Climate, Science and Society: A Primer

Bake , Zeke (Ed.); Law, Tama (Ed.); Va dy, Ma k (Ed.); Zeh , S ephen (Ed.)
Book
Clima e, Science and Socie y: A P ime
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bake , Zeke (Ed.); Law, Tama (Ed.); Va dy, Ma k (Ed.); Zeh , S ephen (Ed.) (2024) :
Clima e, Science and Socie y: A P ime , ISBN 978-1-003-82876-1, Rou ledge, London,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4324/9781003409748
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/290622
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Clima e, Science and Socie y: A P ime makes cu ing-edge esea ch on clima e change
accessible o s uden eade s.
The p ime consis s o 37 sho chap e s o ganized wi hin 11 pa s w i en by Science and
Technology S udies (STS) and o he social science schola s. I co e s a ange o key opics
including communica ion, jus ice and inequali y, clima e policy, and ene gy ansi ions, si ua ing
each one wi hin he con ex o STS s udies. Each eading ansla es a ocused a ea o clima e
change esea ch in o sho , accessible, and li ely p ose. Chap e au ho s open deba es whe e
ele an , conside policy implica ions, c i ique exis ing a eas o esea ch, and o he wise si ua e
hei eading wi hin a la ge body o esea ch ele an o clima e change cou ses.
Designed as a jumping-o poin o u he explo a ion, his inno a i e book will be essen ial
eading o s uden s s udying clima e change, STS, en i onmen al sociology, and en i onmen al
sciences.
Zeke Bake is Assis an P o esso o Sociology a Sonoma S a e Uni e si y, USA. His esea ch
in es iga es how changes in clima e knowledge ela e o poli ical dynamics, especially o e he
his o ical long e m, in he Uni ed S a es and compa a i e con ex s.
Tama Law is a PhD s uden a Co nell Uni e si y in De elopmen S udies and holds an MPhil
in Human En i onmen al Geog aphy om he Uni e si y o Ox o d. He esea ch in he Uni ed
S a es and Sou heas Asia examines he knowledge and land poli ics o clima e adap a ion and
mi iga ion, cen e ing ques ions o clima e jus ice.
Ma k Va dy is a acul y membe o he C iminology Depa men a Kwan len Poly echnic
Uni e si y, Canada. He is in e es ed in d awing om STS o con ibu e o discussions o clima e
jus ice in g een c iminology.
S ephen Zeh is P o esso Eme i us o Sociology a he Uni e si y o Sou he n Indiana, USA.
His pas esea ch ocused on clima e change scien i ic expe ise and i s ep esen a ion in he
media. He is cu en ly esea ching maple sy up p oduce s and hei adap a ion o echnological
changes, clima e change, and labo supply and allegiances.
Clima e, Science and Socie y
Clima e, Science and Socie y
A P ime
Edi ed by
Zeke Bake , Tama Law, Ma k Va dy
and S ephen Zeh
LONDON AND NEW YORK

Designed co e image: “Aids o Na iga ion” © 2023 by Zeke Bake is licensed
unde CC BY-ND 4.0.
Fi s published 2024
by Rou ledge
4 Pa k Squa e, Mil on Pa k, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Rou ledge
605 Thi d A enue, New Yo k, NY 10158
Rou ledge is an imp in o he Taylo & F ancis G oup, an in o ma business
© 2024 selec ion and edi o ial ma e , Zeke Bake , Tama Law, Ma k Va dy, and
S ephen Zeh ; indi idual chap e s, he con ibu o s
The igh o Zeke Bake , Tama Law, Ma k Va dy, and S ephen Zeh o be iden i ied as he
au ho s o he edi o ial ma e ial, and o he au ho s o hei indi idual chap e s, has been
asse ed in acco dance wi h sec ions 77 and 78 o he Copy igh , Designs and Pa en s Ac 1988.
The Open Access e sion o his book, a ailable a www. aylo ancis.com, has been
made a ailable unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-Non Comme cial-No De i a i es
4.0 license. Funded by U.S. Na ional Science Founda ion, Uni e si y o Sou he n Indiana,
Sonoma S a e Uni e si y.
T adema k no ice: P oduc o co po a e names may be adema ks o egis e ed adema ks,
and a e used only o iden i ica ion and explana ion wi hou in en o in inge.
B i ish Lib a y Ca aloguing-in-Publica ion Da a
A ca alogue eco d o his book is a ailable om he B i ish Lib a y
ISBN: 978-1-032-53016-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-53017-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-40974-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748
Typese in Times New Roman
by codeMan a
Con en s
Lis o Con ibu o s xi
Acknowledgmen s x
In oduc ion x ii
ZEKE BAKER, TAMAR LAW, MARK VARDY, AND STEPHEN ZEHR
PART I
Clima e Change Science as a Social Issue: In oduc ion 1
ZEKE BAKER
1 Fu u e Times and Spaces: T acing Objec i i y, Scale, and Poli ics in he
Social Li e o Clima e Science 3
ZEKE BAKER
2 Me eo ology, Clima e Science, and Empi e: His o ies and Legacies 11
MARTIN MAHONY
3 Re hinking Ou His o ies and Rela ions wi h Clima e Change 19
CANDIS CALLISON
PART II
Theo izing Clima e, Science, and Socie y: In oduc ion 27
STEPHEN ZEHR
4 We Canno A o d No o Pe o m Cons uc ionis S udies o
Mains eam Clima e Science 29
MYANNA LAHSEN
5 Poli ical Economies o Clima e Science: Beyond Technological Villains
and Scien i ic Sa io s 39
ZEKE BAKER
i Con en s
PART III
Media and Public Communica ion abou Clima e Change: In oduc ion 47
STEPHEN ZEHR
6 Clima e Change Communica ion: Simple, Righ ? 49
STEPHEN ZEHR
7 Public Communica ion and Pe cep ions o Clima e Change in B azil 58
ELOISA BELING LOOSE AND ANABELA CARVALHO
8 News and Social Media Image y o Clima e Change: Analyzing he Role
and Impac o Visuals in Public Communica ion 66
MIKE S. SCHÄFER AND XIAOYUE YAN
PART IV
NGOs, Ci il Socie y, and Social Mo emen s: In oduc ion 75
MARK VARDY
9 Non-Go e nmen al O ganiza ions and he En i onmen al Mo emen :
Challenges in Clima e Change F aming 77
STEVEN YEARLEY
10 Expe Ac i is s and NGOs: Unde s anding and Ac ing on Global
Clima e Change 86
ADAM FLEISCHMANN
11 Ski ing he F ame: P epping and he Conse a i e
Poli ics o Clima e Change 93
ALLISON FORD
PART V
Clima e Jus ice: In oduc ion 101
TAMAR LAW
12 Pos ca ds om Small Town India: Si ua ed Clima e Jus ice, Science,
and Technology 103
ANKIT BHARDWAJ
13 Sola A o dances and he S uggle o Clima e Jus ice in Sou hwes Asia 111
KENDRA KINTZI
14 Ups eam Engagemen in he E a o Clima e Change 118
ROOPALI PHADKE
15 Clima e Jus ice: Taking Back he Commons 127
SHANGRILA JOSHI
Con en s ii
PART VI
Clima e Go e nance: In oduc ion 135
MARK VARDY
16 Clima e Change as On ological Unse ling: A View om he Ci y 137
HANNAH KNOX
17 The IPCC as a Body o Expe ise 144
REINER GRUNDMANN
18 Consensus, Na ional Sel -In e es , and he Shaping o Clima e Knowledge
in IPCC Assessmen P ocesses 152
MARK VARDY
19 T us a he Clima e Science-Policy In e ace 161
TIAGO RIBEIRO DUARTE
PART VII
Ene gy, Sus ainabili y, and Socio echnical T ansi ions: In oduc ion 167
STEPHEN ZEHR
20 Ene gy T ansi ions in a Wo ld o Pola ized Poli ics 169
DAVID J. HESS
21 Con igu ing Ma ke s and T ansac ions o Ene gy Sys em T ansi ion:
A Role o STS Resea ch 174
DANIEL BRESLAU
22 The Role o Use s in he Ene gy T ansi ion 180
MARIANNE RYGHAUG, TOMAS MOE SKJØLSVOLD, AND ROBERT NÆSS
23 STS and he Design o Fu u es 187
CLARK A. MILLER
PART VIII
Clima e Change Adap a ion and Resilience: In oduc ion 195
TAMAR LAW
24 Clima e Change Adap a ion and Resilience: Socio echnical and
Knowledge Dimensions 198
TIM FORSYTH
25 Re hinking Clima e Change Adap a ion 207
MARCUS TAYLOR
xi Con ibu o s
S e an Schä e in es iga es he poli ical, e hical, and epis emological dimensions o plane a y
sciences and echnologies. A esea ch g oup leade a he Resea ch Ins i u e o Sus ainabili y
in Po sdam, Ge many, he eaches a Humbold Uni e si y Be lin. As a membe o LiCo col-
lec i e he makes ilms, essays, and ins alla ions ha examine pas and u u e cho eog aphies
o men al and en i onmen al li e.
Julia Schube is a pos doc o al esea che a he Uni e si y o Speye . She is a sociologis
wo king in he ields o STS and science-policy s udies. He esea ch explo es he in e ela-
ion o science and poli ics, wi h a special ocus on no ions o expe ise.
Tomas Moe Skjøls old is P o esso o Science and Technology S udies a he No wegian Uni-
e si y o Science and Technology. His cu en in e es combines an in e es in accele a ed
and jus ansi ions, including he ensions and con o e sies ha a ise om compe ing goals.
Ka olina Sobecka is an a is , designe , and esea che examining social a angemen s ha
exploi , esis , o accommoda e echnological change. Sobecka has augh a SAIC, RISD,
SVA, and NYU, and has been a isi ing schola a Sc ipps Ins i u ion o Oceanog aphy.
Andy S i ling is P o esso o Science and Technology Policy in he Science Policy Resea ch
Uni a Sussex Uni e si y whe e he co-di ec ed he ESRC STEPS Cen e, wo king on poli-
ics o unce ain y and di e si y in science and socie y. A ellow o he UK Academy o So-
cial Sciences and o me campaigne and boa d membe o G eenpeace In e na ional, he’s
se ed in many policy ad iso y and academic e alua ion p ocesses.
