Ande s, Lisa H.; B aun, Daniela; Libman, Alexande
A icle — Published Ve sion
C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience—Explo ing C ises Responses
o Regional O ganiza ions om he Pe spec i e o EU S udies and
Compa a i e Regionalism
Poli ische Vie eljah essch i
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ande s, Lisa H.; B aun, Daniela; Libman, Alexande (2025) : C ises, Adap a ion,
and Resilience—Explo ing C ises Responses o Regional O ganiza ions om he Pe spec i e o EU
S udies and Compa a i e Regionalism, Poli ische Vie eljah essch i , ISSN 1862-2860, Sp inge
Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, Wiesbaden, Vol. 66, Iss. 3, pp. 507-524,
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11615-025-00617-7
Poli ische Vie eljah essch i (2025) 66:507–524
C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience—Explo ing
C ises Responses o Regional O ganiza ions om
he Pe spec i e o EU S udies and Compa a i e
Regionalism
Lisa H. Ande s · Daniela B aun · Alexande Libman
Recei ed: 24 June 2024 / Re ised: 25 Ap il 2025 / Accep ed: 5 May 2025 / Published online: 23 June
2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025, co ec ed publica ion 2025
Abs ac How do di e en ypes o egional o ganiza ions eac o cu en chal-
lenges and c ises? This special issue o he Poli ische Vie eljah essch i explo es
his ques ion by b inging oge he con ibu ions om Eu opean Union s udies and
compa a i e egionalism. This in oduc ion discusses he concep s o c isis, adap a-
ion,and esilience as well as he alue o he dialogue be ween he wo subdisci-
plines, ou lines he aims o he special issue, sys ema izes he main indings o he
con ibu ions, and e lec s on hei implica ions o u u e esea ch.
Keywo ds Eu opean Union · EU s udies · Compa a i e egionalism · Regional
o ganiza ions · C ises
Lisa H. Ande s
Depa men o Eu opean & In e na ional S udies, King’s College London, UK
E-Mail: lisa.ande [email protected]
Daniela B aun
Gesellscha swissenscha liche Eu opa o schung, Uni e si ä des Saa landes, Saa b ücken, Ge many
E-Mail: d.[email p o ec ed]
Alexande Libman
Os eu opa-Ins i u , F eie Uni e si ä Be lin, Be lin, Ge many
E-Mail: alexande .libman@ u-be lin.de
K
508 L. H. Ande s e al.
K isen, Anpassung und Resilienz – Un e suchung de K isen eak ionen
egionale O ganisa ionen aus de Pe spek i e on EU-S udien und
e gleichendem Regionalismus
Zusammen assung Wie eagie en egionale O ganisa ionen au ak uelle He aus-
o de ungen und K isen? Das o liegende Sonde he de Poli ischen Vie eljah es-
sch i widme sich diese F age und e ein hie zu Bei äge aus den Be eichen EU-
Fo schung und e gleichende Regionalismus o schung. Diese Einlei ung e läu e
die Konzep e K ise,Anpassung und Resilienz, disku ie den Nu zen des Dialogs
zwischen den beiden Teildisziplinen, benenn die Ziele des Sonde he es, sys ema-
isie die zen alen Be unde de Bei äge und disku ie An egungen ü die wei e e
Fo schung.
Schlüsselwö e Eu opäische Union · EU-Fo schung · Ve gleichende
Regionalismus o schung · Regionalo ganisa ionen · K isen
1 In oduc ion and Aims o he Special Issue
Regional o ganiza ions (ROs) a e an in eg al componen o he libe al in e na ional
o de (LIO). Thei impo ance g ew a e he end o he Cold Wa , when egion-
alism was seen as pa o he wo ld’s ansi ion o he “pos na ional” libe al o de
(Bö zel and Zü n 2021). The Eu opean Union (EU), as he mos ad anced case o
egionalism, became a global ac o and a sou ce o emula ion o ROs wo ldwide
(Lenz 2013). In o he pa s o he wo ld, he numbe o ROs inc eased, as did hei
ambi ions and in e connec edness. O e he las se e al decades, egionalism has
inc easingly been pe cei ed no as an al e na i e o global mul ila e alism bu a he
as an essen ial pa o i , pa ially compensa ing o de ici s in global go e nance
(Pom e 2021).
