f req ue n cy of
a n eve nt ba s e d on h ow si m i la r
it is t o si m ila r exp e r ie n ce s a n d
a ss u mpt ion s t h ey h ave ha d i n
t he p a st ( 1 ).
Emp h a si z i n g t he si mi la r it ie s b et wee n t he
cha ra c t e r i st ics of scr e e ne r s s u ch a s ge nd e r,
et h n ic ide nt it y , e t c. a nd t h e p eo ple t o be
sc r e e ne d m ay c re at e b e hav io r al c ha nge ( 4) .
Sc r ee n in g ca n b e p re s e nt e d
to t he t a rg et e d au d ie nc e
for ca n c er s c r e en in g i n
a n ide nt if iable way a n d
re p r es e nt ative of t he m .
I nd icat e whe t he r wom en o r
me n a r e doi ng th e sc r e e n i n g,
a dd re ss t hem a c c ord ing ly i f
t he y have a d i f fe r en t et h n ic
ide nt it y a nd , i f p o ssi ble, h ave
pe o ple f r om t h e s a me e t h nic
g r ou p do t h e sc r e e n i n g ( 4).
P rov id i ng i m m igr a nts a n d
ref uge e s w it h t h e op t ion of
a he alt hca r e pr ofes sion a l or
physic ia n w ho s pe a ks t h ei r
la ng u age (2 ). ( s -f r a m e )
*s-f ra m e re c o m m e nd at ion s a re i n p a r e nt h e se s; a l l ot her s ar e i-f ra m e.
Sourc e: ( 1 ) ( T ve r sk y & Ka h ne m a n , 197 4); ( 2) cr e at e d by t he aut hor; (3 ) (Slovic , Fi nuc a n e, Pe t e r s , & Ma c G rego r, 20 02); ( 4) ( P u r n el l et a l ., 20 15)

135 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ
T able 2 . Ex a mples a n d Sug ges t ion s of Nudges for P r event ive Ca nc e r Sc re e n i ng f or S ome Cog nit ive Bias es a n d A n oma l ies i n Behav ior al E c onom ics
Biases and Ano ma l ies De scr ipt ion N udge De scr ipti on Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) *
Overconf idence People’ s s u bje ct ive con f ide nc e
i n t he i r a bi l it ie s is h ighe r t ha n
t hei r objec t ive p e r for m a nc e ( 1 ).
P re v iou s p o sit ive ex p er ien ce s of t he t ar get g rou p
may le a d t o over c on f id en c e i n t he i r t houg ht s
ab out t he po ssi bi l it y o f b ei ng il l (2 ).
T he y sho u ld b e g iven r e p e at e d i n fo r mat io n ab ou t
t he d i ag nosi s a nd p rog nosi s b e ca u se t hey a re n ot
awa r e of th ei r lack of k nowledge . T he y sho u ld be
re m i nde d of th e sc r e e n i n g d at e b e c au s e t he y m ay be
overc o n f ide nt t h at t hey w i ll n ot for get t h e d a te (2 ).
U nr ea lis tic Op timi sm It is t h e t e nde n cy t o b el ieve
t h at i n d iv id u a ls a re les s l i kely
to e xp e r ienc e ne ga t ive even t s
a nd mo r e li kely to ex p e r ie n ce
po sit ive eve nt s t h a n o t he r
pe o ple ( 3 ).
T he t ar get g rou p m ay be o pt i mi st ic th at t hey w i l l
not ge t ca nce r, but sc r e e n i ng m ay s how ot he r w i se
(4 ) .
I nd ivid u a l r i sk e s t i m a te s s u ch a s fa m ily h i st o r y ,
li fe st yle, a nd l iv ing e nv i ron ment c a n b e p rov id ed
a nd a n a p pr op r iat e ex pla n at ion ca n b e ma de ( 4).
Fr am in g Ef fe c t T he w ay choic e s a r e pr e se nt e d
de t er m i nes wh ich opt io n t he
t a r get a ud ienc e w i l l pr efe r ( 5).
Mes s age s c ou ld b e s e nt e mph a si z ing t hat
rou t i n e sc r e e n i n g de t e ct s ca nc e r ea rly pre vent s
de at h a nd shor t e n s t he d u r atio n of th e d i se a s e.
A n ot he r w ay of f r a m ing c ou ld b e t o d es ig n t h e
f r a mi ng que s t ion f rom b eh av ior al ec o nom ics for
sc r e e n i n g a nd s e nd it a s a me s s age: “ W ou ld you
r at h e r be 9 0 % su re t h at you d o not h ave ca n ce r o r
not b e ab solu t ely su re ? ” “ W ou ld you b e w i l l i ng t o
los e 30 yea r s o f you r li fe to avoid sp e nd in g ha l f a
d ay w it h l it tle or n o d is c om for t? ” ( 4) .
Fra m e t he b e nef it s of sc re e n ing r e s u lt s t h rou g h
me ss a ge s t o pr omo t e sc r e e n i n g ( 4).
L o s s Av e r s i o n I nd iv idu al s fe el t he p a i n of
los se s a l m os t t wic e a s muc h a s
t he ple a su re of t he s a me nu mbe r
of gai ns. T her efor e, t h ey p refe r
to avoid los s e s r at h e r t h a n
po te n t ia l ga i ns , even i f t h e va lue
a nd p rob ab il it y of bot h choic e s
a re t he sa me (6).
It is ne c e ss a r y t o d r aw a t te nt ion t o lo s se s s uch
a s well- s p e nt l i fe ac t iv it ies i f sc r e e n i n g is n ot
pe r for m e d a nd g ai ns s uch a s pea c e of m i n d if
sc r e e n i n g is p e r fo r med ( 4) .
Ex pla i n t h e be n ef its of
sc r e e n i n g. Emp ha siz e
t he lo ss of he a lt hy l i fe
ex pe c t a ncy i f t he y a r e
not s c re e ne d (2 ).
I n c a se s wh e re a
sc r e e n i n g ap p oi nt ment
ca n not b e ma de, a pa id
e xamina tio n/ scr eenin g
opt ion is ava i la ble.
However, th i s p r a ct ice
shou ld b e d on e away
w it h , a nd t he sys t e m
shou ld b e d e sig n e d to
alw ays p rov id e f r e e
exa mi nat io n for e a rly
d ia g n osi s (2 ). ( s -f ra me )
v

NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . .
136
T able 2 . C ont i nued
Biases and Ano ma l ies De scr i pt ion Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) *
Pr e se nt bi a s It is t he t e nd en cy t o b e
co nt e nt w it h a s m al l
re wa r d i n t h e pr e se nt
r at h e r t h a n loo k i ng
for wa rd t o a la rger
re wa r d i n t h e f ut u re
(7 ).
People m ay not u nde r s t a n d t he h a r m of
not ge t t in g sc r e e ne d . P r ovid ing cle a r
i n st r uct ions c a n help. D e spit e t h is,
som et im e s pe o ple may r e a ct by d oi n g t he
op p osit e of wh at t h ey a r e a d v is e d. I n th is
ca s e, r e m i n d i n g t he m t h at t hey have a s ay
i n t he i r b eh av io r a nd t h a t t he y ca n m a ke
a choic e ca n i ncr e a se t hei r c om mit me nt
to t he hea lt h s ys t e m a nd r e du c e t hei r
re a c t ion s (2 ).
It is ap p ro pr iat e t o ex pla i n t o t h e t a r ge t g r ou p t he p o sit ive
co nt r ibu t ion of t he d e ci sion t o b e sc r e e ne d t o t he i r h ea lt h i n th e
pr e se nt (2 ).
Ster e oty ping Bias It o c cu rs w he n
i nd iv idu al s u s e so c ia l
cat e gor ies ( e.g. r a c e/
et h n icit y an d ge nd e r )
to a c q u i r e, m e nt a l ly
pr oc e s s, a nd re me mb e r
in for m at ion about
ot he r s (8 ).
Physici a n s m ay h ave pr ec o nc e pt io n s
of bei n g le ss w il l i ng t o i n t er act w ith
m i n or it y g r ou p s. Peo ple f r om d i f fe r e nt
et h n ic g r ou ps /r a c e or g en de r m ay h ave
be e n p re v iou sly ev al u at e d d i f fe r e ntly by
physic ia n s (9 ).
It is re c om me nd ed t o c r e at e
i nclu sive a n d u n de r s t a n d a ble
me ss a ge s for p e ople of
d if fere nt e t h n ic g r ou ps /r a c e s or
ge nde r s (2 ).
Ap pr op r iat e re p r e se nt at ion s a nd
ex pla n at ions t h a t i m mig ra nt s,
ref uge e s, a nd pe ople of d i f fe re nt
et h n ic g r ou ps /r a c e s or ge n de r s
ca n u nde r s t a n d ca n b e a d d ed t o
t he i m a ge s on t h e web sit e (2 ).
(s - f r a m e)
St at us quo bi as I n d iv id u a ls c o nt i n ue t o
ma i n t a i n t h ei r cu r re nt
sit uat ion or do n ot t a ke
a ny a ct ion to ch a n ge
t hei r cu r r en t sit uat ion
(10) .
Som e pe o ple ig no r e or t ole r at e so me
sy mpt om s of il l nes s u nti l t h ey b e c ome
se r ious a n d pa i nf ul , so it m ay b e ne c e ss a r y
to p r ovid e t he m w ith i n ce nt ives to c a r e for
t he m s elves (2 ).
Go t o t h e loc at ions of t he t ar get
g r ou p w it h mo bile s c r e en in g
veh icles o r i nv it e t hem t o t he
rele va nt lo c at io n a nd p rov id e
i n for ma t ion a nd re m i nde r s v ia
let te r, em ai l , or t e xt a b out how
long t h e sc r e e n i ng vehicle s
w i ll b e t h e re. O f fe r au t om at ic
en rol l me n t i n t he s c r e en in g
sy st e m , i.e. a s a def au lt o pt io n.
If t hey wa nt t o o pt ou t of
sc r e e n i n g, t he y ca n f i l l i n a
for m. T he y ca n be a ske d for
t hei r prefe r re d s c re e n i ng d at e
t h roug h appl ica t ion s (2 ).
I nves t ment s hou ld b e m a d e to
develo p d r ug s or v a cc i n es t o c u re
c a n c e r.
Scie nt ist s a n d su rge on s s hou ld b e
t r a i ned i n t hi s f ield.
T o p r even t ca n ce r, i nc e nt ive s
shou ld b e p rov id e d to p r od u ce
he alt hy f o o d ( fo o d s w it h a d d it ive s
shou ld a lway s b e i n s p e ct e d).
Env i ron ment al fa c to r s t h at c au se
ca n ce r s hou ld b e b a n ned (2 ).
(s - f r a m e)

137 Hatime KAMİLÇELEBİ
T able 2 . C ont i nued
Biases and Ano ma l ies Des cr ipt i on Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) *
Ost r ich bias It is a cog n it ive
bia s t h at s t a t e s t h at
pe o ple avoid or reje c t
neg at ive i n f o r mat ion
whe n mo n it or i ng
t hei r cu r r en t sit uat ion
( 11) .
Som et ime s p e o ple close t h ei r mi n d s t o p os si ble
me d ic al p ro blem s t o avoid em ot io na l p ai n. Ev e n wh e n
i nd iv idu al s sh ow sig n s of ca n ce r, t hey m ay ig nore it .
T h i s is w hy ma ny ser iou s but p r even t a ble co nd it io n s ,
su ch a s b re a s t ca n c e r, ar e of t e n d ia g n os e d at a mu ch
lat e r a nd more s eve r e st age be c au s e p e ople do n ot
pr ior it i ze ex a m i n a t ion s a nd sc re e n i ng for t hei r hea lt h .
Bei ng awa re of os t r ich ef fe c t s ca n l ea d t o e a rl ie r
d is e a se d et e c t io n a nd c a n eve n pr e vent a c on d it io n
f r om ge t ti ng wors e. Peo ple avoid mon it or in g, m a k in g
it d if f ic u lt t o t a ke act ion a nd f i nd t h e mo st a p pr op r i at e
way t o do s o (2 ).
Emp h a si z e t he i r r eleva nce of
st ate me nt s such a s “ ig nor a nc e i s
bli s s” . Em ph a si z e p e ople’ s d e si r e
for sel f-p ro t ec t io n a nd s el f-
i mp r oveme nt . En s u re t ha t t he y
co nt i n ue a l l p osit iv e a n d neg at iv e
follow-up s rel at e d t o s c re e n i ng.
Ex pla i n t h e po sit ive a s p e ct s of
hav i ng f u l l i nfor ma t ion a b out t hei r
he alt h ( 2 ).
Opt- i n a nd opt- out O pt-in r e q u i r e s a
pe r s on t o a c t ively
ag re e to p a r t ici pa te ,
whe r e a s opt- out
a ss u mes t h at a p e r s on
pa r t ici pa t es u n le ss
t he y ref us e ( 12 ).
Set t i ng def au lt op t ion s h a s be e n show n t o i nc r ea se
en ga ge me nt i n ca nce r di ag nos t ic i m ag ing ( 12 ). Defa u lt
opt ions a r e offe re d ( 1 3 ). Autom a t ic i nclu sio n i n th e
sc r e e n i n g sys t em , wa it i ng f o r an ap pl ic at io n to opt ou t
of t he syst e m .
Of fe r it a s t h e def au lt o pt io n , i.e. aut o e n rolle d i n the
sc r e e n i n g sy st e m . Sc r ee n in g is of fe re d “on d em a nd” ,
w it h a r ef u sal for m if t hey w is h t o opt o ut of sc r e e n i n g
(2) .
Om is si on bias It is t h e t e nde n cy
to c ho os e t he b a d
co n se q ue n ce s of
i n a ct ion ra t he r t h a n
cho osi ng ac t io n ( 1 4) .
Def au lt o pt io n s a r e offe r e d ( 13 ). Aut om at ic i nclus ion
i n t he s c r e en in g sy st e m , wa it i ng for a n ap pl ica t ion t o
opt- out ( 2) .
Projec t ion bia s It refe r s t o t he
te n de n cy of
i nd iv idu al s t o
er ro ne ou s ly a s s u m e
t h at t he i r p r efer e nc e s
w i ll r e m a i n t he s a m e
i n t he f ut u re ( 15).
Co n se nt c a n b e obt ai ne d by i nfor m i n g i nd ivid u a ls .
T he d efa u lt op t ion s hou ld b e de sig ned t o e n s u re
t h at i n d iv id u a ls a re f u l ly aw a r e of th e po t e nt ia l
co n se q ue n ce s of t hei r hea lt h -r ela t e d de ci sion s ( 1 5).
I nd ivid u a ls c a n b e pr e se n te d w it h a na r r at ive t h at
i nclu de s t h e sho r t- an d long- t er m e mot ions of pe o ple
w it h si m ila r e xp e r ien ce s i n t he pa st . A d efau lt o pt ion
ca n b e p re s e nt e d t h at p rov id es i nfor m at io n ab out t he
de ci sion s of t he s e a no ny mou s pe o ple w it h ex p e r ie n ce
(15 ) .