Ma cus Taylo is P o esso and Head o Depa men in Global De elopmen S udies, Queen’s
Uni e si y, Canada. He has esea ched and published widely in he ields o clima e change
adap a ion and u al de elopmen wi h a ocus on li elihoods and labo in sou he n India.
Ma k Va dy is a acul y membe o he C iminology Depa men a Kwan len Poly echnic Uni-
e si y, Canada. He is in e es ed in d awing om STS o con ibu e o discussions o clima e
jus ice in g een c iminology.
Sa ah E. Vaughn is Associa e P o esso o An h opology a he Uni e si y o Cali o nia,
Be keley. She has conduc ed esea ch and w i en on clima e adap a ion on he in e sec ions
o echnoscience, clima e adap a ion, and ulne abili y h oughou he ci cum-Ca ibbean.
Xiaoyue Yan is a PhD candida e a he Ins i u e o Communica ion and Media Resea ch a he
Uni e si y o Zu ich. He esea ch ocuses on isual communica ion o clima e change and
compu a ional communica ion science.
S e en Yea ley is P o esso o Sociology o Scien i ic Knowledge a he Uni e si y o Edin-
bu gh in Sco land. He s udies he making o en i onmen al knowledge, by scien is s, public
o icials, campaigne s, and ci izens.
S ephen Zeh is P o esso Eme i us o Sociology a he Uni e si y o Sou he n Indiana, USA.
His pas esea ch ocused on clima e change scien i ic expe ise and i s ep esen a ion in he
media. He is cu en ly esea ching maple sy up p oduce s and hei adap a ion o echnologi-
cal changes, clima e change, and labo supply and allegiances.

Acknowledgmen s
The edi o s acknowledge inancial suppo o Open Access publishing om he U.S. Na ional
Science Founda ion P og ams in Science and Technology S udies and E hical and Responsible
Resea ch (G an # 2145997), Uni e si y o Sou he n Indiana O ice o he P o os , and Sonoma
S a e Uni e si y Lib a y.
Zeke Bake acknowledges he help ul eedback om Siobhan Rod iguez and Ma hew
Bi ens-Somme ille o hei wo k as s uden esea ch and edi o ial assis an s. Bake also ac-
knowledges suppo om he Sonoma S a e Uni e si y School o Social Sciences and he O ice
o he P o os o hei suppo in allowing me a cou se elease o see his p ojec o comple ion.
Ma k Va dy acknowledges he suppo o he 0.6% P o essional De elopmen Fund om
Kwan len Poly echnic Uni e si y, which unded a cou se elease o wo k on his book.
S ephen Zeh acknowledges he help ul eedback om he ollowing s uden wo ke s:
Abigail Bu on, Chase Deb uyn, and Cole Knee .
Finally, he edi o s oge he acknowledge he ha d wo k o all con ibu ing au ho s. We
app ecia e he spi i ed e o o collec i ely b ing a di e se and wide ange o cu ing-edge
esea ch o non-specialized s uden audiences. We us his e o will se e ins uc o s, s uden s,
and nex -gene a ion c i ical hinke s and schola s as hey wo k o unde s and, g apple wi h, and
add ess clima e change.
In oduc ion
Zeke Bake , Tama Law, Ma k Va dy, and S ephen Zeh
Wha We All Know Abou Clima e Change
Reade s o his p ime a e al eady amilia wi h clima e change. Global wa ming has been a
ix u e in na ional news in many na ions o h ee decades. Mos eade s will ha e been augh
i s undamen als in p ima y and seconda y school yea s. Mos eade s will ha e lea ned mo e
ad anced knowledge a he uni e si y le el. Excep o dieha d skep ics, we all know ha i is
an en i onmen al p oblem wi h po en ially disas ous consequences. We unde s and i s his o y
is linked o he indus ial e olu ion’s u n owa d bu ning ossil uels as a lexible, mo able,
s o able, and powe ul ene gy sou ce, and he expansion o hei use pos -WWII in wha is
some imes e med he G ea Accele a ion.
Mos o us also unde s and ha clima e change is closely linked o global inequali y. Pe
capi a g eenhouse gas emissions a e disp opo iona ely sou ced in weal hy na ions. We know
ha inequali y om his o ically di e en ial emission a es is s ill impac ul since g eenhouse
gases emain in he a mosphe e o a long ime. Bu we also know ha many na ions in he
Global Sou h, especially hose wi h high popula ions and going h ough apid de elopmen ,
a e ca ching up and in a ew ins ances su passing weal hy na ions in o al annual emissions. We
know ha while he e ec s o clima e change a e el wo ldwide, hey a e pa icula ly impac ul
o people in he Global Sou h, and poo people e e ywhe e, who ace challenges o d ough ,
loods, se e e wea he , and o he clima ic impac s wi h minimal capaci y o e ec i ely espond
o adap .
Reade s who come o his p ime wi h a na u al science o enginee ing backg ound will
know ha clima e change has been ex ensi ely scien i ically esea ched ac oss disciplines, ca e-
ully cons uc ed scien i ic epo s ha e been w i en, and o se e al decades scien is s ha e
pe sis en ly wa ned o u u e en i onmen al consequences. So why ha en’ we heeded hose
wa nings? Mos eade s will unde s and he ecalci ance o ac la gely due o poli ical ine ia
wi hin and ac oss na ions. Ou poli icians ha e ailed us. Due o skep icism o scien i ic ex-
pe ise, ies o he ossil uel indus y, na ional economies deeply dependen on bu ning ossil
uel, c oss-na ional challenges be ween oil-p oducing and non-oil-p oducing and iche na ions
and poo e na ions, and so on, ou poli ical leade s ha e been unable o shi us away, quickly
enough a leas , om ossil uels o blun o a leas he wo s o clima e change e ec s.
In sum, eade s a e likely well awa e o hese basic ea u es o clima e change, and mos
will hold deep knowledge o some o hem. We a e awa e o he p oblem la gely hanks o
scien i ic esea ch. We also know ha he enginee ing and design communi ies ha e de eloped
echnological solu ions ha would allow us o mo e away om ossil uels o enewable ene gy
sou ces i only he e is su icien poli ical and socie al will o implemen hem. In sum, mos
eade s will be amilia wi h he a gumen ha he main s icking poin s lie wi h he lack o
x iii Zeke Bake e al.
poli ical will, along wi h a gene al public ha lacks su icien knowledge o is esis an o mak-
ing necessa y e e yday li e adjus men s.
How Does STS Dis up Wha We All Know: Key Ques ions o he P ime
So why is he e a need o ye ano he academic book on clima e change? Ou answe is bo h
simple and complex. The edi o s and au ho s in his p ime app oach clima e change om an
in e disciplina y pe spec i e called Science and Technology S udies (STS), some imes also
e e ed o as science, echnology & socie y. STS has been a ound since he 1970s, in ol ing
esea che s om he social sciences, his o y, philosophy, and some na u al scien is s, enginee s,
and a chi ec s and designe s. Wi hou oo much de ail, STS esea ches he social, poli ical, cul-
u al, and economic shaping o scien i ic knowledge and echnology and how hey a e commu-
nica ed and eshape socie al in as uc u e, ins i u ions, s uc u es, and e e yday li e. Clima e
change is only one o many opics o in e es , bu i ecei es much STS a en ion because o i s
impo ance as an en i onmen al and socie al issue.
Wha does STS add o wha we al eady know abou clima e change? The p ima y and gene al
poin , and key mo i a ion o his p ime , is ha STS opens up impo an ques ions ha may
challenge wha we al eady know abou clima e change. I challenges and des abilizes some o
he uisms con ained in he i s ou pa ag aphs abo e. Now some eade s migh immedia ely
eac o his wi h he hough – “oh, jus ano he book ha a acks science and gi es odde o
clima e change skep ics and he ossil uel indus y.” Bu please ead on. He e a e some o he
key ques ions and poin s aised in his p ime .
The Social Cons uc ion o Clima e Change
STS unde s ands clima e change as a socially cons uc ed phenomenon ha could ha e been,
and s ill could be, unde s ood and shaped di e en ly. Clima e change is no a se , objec i e
en i y si ua ed in na u e. I is no jus one hing hough i is o en ep esen ed as such. Ra he ,
clima e change e ol ed om a his o y o knowledge-making ha cen e ed i as one global en i-
onmen al p oblem, albei wi h many di e se e ec s in di e en pa s o he wo ld. This his o y
o knowledge-making could ha e been o he wise. Does his mean ha clima e change as we
know i is no “ eal” o in ol es “ alse u hs,” as some skep ics migh claim? No. I means ha
clima e change is open o being in e p e ed and unde s ood di e en ly and ha hese al e na i e
na a i es a e no necessa ily w ong. Clima e change can mean many di e en hings o many
di e en people. This di e si y o hinking abou clima e change is explo ed in Pa s I and II,
and h oughou he p ime .
Media Rep esen a ions o Clima e Change
STS unde s ands ha he in o ma ion/knowledge low om knowledge p oduce s ( ypically
scien is s) h ough he media and o he public is a mo e complex han a simple linea p ocess
o accu a e communica ion and ca e ul lis ening o he scien is s. We ha e all hea d ha popula
eques /admoni ion – “jus lis en o he science” – as i pe ains o clima e change and o he is-
sues. I makes a g ea deal o sense. We may eel mo ally smug because we lis en o he science.
STS unpacks communica ion complexi ies ha make jus “lis ening o he science” o e ly
simplis ic and less meaning ul. Clima e change i sel is he e ogeneous and he e a e many ways
ha knowledge abou i can be amed o di e en easons and o di e en publics. The e a e
di e se ypes o spokespeople and o ganiza ions ha p esen “ he science” and hey do so in
In oduc ion xix
di e se ways, highligh ing, downplaying, o igno ing issues depending on hei in e es s and
wha hey hink hei audience needs o know o wishes o con i m. The esul can be mixed
messages. The media a e no jus a s anda dized il e h ough which scien i ic in o ma ion
lows, bu di e se se s o agen s and echnologies o choosing, adjus ing, and adap ing i o
hei audiences. Also, di e en publics b ing hei own knowledge, alues, and in e es s o cli-
ma e change, making hem no only selec i e consume s bu also ac i e shape s o wha clima e
change is. This complexi y is explo ed in de ail in Pa s III and IV in his p ime , as well as in
o he loca ions.