Cu en ly, i has become commonplace o po ay he LIO as acing mul iple c ises
(Ikenbe y 2018; Peoples 2024). This is d i en by bo h he in e nal con adic ions
o he LIO and he challenges i aces due o unexpec ed shocks and ac ions o
illibe al ac o s, such as la ge au ho i a ian coun ies (Lake e al. 2021; Bö zel e al.
2024). Some imes hese c ises acing he LIO a e p esen ed as pa o he o e all
“polyc isis” he wo ld is expe iencing, i.e., an amalgama ion o o e lapping c ises
a ec ing each o he (Tooze 2021; Henig and Knigh 2023). These de elopmen s also
in luence ROs, and i is agains his backg ound ha his special issue b ings oge he
pe spec i es om EU s udies and compa a i e egionalism o explo e how ROs
espond o c ises. By analyzing esponses o a ange o c ises ac oss di e en ROs,
he con ibu ions show how hese o ganiza ions adap o c ises and how esilien hey
a e. A he same ime, he special issue c ea es oppo uni ies o c oss- e iliza ion
be ween he wo subdisciplines.
C ises a e ex ao dina y momen s—pe iods o s ess ha call in o ques ion “ he
exis ence and iabili y o he poli ical o de ” (Ikenbe y 2008, p. 3). They a e yp-
ically de ined by he combina ion o h ee elemen s (Rosen hal e al. 2001,p.7,
B inks and Ibe 2020;Lipscy2020): unce ain y (unp edic able ou comes), u gency
K
C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience—Explo ing C ises Responses o Regional O ganiza ions... 509
( he need o decision-make s o espond wi hin a e y sho pe iod o ime), and
h ea (po en ially la ge damage o he a ec ed ins i u ions and socie ies). While
he e is ce ainly an “objec i e” componen o each c isis, a eal se o poli ical,
economic, and social de elopmen s, in he age o public opinion polls and social
media a ec ing and accele a ing he public deba e, has esul ed in c isis pe cep ions
becoming inc easingly ele an . These pe cep ions a e socially cons uc ed, wi h
a ious poli ical en ep eneu s ei he ad ancing he aming o a pa icula si ua ion
as a c isis o dispu ing i (Geisemann and Geige 2004). Al hough he c isis- am-
ing canno be used a bi a ily— he e a e measu able unde lying economic, social,
and poli ical challenges, which ac o s obse e and in e p e as c ises— he e is s ill
eno mous a ia ion in how simila e en s a e pe cei ed and in wha is amed as
c isis in di e en pa s o he wo ld ( o he case o he EU s udies, see Da is C oss
and Ma 2015).
In e ms o egionalism, many obse e s conclude ha he EU has ound i sel in
a “long c isis decade” (Fe e a e al. 2024). Examples o phenomena ypically sub-
sumed unde his concep a e he eu o c isis, he mig a ion c isis, B exi , he COVID-
19 pandemic, he clima e c isis, and he Russian in asion o Uk aine. While his lis
e lec s he pe cep ion o pa icula phenomena as c ises a he han he esul o
a sys ema ic analysis o ex e nal shocks he EU is acing, all e en s men ioned
abo e sa is y o a ce ain ex en he h ee key c isis c i e ia ou lined abo e. In addi-
ion o hese ex e nal ac o s challenging he EU, he consolida ion o Eu oscep icism
(T eib 2021; Ushe wood and S a in 2013), he inc easing lack o us in EU ins i-
u ions, and he ongoing ule-o -law c isis in some membe s a es weaken he EU
om wi hin. While un olding o e a longe ime pe iod and being less u gen han
he EU’s ex e nal c ises, hey can be desc ibed as “slow-bu ning c ises” (see, o
example, Seab ooke and Tsingou 2018).