NUDGING IN BEHA VIORAL DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS: AN EV ALUA TION OF PREVENTIVE HEAL TH. . .
138
T able 2 . C ont i nued
Biases and Ano ma l ies Des cr ipt i on Nudge Descr i pt ion Nudge Re c om me nd at i on ( i - fr a me an d s - fr a me) *
Peak a nd En d Ru le P e o ple te n d t o
re me m be r t h ei r
ex pe r ien ce s l a rgely
ac c or d i n g t o how
t he y felt at t he p e a k
a nd a t t he e nd , rat her
t h a n a cc o rd i ng to t h e
su m or aver a ge of
ea ch m om e nt of th e
ex pe r ien ce ( 1 6 ).
If t hey have c a nc e r, the y m ay re m em be r t he pe a k
mom e nt s of th e eve nt ; if n ot , t he y m ay re m em be r t hat
t he m a m mog r a m w a s a bit pa i n f u l (2 ).
A lt ho ug h s c r e en in g may c au se shor t-t e r m pa i n , it c a n b e
em ph a si z e d t h at it i s ne c e ss a r y for a he a lt hy l i fe i n t he
f u t u re (2 ).
Le a r ne d he lp le s sn e ss
bel ief
T he b el ief t h at o ne
ha s l it tle c ont rol
over a sit ua t ion a nd
t h at no a c t io n ca n
i mp r ove or cha n ge
t he ou t co me ( 1 7 ).
I n t h i s c a se , t he p e r ce p t ion t hat t h e pr og r e s sion of a
d is e a se i s b eyond o ne’ s con t r ol may le a d t o a l a ck of
co mpl ia n c e w it h ap p ro pr iat e mo n it o r i ng or t r e at me nt
(2) .
I nd ivid u a ls c a n b e g iven l et te r s e mp ha siz i n g t h at
d is e a se s a r e c ont roll able a n d t h at t he y sho u ld t a ke c ont rol
of th ei r l ive s. E xp e r t su p po r t ca n b e pr ov ide d , a nd
sc r e e n i n g ca n b e m a d e t he d efau lt o pt ion ( 2 ).
So ci a l i dent it y bia s People a c t ba s e d
on g roup id e nt it ie s .
It is t he t e nd e nc y
to s e e t he m s elves
i n a g roup a m ong
ot he r s w ith si m ila r
cha ra c t e r i st ics ( 1 8) .
T h i s se n s e of belon g i n g or not b elo ng i n g t o a g r ou p
may i nf lu e nc e pa t ie nt s’ de ci sion s t o se e k or a c c e pt
me d ic al c a r e ( 1 9 ).
Ex pla n at o r y let t e r s a nd me ss ag es c a n b e s en t t o mobi l i z e
d if fere nt e t h n ic/soc ia l g r ou ps l iv ing i n th e co u nt r y ,
m ig r a nts , et c. i n a way th a t t he y w i l l u nd e r s t a n d (2 ).
So ci a l / c u lt u r a l norm Peo ple w i l l obs e r ve
wh at mo st of t ho se
i n t he i r p e e r g roup
a re d oi n g a nd i m ita t e
t hei r beh av ior (20) .
L ow-in co me a d u lt s w i l l b e le ss l i kely to be s c r e en e d
if t hey do no t k now abou t ca nce r i f t he y k now th at
ot he r s i n sim ila r in co me g roup s do n ot s c re e n for
ca n ce r, or i f t he y do no t k now anyon e who h a s b e e n
sc r e e ne d (2 ).
W hen p e ople t h ey t r u s t , s uch a s h e alt h w o rke r s a n d
physic ia n s , i n s t r u c t t he m t o t a ke act ion, t h ey u s u a l ly
li s t en . P r ov ide e v ide n ce a b out s o cia l no r ms o r st or ies
f r om si mi l a r p e ople sc r e e ne d (2 ).

S UST AINABLE
D EVELOPMENT
G OAL

CHAPTER 9
A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE
Özlem YORULMAZ 1
1 Assoc. Prof. Dr ., İstanbul University , Faculty of Economics, Department of Econometrics, İstanbul, Türkiye
E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0003-1029-5749
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.009
Abstract
One of the most basic human needs is access to clean water and sanitation. The availability of adequate drinking
water is essential for societies’ health, economic development, and social welfare. However , decreasing water
resources due to urbanization, pollution, climate change, and insufficient investment in this regard threaten water
resources. For this reason, the water issue has been moved to the top of the world agenda and became part of the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6) in 2015. The EIA (2020) report highlights that the most critical
environmental problem in Türkiye is water pollution. In this chapter , access to clean water and sanitation in Türkiye
between 2000-2020 was evaluated with Boxplots compared to OECD countries. In the next stage, the relationship
between SDG 6 and poverty , education, health, and gender inequality indicators for OECD countries was
investigated. Based on these indicators, OECD countries were divided into clusters, and it was investigated whether
there was a difference between these clusters in terms of SDG 6.
Keywords: Cluster Analysis, Kruskal W alis T est, SGD 6, W ater and Sanitation
PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF
TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC

A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE
244
1. Intr oduction
Although the growth rate of the world population has slowed down compared to previous
decades, it continues to increase. As a result of this situation, societies face many problems,
such as poverty , famine, health problems, climate crises, and decreasing biodiversity . T o
overcome these problems and to live in a cleaner , more equitable, more prosperous, more
peaceful, and better environment, United Nations Member States agreed on 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 as a universal call to action. SDGs, aimed to be achieved
by 2030, are based on ending poverty and hunger , strengthening healthy and prosperous
societies and women, ending climate change, decreasing biodiversity , and increasing envi-
ronmental pollution.
At the point of realizing these goals, global solidarity is very important, as well as the
ef forts of citizens and governments. Policymakers and academics have adopted the 2030
Sustainable Development Goals in order to realize the concepts of “equality , efficiency , and
sustainability” (Ghosh, Bhowmick & Saha, 2020). All SDGs are built on optimizing hu-
man-human and human-nature interactions and their interconnections (Ghosh, Bhowmick &
Saha, 2020); access to education, employment opportunities, health services, access to food,
drinking water , and sanitation are prominent parameters in the development of countries
(Oswald, 1997; Sen, 2000). On the other hand, there is a positive and significant correla-
tion between public spending and the achievement of SDG targets (Sachs et al.,2022). The
correlation between government spending and the SDG Index score is relatively stronger in
low-income countries (Sachs et al., 2022).
The recent Covid-19 epidemic, natural disasters, armed conflict, and wars have cost many
lives. These difficulties have negatively affected almost every aspect of human life, from
health to livelihoods, food security , job loss, human rights, and gender equality (ESCAP ,
2021). For this reason, years of progress in ending poverty , access to food, safe water and
sanitation, and access to energy have slowed down (UN, 2023). The world is behind the
tar gets set for 2030 as these crises affect many intertwined environmental, economic, and
social events (UN, 2023). The SDG index score average has fallen over the past two years
as Covid 19, war , and natural disasters have delayed the recovery of poor countries (Sachs et
al.,2022). Furthermore, the projections made by the researchers for the coming periods will
be that the ef fects of climate change will be more serious than the previous forecasts (Kikstra
et al., 2022), the expected way to reduce poverty will not be taken (Si et al. 2020), and the
water scarcity problem will deepen (He et al., 2021).

245 Özlem YORULMAZ
The sixth of the 17 SDG tar gets, prominent for developing societies, relates to vital water
and sanitation. SDG 6 is about “Ensuring the availability and sustainable management of
water and sanitation for all” (Assembly , 2015). SDG 6 has an important relationship with
natural, social, and physical capital (Ghosh, Bhowmick & Saha, 2020). W ater resources and
sanitation are closely related to other development issues such as food hygiene, health, agri-
culture, industrial growth, ener gy production, and ecosystem (UN, 2018). As a result of cli-
mate change, reasons such as increasing temperatures, increasing population, desertification,
urbanization, and pollution cause water-related problems to expand. Inadequate water supply
and unsafe sanitation cause serious health problems. There is a strong relationship between
water , sanitation, and public health (Roy and Pramanick, 2019). For example, it is important
to improve water and sanitation to solve cases such as diarrhea, ascariasis, cholera, scabies,
trachoma, and amebiasis encountered in poor countries (Bartram and Cairncross, 2010). In
the long run, increased access to food due to water and sanitation improvement will result in
better educational performance and an improved labor market (Paunio and Acharya, 2008).
SDG 6 and other Sustainable Development Goals are related; improvement in one posi-
tively af fects other sustainability goals. Access to safe water and improved sanitation af fects
these goals: eradicating poverty (SDG 1), ending hunger with enhanced nutrition (SDG 2),
promoting wellness (SDG 3), quality education (SDG 4), gender equality (SDG 5), cities of
inclusion (SDG 1 1), underwater life (SDG 14), and terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15) (Bharat,
Dkhar and Abraham, 2020). In this sense, realizing SDG 6 targets will also improve other
SDG indicators. In this sense, it is important to actualize the SDG 6 targets, as they are both
vital and pave the way for realizing other sustainability goals.
In the past 20 years, the proportion of the world population using safely managed drinking
water has increased from 62% to 74%, and similarly , recovery has been observed to access
safe sanitation. However , today , 2.2 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water ,
and 3.4 billion people do not have access to safe sanitation (UN, 2023). These numbers show
that there is still a long way to go to reach the 2030 targets. Additionally , it is predicted that
one out of every four people will experience water scarcity in 2050 (SUEV , 2020).
There are six SDG 6 goals planned to be achieved by 2030. These are as follows (UN, 2018):
“Safe and affor dable drinking water; end open defecation and pr ovide access to sanitation
and hygiene; impr ove water quality , wastewater tr eatment and safe r euse; incr ease water use
efficiency and secur e fr eshwater r esour ces; implement integrated water r esour ces management;
pr otect and r estor e aquatic ecosystems.”