Social Mo emen s and Clima e Change
Media a e no he only way in which unde s andings o clima e change a e shaped. Social
mo emen o ganiza ions and en i onmen al non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) a e also
impo an – indeed i al – when i comes o shaping he public unde s anding o clima e change.
En i onmen al NGOs enac clima e change campaigns in ways ha bo ow om o he social
mo emen s such as he Ci il Righ s and Women’s Righ s, and Gay Libe a ion mo emen s ha
eme ged in he 1960s and 1970s o demand jus ice. Tha is, we o en see en i onmen al NGOs
s aging p o es allies, ma ches, s ikes, and each-ins o demand ac ion on clima e change. A
he same ime, conse a i e and libe a ian cul u al mo emen s, which a gue agains go e n-
men al egula ion o he economy, a e con ibu ing o al e na i e unde s andings o clima e
change held by many people. Bo h he conse a i e and en i onmen al mo emen s p o oundly
impac public unde s anding o clima e change, and in e es ingly, bo h o hem o en e e o
science in a simila way. Tha is, bo h mo emen s end o ea science as a uni ied body o
knowledge, he c edibili y o which is dependen on adhesion o a single scien i ic me hod.
Fo en i onmen alis s, his model o science lends au ho i y o hei claims (“jus lis en o he
science”), while o o he s any de ia ion om he supposed pu i y o his model is gi en as
a eason o disc edi all o clima e science. STS, in con as , ejec s he idea ha science is a
uni ied body o knowledge ha can be dis inguished om o he o ms o knowledge due o i s
adhe ence o a singula scien i ic me hod. The chap e s in Pa IV ake his pe spec i e o ex-
plo e in mo e de ail he ela ions be ween en i onmen al NGOs, he conse a i e and libe a ian
mo emen s, and public unde s anding o clima e change.
Clima e Change Inequali y and Jus ice
STS expands and poses new ques ions abou clima e change inequali y and jus ice. The e is
mo e complexi y o hese issues han he his o ical inequali y ac oss na ions in g eenhouse gas
emissions and he ac ha low-income na ions and poo people in gene al ace mo e damaging
clima e change impac s wi h less esilience o cope. To hese alid and impo an conce ns, STS
poses ques ions abou inequali y in access o and abili y o mobilize scien i ic and o he knowl-
edge abou clima e change. I also examines he jus ice implica ions o how clima e change is
add essed on he g ound, h ough adap a ion and mi iga ion e o s. STS poses ques ions abou
he unequal au ho i y o scien i ic and Indigenous and o he local knowledge abou clima e, i s
changes, and impac s. STS also opens ques ions abou how we ac ually concep ualize inequal-
i y and jus ice in he con ex o clima e change. Wha a e he dimensions o en i onmen al
inequali y and how do we know hem when we see hem? Wha o ms migh “clima e change
jus ice” ake and which ones could be p ac ically eached? Impo an ly, STS also opens ques-
ions abou he means h ough which clima e change inequali ies can be add essed by in oduc-
ing new me hods o public engagemen and o in eg a ing inequali y and jus ice conce ns

in o imagining clima e change u u es. Pa V o his p ime ocuses speci ically on ma e s
o clima e change inequali y and jus ice, bu one also inds hese issues in used in chap e s
h oughou he p ime .
Clima e Change Go e nance and Expe ise
The linea model o science o policy in o ms many ep esen a ions o clima e change. In he
linea model, scien is s i s de e mine he u h o a gi en phenomenon, and hen poli icians and
policymake s ac upon he knowledge hus gene a ed. This pe spec i e can be seen in he chal-
lenges oiced by G e a Thunbe g, who many o us admi e, when she admonishes wo ld leade s
o ailing o ake immedia e ac ion when scien i ic wa nings a e so clea . STS challenges he
linea model by opening up ques ions abou he s uc u e and ope a ion o ad iso y bodies,
scien i ic expe s, and expe ise. Ins ead o assuming ha science and policy exis , o should
exis , in wo sepa a e and dis inc sphe es, STS asks ques ions abou how bounda ies be ween
scien i ic ad ice and poli ical decision-making a e d awn in he i s place.
In Pa VI, chap e s explo e he complexi ies o clima e go e nance om he ci y scale o
he in e na ional. Di e en ques ions c op up a each o hese le els. Fo example, how can ci -
ies ans o m hei go e nance p ac ices om his o ical conce ns, such as economic g ow h, o
becoming clima e neu al, o how does he In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC)
di e en ia e be ween science and na ional and in e na ional go e nance bodies? Wha ole does
us play in scien i ic expe ise, and why migh coun ies in he Global Sou h mis us science
ha is oo ed in he Global No h?
Clima e Change and Socio echnical T ansi ions
How do we ac ually educe g eenhouse gases and adap o clima e change? In social science,
na u al science, and enginee ing disciplines, as well as in public and poli ical ci cles, he e
a e some imes pola ized iews abou whe he echnological changes o social and cul u al
changes should lead he way. Wi h he o me , human ingenui y is called upon o de elop new
echnologies and e o i old ones o wean socie ies om bu ning ossil uels and o build e-
silien in as uc u e ha can wi hs and clima e change. The e a e many examples o e o s in
hese di ec ions. Wi h he la e , li es yle and social s uc u al changes a e expec ed o sa e he
day. People, especially in weal hie coun ies, mus adjus hei cul u e, social s uc u e, and
socie al ins i u ions o adically educe dependence on ossil uels, while also shi ing esou ces
o mo e ulne able people globally, enabling hem o de elop hei socie ies in en i onmen-
ally benign ways and adap o clima e changes. Fo he la e , dependence upon echnological
de elopmen – “ echnical ixes” o socie al p oblems – may sol e one p oblem bu open o he s
due o unan icipa ed consequences. Technological op imis s, on he o he hand, asse ha i is
naï e o hink ha en enched human socie ies and cul u e can adjus apidly enough o p e en
he wo s clima e change p oblems.
STS dis up s his pola i y, no by claiming a middle g ound, bu e y simply by analy ically
combining he echnical and he social. Fo STS schola s, echnical changes a e also social
changes and ice e sa. Fo STS hey o m hyb id a angemen s, so i makes li le sense o y
o sepa a e hem ou . STS employs he concep “socio echnical” o one o i s a ian s (used
h oughou his p ime ) o e e o how so-called echnologies a e also social en i ies wi h he
capaci y o ac upon, be impac ed by, and esis o he social and echnical o ces. STS ques ions
and demons a es how mo emen o enewable ene gy sou ces, o example, equi es insepa-
able echnical, social, poli ical, cul u al, economic, and so on, changes ha a e o en esis ed,
xx Zeke Bake e al.
In oduc ion xxi
complex, open o ailu e, ha e unp edic able consequences, bu a e po en ially ans o ma i e.
We e e o his p ocess as socio echnical ansi ion. Di e en aspec s o socio echnical change
in ol ing ene gy ansi ion a e add essed in Pa VII o he p ime and o some deg ee in Pa s
VIII–XI.
A , In as uc u e, and Design
An endu ing impac o STS on o he academic disciplines is i s insis ence ha he social sci-
ences and humani ies analyze objec s and p ocesses once his o ically ese ed o he physical
and li e sciences. F om eminis philosophies o science, o example, we lea n ha knowledge
is always de eloped h ough he speci ic ways in which humans a e embodied in he physical
wo ld, no h ough – as much Enligh enmen hough p esupposed – he abili y o humans o cu
hei ies o i . STS’ impac on o he disciplines’ app oaches o clima e change can be ound in
Pa IX. The cen al p esupposi ion sha ed by hese chap e s is ha clima e change challenges
humans o e hink how we li e, and ha a – and c i iques o a – a e a i al way o eimag-
ining how his can be indi idually and collec i ely accomplished. STS is used o engage wi h
o he philosophies such as phenomenology o a icula e connec ions among inc easing le els
o a mosphe ic ca bon dioxide, ex eme wea he e en s, and u ban s o mwa e in as uc u e
designed o ou da ed clima ic no ms. Bu jus as impo an ly, STS connec s hese elemen s
wi h he social imagina ies ha guided he g ow h o ci ies as cen e s o he accumula ion o
capi al in he i s place. A is a way o depic ing hese connec ions isually, and STS is a way
o alking abou hem.
The e is an addi ional elemen o specula ion o men al expe imen ha chap e s in Pa IX
ask us o engage in. Fo example, wha happens i we hink o clouds and a mosphe es as media?
This may seem s ange o coun e in ui i e a i s – a e all, a en’ media hings like mo ies,
newspape a icles, and Ins ag am eeds? Bu STS p o ides a way o see he a mosphe e as a
gian can as on which indus ialized humani y has insc ibed i s ma k. Once so insc ibed, he
a mosphe e becomes an ac i e agen , au ho ing e en s ha impac humans. In o he wo ds,
whe eas we no mally hink o he a mosphe e as “ou he e” o “in na u e” sepa a e om hu-
mans, and which we can know objec i ely h ough science, Pa IX encou ages us o hink how
he a mosphe e is al eady a pa o who we a e.