O he ROs ace di e en challenges and c ises as well, d i en by bo h egion-
speci ic dynamics and global challenges. Fac o s such as g owing economic p o-
ec ionism, deglobaliza ion, and he inc easing equency o mili a y con on a ions
(James 2018; Ko np obs and Paul 2021) play an impo an ole in explaining why
many ROs a e pe cei ed as acing mul i ace ed c ises. Some ROs a e spli by new
geopoli ical lines o di ision, some ha e o adjus hei manda es o deal wi h new
challenges aced by hei membe s a es, and some ha e o change hei decision-
making p ocedu es o accoun o he u gency and unce ain y o c ises (Libman
2022).
The c ises ROs ace di e in hei deg ee o u gency, h ea , and unce ain y,
which explains why hei de elopmen and e ec s a e s ikingly di e en ; some o
hem a e la en and slow-bu ning, whe eas o he s can be seen as acu e, and some
ansi ion om one ca ego y o ano he (on he concep s o la en and acu e c ises,
see, e.g., S udebake 2023).1The e y ac ha mul iple ROs ace c ises oday is no
his o ically unp eceden ed; he e ha e been pe iods in he pas when egionalism
bo h in he EU and elsewhe e was also seen as acing majo in e connec ed c ises.
1The wa in Uk aine, o example, which o iginally was seen as a sho - e m c isis, is cu en ly o en
pe cei ed as pa o a p olonged con on a ion be ween Russia and he EU in Eas e n Eu ope, and hus
a la en c isis.
K
510 L. H. Ande s e al.
In he his o y o he EU, o example, he 1970s we e a pe iod o widesp ead pe -
cep ion o he c isis o egionalism (Jouan 2016). S ill, he con empo a y e olu ion
o ROs in di e en pa s o he wo ld in he shadow o (pe cei ed) c ises o e s us
an oppo uni y o explo e how hese c ises a ec he dynamics o egionalism, in
pa icula he esilience o ROs, and how he de elopmen o egionalism in p e ious
decades a ec ed his esilience.
2 B idging Compa a i e Regionalism and EU S udies
The p ima y aim o his special issue is o b ing oge he con ibu ions ha ad-
d ess he opic om he pe spec i e o wo dis inc subdisciplines sha ing he same
subjec , he s udy o ROs: EU s udies and compa a i e egionalism. Schola s om
EU s udies ypically analyze he o igins, he de elopmen , and he unc ioning o
he EU; he sys em o EU ins i u ions and decision-making p ocedu es; and EU
policies—bu also di e se challenges and c ises o he EU, such as he inc ease o
poli ical con lic o e he EU (i.e., he poli iciza ion o Eu ope), he ise and consoli-
da ion o Eu oscep icism, and he ule-o -law c isis and he eac ions o na ional and
sup ana ional ac o s, as well as hei implica ions o he de elopmen o he EU.
Compa a i e egionalism looks a a uni e se o ROs in a ious pa s o he wo ld,
equen ly changing hei goals and membe ship composi ion, en e ing long pe iods
o passi i y and including coun ies wi h e y di e en o eign policy agendas and
poli ical sys ems, accoun ing o di e en a i udes owa d egionalism as such.
This special issue is, o cou se, no he i s o a emp o connec hese wo s ands
o li e a u e. Ea ly heo ies o egionalism (e.g., neo unc ionalism) explici ly looked
a bo h he EU and o he ROs (Haas and Schmi e 1964; see also Bö zel 2024)
and expanded he concep ual epe oi e wi h concep s such as “spillo e ” and “spill-
back” o cap u e hei non-unidi ec ional de elopmen (Schmi e 1970). In p e ious
yea s, se e al con ibu ions ha e also linked hese wo subdisciplines oge he (Fo
and Webbe 2006; Mu ay 2010; Wa leigh-Lack e al. 2011; Bö zel and Risse 2016;
Ca bone 2021) in o de o s udy he e ec o c ises on egionalism (Dosen ode
2016;Telo2016; Nol e and Wei en 2021). No wi hs anding, he possibili ies o
wo subdisciplines o lea n om each o he ha e no been ully exhaus ed: Fo
example, he eme gence o new opics o s udy in EU esea ch and in compa a i e
egionalism (due o he in e nal logic o he subdisciplines o speci ic challenges
he EU o o he ROs a e acing) calls o explo ing new oppo uni ies o link hese
disciplines. As we will discuss below, bo h subdisciplines o e hei pe spec i es on
he esilience o egionalism, hus ende ing a dialogue be ween hem pa icula ly
impo an .