A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE
246
Some of the indicators used to measure these six targets are as follows: “Proportion of
population using safely managed drinking water services”, “Proportion of the population us-
ing safely managed sanitation services”, “Proportion of safely treated domestic and industrial
wastewater streams”, “W ater stress indicator: freshwater as a proportion of available fresh-
water resources gravity”, “Proportion of transboundary catchment area with an operational
arrangement for water cooperation” and “Change in the extent of water -related ecosystems
over time”.
The water stress indicator , one of the targets used in the measurement of SDG 6, has se-
rious negative effects on human life and livelihoods (WRI, 2023). W ater stress is “extremely
high” in 17 countries that comprise a quarter of the world’ s population. On the other hand,
Türkiye’ s water stress level is defined as the “high baseline” and ranks 32
nd
among 164 coun-
tries (WRI, 2023).
This chapter aims to examine in detail the issue of access to safe water and sanitation in
Türkiye. For this purpose, the development of Türkiye in the last 20 years according to SDG
6 indicators, the comparison of this development process with other OECD countries, the
relationship between SDG 6 and other sustainability tar gets, the determination of dif ferent
OECD country groups in terms of SDG 6 indicators, and recommendations are included.
2. SDG 6 and Türkiye
Türkiye is a country that does not have rich water resources, and it is estimated that the
amount of water per capita will decrease by 32% in 2030 compared to the previous decade
due to increasing population, urbanization, and drought (EIA, 2020). Ranking 72 out of 166
countries in the SDG 2023 report, it has been stated that Türkiye has a moderately improving
trend in SDG 6 and still faces significant challenges.
According to the EIA 2020 report, water pollution, the prior environmental problem in
27 of the 81 provinces in Türkiye, the second priority in 30, and the third priority environ-
mental problem in 16, stands out as an important ecological problem in 73 provinces in total.
According to this report, 26% of surface water resources contain high-quality water , 18%
slightly polluted water , 21% contaminated water , and 35% heavily polluted water , while 69%
of groundwater resources are of good quality and 31% are of poor quality . Domestic wastes,
agricultural wastes, and industrial wastes are shown as the most important causes of pollution
of water resources and seas, respectively . It is stated that the most important cause of domestic
wastewater -sourced pollution is the insufficient sewerage network in the provincial centers
and the lack of treatment in the districts. In addition, according to the survey results of the

247 Özlem YORULMAZ
EIA 2020 report, the difficulties encountered in the prevention of water pollution are, in order
of importance, treatment plants that could not be established due to financial impossibilities,
lack of awareness, insuf ficient inspection, and legal deficiencies.
Although the amount of water used per capita in Türkiye is lower than 20 years ago, the
amount of wastewater produced increased in this process. On the left side of the panel in
Figure 1 is a graph of the amount of water withdrawn by the municipalities and the amount of
wastewater discharged (per capita, liter). Graphs are based on T urkStat statistics for the years
1995-2020. It is observed that wastewater has an increasing trend until 2012, and after 2015,
it follows a partially horizontal course. While the amount of wastewater withdrawn was 126
liters per person in 1995, it increased to 189 liters in 2020. While the amount of sewage per
capita is 189 liters in Türkiye in 2020, it is 1 17 liters in Germany , an OECD country . When
the amount of water used per capita in Türkiye is analyzed, an increasing trend is observed
between 1995-2000. It followed a decreasing trend after 2005 and reached its lowest level in
2015. After 2015, it entered an increasing trend. The amount of water distributed from munic-
ipalities in 2020 is 228 liters per person. In response to this, the amount of water consumed
per capita is 125 liters in Germany and 101 liters in Denmark (Statista, 2020).
The number of drinking water and wastewater treatment plants increased rapidly in Tür-
kiye, which can be seen in the right part of Figure 1 panel. W ith the increase in the number
of plants, an increase has been observed in the ratio of those who receive safe drinking water
and sanitation services to the total population (TURKST A T , 2020).
W ith the increasing population in Türkiye, there has been an increase in the total amount
of water drawn by the municipalities from year to year . However , as seen in Figure 2, there
was a break in the total amount of water withdrawn in 2005. W ith the decrease in the total
amount of water withdrawn per capita (Figure 1), there has been a change in the slope. In
2020, municipalities drew 6.5 billion m3 of water from water sources to drinking and utility
water networks. 40.9% of the withdrawn water was obtained from dams, 29.3% from wells,
15.6% from springs, 10.1% from rivers, and 4% from lakes, ponds, or seas (TURKST A T ,
2020).
Similarly , the total amount of wastewater drawn by municipalities has increased in parallel
with the increase in population (Figure 3). 4.4 billion m3 of 5 billion m3 of sewage discharged
from the sewerage network by municipalities in 2020 was treated in wastewater treatment
plants. Advanced treatment was applied to 50.7%, biological treatment to 27.1%, physical
treatment to 21.9%, and natural treatment to 0.3% of the treated wastewater . Of the treated

A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE
248
wastewater , 46.4% goes to the river , 42.8% to the sea, 3% to the dam, 1.2% to the lake pond,
0.3% to the land, and 6.2% to other receivers discharged into the environment. 1.6% of this
treated wastewater is used for industry , agricultural irrigation, etc. It was determined that it
was reused in some areas (TURKST A T , 2020).
Figure 1. The amount of water withdrawn by the municipalities and the amount of wastewater
discharged (Left side). Number of drinking water treatment plants and the number of wastewater
treatment plants (Right side).

249 Özlem YORULMAZ
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Total
60000 65000 70000 75000 80000 85000
Population
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Years
Population Total
Population & Total Water abstraction for municipal water supply network
Figure 2. T otal water abstraction for municipal water supply network

A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE
250
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Total
60000 65000 70000 75000 80000 85000
Population
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Years
Population Total
Total amount of wastewater discharged from municipal sewerage
Figure 3. T otal amount of wastewater discharged from municipal sewerage
Although Türkiye’ s SDG index score has been on an increasing trend in the last 20 years
(66.1 in 2000, 66.8 in 2005, 69.26 in 2010, 69.53 in 2015, and 70.6 in 2020), it ranks 36th in
the group of 38 OECD countries, below the OECD average.
Considering the “Proportion of the population using safely managed water services,”
“Proportion of the population using safely managed sanitation services,” and “Proportion
of the population using at least basic drinking water services, when the changes in OECD
countries between 2000-2020 are examined, it is seen that Türkiye stands out as an outlier
(Figure 4 & 5).
Since there is no “Proportion of the population using safely managed water services” data
for Türkiye, “Proportion of the population using unimproved drinking water sources” statistics
are considered. The boxplots in Figure 4 and Figure 5 provide information about the average
scores and variability (development process) of the 20-year SDG6 indicators of the countries.
All the average scores are based on the median, resistant to outliers. Figures 4 & 5 only cover
the 19 oldest OECD countries.

257 Özlem YORULMAZ
Ta b l e 2 . Pa i r w is e C omp a r ion s of clus te r s ( Dw a ss - St e el- Cr it ch low-F l ig n e r )
a . sa fel y ma na ge d s an ita t i on s er v ic e s b. a t least basic sanitat ion ser v ices
Clust er s W p Clust er s W p
1 2 -1 .16 0.6 89 1 2 -1. 6 6 0.4 6 8
1 3 - 4.25 0.0 08 1 3 -3 . 2 8 0.05 3
2 3 -3. 8 0 0.020 2 3 -1. 4 0 0. 583
c . at le a st ba s ic wa te r se r v ice s d. s a fel y ma na ge d wat er s er v ic e s
Clust er s W p Clust er s W p
1 2 -3 .7 1 0.0 24 1 2 - 4.4 8 0.0 0 4
1 3 -3. 9 6 0.01 4 1 3 -3. 9 0 0.0 1 6
2 3 -1. 8 0 0 . 411 2 3 -3 . 59 0.03 0
The relationship between SDG 6 and other sustainability goals (education, health, poverty ,
and gender equality) mentioned in the literature has also been confirmed for OECD countries.
In particular , the strong relationship between gender inequality and SDG 6 components stands
out. On the other hand, we cannot say that all OECD countries have the same standards in
terms of SDG 6 components (except for “at least basic sanitation services”).
4. Conclusions and Recommendations
W ater and sanitation are not only essential for human survival but are also necessary to
support other sustainable development goals. Reasons such as increasing population, changing
climatic conditions, wrong policies, and pollution cause a decrease in water resources. SDG
6, adopted by the member states of the United Nations, aims to improve safe drinking water
and sanitation by 2030 and to make them accessible to all.
Türkiye does not have rich water resources; according to the projections, the amount of
water per capita in 2030 will decrease by 32% compared to the previous decade (EIA, 2020).
The daily per capita water and wastewater amounts are higher in Europe than in many coun-
tries with low water stress levels. Indiscriminate and excessive use of water resources causes
natural resources to face depletion. The importance of the SDG goals for national develop-
ment should often be stressed.
Indicators used to evaluate SDG 6 have improved for Türkiye in the last 20 years, and
progress has been made. However , these indicators are still below OECD countries. The study
found significant relationships between SDG 6 indicators of OECD countries and GNI, edu-
cation, health, and gender inequality indicators. This finding is consistent with the literature.
The strongest relationship is between gender inequality and SDG 6 indicators. When SDG 6
and GNI, education, health, and gender inequality variables are taken into account, it is seen