Clima e Enginee ing (Geoenginee ing)
Wha abou some o he wo s scena ios whe e we a e unable o g a i a e away om ossil uels
quickly enough and ace calami ous e ec s o clima e change? A e clima e enginee ing p ojec s
(also e e ed o as geoenginee ing) po en ial solu ions, o a e hese he wo s o m o echnical
ixes no ed abo e? One also inds pola ized posi ions on his issue om social science and na u-
al science schola s. Fo some (en i onmen alis s and many schola s), e en clima e enginee ing
esea ch is en isioned as c ea ing a loophole o a oiding he mo e di icul challenge o wean-
ing ou sel es om ossil uels. Mo ing down his pa h allows poli ical decision-make s o hesi-
a e, hinking ha pe haps some majo clima e enginee ing echnology will su icien ly emo e
g eenhouse gases om he a mosphe e o educe sola adia ion eaching he ea h’s su ace o
a oid (expensi e) policies ha hei cons i uen s will oppose. Opposi ion o clima e enginee -
ing esea ch also ecognizes he likely ou come o un a o able unan icipa ed consequences ha
la ge echnological p ojec s o en b ing. Those in a o o pu suing clima e enginee ing e-
sea ch, on he o he hand, o en see i as a Plan B ha can be d awn upon should hings ge ou
o hand. I ’s only esea ch a e all. We will s ill hold he op ion o implemen ing he echnology
o no . Rela edly, some schola s a gue ha i will be impossible o each a ge ed concen a ions
o ca bon dioxide equi alen (CO2e) wi hou implemen ing some clima e enginee ing echnolo-
gies. Resea ch now will posi ion us wi h he capaci y o choose he mos e ec i e echnologies
wi h he ewes likely unan icipa ed consequences.
STS schola s hold a mo e nuanced pe spec i e on clima e enginee ing. They unde s and ha
he e is an impo an his o y o echnological p ojec s o con ol clima e and he wea he , da ing
a leas o pos -WWII cloud seeding esea ch, and how his his o y has shaped pe cep ions o
clima e enginee ing esea ch oday. STS analyzes he abo e pola ized opinions in ligh o his
his o y, emphasizing hei limi a ions as discou ses. STS add esses he poli ics o clima e engi-
nee ing, bo h as an empi ical p ojec and o help o mula e e hical guidelines o less isky and
mo e jus implemen a ion o he echnologies should ha decision be made. STS esea che s
analyze he po en ial implemen a ion o clima e enginee ing echnologies, unde s anding hem
as socio echnologies ha combine echnical, social, poli ical, and cul u al componen s. Along
his pa h, a goal o STS esea ch is o an icipa e he unan icipa ed consequences such ha wise
decisions a e possible ea lie in he de elopmen o he echnology. Pa X o his p ime ocuses
on his esea ch.
Clima e Change Fu u es
Clima e change has a pas and p esen , bu i also has a u u e. While much o he pas and p e-
sen a e ex ensi ely esea ched wi h knowledge eadily a ailable, clima e change u u es a e
mo e unce ain and pose signi ican challenges o (especially social science) esea che s. F om
en i onmen alis s and o en he scien i ic communi y we ecei e doomsday scena ios, wi h he
ca ea ha i we ac immedia ely, we can p e en he wo s ou comes. Technically, hese sce-
na ios ake shape in clima e change models ha p edic u u e wa ming unde di e en u u e
g eenhouse gas emission scena ios. These scena ios ange om “business as usual” yielding
e y s a k global wa ming ou comes o a scena io whe e s ic emission educ ions ha e been
implemen ed in line wi h he Pa is Ag eemen o o he na ional commi men s.
STS c i iques clima e change modeling esea ch and scena io de elopmen o hei inabili y
o in eg a e social and poli ical cons ain s and oppo uni ies and hei singula , global p e-
dic ions when clima e change u u es will be expe ienced locally and di e en ially by people
wo ldwide. STS emphasizes he need o mul iple pa hways o building clima e change u u es
and o e s a p o ocol o acili a ing and judging hem. These pa hways ypically expand beyond
emissions educ ions and basic adap a ion o add ess b oade sus ainable de elopmen goals o
building mo e equi able socie ies, imp o ing human well-being, while also p o ec ing he en i-
onmen . STS employs he concep o socio echnical imagina ies o desc ibe he me hodologi-
cal p ocess and ou comes o doing his u u e building wo k. Ra he han a echnical p ocedu e
like scena io de elopmen in clima e change modeling, de eloping socio echnical imagina ies
is mo e democ a ic and localized, ecognizing ha people a local le els necessa ily need o be
in ol ed in building communi y esilience o clima e change and adjus ing away om ossil
uel-dependen daily li es. The emphasis in STS esea ch is on he plu al – pa hways, a he
han one dic a ed pa hway o limi ed se o u u e ou comes ha eme ge om scena io building
based on clima e change models. STS schola s also ha e collabo a ed wi h a is s, designe s,
and a chi ec s in hei hinking abou designing in as uc u e and using a and o he aes he ic
ideas o building mo e sus ainable u u es. These conce ns a e add essed in Pa s VIII, IX, and
XI in he p ime and a e also add essed in chap e s in Pa VII.
xxii Zeke Bake e al.
In oduc ion xxiii
His o y and Sugges ed Uses o he P ime
The idea o his p ime eme ged om discussions a a wo kshop in June 2022 unded by he
U.S. Na ional Science Founda ion (P og ams in Science and Technology S udies and E hical
and Responsible Resea ch). The wo kshop, held a he Uni e si y o Sou he n Indiana, cen e ed
a ound STS esea ch on clima e change. The ou edi o s o his p ime ook he lead, solici ing
chap e s om wo kshop a endees and o he STS schola s esea ching clima e change. Funding
om NSF (Awa d #2145997) and om he Uni e si y o Sou he n Indiana and Sonoma S a e
Uni e si y enabled Open Access publica ion o he ull p ime .
The model o his p ime is based on he Ame ican Sociological Associa ion Jou nal Con-
ex s, which publishes cu ing-edge esea ch, policy-o ien ed pieces, and essays w i en o be
accessible o and in eg a ed wi hin sociology unde g adua e cou ses. The edi o s ha e aimed
o p ime chap e s ha discuss ocused STS esea ch p ojec s o ha e iew an a ea o STS
esea ch on clima e change. This book is no a ex book and is no in ended o p o ide a com-
p ehensi e o e iew o STS o social science esea ch on clima e change. Ra he , he p ime
is mo e selec i e and specialized, highligh ing key opical a eas o esea ch ha can be used as
dep h pieces o examples o b oade opics aised in social science o na u al science clima e
change o en i onmen al s udies cou ses. Chap e s migh be selec ed and used indi idually as
hey ela e o speci ic cou se opics, o he p ime as a whole can be easily in eg a ed in o a
cou se.
Chap e au ho s we e asked o minimize hei use o e e ences and academic ja gon. Read-
e s will he e o e ind ewe e e ences in chap e s han no mally ound in pee - e iewed aca-
demic a icles. We did his o imp o e eadabili y, bu also ecognize ha each chap e owes
c edi o a la ge body o esea ch. To suppo eade s in unde s anding and de ining heo e ical
ideas, key concep s and heo ies ha e been bolded wi h hei de ini ions close o hei ini ial
in oduc ion. The eade will ind some epe i ion ac oss chap e s o bolded concep s in o de
o ein o ce hem, while also acknowledging and emb acing ha indi idual concep s can be pu
o a ange o uses ac oss opical domains. A i s conclusion, mos chap e s con ain a selec i e
se o u he eadings sepa a ed om he e e ence lis . These eadings a e judged by au ho s o
p o ide he bes in oduc ion o esea ch opics con ained in he chap e and a e a good s a ing
poin should he eade wish o pu sue hei own esea ch p ojec on ha opic.
6 Zeke Bake
esponsibly add ess social needs and ad ance equi y in he ace o clima e change impac s. Fo
con ex , ope a ional me eo ology in he U.S. is p esen ly o ganized in go e nmen h ough he
U.S. Na ional Wea he Se ice (NWS). My ocus he e is on how NWS o ecas ing can add ess
socially ele an ime ames anging om days o mon hs o decades. Among wea he o ecas -
e s, imescales like 24-hou , 5-day, and one-mon h pe iods a e di icul o link oge he om a
me eo ological s andpoin . A wea he o ecas e ’s p edic i e skill will s op when in e -model
compa ison makes wea he o ecas s mo e like noise han knowledge. Longe ange (e.g., sea-
sonal and beyond) ou looks can ep esen p obabilis ic ends, bu wi h a ques ionable sense o
whe he o no a highly unce ain ou look will be use ul o people. (A ield o ailo ed, decision
suppo se ices, called DSS, has a isen o con on his p oblem.) In his con ex , STS schola s
can pa ch oge he he pe spec i es ha collec i ely make “ u u e wea he ” meaning ul, hus
en iching wha so s o knowledge a e possible and desi able.
In he Alaskan A c ic con ex , whe e I conduc ed ieldwo k in 2020, o keen in e es o many
is he ishing season o a ious comme cial and subsis ence ishe ies. Such a season is de e -
mined no only by a calenda bu also by egula o y and economic p essu es, a ailabili y o
abundance o he a ge species, and wea he pa e ns and condi ions ha ende ma ine ac i -
i y sa e, isky, o impossible. Based on my esea ch wi h ma ine s in he Be ing Sea, complex
i uals s uc u e how ma ine s e alua e wea he o ecas s, conside isk, and make decisions.
Fu he mo e, ma ine-dependen communi ies exp ess deep unce ain y ega ding hei li eli-
hood, which may be ied o speci ic animal species, he popula ions o which a e unde going
apid shi s because o he changing Be ing Sea ecosys em. The imescales o e e yday wea he ,
season (b oadly cons ued), and clima e hus in e ac o shape ma ine s’ cou ses o ac ion. Ye ,
me eo ologis s poo ly unde s and he p ocesses h ough which wea he and clima e in o ma ion
come o ma e o ma ine decision-making. These scien is s and in o ma ion p o ide s, in-
deed, may ne e ha e been o he communi ies hey se e. Analysis o he social li e o wea he
and clima e science pe mi s us o see scien i ic in o ma ion wi h e e ence o he ange o o he
ac o s in luencing how people go abou an icipa ing he u u e. This p ocess o econs uc ing
wha I ha e called “an icipa o y cul u e” can imp o e wea he o ecas ing and he alue o
wea he o ecas s o people (Bake , 2021). In he case a hand, i will help hem ish mo e sa ely
and hink abou long- e m economic and li elihood s a egies. Such an app oach o ollowing
he escaling o wea he and clima e in o ma ion p o ides a way o conside clima e change
impac s ac oss mul iple imescales, especially among communi ies unde se ed o poo ly un-
de s ood by clima e science.