P omo ing he c oss-disciplina y exchange holds a lo o p omise. I allows us o
explo e he di e se pa e ns o esilience (o lack he eo ) o in e na ional and Eu o-
pean ac o s unde he cu en c isis condi ions. In eg a ing concep ual and heo e ical
app oaches and insigh s om hese subdisciplines also inc eases hei isibili y and
helps o o e come he agmen a ion o he discipline ha migh weaken i s policy
impac and in luence on he public deba e. Eu opean Union expe s can bene i om
a mo e beyond EU-cen ism s ill p esen in many s udies by conside ing concep ual
K
C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience—Explo ing C ises Responses o Regional O ganiza ions... 511
de elopmen s and insigh s om compa a i e egionalism. Con e sely, compa a i e
egionalism can also be inspi ed by he li e a u e on EU s udies.
3 C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience in EU S udies and Compa a i e
Regionalism
The li e a u e a ailable on c ises pe aining o ROs is ich. Conce ning c ises, we
need o dis inguish be ween he wo ela ed concep s o adap a ion and esilience.
The no ion o esilience is equen ly used in social sciences— hough no wi hou
c i icism— o desc ibe he abili y o o ganiza ions o cope wi h s ess o , mo e speci -
ically, o e u n o “some o m o no mal condi ion a e a pe iod o s ess” (Olsson
e al. 2015, p. 1). The concep he e o e ocuses on he ou come o c ises, i.e., he
e u n o no malcy, o cap u e how o ganiza ions cope wi h hese. T ondal (2021)
dis inguishes be ween “s a ic” and “dynamic” esilience, he i s s anding o he
s abiliza ion and main enance o he s a us quo and he second o adap a ion. Adap-
a ion i sel can be unde s ood as he p ocess by which o de is main ained h ough
he c ea ion o new ules and a angemen s alongside exis ing ones (Ikenbe y 2008,
p. 13).2Impo an ly, c isis adap a ion can mani es i sel in se e al dimensions: he
poli y dimension, which e e s o he ins i u ional ea u es o he RO; he policy
dimension, which in ol es new ins umen s and measu es wi hin di e en policy a -
eas; o he beha io al dimension, e lec ing how poli ical ac o s espond and adjus
hei beha io .3Mo eo e , adap a ion can go in di e en di ec ions. Fo example,
poli y adap a ion can lead o ins i u ional s eng hening o weakening— ha is o
say, he c ea ion o new ins i u ions o he weakening o exis ing ones—and does
no necessa ily equi e o mal ins i u ional change. In addi ion o he adap a ion
ul ima ely se ing hei su i al, ROs can also u n ou o be non esilien unde con-
di ions o c isis, leading o hei b eakdown h ough disin eg a ion and e en o mal
cancella ion o an RO.
The concep o esilience has been applied o s udying he in e na ional o de as
such (Risse e al. 2016; Bou beau 2015), he EU (Ridde old e al. 2021; Ba gues
e al. 2023), and o he ROs (B iceño-Ruiz and Pun igliano 2020), as well as occa-
sionally o compa ing he EU wi h o he in e na ional ins i u ions (Ko os ele a and
Flockha 2020). The li e a u e demons a es subs an ial a ia ion in he deg ee o
esilience o indi idual ROs wi h espec o di e en c ises and policy a eas. While
some s udies show ROs su i ing e en unde ex eme p essu e, adap ing hei oles
and unc ions (Panke and F ied ichs 2024a) and going well beyond hei o iginal
manda es and objec i es (Vinoku o and Libman 2017), o he s udies look a how
ROs u n in o phan om phenomena (e.g., G ay 2018) o cease o exis al oge he
(Deb e and Dijks a 2021). Unde s anding his a ia ion by means o di e en he-
o e ical and empi ical app oaches emains an impo an esea ch ask, which ou
special issue aims o con ibu e o.
2Adap a ion can be dis inguished om ans o ma ion, which ep esen s he mo e a - eaching p ocess o
a undamen al es uc u ing o he exis ing o de and i s ules and no ms (Ikenbe y 2008,p.13).