A DET AILED ANAL YSIS OF SDG 6 AND TÜRKİYE
258
that OECD countries are grouped into 3 clusters. When these country groups were evaluated
in terms of SDG 6 indicators, it was seen that they had statistically dif ferent averages.
While 33% of water resources in Europe are used for irrigation purposes, this rate is 73%
in Türkiye (TURKST A T , 2020). T reated water is widely used for irrigation worldwide, and
wastewater recovery activities are common. However , 1.7% of the total wastewater is reused
in Türkiye. According to the EIA 2020 report, water pollution is one of the most important
problems in Türkiye’ s provinces. Domestic wastewater is one of the most important causes
of water pollution. There needs to be more treatment facilities for domestic wastewater for
recovery (EIA, 2020).
In Türkiye, there is a problem with excessive use of natural resources, wastes arising from
unplanned and rapid industrialization and urbanization, and water treatment plants with low
capacity (ÇED, 2020). The increase in treatment facilities will help improve SDG 6 indicators
for Türkiye. The consequences of water and sanitation on the quality of life associated with
better health systems and poverty reduction should be measured and evaluated by policymak -
ers and NGOs. Campaigns and information meetings should be organized to share the results
of these evaluations.
Preventing pollution is important for water resources because working on contaminated
resources will be more dif ficult. Therefore, it is important to support awareness-raising and
behavior change campaigns by stakeholders such as educational institutions and the media on
wise water use, the separation of household waste, the problems caused by water pollution,
the importance of SDG 6 goals, and their relationship with other sustainability goals. On the
other hand, farmers should be informed about efficient water use, and investments should be
made in modernizing irrigation infrastructures and using treated wastewater . Legal arrange-
ments should be made regarding the optimal use of water and wastewater recycling policies.
Refer ences
Assembly , G. (2015). Sustainable development goals. SDGs T ransform Our W orld , 2030 , 6-28.
Bartram, J., & Cairncross, S. (2010). Hygiene, sanitation, and water: for gotten foundations of health. PLoS
medicine , 7 (1 1), e1000367.
EIA report, 2020. Ç evresel Etki Değerlendirme Raporu, Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı. https://ced.csb.gov .tr/
turkiye-cevre-sorunlari-ve-oncelikleri-raporu-i-82679 .
ESCAP , U. (2021). Responding to the COVID-19 pandemic leaving no country behind.
Ghosh, N., Bhowmick, S., & Saha, R. (2020). Clean W ater and Sanitation: India’ s Present and Future Prospe-
cts. Sustainable Development Goals: An Indian Perspective , 95-105.

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He, C., Liu, Z., W u, J., Pan, X., Fang, Z., Li, J., & Bryan, B. A. (2021). Future global urban water scarcity and
potential solutions. Natur e Communications , 12 (1), 4667.
Kikstra, J. S., Nicholls, Z. R., Smith, C. J., Lewis, J., Lamboll, R. D., Byers, E., ... & Riahi, K. (2022). The
IPCC Sixth Assessment Report WGIII climate assessment of mitigation pathways: from emissions to global
temperatures. Geoscientific Model Development , 15 (24), 9075-9109.
Oswald, A. J. (1997). Happiness and economic performance. The Economic Journal , 107 (445), 1815-1831.
Paunio, M. & Acharya, A., 2008. Envir onmental Health and Child Survival: Epidemiology , Economics, Expe -
riences . Environment and Department, The W orld Bank, W ashington.
Roy , A., & Pramanick, K. (2019). Analysing progress of sustainable development goal 6 in India: Past, present,
and future. Journal of Envir onmental Management , 232 , 1049-1065.
Sachs, J., Kroll, C., Lafortune, G., Fuller , G., & W oelm, F . (2022). Sustainable Development Report 2022 .
Cambridge University Press.
Sen, A. (2000). A decade of human development. Journal of Human Development , 1 (1), 17-23.
Si, S., Ahlstrom, D., W ei, J., & Cullen, J. (2020). Business, entrepreneurship and innovation toward poverty
reduction. Entr epr eneurship & Regional Development , 32 (1-2), 1-20.
Statista, 2020. Retrieved from https://www .statista.com/statistics/802200/daily-per-capita-water -consumpti-
on-in-germany/
TURKST A T , 2020. Retrieved from https://data.tuik.gov .tr/Bulten/Index?p=W ater-and-W astewater-Statisti -
cs-2020-37197&dil=2 .
UN, 2018. SDG Report 2018. Retrieved from https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/files/report/2018/thesustainabledeve-
lopmentgoalsreport2018-en.pdf
UN, 2023. Advance, unedited 2023 Global Sustainable Development Report https://sdgs.un.org/gsdr/gsdr2023
WDI, 2020. W orld Development Indicators. Retrieved from https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-de-
velopment-indicators
W orld Resources Institute (WRI) (2023) Aqueduct tools, WRI Aqueduct.

S UST AINABLE
D EVELOPMENT
G OAL

CHAPTER 10
RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE
AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO
IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Damla ÖZEKAN 1
1 Asst. Prof. Dr ., Y editepe University , Faculty of Economy and Administrative Sciences,
E-Commerce and Management Department, İstanbul, Türkiye
E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-9952-129X
DOI: 10.26650/B/SS10.2024.013.010
Abstract
Development does not only depend on the quantitative increase of the goods and services produced but also defines
a development that should have social aspects and environmental protection bases and results, which means sustainable
development. The widespread use of “sustainable development” as a technical concept started with the adoption of the
“Our Common Future” Report published by the W orld Commission on Environmental Development in 1987 by the
United Nations (UN). In the UN General Assembly convened in September 2000, it was accepted that the strengthening
of the principles of human dignity , equality , and well-being at the global level is the common responsibility of the
world’ s societies, and the Millennium Declaration was announced in consensus on ensuring improvement in economic,
environmental and social conditions in the world by 2015. Eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were
determined to implement these principles. At the UN’ s Sustainable Development Summit convened in September
2015, the 15-year performance of the MDGs adopted in 2000 was evaluated on a global scale, and it was announced
that the performance put forward in terms of achieving these goals is far from bringing the expected solutions to the
economic, social and environmental problems our world is facing. At the summit, it was emphasized that in light of the
experiences gained from the sustainable development process initiated with the MDGs, there is a necessity to determine
inclusive sustainable development goals that would bring solutions to the current problems of our world. In this
direction, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs 2030), which were accepted with the signatures of 193
member countries, including Türkiye, consist of 17 basic objectives and 169 related targets. This new global agenda
envisages shaping the development plans and policies of countries with an understanding that emphasizes the principle
of human rights for all by 2030. The concept of sustainable development entered Türkiye’ s agenda with the 1992 Rio
Conference and was included in the 6 th Five-Y ear Development Plan, and this concept has continued to maintain its
importance until today . In terms of Türkiye’ s reserves and capacity compared to non-renewable energy sources, the
potential for renewable energy sources is high. In this study , within the scope of Affordable and Clean Energy , which is
the 7 th Goal of the SDGs; firstly , a general analysis of Türkiye’ s renewable energy resources has been made, and the
current situation of renewable energy in terms of both potential and production has been revealed mostly focusing on
biomass, solar and wind energy . Then, the development of af fordable and clean ener gy with respect to time has been
evaluated, and policy proposals for increasing energy ef ficiency have been discussed.
Keywords: Sustainable development goals, renewable ener gy , ener gy ef ficiency , sustainable development,
clean energy , Türkiye
PURSUING SUST AINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS THE PERFORMANCE OF
TÜRKİYE IN THE CENTENNIAL OF THE REPUBLIC

RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. ..
264
1. Intr oduction
As a result of the industrial revolution, the shift towards non-renewable energy sources
has replaced the previous reliance on mechanical energy-based production methods.There is
concern about the long-term sustainability of the energy-intensive lifestyle in industrialized
regions in all countries. Additionally , considering available resources, there are doubts about
the Earth’ s ability to sustain the same level of development for the majority of the human
population. These concerns stem from the pressures of continued population growth and high
per capita energy use on a planet with limited resources and waste capacity (Bent, Baker &
Orr , 2002).
Ener gy has always been a political element from history to the present. Significantly , the
oil crisis in the 1970s made ener gy and politics inseparable. The reason for this is primarily
because energy is a strategic element. Countries with high energy reserves are countries with
strategic superiority . In addition, shortages and cutbacks in the ener gy sector are experienced
at the economic, social, and political levels.
The concept of sustainability first came to the fore in 1977 in Dennis Pirages’ book “Sus-
tainable Society”. This was followed by Dennis Hayes’ book “Repairs, Reuse, Recycling:
First Steps T owards Sustainable Society” published in 1978. The definition of sustainable
development, which was first officially used in 1980 in the “W orld Conservation Strate-
gy” prepared for UNEP by the “International Union for Conservation of Nature” (IUCN),
as “conserving natural resources for future generations”, is the center of the environmental
movement. It became the subject of the “Our Common Future” report (Brundtland Report)
published by the UN W orld Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. It is
defined as “meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987).
The relationship between sustainable development and energy resources is essential in
addressing the challenges of our rapidly changing world. Ener gy resources play a vital role in
boosting economies, improving living standards, and driving technological advances. The link
between sustainable development and ener gy resources lies in the recognition that the way
we produce, distribute, and consume energy has significant impacts on the environmental,
social, and economic dimensions of sustainability . Understanding the relationship between
sustainable development and ener gy resources is critical for policymakers, researchers, and
stakeholders to improve effective strategies and policies that support a more sustainable and
equitable future.

265 Damla ÖZEKAN
The role of ener gy in sustainable development can be summarized as follows:
1. The importance of sustainable ener gy for sustainable development: Sustainable en-
er gy is recognized as one of the pillars of sustainable development, acting as a catalyst for
achieving multiple sustainable development goals (SDGs). The United Nations’ Sustainable
Development Goal 7 (SDG 7) specifically emphasizes the importance of ensuring access to
af fordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all (UN, 2021). This highlights the
critical role of energy in removing poverty , improving health care, supporting education, and
promoting economic growth.
2. The r ole of r enewable ener gy in sustainable development: Renewable energy sourc-
es such as solar , wind, hydro, and biomass are essential components of sustainable energy
systems. By providing a cleaner and more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, they reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and dependence on limited resources (REN21, 2021).
The International Renewable Ener gy Agency (IRENA) highlights the transformative potential
of renewable ener gy in achieving sustainable development goals while mitigating climate
change (2020).
3. Ener gy efficiency as a sustainability driver: Ener gy efficiency plays a crucial role in the
pursuit of sustainable development. Improving ener gy ef ficiency across sectors helps reduce
ener gy consumption, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and improve resource conservation
(IEA, 2020). The International Energy Agency (IEA) recognizes the importance of ener gy
ef ficiency measures in achieving multiple SDGs, including poverty reduction, health promo-
tion, and climate action.
The interdependence between sustainable development and ener gy resources is clear , as
ener gy serves as a cornerstone for achieving sustainable and equitable societies. Promoting
sustainable energy , including renewable resources and energy efficiency , is vital to addressing
environmental challenges, promoting social well-being, and supporting economic well-being.
Understanding and using this relationship is crucial to shaping policies, investments, and
practices that lead us toward a more sustainable future.
The consumption and the distribution of ener gy resources have a crucial role, especially
in developing countries such as Türkiye, because these countries need to increase their ener gy
consumption in order to achieve their economic and social development. The ener gy resources
and technologies they prefer and the distribution of these resources will affect future living
conditions. These preferences also have a significant effect on the climate policies of these
countries (Geller et al., 2004). Although there is no direct relationship between renewable

RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. ..
266
ener gy resource consumption and ener gy efficiency , diversifying ener gy resources, reducing
import dependence, and cutting inef ficiency and energy waste are the core tar gets that devel-
oping countries should reach. That is the reason why Türkiye’ s case is worthy of studying as
a developing country that should foster the consumption of renewable energy resources and
ensure ener gy efficiency .
The study is or ganized as follows: after the introduction, in section 2, an analysis of Tür -
kiye’ s renewable energy resources is examined. Since there are two chapters under the SDG7
section within the scope of this book, only biomass, solar , and wind energy are examined in
this chapter , and the remaining renewable resources are left to the other chapter . In section
3, as a sustainable development goal, the development of “affordable and clean ener gy” in
Türkiye from a historical perspective is investigated. The importance of ener gy ef ficiency and
increasing energy efficiency in Türkiye is examined in section 4, and the 5 th section includes
the conclusion and recommendations.
2. Analysis of Türkiye’ s Renewable Energy Resources
Türkiye supplies 27.6% of its total energy needs from oil, 30.2% from natural gas, 25.5%
from coal, 7.6% from hydro electricity and 8.9% from renewable ener gy sources (BP Statis-
tical Review , 2022). As of the end of 2021, Türkiye’ s primary energy supply is 159.4 million
TO E
1
, of which domestic production is 46.7 million TOE, total primary ener gy consumption is
123.9 million TOE, and imports are 124.2 million T OE. Of this import amount, 42% belongs
to oil, 39% to natural gas and 19% to coal. The rate of locality in primary ener gy supply is at
the level of 29% (MENR, 2021). In terms of Türkiye’ s reserve and capacity; it can be claimed
that compared to non-renewable ener gy sources, it is more fortunate in terms of renewable
ener gy sources such as hydroelectric energy , geothermal energy , bioener gy , solar ener gy and
wind ener gy .
As seen in Figure 1, renewable energy resources meet 19.1% of the total electricity pro-
duction in 2021.
1 T onne of oil equivalent

273 Damla ÖZEKAN
than industry . Kerosene was used for lighting. Starting from the speech of Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk at the 1st Izmir Economics Congress in the 1923-1930 period, it was emphasized that
an independent economic model should be created with all its sectors (İnan, 1972).
However , foreign capital was not completely excluded in the ener gy sector , and ener gy
investments were focused on partnerships with the state-private sector . Along with the statist
economic policies implemented in the 1930s, this period is important in terms of organization
and first initiatives in ener gy . However , since sufficient private capital accumulation could
not be achieved in Türkiye during this period, a “moderate statism policy” was implemented
in the ener gy sector (TÜSİAD, 1998).
The First and Second Five-Y ear Development Plans were prepared for the 1933-1942
period and it was aimed to increase ener gy production and reduce foreign dependency . In
the First Five-Y ear Development Plan, it was requested to investigate hydraulic and thermal
ener gy sources. Thus, in 1935, the “Electrical W orks Survey Administration” and “Mineral
Research and Exploration Institute” were established (Kepenek & Y entürk, 2005).
In the post-W orld W ar II period, it is seen that ener gy was given a special priority . In this
period, the increase in energy demand with the accelerated urbanization and industrialization
ef forts caused the ener gy sector to be given priority . In 1947, the “Türkiye Economic Develop -
ment Plan” came into effect, and Etibank’ s energy projects were included in this plan. W ith the
coming to power of the Democratic Party in 1950, the “liberal economy” policy was put into
practice; however , the role of the state was aimed to be reduced. However , the developments
have been on the contrary , and the public sector has developed in the field of energy . State
Hydraulic W orks was established in 1953, and T urkish Coal Enterprises Institution and T urk-
ish Petroleum Corporation were established in 1957. During this period, public investments
were made in the field of hydraulic power generation. In addition, the share of oil in energy
resources based on trading was quite high.
In the planned period in general, since the 1960s, we see that Türkiye has developed an en-
er gy policy inversely proportional to its development needs. The industry , which has shown a
rapid increase in these years in Türkiye, has led to an increase in energy demand which created
an increase in the demand for petroleum products. However , the development in the energy
sector over the years has not been able to provide the amount and quality of energy required
by the development. In addition, the existing reserves of hydraulic ener gy resources at that
time could not be utilized sufficiently . Ener gy production could not meet the consumption.
Besides all these, the share of petroleum products that we imported for consumption increased