Despi e helping communi ies an icipa e he u u e, a e he e pe haps some p oblema ic social
ou comes ega ding he no el capaci ies o p edic and p epa e o disas e s a smalle geo-
g aphic scales? To add ess his ques ion, we need o ask who ge s o use his science and who
doesn’ , and o wha pu poses. To assess aspec s o hese ques ions, me eo ologis F iede ike
O o and colleagues (2020) pe o med a s udy o e en a ibu ion in cases o ex eme wea he
e en s and ound s a k inequali ies in how clima e science is escaled and e ined ac oss coun-
ies. They iden i y “disc epancy be ween whe e a ibu ion s udies a e conduc ed and whe e
he la ges damages associa ed wi h ex eme wea he e en s a e,” esul ing in “a sys ema ic
(selec ion) bias in a ibu ion s udies owa d ocusing on places wi h lowe ulne abili y.” So,
weal hie coun ies wi h g ea e ies be ween science and go e nmen ha e g ea e capaci y o
mobilize a ibu ion science o suppo o ecas ing and adap a ion e o s. By con as , poo e
coun ies ace g ea e ulne abili y o ex eme e en s and ha e less scien i ic capaci y o o e-
cas and p epa e o such e en s.
Wha he cases o e en a ibu ion science and ope a ional me eo ology on A c ic seasonal-
i y show is i s ha clima e science is changing, speci ically by scaling o na ional, egional,

Fu u e Times and Spaces 7
and local con ex s. Scien is s a e likewise wo king ac oss imescales. We migh call his inno a-
ion. Howe e , he key akeaway is ha he social li e o clima e science is necessa ily ied up
wi h o he social ins i u ions and in e es s. I may he e o e “ escale” in a way ha esponsi ely
sol es he needs o some g oups (in he case o e ined o ecas ing echniques), while also gen-
e a ing new o ms o social inequali y (in he case o unequal access o e en a ibu ion and
ela ed no el di ec ions o clima e science).
How Clima e Science A icula es Powe
Wea he o ecas s and clima e se ices o m one way in which clima e science ela es o, o is
p o ided by, he go e nmen . These a e la gely wi hin wha sociologis Pie e Bou dieu has
called “ he le hand” o he s a e, which in es s in ci izen well-being by esponding o popula
demands o wel a e and se ices. We can also ollow he social li e o escaled clima e science
o e o he “ igh hand” o he s a e. This clima e-impac ed hand o he s a e cen ally ea u es
issues o e i o iali y, economic and mili a y/geopoli ical hegemony, social con ol, na ional
secu i y, and he poli ical dema ca ion o wha Bux on and Hayes (2015) discuss in he con ex
o clima e c isis as “ he secu e and he dispossessed.” How a e ecen ends in he social li e o
clima e science implica ed in s a e-making p ojec s ha aim o go e n clima e in hese e ms?
An ini ial answe begins by ecognizing ha a majo shi in e o s o go e n clima e change
occu ed a ound he middle o he i s decade o he wen y- i s cen u y, when social ac o s
con e ged h ough e o s o know and go e n clima e change in i s e ec s (e.g. by p epa ing
o disas e s) and no only in i s causes (e.g. by inding ways o educe g eenhouse gas emis-
sions). A go e nmen al logic had come o cen e on s a egic an icipa ion o and p epa a ion o
impending clima e isk, pe haps e en ca as ophe. Al hough social mo emen s like Ex inc ion
Rebellion ha e mo e isibly amed clima e change wi h e e ence o ca as ophe, he U.S.
na ional secu i y s a e is also ac i e on his on . Ye , how did he logic o na ional clima e
secu i y o m, gi en ha en i onmen alis s and scien is s had long emphasized clima e change
as a quin essen ially global en i onmen al p oblem? Following he social li e o clima e science
helps pu oge he how scien i ic de elopmen s a he na ional and egional le els ha e come o
in o m a whole new a ena o connec ing he na ional s a e o clima e science.
To unde s and wha clima e secu i y looks like, le us u n o he ise o clima e secu i y ex-
pe s and he ise o secu i y echnologies. Clima e secu i y expe ise comp ises he ac o s and
expe o ganiza ions ha a e o ien ed owa d ende ing ca as ophic clima e u u es go e nable
in he p esen . Secu i y echnologies can be de ined as he a ay o scien i ic p oduc s, su eil-
lance ac i i ies, and modeling echniques ha ep esen u u e isks in o de o acili a e s a e-
gic ac ion based on an icipa ed poli ical and mili a y ins abili y o widesp ead social disloca ion.
Clima e secu i y expe s, who in he U.S. con ex ha e a isen ou o hink anks, he de-
ense es ablishmen , and he pe iphe ies o clima e science and policy, a e eme ging as one
so o p ophe o a go e nable o de amid impending c ises. Despi e he claims among cli-
ma e secu i y expe s ha hei ac i i ies anscend he pola ized con ex o pa isan poli ics,
he way in which u u e h ea s a e conside ed, e alua ed, and go e ned is ha dly an apoli ical
exe cise. Changes in clima e-impac ed pa e ns, like ag icul u al p oduc i i y, he equency o
high-impac disas e s, wa e a ailabili y, coas al zone inunda ion, human displacemen and mi-
g a ion lows, and con lic s ea u ing na u al esou ces a e conside ed in ligh o go e nmen al
p io i ies and isions o secu i y.
O special impo ance is he ca ego ical dis inc ions made be ween, on he one hand, hose
who dese e p o ec ion and a e o be poli ically inco po a ed in o he body poli ic, and on he
o he hand, hose who a e o be excluded. Recen his o y is impo an o conside how u u e
8 Zeke Bake
clima e impac s migh be go e ned in pa h ough clima e secu i y expe ise. O e he i s
decade o he wen y- i s cen u y, a mili a ized U.S. mig a ion sys em was o i ied along wi h
an in e na ional Wa on Te o , jus as a deeply poli icized clima e science led o clima e policy
ailu e. (In 2001, P esiden Geo ge W. Bush enounced any in en ion o abide by he Kyo o
P o ocol, a ea y ha would ha e equi ed he Uni ed S a es o egula e and educe ca bon emis-
sions.) A g owing cad e o expe s hus d ew upon he secu i y implica ions o clima e change
as a powe ul aming o spu clima e policy ac ion. Gi en he poli ics o mig a ion and e o -
ism, clima e-mig a ion and e o is expe ise ha e gained special ele ance o hose in es ed
in go e ning clima e change as a eal-wo ld h ea . Thus, he 2014 U.S. Depa men o De ense
Quad ennial De ense Re iew emphasized ha clima e impac s “a e h ea mul iplie s ha will
agg a a e s esso s,” leading o “condi ions ha can enable e o is ac i i y and o he o ms o
iolence.” Clima e pa e ns hemsel es ha dly de e mine such amings o he clima e p oblem
and hei up ake in de ense and secu i y policy.
Le us u n o secu i y echnologies. Se e al scien i ic de elopmen s a e cen al o how
clima e secu i y expe ise wo ks. Fi s , as in oduced in he p e ious sec ion, escaled clima e
models a ine -scale esolu ion p o ide an impo an way o scien is s o p ojec how cli-
ma e change will impac speci ic a eas, esou ces, popula ions, and economic sec o s. Second,
scien is s can hen use egional modeling o a ibu e geog aphically delimi ed sociopoli ical
e en s o global wa ming. Regional clima e modeling echniques, when u ilized by clima e
secu i y expe s, can become a powe ul echnology h ough which o go e n u u e secu i y
h ea s. Secu i y expe s ha e long ecognized ha na ional secu i y h ea s en ail high- isk,
low-p obabili y e en s, like a esou ce con lic ans o ming in o an in e na ional mili a y c i-
sis. Ye , clima e secu i y expe s ha e only ecen ly used e en a ibu ion s udies, adap ed
om me eo ology, o an icipa e such e en s. One example is Kelley e al.’s (2015) s udy, pub-
lished in he P oceedings o he Na ional Academy o Sciences, which e alua ed he impac o
global wa ming on con lic in Sy ia and subsequen mig a ion. The opic—se ing as a case
o a “ h ea -mul iplying” clima e e en —has ecei ed widesp ead a en ion among clima e se-
cu i y expe s in ecen yea s. In he cases o he wa in Sy ia o he A ab Sp ing, s udies link
d ough , u baniza ion, and a med con lic as e en s ha will likely become mo e common in
he u u e because o clima e change. Pa icula ly signi ican in hese egional clima e s udies
is he ela i ely no el scien i ic capaci y o isola e he impac o an h opogenic clima e change
on egional-scaled pa e ns and e en s—in his case, ega ding Medi e anean d ough . We see
his elsewhe e, oo. In he A c ic, an icipa ed clima e secu i y h ea s include geopoli ical en-
sion a ound wha s a es ge o con ol o egula e A c ic shipping ou es ha a e p ojec ed o
open wi h an ice- ee A c ic.
Such is he social li e o clima e secu i y expe ise. These de elopmen s in clima e expe ise
can be engaged c i ically by assessing how hey ma e o a ious “hands” o he s a e. Al hough
many changes in science and go e nmen a e no so simple, i emains possible o ask: is he
social li e o clima e science (1) acili a ing si ua ions o inequali y and exclusion, o is i (2)
building equi y in he ace o inc easing clima e isk?
Ques ions emain abou whe e he ield o clima e secu i y expe ise is headed, and how
i migh gain p ominence as he clima e c isis becomes an ope a ing assump ion a he han
a poli ical challenge o s a e powe . Will de elopmen s in clima e science be success ully en-
olled in clima e secu i y p ojec s, o migh hey eo ien o al e na i e ins i u ions and alues?
I igh -wing poli ical pa ies disa ow clima e change denial and weaken hei ies o he ossil
uel indus y—a si ua ion ha would con as sha ply wi h ecen decades— hen would a new
consensus conside clima e secu i y expe ise and secu i y echnologies as he mos impo an
kinds o clima e science amid deepening clima e c isis? Answe ing hese ques ions cen ally
in ol es ollowing he social li e o a as -changing clima e science, wi h a pa icula ocus on
Fu u e Times and Spaces 9
how clima e scien is s and hei ools a e embedded in, and dynamically con igu ed wi h, a i-
ous hands o he s a e.