3A icles in his special issue will no ocus on how policies ha e been adap ed o ecen c ises.
K
512 L. H. Ande s e al.
In EU s udies, he e exis s a signi ican ecen li e a u e examining he EU e-
sponse o a ious c isis phenomena (Ridde old e al. 2021; Cas els 2018; Ma hijs
2020; Dinan e al. 2017;Da isC oss2017; Habe mas 2012; Tosun e al. 2014).
Ex an esea ch has ocused on he ple ho a o c ises (Co a and Ise nia 2020)o
he polyc isis (Zei lin e al. 2019) ha he EU has aced in he las wo decades
and which we ha e men ioned in he p e ious sec ion. These wo ks ha e explo ed
he dynamics o he eu o c isis (Jones e al. 2016), he mig a ion c isis (Scipioni
2017; Genschel and Jach en uchs 2018), B exi (Cini and Ve dun 2018), he ule-
o -law c isis (P iebus and Ande s 2024), he ise and consolida ion o Eu oscep icm
(B ack and S a in 2015; anElsase al.2016;T eib2021), he poli iciza ion o he
EU (Hu e e al. 2016), he pandemic (Wol and Ladi 2020), and, mos ecen ly,
Russia’s in asion o Uk aine (Ko al and Vachudo a 2024). They analyzed policy
eac ions o hese c ises as well as he e ec o hese c ises on he EU. A ecu en
inding o hese wo ks is ha he EU has been “su p isingly esilien ” (Ridde old
e al. 2021, p. 6, Nicoli and Zei lin 2024). E en he mos challenging c ises “ha e
no b ough down he edi ice” (Fe e a e al. 2024, p. 707). On he con a y, mos
o hem p opelled consolida ion o he EU (Jones e al. 2021), p omp ed EU ac o s
o adap exis ing policies o de elop new policies and ins umen s, and esul ed in
he s eng hening o sup ana ional ins i u ions, e en in a eas o co e s a e powe s
(Genschel and Jach en uchs 2018).
A he same ime, challenges such as Eu oscep icism and low public suppo o
he union pe sis and pose a challenge o he EU (as B exi has clea ly demons a ed)
and o EU decision-making, as he p ominen concep o he “cons aining dissensus”
sugges s. So a , mains eam pa ies in di e en EU membe s a es ha e in pa icula
ied o add ess hese issues and, o example, seek a way o egain Eu oscep ic o e s
by using di e en s a egies (Meije s 2017). Howe e , he ul ima e esponse o he
Eu oscep ic challenge has ye o be ound, which could lead o an e en b oade
challenge o Eu opean democ acy: he ise o a genuine ansna ional clea age
di iding Eu opean socie ies and leading o he disin eg a ion o he EU. Illibe al
ends in EU membe s a es and he ule-o -law c isis ha ha e challenged he EU
o se e al yea s (Ande s and Lo enz 2021) a e also a om being ackled, wi h he
Hunga ian p ime minis e consis en ly dis ega ding he EU’s ounda ional alues
and he coun y now classi ied as an “elec o al au oc acy” (V-Dem 2024). Finally,
economic c ises can lowe public suppo o he EU (e.g., B aun and Tausendp und
2014; He nández and K iesi 2016; Hobol and de V ies 2016), al hough so a in mos
EU membe s a es, suppo has e u ned o p ec isis le els (p ecisely, in he s a es
ha ha e had, om he pe spec i e o he ci izen y, app op ia e policy esponses by
na ional go e nmen s and/o an inc ease in economic pe o mance a e he c ises).