RENEW ABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF TÜRKİYE AND POLICY RECOMMENDA TIONS TO IMPROVE. ..
274
gradually over the years. By the end of the 1970s, only half of the ener gy demand could be
obtained from national resources. In addition to all this, the inability to implement the neces-
sary saving measures in the ener gy sector put the sector in a deep bottleneck.
The first consideration of renewable ener gy sources coincides with the fourth plan period
(1979-1983). However , the first attempts at this could only be realized in the early 1990s.
W ith the entry into force of the Electricity Market Law No. 4628 in 2001, free market
practice in the electricity sector started, and a significant decrease was observed in genera-
tion facility investments. In a new market structure, the construction of electricity generation
facilities by the public was actually stopped, and private investors did not show the expected
interest in investing in the anticipated competitive environment. Because over 6,000 MW ca-
pacity constructed under the Build-Operate model until 2002 became operational, and the rise
in electricity demand was not as high as anticipated, the existing capacity at that point satisfied
the requirement for a period. However , in 2006-2007 new capacity was needed, and studies
were carried out on dif ferent support mechanisms. One of them is the Capacity Mechanism
application. As another way of support, studies have been carried out to support electricity
generation based on renewable resources. Some initiatives have been established to include
especially small-capacity but productive sites in the system where investors are not willing to
invest. W ithin the scope of Law No. 5346, which entered into force on 10.05.2005, the first
support mechanism studies for renewable resources started, but its implementation only took
place in the year 201 1. T o re-emphasize, electricity generation from renewable sources was
initiated mainly for the purpose of utilizing low-capacity but productive resources located in
dif ficult areas. For this reason, the tariffs are kept quite high.
In the high tarif fs applied, it should not be overlooked that the lobbying activities of the
technology owners and some investors are effective. Over time, many hydroelectric and wind
power plants have been included in the system and have benefited from the support, with
features that would contradict the real purpose of the support mechanism.
Private companies that made these investments were influential in the formation and im-
plementation processes of the decisions to support electricity generation based on renewable
ener gy sources.
W ith the Law amendment made on 29.12.2010 after Law No. 5346 came into force, appli-
cations for the Renewable Energy Resources Support Mechanism (YEKDEM) were received
for 201 1 before the relevant regulations were published and the actual application started.

275 Damla ÖZEKAN
The Regulation on Certification and Support of Renewable Ener gy Resources entered
into force on 01.10.2013. In this regulation, changes were made on 29.04.2016, 28.10.2016,
23.02.2017, 1 1.05.2017, 21.04.2018 and 09.10.2018.
The Regulation on Unlicensed Electricity Production in the Electricity Market entered into
force on 03.12.2010, and later on, amendments were made to this regulation on 02.10.2013,
23.03.2016, 22.10.2016, 15.05.2017 and 17.01.2018 (Bayrak, 2022).
W ith the start of the first implementation of YEKDEM in 201 1, the number and capacity
of power plants participating in this mechanism increased every year . While participation
was relatively low until 2015, a rapid increase occurred in participation after 2015. Al -
though there has been a rise in the number of power plants producing electricity from all
renewable sources, the highest increase was realized in hydraulic power plants. In 2015,
there was a massive increase in the number of power plants that joined the system. The
entry into force of the Regulation on Certification and Support of Renewable Energy Re -
sources on 01.10.2013 is considered to be the most important factor in the increase in these
applications (Bayrak, 2022).
The number of YEKDEM participating power plants exceeded 500 in 2016 and reached
1,036 in 2022. The size of the installed power is more important than the number of power
plants registered to the YEKDEM system because the amount to be paid to these power plants
within the scope of the mechanism are made according to the amount of generation they re-
alize during the year which depends on their installed power . The total capacity , which was
713.1 MW in 201 1, the first year of implementation, reached 25,524.0 MW in 2022.
In 2021, 138 power plants with a total installed power of 1941.9 MW were registered to
the YEKDEM system. As it is known, the YEKDEM tariff support, which was in Dollars, was
changed to T urkish Lira for the power plants that will be put into operation after 01.01.2021.
In order to benefit from the system before the support payment unit was converted into T urk-
ish Lira, 135 power plants with a total installed power of 1,933.6 MW were put into operation
before 30.06.2021, and from 01.07.2021 until the end of the year , only three power plants with
an installed power of 8.3 MW were put into operation.
YEKDEM supports, whose primary purpose is to provide support for the generation of
electricity from renewable resources in small capacity but efficient fields that are more diffi-
cult to evaluate, started to be implemented in 201 1. However , over time, the principle deter-
mined at the beginning was violated, and almost all electricity generation facilities connected
to renewable resources built by private companies were included in the scope of this support.

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276
Some dam hydroelectric power plants with very lar ge installed capacities and lar ge-capacity
wind power plants are also included.
The amount of support applied in this context is normally much higher than the electricity
generation cost. The cost increase was caused by the fact that 74,254 GWh, which corresponds
to 22.4% of Türkiye’ s total electricity production, which was 331,492 GWh compared to the
end of 2021, was produced within the scope of YEKDEM. It has been quite high and reached
the level of 61.5 Billion TL in 2021 (Bayrak, 2022). Naturally , as this high cost is reflected in
consumer electricity prices, the electricity bills of all consumers in Türkiye have increased.
The cost of electrical ener gy used for residences in daily life has exceeded the bearable level
for all consumers.
Moreover , in the industrial sector , where almost half of the country’ s electricity consump -
tion is realized, high electricity prices cause very heavy economic consequences and weaken
the competitiveness of the industry in production. While determining the support principles
for electricity producers, protecting the rights of consumers against high electricity prices
should be addressed first.
4. Incr easing Energy Efficiency in Türkiye
Ener gy ef ficiency is a key element in the transformation of energy and production systems
and provides improvements in sustainability by reducing the need for new ener gy sources.
While energy efficiency increases energy production, it also reduces greenhouse gas emis -
sions, air pollution, and energy costs. While the contributions of energy ef ficiency go far
beyond financial dimensions, it can provide energy security , higher efficiency for businesses,
and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The International Energy Agency estimates that,
with the right policies and investments, energy efficiency can contribute to around 40% of the
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Different energy sources have a significant
impact on the climate, and most of the greenhouse gas emissions in the world come from the
ener gy sector alone. Energy ef ficiency improvements have been proven to provide a variety
of benefits, including energy security , job creation, poverty reduction, improved health, and
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (PWC, 2021/a).
Although increasing investments in renewable ener gy sources show an encouraging mo-
mentum for adaptation to climate targets, the slow pace of the last decade in the calculated
improvement in global energy efficiency , especially for 2020, distorts all calculations and is
alarming. In countries that set serious targets to improve ener gy efficiency , this is not only
considered as the dominant measure of climate policies, but also that efficiency measures can