Conclusion
In his chap e , I ha e a gued ha clima e science can be ea ed less as a body o ac s and
claims and mo e so a dynamic ield o p ac ice con igu ed wi h a ange o social ins i u ions.
This basic pe spec i e pe mi ed explo a ion o he objec i i y o global clima e science, an a -
en ion o he changes happening wi hin clima e science, and inally un olding ela ions be ween
clima e knowledge and powe . In his accoun , clima e science claims and ep esen a ions did
no ca y hei own meaning o hei own implied ac ions, and hey did no eme ge om an in-
isible hand o scien i ic a ionali y o inno a ion. The clima e does no explain i sel . No does
he cha ac e o science. Ra he , he dynamics o social p ac ices come o shape wha clima e
science “is,” wha i “does” o pe o ms (and o whom), and how i becomes consequen ial o
social ins i u ions, including, in his case, he s a e.
This means we can ha e ou cake and ea i oo: Fi s , we can ad ance objec i i y—s ong
objec i i y— ega ding clima e eali ies, speci ically by di e si ying he oices wi hin clima e
science and e lec ing upon he p esumed alues and goals ha shape esea ch and in o ma ion.
Second, we can c i ically engage o ques ion no el di ec ions wi hin clima e science while also
seeking o imp o e exis ing science and i s public uses. Finally, we can e ain commi men s o
clima e policy goals and social causes like clima e jus ice while also commi ing o igo ous
empi ical analysis o how clima e science a icula es powe ela ions. Such a e some o he wide
a enues opened up by STS app oaches ha ollow he social li e o clima e science.
Fu he Reading
Dalby, S. (2022). Re hinking En i onmen al Secu i y. Chel enham: Edwa d Elga Publishe s.
McDonald, M. (2021). Ecological Secu i y: Clima e Change and he Cons uc ion o Secu i y. Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. doi:10.1017/9781009024495
Yua, E., Raymond-Yakoubian, J., Daniel, R. A., and Behe, C. (2022). “A F amewo k o Co-P oduc ion
o Knowledge in he Con ex o A c ic Resea ch.” Ecology and Socie y 27(1). doi: 10.5751/
ES-12960–270134
Re e ences
Bake , Z. (2021). “An icipa o y Cul u e in he Be ing Sea: Wea he , Clima e, and Tempo al Dissonance,”
Wea he , Clima e, and Socie y 13(4), pp. 783–95. doi: 10.1175/WCAS-D-21–0066.1
Bux on, N. and Hayes, B., eds. (2015). The Secu e and he Dispossessed: How he Mili a y and Co po a-
ions a e Shaping a Clima e-changed Wo ld. Ams e dam: Plu o P ess/TNI.
Go, J. (2016). Pos colonialism and Social Theo y. London: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Ha away, D. (1988). “Si ua ed Knowledges: The Science Ques ion in Feminism and he P i ilege o Pa -
ial Pe spec i e,” Feminis S udies, 14(3), pp. 575–599. h ps://doi.o g/10.2307/3178066
Ha ding, S. (2008). Sciences om Below: Feminisms, Pos coloniali ies, and Mode ni ies. Du ham, NC:
Duke Uni e si y P ess.
Kelley, C. P., Moh adi, S., Cane, M. A., Seage , R., and Kushni , Y. (2015). “Clima e change in he Fe ile
C escen and implica ions o he ecen Sy ian d ough ,” P oceedings o he Na ional Academy o Sci-
ences, 112, pp. 3241–3246. h ps://doi.o g/10.1073/pnas.1421533112
Ma lon, J., Neyens, L., Je e son, M., Rosen hal, S., Howe, P., Mildenbe ge , M. and Leise owi z,
A. (2022). “Pe cei ed Ha m om Global Wa ming Is Becoming Mo e Widesp ead,” Yale P og am
on Clima e Change Communica ion. A ailable a : h ps://clima ecommunica ion.yale.edu/publica ions/
pe cei ed-ha m-ycom-2021/
10 Zeke Bake
Moon, T. A., D uckenmille , M. L., and Thoman, R. L., eds. (2021). A c ic Repo Ca d 2021. h pp://doi.
o g/10.25923/5s0 -5163
Nelson, A. (2016). The Social Li e o DNA: Race Repa a ions and Reconcilia ion A e he Genome. Bos-
on: Beacon P ess.
O o, F. E. L., Ha ing on, L., Schmi , K., Philip, S., Kew, S., an Oldenbo gh, G. J., Singh, R., Ki-
mu ai, J., and Wolski, P. (2020). “Challenges o Unde s anding Ex eme Wea he Changes in Lowe
Income Coun ies,” Bulle in o he Ame ican Me eo ological Socie y 101(10), E1851–60. doi: 10.1175/
BAMS-D-19–0317.1
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-3
In oduc ion
In an a icle w i en o Time magazine in 2022, en i onmen al schola Gaia Vince explo ed he
p essing ques ion o human mig a ion in esponse o clima e change. Vince sugges s ha e e-
yone on he plane will ei he need o mo e o escape he wo s impac s o a changing clima e
o will be in ol ed in welcoming (hope ully) mig an communi ies o hei new homes, com-
muni ies, and coun ies.
Vince easons ha on he whole, humani y will ha e o mo e no hwa ds and upwa ds. A -
eas like he Rocky Moun ains in No h Ame ica o he Alps in Eu ope will p o ide e uge om
ex eme hea and d ough , bu he a icle ocuses la gely on he A c ic – a eas like no he n
Canada, Alaska, Sibe ia, and G eenland – sugges ing ha as hese egions haw, hey’ll become
new hubs o se lemen , ag icul u e, and ade. The ques ion o wha would become o hese e-
gions’ cu en inhabi an s, especially indigenous communi ies and na i e wildli e, is le la gely
unanswe ed. Ins ead, Vince ocuses on how he global communi y will need o:
look a he wo ld a esh and de elop new plans based on geology, geog aphy, and ecology.
In o he wo ds, iden i y whe e he eshwa e esou ces a e, whe e he sa e empe a u es a e,
whe e ge s he mos sola o wind ene gy, and hen plan popula ion, ood and ene gy p oduc-
ion a ound ha .
(Vince, 2022)
Vince’s call o a new way o looking a he wo ld h ough he lenses o ‘geology, geog aphy,
and ecology’, in o de o suppo a adically new o m o poli ical planning based on he global
edis ibu ion o human popula ions and se lemen s, is ce ainly adical, and pe haps neces-
sa y. O e he las ew hund ed yea s he p ac ice o ‘planning’ has been la gely a s a e-based
a ai , and one migh a gue ha humani y’s collec i e ailu e so a o adequa ely deal wi h
clima e change is a p oduc o ou mos powe ul ins i u ions being wedded o he geog aphical
o m o he na ion-s a e and being seemingly unable o e ec i ely coope a e beyond bo de s.
None heless, Vince’s ‘new way o looking’ is no en i ely unp eceden ed. In ac , i has cu ious
and – I’ll sugges in his chap e – consequen ial echoes o how hings like ecology and clima e
we e hough abou and deal wi h in ea lie colonial con ex s, pa icula ly du ing he pe iod o
Eu opean ‘high impe ialism’ om he la e 19 h o he mid-20 h cen u ies. Indeed, we can loca e
he o igins o many o he mode n sciences o he en i onmen in his pe iod.
Unde s anding hese his o ies is i al o making su e ha he connec ions be ween clima e
science and decision-making do no ep oduce colonial modes o hough and ac ion. We need o
unde s and whe e clima e da a comes om, his o ically, and how hei p oduc ion and use was
2 Me eo ology, Clima e Science,
and Empi e
His o ies and Legacies
Ma in Mahony
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.

12 Ma in Mahony
shaped by local con ex s o powe and exploi a ion. Doing so can help us gua d agains unjus
exe cises o powe in he name o hings like clima e change adap a ion, and o help ed ess
une en pa e ns o pa icipa ion in clima e science oday.
An STS App oach o he P oblem
Resea ch in science and echnology s udies (STS) emphasises he powe o science in he mak-
ing o wo lds. Wha does ha mean? Well, one way o hink abou he ole o science in making
wo lds is in ela ion o long his o ical p ocesses, like he eme gence o na ion-s a es o he ise
and all o empi es. Schola ship by his o ians and STS esea che s has shown how scien i ic
p ac ices like geome y and s a is ics we e cen al o he eme gence o he na ion-s a e as a po-
li ical o m in places like Eu ope and Eas Asia. Simply pu , he na ion-s a e is he conjunc ion
o poli ical powe and adminis a i e bu eauc acy. To go e n e ec i ely, you he e o e needed
o be able o coun , measu e, analyse, and pe haps p edic hings like popula ion changes, ag-
icul u al yields, and e i o ial ex en . The simila i y o he e ms ‘s a e’ and ‘s a is ics’ is no
coincidence. And when we look a he ise o Eu opean empi es – Po uguese, Spanish, Du ch,
F ench, and B i ish, o example – om he 16 h cen u y onwa ds, o he echniques o mak-
ing obus knowledge o se e powe ul in e es s come o he o e. Sciences like as onomy,
hyd og aphy, and me eo ology we e c ucial o ma i ime na iga ion; expe s in ecology, ca og-
aphy, geology, and an h opology we e c ucial o ‘ aking s ock’ o new colonial e i o ies and
hei peoples, en i onmen s and esou ces; and a eas o schola ship like opical and e e ina y
medicine and ‘acclima isa ion’ we e deemed c ucial o main aining he heal h o ansplan ed
people, animals, and plan s in new places. As such, many o he majo mode n disciplines o he
na u al, physical, and social sciences we e c ucial o he expansion and unc ioning o empi es.
In u n, hose sciences did e y well ou o impe ialism. Money lowed in o hem, and ca ee s
could be made and ame achie ed h ough ea s o explo a ion, expe imen a ion, and disco e y.