In he compa a i e egionalism li e a u e, c ises a e equen ly ci ed as easons o
he ailu e o ROs o achie e hei goals o e en u n in o zombie ins i u ions wi hou
ac ual policy ele ance (on c ises and egionalism, see Nol e and Wei en 2021;
Sau ugge and Te pan 2016). Thus, as in he case o he EU, economic c ises (and,
mo e gene ally, poo economic pe o mance) educe he suppo o egionalism and
cause coun ies o engage in mo e p o ec ionis policies ( equen ly ying o ou bid
o he coun ies in e ms o p o ec ionism; Pa k 2019). C ises inc ease edis ibu i e
con lic s, wi h na ional go e nmen s being emp ed o sol e hem a he cos o
K
C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience—Explo ing C ises Responses o Regional O ganiza ions... 513
neighbo ing s a es. A he same ime, he e ha e always been examples o mo e
nuanced esponses o c ises: In Eas Asia, o example, he global inancial c isis
o 1998 has s imula ed he shi om a mo e in o mal economic in e ac ion o he
es ablishmen o se e al egional ins i u ions and a mo e in ensi e coope a ion o
coun ies (Ka ada 2012). In pos -So ie Eu asia, he economic c isis o 1998 pu an
end o he ea ly a emp s a egionalism, while he economic c isis o 2008 became
he bi h hou o mo e ad anced egionalis ini ia i es (Vinoku o and Libman 2014).
A undamen al p oblem a ises i he c isis equi es he RO o change i s ocus, o
example, by mo ing owa d a g ea e ocus on common indus ial policy o a la ge-
scale edis ibu ion o unds; unde hese condi ions, he bu eauc acies o many ROs
and hei membe s a es see hemsel es as eaching hei limi s.
Simila ly, mili a y con lic s and con on a ions ha e been among some o he
majo ac o s blocking he de elopmen o ce ain ROs (Sou h Asia being among
he mos p ominen examples; see Dash 2008). While, undamen ally, egionalism
educes he likelihood o wa s among hei membe s (Hadjiyiannis e al. 2016),
among he ROs exis ing in di e en pa s o he wo ld, a non-negligible numbe ha e
membe s ha ha e engaged in mili a ized dispu es agains each o he , ende ing any
p og ess pas he me e he o ic o egionalism ha dly possible. Wha is in e es ing
om his poin o iew is ha he e a e qui e a ew ROs ha ha e su i ed o
decades al hough hey include membe s engaged in mo e o less open con on a ion
wi h each o he . While hey ob iously ail o achie e subs an ial p og ess in e ms o
economic and poli ical coope a ion, hey can s ill be use ul, e.g., as o a o dialogue
and in o ma ion exchange. Finally, ROs ha e been ac i ely in ol ed in peacekeeping
and media ion o ci il wa s in hei membe s a es (wi h mixed success, hough; see
Ga ne 2011; Lundg en 2016).
Ul ima ely, compa a i e egionalism does no p o ide a uni e sal answe o he
ques ion o he esilience o egionalism. Many s udies o ROs (e.g., in La in Ame -
ica, see Jenne e al. 2017; o pos -So ie Eu asia, see Obydenko a 2011) a e inhe -
en ly skep ical o he abili y o hese ROs o deal wi h c ises, conside ing hem a so
o “good wea he ” phenomena, becoming inc easingly agile unde he p essu e o
c ises. O he s udies, howe e , ha e come o he conclusion ha non-Eu opean ROs
can also show a high le el o esilience, al hough his may e e mo e o he abili y
o he bu eauc acy o ROs o adap and pe se e e han o hem ac ually con ibu ing
o public goods hey we e designed o p o ide.
A common heme in bo h EU s udies and compa a i e egionalism is ha he
na u e o he challenges acing ROs also changes o e ime. Fo ins ance, COVID-
19 cons i u ed an unp eceden ed shock o which ha dly any coun y in he wo ld
was p epa ed (Niki ina and A apo a 2022; Yingi and Hlungwani 2022). In he
same way, he cu en p ocess o deglobaliza ion cons i u es a undamen al game
change , equi ing adap a ion and ans o ma ion on he side o ROs (Wal e 2021;
Libman 2022). Fu he mo e, Russia’s wa agains Uk aine ep esen s an unpa alleled
challenge, gi ing ise o deba es conce ning he (lack o ) “bellicis ” in eg a ion in
he EU4and Russia’s in ol emen in and s eng hened ies wi h Eu asian ROs.
Though bo h EU s udies and he compa a i e egionalism esea ch a e conce ned
4We use he e m “in eg a ion” he e because i is p edominan in he espec i e discou se.
K
514 L. H. Ande s e al.
wi h analyzing he c ises and challenges ROs ace, he undamen al pe spec i e o
hese wo lines o esea ch is a e y di e en one.