277 Damla ÖZEKAN
support economic growth and increase employment, contribute to reducing the budgets they
allocate to ener gy , especially imported energy , in the program packages designed to mitigate
the economic crisis, and many secondary benefits are also taken into consideration.
The pace of global ener gy intensity recovery , which has already followed a stagnant trend in
ener gy ef ficiency in the last five years, has slowed further in the first period of the pandemic as
a result of the economic effects of the COVID-19 crisis, deepening the challenge of achieving
international ener gy and climate targets and making the actions of governments more critical.
The studies on ener gy ef ficiency in Türkiye, which started in the 1980s, have gone through
various organiza tional processes, and since 2019, they have been carried out under the man-
agement of the Department of Ener gy Ef ficiency and Environment (EVÇED) under the Min-
istry of Ener gy and Natural Resources General Directorate of Energy Affairs. This recent
structural change has, in a way , blocked a more effective and functional structuring for ener -
gy efficiency , and energy ef ficiency has lost its institutional visibility to a great extent. The
EVÇED carries out its studies, especially in the implementation and monitoring center of the
National Ener gy Efficiency Action Plan to be implemented between 2018-2023.
The National Ener gy Efficiency Action Plan aims to reduce Türkiye’ s primary energy
consumption by 14% in 2023 with 55 actions defined in 6 areas, including five final consump -
tion areas in total as buildings and services, energy , transportation, industry and technology ,
agriculture, and horizontal issues that can be common to the sectors. In line with this target,
it is foreseen to save 23.9 MTEP cumulatively until 2023 and to invest USD 10.9 billion for
these savings. The cumulative savings targeted until 2033 with 2017 prices is 30.2 billion
USD, and the impact of some savings is expected to continue until 2040.
According to EVÇED evaluations, a total of USD 4.78 billion was invested in energy
ef ficiency in the 2017-2020 period, resulting in a cumulative energy savings of 3,190 kTOE,
equivalent to USD 1 17 million in monetary terms. Considering that the total primary energy
supply was 147.2 million TOE in 2020, it is seen that only 1.06 MTEP is saved on an annual
cumulative average. This value can be evaluated as insufficient when compared to both the
cumulative saving of 23.9 MTEP in 6 years and the total primary energy supply .
In addition, approximately 1,500 dollars was spent for 1 TEP ener gy saving, which sug-
gests that it is incompatible with the much lower sample saving costs that emerged from
program evaluations abroad. On the other hand, it is stated that 3,190 kTOE savings, which
is a monetary equivalent of 1 17 million USD, was achieved, while the value of 1 TEP was
calculated as 36.7 USD (Güven, 2022).

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The pandemic process and its economic effects have led to the postponement of energy
ef ficiency investment decisions on a global scale. In Türkiye, energy efficiency investments
decreased in 2020, which is similar to the world trend.
As a result, energy efficiency should be accepted as a sector full of opportunities for the
public and industrialists, where all benefit. For ener gy efficiency , an effective or ganizational
structure should be made, and the financial support given on the production side should be
given to the public and industrialists for applications on the demand side. As in other areas,
digital development should be supported with domestic services and domestic materials. Ef-
fective policies should be determined with more monitoring and analysis, tar gets and actions
such as energy , climate, industry , and transportation in various strategies and action plans
should be reviewed and shared, and development of all sectors towards these goals should
be ensured.
5. Conclusion
There is a massive deficit in non-renewable energy resources in Türkiye. When we con-
sider it economically , there is a very significant foreign dependency on energy . In addition,
the traditional energy resources we use cause important environmental problems such as
pollution and deforestation. However , Türkiye has a very rich potential in terms of clean and
renewable energy resources. Unfortunately , this potential is not utilized to the required extent.
W ith the developments in energy production technologies, the issue of renewables and
sustainability of ener gy resources has started to gain importance. The increasing need for
ener gy day by day and the limit and exhaustion of fossil fuels bring the need for alternative
ener gy sources to the fore. In meeting the ener gy need with alternative resources, it is of great
importance to ensure sustainability without harming nature. At this point, renewable energy
sources are an alternative to the rapidly increasing energy need. Increasing the use of renew-
able ener gy sources plays an important role in maintaining sustainability .
Renewable energy resources are cheap resources, apart from the initial investment cost.
The development of technologies in which these resources are included over the years sup-
ports this. These resources do not create foreign dependency , are abundant, do not create
pollution, are free from the effects of all kinds of crises, and can be easily obtained where
needed since there is no transportation problem.
Although progress has been made in improving energy efficiency and improving access
to electricity , current developments are insuf ficient to achieve sustainable development goals.

279 Damla ÖZEKAN
Although the promotion of clean energy provides an increase in the use of renewable re-
sources in global ener gy production, the need for clean and renewable energy production is
expected to increase as the electricity demand continues to increase.
The Sustainable Development Goals adopted under the United Nations Development Pro -
gram in 2015 provide a framework for eliminating global warming and poverty , protecting
our planet, and reducing inequalities. Although the “Affordable and Clean Energy” goal, one
of the 17 goals of sustainable development that is aimed to be achieved by 2030, is related to
most of the other development goals, it shows how important the role of ener gy in achieving
sustainable development is. Affordable and clean ener gy supports all SDGs.
Among the renewable ener gy resources, the second most suitable resource for Türkiye is
solar energy after hydroelectric energy , which is left for another chapter . Although Türkiye is
at the forefront of the world in terms of using solar ener gy with thermal technology , it should
include the production of electricity through photovoltaic cells as soon as possible, as well as
using this source for heating. For wind ener gy , whose investment costs are quite high, incen-
tives should be increased as soon as possible with laws enacted so that more investments can
be made throughout the country .
In energy production and use in Türkiye, first of all, national and international legal reg-
ulations should be restructured, ener gy production areas should be brought into the economy
by taking into account the environmental effects of energy production technologies and re-
source selection, and great importance should be given to efficiency in ener gy use. Therefore,
instead of classical fossil fuel-based energy production systems and traditional production
technologies that cause environmental pollution and climate change on a global scale, it is
necessary to evaluate environmentally friendly , sustainable renewable energy sources and
develop their technologies.
W ith regard to renewable energy sources that create economic potential in Türkiye, nec-
essary legal measures should be taken to complete the licensed projects within the stipulated
time. Production plans, should also be prepared depending on technological developments
and legislative regulations.
Türkiye is well-positioned to be a leader in Europe in terms of renewable energy sources.
W ith the new legal regulations, studies, and investments to be made, important steps should
be taken in ener gy by realizing the local resources, technology , and technical staf f with these
high potentials and raising awareness.

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Ener gy and foreign exchange savings should be made in Türkiye. The country has a very
high potential of at least 25% in terms of increasing ener gy ef ficiency , and this potential needs
to be utilized in the best and quickest way .
Air , water , and soil pollution should be reduced. Comprehensive technological and sci-
entific studies should be carried out with the aim of protecting people, the environment, and
all assets that are a part of it.
In addition, it is necessary to diversify energy , to increase the use of solar , wind, and
biomass energy as domestic resources, to ensure security in energy , and to minimize losses in
ener gy production, transmission, distribution, and consumption.
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289 Kenan KOÇ, Yüksel BA YRAKT AR
3. Hydraulic and Geothermal Energy Sour ces T owards Sustainable
Development Goals?
The diminishing reserves of fossil-based ener gy resources and their formation taking years
raises concerns about sustainability and the need to switch to renewable energy sources rather
than fossil-based ones due to their negative impact on the environment (Dincer , 2000). Re-
newable energy comes from ongoing natural processes that replenish it. It derives directly
from the sun, wind, rain, ocean tides, biomass, and geothermal resources, which are heat
sources produced deep within the earth (Mohtasham, 2015). According to the definition of
renewable energy , it is “an energy source that can be available the same the next day within
the evolution of nature itself.” The critical characteristics of renewable ener gy sources are
that they contribute to environmental protection by lowering carbon dioxide emissions, lessen
reliance on imported ener gy , create more jobs because they are domestic resources, and enjoy
widespread and enthusiastic public support. In other words, accessible, available, and accept-
able qualities describe renewable energy sources (General Directorate of Mineral Exploration
and Research, 2023).
Due to their lack of toxic gas and particle dischar ges that pollute the atmosphere, their
low operating costs compared to non-renewable ener gy sources, and their use in agriculture,
hydropower and dams are considered essential. However , only a third of the potential of hy-
dropower is currently used. This is equivalent to 17% of the electricity produced worldwide.
Some argue that since lar ge dams generate more environmental harm than small ones, they
cannot be regarded as renewable ener gy sources. However , the W orld Bank, which had previ-
ously advocated against the construction of sizable dams, has begun to alter its stance. More
power and energy are needed in nations where ener gy consumption is much lower than the
global average (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023). Geothermal ener gy ,
on the other hand, is thermal energy generated naturally in the planet’ s interior , primarily by
the decay of radioactive potassium, uranium, and thorium isotopes (Y ounger , 2015). It is the
only renewable ener gy source not dependent on solar radiation or the moon’ s or the sun’ s
gravitational pull (McCay , 2014). Among the renewable ener gy sources, hydropower and
geothermal energy hold a significant position. T o lessen reliance on fossil fuels, ensure energy
security , safeguard the environment, and combat climate change, these resources are crucial.
W e require both hydropower and geothermal ener gy for the following reasons:
Reducing dependence on fossil fuels: Hydraulic and geothermal energy replace fossil
fuels and increase the diversity of our energy sources. This increases energy supply security
and reduces dependence on fossil fuels.

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