I science shaped impe ial o unes, impe ialism also shaped he de elopmen o sciences. Pu
ano he way, science and empi e we e co-p oduced. Resea ch ques ions and p io i ies we e
in o med by impe ial in e es s, and colonial ways o seeing he wo ld (e.g. as ipe o exploi a-
ion, de ined by acial hie a chies, and ull o sca ily di e en clima es, en i onmen s, peoples,
and diseases) had p o ound impac s on how disciplines de eloped in o he o ms we see oday
(Chak aba i, 2021). Resea che s in STS y o unde s and his wo-way a ic be ween science
and empi e, asking how hey shaped each o he , and how he ongoing legacies o impe ialism
con inue o shape how science is done, by whom, on wha o who, and o wha end.
Wi h hese ques ions in mind, le ’s u n o he speci ic con ex s in which me eo ology and
clima e science we e co-p oduced wi h empi e.
Science and Empi e: Piecing Toge he he Global Clima e?
A gumen s abou he science and poli ics o a changing clima e ha e a longe his o y han you
migh hink. As Eu opean ad en u e s, se le s, and colonis s se ou o new ( o hem) co ne s o
he globe om he 16 h cen u y onwa ds, hey encoun e ed new clima es which, o hei equen
disappoin men and puzzlemen , di e ed g ea ly om hose a home. Eu opean se le s in No h
Ame ica we e pa icula ly exed by he clima es o places a simila la i udes o Eu ope, which
none heless seemed much mo e a ying and ex eme han hose o he ‘Old Wo ld’. Fo much o
his pe iod clima e was unde s ood as a ying chie ly by la i ude. Bu hese new clima es aised
an in iguing ques ion. Pe haps humans had o e idden he na u al, la i udinal de e minan s o
clima e? Wha i , o e cen u ies o se lemen , de o es a ion, and ag icul u al in ensi ica ion,
Me eo ology, Clima e Science, and Empi e 13
Eu opean clima es had been somehow mode a ed, hei ough edges – as ound in he eezing
win e s and humid summe s o New England – smoo hed o by human modi ica ions o he
landscape? I ha was co ec , pe haps Ame ican clima es could be ‘ amed’ by emba king on
a simila p og amme o landscape ans o ma ion – a con enien clima ological jus i ica ion
o he apid colonisa ion and se lemen o new lands. Elsewhe e, deba e aged abou whe he
de o es a ion was ha ing mo e nega i e impac s on local clima es. On islands like S Helena
and Mau i ius, schola s and adminis a o s wo ied abou whe he de o es a ion had uined lo-
cal clima es, dec easing he ain all upon which hings like suga cul i a ion depended. Fo -
es ese es we e ins i u ed in places like Mau i ius wi h he exp essed in en ion o p o ec ing
he clima e, al hough schola s ha e poin ed ou ha economic in e es s (such as he expansion
o suga plan a ions) o en umped hese ea ly conse a ionis and clima e-p o ec ing e o s,
in an in e play o science, poli ics, and economics ha is eminiscen o p esen -day clima e
change deba es.
Du ing he pe iod o ea ly Eu opean colonial expansion om he 16 h o ea ly 19 h cen u y,
clima e was seen as some hing ha could make o b eak impe ial o unes, and as some hing
ha was subjec o human in luence and pe haps e en con ol. Bu i was also seen as some hing
ha de e mined he endu ing cha ac e is ics o di e en people and aces. A acial clima ology
popula in Eu ope and No h Ame ica posi ed ha inhabi an s o he opics we e inhe en ly less
ha d-wo king and p oduc i e, and mo e ‘passiona e’ and sensual, han hei dis an ela i es in
he empe a e la i udes. This kind o clima ological hough , since dubbed clima ic de e minism,
was a sel -se ing, acis means by which Eu opeans, and people o Eu opean descen , sough
o gi e a enee o scien i ic legi imacy o hei own no ions o whi e supe io i y, while ying o
jus i y he ‘ci ilising mission’ by which whi e people would sp ead a mo e ci ilised way o li e
h ough in asion, colonisa ion, and se lemen . This ain o hough a elled well in o he 20 h
cen u y, main aining ha clima e was no so much some hing ulne able o human in luence bu
a he some hing unchanging and all-powe ul in shaping human o unes.
Clima ic de e minism con inues o e e be a e wi hin mo e ecen scien i ic esea ch on
ques ions like which empe a u es a e mos amenable o human ‘p oduc i i y’ and, like in Gaia
Vince’s analysis, which pa s o he wo ld in he u u e a e likely o be mos economically p o-
duc i e, based on hei new clima es. While he e a e undoub edly physiological limi a ions o
how human bodies and minds can unc ion in ex eme me eo ological condi ions, STS s udies
o he his o y o such lines o hough can help us gua d agains p oblema ic gene alisa ions,
and can help us keep in iew he di e se adap a ions ha di e en communi ies ha e made o
ex eme clima es o allow hem o li e lou ishing li es in di e en imes and places.
Towa ds he end o he 19 h cen u y, ‘clima e’ was inc easingly seen as some hing s able –
ied o place, and amenable o s a is ical analysis. Zeke Bake has a gued ha his ‘s abilisa ion’
o clima e occu ed because o a con luence o scien i ic indings and economic in e es s – he
idea ha clima e was undamen ally s able on human imescales played in o a new in e es in
using clima ological expe ise wi hin go e nmen o plan and p edic hings like ag icul u al
ou pu , pa icula ly in he Uni ed S a es (Bake , 2020). This was also a pe iod when wea he
and clima e we e s a ing o be unde s ood on a global scale. The apid expansion o Eu o-
pean empi es owa ds he end o he 19 h cen u y saw a co esponding expansion o sys ems
o me eo ological obse a ion. Ro ing na al and me chan ships, many o which ook ca e ul
wea he measu emen s, we e joined by an inc easing numbe o land-based wea he s a ions,
eco ding hings like empe a u e, p essu e, ain all, and wind di ec ion on hou ly o daily bases
(see Figu e 2.1).
No e how me eo ology, as ep esen ed he e by i s wea he s a ions, expands in his 150-yea
pe iod om being a science la gely con ined o Eu ope and No h Ame ica, o some hing much
14 Ma in Mahony
mo e global in scope. The s a ions mapped in Figu e 2.1 ea u ed he mome e s o measu -
ing empe a u e a ce ain imes o day, o o eco ding daily maximum o minimum em-
pe a u es, alongside o he ins umen s o measu ing ain all, a mosphe ic p essu e, and wind.
Some would ea u e ins umen s ha eco ded obse a ions on o pape au oma ically; o he s,
pa icula ly in ea lie pe iods, would be ead and main ained by local o icials – people like
police o ice s, ha bou mas e s, eache s, p ies s, and missiona ies (Figu e 2.2). Bu a signi i-
can numbe o hese wea he s a ions didn’ sp ead in o de o u he ou unde s anding o he
global a mosphe e. Ra he , hey c opped up in se ice o colonial in e es s.
Those in e es s migh conce n wo king ou which c ops could p o i ably be g own in di e -
en en i onmen s, delinea ing a eas whe e Eu opean se lemen migh be encou aged, o e en
s aking a claim o e i o y and pe o ming cul u al supe io i y. In one dispu ed a ea in he no h-
e n egion o p esen -day Nige ia, o example, he p esence o a B i ish wea he s a ion was
used in a gumen s o e who could eally lay claim o he e i o y. And he Aus alian his o ian
Ru h Mo gan has shown how e o s o moni o and p edic he wea he we e used poli ically o
showcase he appa en in ellec ual and cul u al supe io i y o he se le -colonial p ojec (Mo -
gan, 2020). By he 1920s, a ia ion became a key d i e o he expansion o me eo ology, wi h
he consequence ha he si ing o hings like ba ome e s ( o measu ing a mosphe ic p essu e)
and anemome e s ( o measu ing wind) was inc easingly designed no o se e hings like colo-
nial ag icul u al in e es s on he g ound, bu impe ial a ia ion and mili a y in e es s in he skies.
This was much o he annoyance o some colonial scien is s who we e mo e in e es ed in doing
hings like ag icul u al me eo ology han p oducing on-demand wea he o ecas s o pilo s, he
u ili y o which was la gely spen by he ime a ligh had been comple ed. Such squabbles aside,
Figu e 2.1 The sp ead o me eo ological in as uc u e as eco ded in coun s o s a ion eco ds included
in he In e na ional Su ace Tempe a u e Ini ia i e da abase: a) 1800–09, b) 1850–59, c) 1900–
09, d) 1950–59.
Sou ce: Rep oduced wi h pe mission om Rennie e al (2014).
Me eo ology, Clima e Science, and Empi e 15
impe ial me eo ology signi ican ly impac ed how clima e came o be unde s ood in inc easingly
global e ms.
The expansion o he me eo ological in as uc u e shown in Figu e 2.1 mean ha colonial
scien is s we e beginning o piece oge he pic u es o clima ic a iabili y ac oss con inen s. Fo
example, wea he eco ds om B i ish India and Aus alia showed join luc ua ions in ba o-
me ic p essu e, gi ing colonial scien is s an ea ly sigh ing o he El Niño phenomenon. Bu we
shouldn’ jus ead his science as a p ecu so o a la e , be e science o he global a mosphe e.
Ra he , STS app oaches u ge us o unde s and how ha science was used in p ac ice and mus be
unde s ood in i s local con ex . He e he wo k o his o ian Mike Da is is ele an . In his s udy o
he amines ha a aged India in he la e 19 h cen u y, he a gues ha g owing scien i ic unde -
s andings o clima ic a iabili y in India allowed he B i ish au ho i ies o blame amines on he
aga ies o he wea he , a he han on hings like colonial axa ion and adi ional ag icul u al
sys ems being dis up ed by he o ced in oduc ion o ma ke economies (Da is, 2001). Cu ing-
edge me eo ology helped o ‘na u alise’ he amines, and helped le he colonial au ho i ies o
he hook.