While he Eu opean p ojec has, o cou se, expe ienced c isis pe iods and s ag-
na ion be o e (e.g., he 1970s, as men ioned abo e) and has had o deal wi h majo
in eg a ion se backs (like he ailu e o he EU Cons i u ional T ea y in 2005 o ,
mo e ecen ly, B exi ), ul ima ely, he s o y o he EU is (s ill)5p edominan ly na -
a ed as one o success. Tex book e idence usually p esen s Eu opean in eg a ion as
a p og essi e s o y (Gilbe 2008,2020), i.e., as a “p ocess whose o wa d ma ch
has been hampe ed by s a es and na ional leade s [...] i a ionally a ached o he
p inciples o na ional so e eign y” (Gilbe 2020, p. 9). Eu opean in eg a ion is hus
in e p e ed as unp eceden ed in many ways, ein en ing i sel and inding new ways
o dealing wi h his o ical challenges h ough policy adap a ion and inno a ion as
well as u he in eg a ion. In con as o his, Eu opean disin eg a ion—al hough i s
possibili y is ob iously on he public agenda—is an a ea ha has been neglec ed
by mos EU schola s (due o he “no ma i e bias” o Eu opean in eg a ion esea ch,
which places g ea e emphasis on success ul deepening and enla gemen , i.e., con-
side s hem wo hie o s udy han c ises and se backs; see Fabe and Wessels 2005).
Mo e ecen ly, howe e , a numbe o impo an excep ions (c . Vollaa d 2014;Web-
be 2014,2018) examine his disin eg a ion p ospec , as well as analyze he EU
as an ins i u ion in a “s a e o pe manen c isis.” The e o e, i may be bene icial
o sys ema ically con on he adi ional schola ly li e a u e o EU s udies wi h i s
biased na a i e ( o a good o e iew, see Gilbe 2008), wi h di e en pe spec i es
and s ands o li e a u e. As al eady sugges ed by Vollaa d (2014), compa a i e
app oaches—such as compa a i e egionalism—a e aluable in his ega d.
Compa a i e egionalism holds a much mo e skep ical a i ude abou i s objec
o s udy. A opic o pa amoun impo ance o compa a i e egionalism is he im-
plemen a ion gap: Many ROs seem o all sho o he o icial in en ions o hei
designe s (a leas , in he o m in which hey we e decla ed publicly; Vinoku o
and Libman 2017). In many cases, hese a e examples o a high le el o coope -
a ion (e.g., he Economic Communi y o Wes A ican S a es, which manages o
implemen conce ed mili a y in e en ions in i s membe s a es [see Bö zel and
an Hüllen 2015], o he Eu asian Economic Union, which succeeded a c ea ing
a unc ioning economic RO in Eu asia a e wo decades o ailed a emp s [see Vi-
noku o 2018]), bu hese a e pe cei ed as de ia ions om he pa e n o ailu es—i
is no uncommon o obse e s o be highly skep ical abou new ROs, wi h hei
p eexis ing belie s being ha hese o ganiza ions a e going o pe o m poo ly a he
han succeed.
While he di e ence be ween EU s udies and he compa a i e egionalism pe -
spec i es has been explo ed be o e, u he esea ch on his opic is ce ainly needed.
5This na a i e, o cou se, may change o e ime and when Eu opean in eg a ion will be analyzed mo e
h ough he lens o his o ians han by poli ical scien is s: “[H]is o y, like he wea he , is ap o play icks on
hose who hink hey ha e igu ed ou he long- ange o ecas ” (Gilbe 2008, p. 656). So a —and he e o e
we ha e added he wo d “s ill” in he ex —a p og essi e s o y o he EU is being old by mos EU schola s,
bu di e en na a i es o Eu opean in eg a ion a e de ini ely also pa o he esea ch li e a u e (see Gilbe
2008,2020; Vollaa d 2014; Webbe 2014), and “ hese may come o p edomina e i he Eu opean p ojec
loses i s au a o success” (Gilbe 2008, p. 641).
K
C ises, Adap a ion, and Resilience—Explo ing C ises Responses o Regional O ganiza ions... 521
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Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps
and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
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