In unde s anding his sp ead o me eo ological and clima ological in as uc u e, and he
eme gence o ‘global’ unde s andings o he a mosphe e, i ’s impo an o look beyond indi-
idual impe ial sys ems and beyond s a e-based scien i ic ins i u ions. The his o ian G ego y
Cushman has shown how echniques o unde s anding and o ecas ing cyclones de eloped du -
ing he middle o la e 19 h cen u y h ough a globe-s addling ne wo k o obse a o ies and sci-
en is s, made up as much by Jesui missiona ies and business in e es s as by wea he -wa che s
Figu e 2.2 Me eo ological s a ion in Ba ombi, Ge man Came oon, c. 1900.
Sou ce: Bilda chi de Deu schen Kolonialgesellscha , Uni e si ä sbiblio hek F ank u am Main: 043-3026-05. Re-
p oduced wi h pe mission. See also Lehmann (2018).
22 Candis Callison
can be seen in many o ms, bo h sys ema ic and non-sys ema ic – o example, in he o m o
highly accu a e obse a ions o change made egula ly o e ime (no unlike Wes e n science)
o in he o m o s o ies passed down h ough gene a ions ha ell o changes o lands, wa e s,
and nonhumans (all o which a e also o en seen as ha ing agency). Pa icia Coch an (2013)
and he co-au ho s, which include bo h Indigenous and non-Indigenous scien is s, emphasize
ha “Indigenous unde s andings o clima e change a e as di e se as he many en i onmen s
and cul u es in which hey a e si ua ed,” and ha he e a e “common ea u es and di e ences
compa ed o wes e n science.”
Indigenous people a e di e se in hei social si ua ions, cul u es, me hods, p ac ices, and
ela ions wi h nonhumans, lands, and wa e s. The UN es ima es ha he e a e app oxima ely
370 million Indigenous people in 90 coun ies. The UN Decla a ion on he Righ s o Indigenous
People (UNDRIP) was adop ed in 2007 a e o e a decade o discussion in ol ing how o de-
ine Indigenous people. The UN conside s a ange o ac o s in de ining g oups as Indigenous:
“(1) people whose ances o s we e i s o occupy hei land; (2) sel -de ini ion as Indigenous;
(3) collec i e physical and cul u al su i al based on ances al claims and dis inc i e cul u al
p ac ices ela ed o land; and (4) expe iences o subjuga ion, ma ginaliza ion, and disposses-
sion” (Callison, 2017; Uni ed Na ions, 2013). Gi en his de ini ion, i ’s no di icul o see how
colonialism, land issues, and sel -de e mina ion a e deeply in e wined o Indigenous people,
and how clima e change o ms an addi ional laye o in e laced new p oblems, in pa because
o he ulne abili ies al eady c ea ed by colonialism. Mos his o ical na a i es in coun ies
ha a e buil on se le colonialism don’ include e en a passing men ion o ei he how di e se
Indigenous people a e o how di e se and deep hei ela ions a e wi h nonhumans (animals,
plan s), lands, o wa e s. Many Indigenous people conside nonhumans o be ela i es o kin,
and Indigenous sys ems o knowledge a e a esul o housands o yea s o da a, expe imen a-
ion, and adap a ion alongside one ano he .
Indigenous knowledge has in ecen yea s become an a ea o s udy and an impo an con-
ibu o o clima e discussions, pa icula ly in he A c ic egion whe e obse able changes
ha e been happening mo e apidly and o a much longe ime. The A c ic Clima e Impac
Assessmen eleased in 2004 was he i s o mal assessmen o in eg a e Indigenous knowl-
edge wi h scien i ic knowledge, in ol ing Indigenous people h oughou he p ocess o d a -
ing he epo . Inui knowledge expe s wo ked wi h o e 300 scien is s on he assessmen ,
demons a ing bo h he sensi i i y o he A c ic ( empe a u e inc eases will be much highe
compa ed o mid-la i ude egions) and he subsequen impac s o he es o he wo ld (e.g.
glacial mel and sea ice educ ion esul ing in global sea le el ise). In con as , he i s Uni ed
Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change (UNFCCC) documen o men ion Indig-
enous knowledge was he Pa is Ag eemen in 2015, bu i s ill said no hing abou wo king wi h
Indigenous people.
Wo king wi h Indigenous communi ies and expe s con inues o be a challenge o bo h sci-
en i ic and poli ical o ganiza ions and sys ems (Fo d e al., 2016; Smi h and Sha p, 2012), bu i
is essen ial i Indigenous knowledge is o become mo e widely use ul in na iga ing ou sha ed
clima e u u es. Debo ah McG ego explains i his way:
One does TEK [ adi ional ecological knowledge]; i is no limi ed o a “body o knowledge.”
Non-Abo iginal [Non-Indigenous] iews o TEK a e mo e conce ned wi h wha he knowl-
edge consis s o and how i is ansmi ed. TEK is no jus knowledge abou he ela ionships
wi h C ea ion, i is he ela ionship wi h C ea ion; i is he way ha one ela es.
(2004, p. 394, emphasis added).

Re hinking Ou His o ies and Rela ions wi h Clima e Change 23
McG ego ’s de ini ion pushes agains ea ly ideas ha Indigenous knowledge could be sup-
plemen al o Wes e n science in pa because “ he how you know wha you know,” he epis-
emological basis, is con igu ed di e en ly and s ems om a di e en way o app ehending,
being in, and making sense o ea h sys ems and change (Callison, 2014). Howe e , Indigenous
knowledge and Wes e n scien i ic knowledge can be complemen a y and co ela i e (e.g. Wes -
e n science has con i med in many cases wha Indigenous knowledge expe s ha e said abou
bo h he ecen and dis an pas ).
Schola s ha e con inually ecommended ha ins ead o seeing di e ences be ween Indig-
enous and Wes e n scien i ic knowledge as a ba ie , hey should be seen as an oppo uni y
o collabo a ion be ween scien is s and Indigenous communi ies. One o he ea lies and mos
amous cases o his in ol es he numbe o mig a o y bowhead whales in Alaska. Iñupia whal-
e s, who ha e long been in close ela ion wi h whales (Langlois, 2018; Sakakiba a, 2020), suc-
cess ully challenged scien i ic da a ela ed o bowhead whales ha sugges ed he popula ion
was in s eep decline. Iñupia whale s wo ked wi h scien is s o help hem imp o e how hey
collec ed da a and whe e. This wo k in u n con i med Iñupia knowledge o a much heal hie
bowhead whale popula ion han p e iously documen ed. Subsequen ly, he mo a o ium on sub-
sis ence whaling, pu in place in 1977 by he In e na ional Whaling Commission (IWC), was
li ed (Hun ing on e al., 2021).
Wild i es and o es managemen p o ide a mo e ecen example in which he e a e hope ul
new collabo a ions. In he U.S., Canada, and Aus alia, he pas decade has seen a apid inc ease
in he olume, in ensi y, and each o wild i es, and he e has been a u n o Indigenous knowl-
edge in Wes e n Canada and Aus alia. Kukpi7 Ron Ignace is a leade om he Secwépemc
Na ion, loca ed in wha is now he p o ince o B i ish Columbia in Wes e n Canada whe e in
2017, a de as a ing massi e wild i e las ing 76 days sp ead o e 192,000 hec a es. Ignace di-
ec ly a ibu es he de as a ion o a lack o cul u al bu ning ha declined beginning in he 1860s
due o he imposi ion o colonial laws and policies. Ignace’s communi y is pa o a h ee-yea
eco e y p og am in coope a ion wi h he BC go e nmen and eigh Secwépemc communi ies.
He desc ibed he p og am as es ing on a di e en ounda ion: hinking abou o es s in “a di -
e en way” as “li ing in as uc u e” (Wood, 2021). The Secwépemc Na ion is no alone in hei
e o s in he egion. Jus no h o hei e i o y, he Tsilhqo ’in Na ion simila ly su e ed om
massi e wild i es in 2017. In u n, hey o med a mul i-yea pa ne ship wi h Aus alian Indig-
enous i e expe , Vic o S e ensen (2020), who has been helping o suppo and e i alize bu n-
ing p ac ices ha ha e no been used o many decades due o colonial dis up ions. S e ensen
desc ibed Indigenous bu ning as no only abou p e en ing wild i es bu also abou “ac i a ing
he landscape o look a e biodi e si y, o imp o e i s heal h” (Bou salis, 2020).
Indigenous jou nalis s and schola s ha e been leading he way in elling hese s o ies ha am-
pli y he e o s o Indigenous expe s, who a e a icula ing how hese p ac ices a e e-eme ging
in he wake o massi e, des uc i e wild i es, while also acknowledging he long ejec ion and
esis ance o Indigenous bu ning p ac ices (see also Bou ke, A kinson, and Neale, 2020; K ol
and He e a, 2018; Gilio-Whi ake , 2019). Indigenous bu ning p ac ices p e en la ge wild i es
h ough cul u ally and egionally speci ic use o smalle i es ha p e en la ge de as a ing
i es. Colonial i e managemen gene ally es ed on he supp ession o all i es, and in some
ju isdic ions, Indigenous bu ning p ac ices we e c iminalized in he 19 h and 20 h cen u ies.
Clea -cu o es logging and an o e all decline in he di e si y and age o o es s ha e also
c ea ed mo e ulne abili ies o o es s. In w i ing abou he bo eal o es in No h Ame ica,
Ch is ianson e al. (2022) s ess he need o scien is s o collabo a e wi h Indigenous communi-
ies, mos o whom li e nea o among la ge o es ed a eas, and o ew i e his o ical na a i es
24 Candis Callison
such ha hey ake in o accoun Indigenous knowledge. “Indigenous peoples in he bo eal ha e
applied i e on hei landscapes o a mul i ude o easons. They unde s and i e as an ac i e,
ali e agen . As an agen , i e is capable o mo emen , des uc ion, and c ea ion, ac ing on he
landscape o c ea e o de , wi hin a li ing, connec ed en i onmen ” (2022, p. 271).
As “ he G ea Dying” s udy and many his o ical eco ds con i m, Indigenous people in close
ela ion wi h hei lands, wa e s, and nonhuman ela i es had a long his o y o cul i a ion and
managemen p ac ices ha we e “un ecognizable o se le s upon hei a i al h oughou he
Ame icas and he Paci ic” (Callison, 2021b). Indeed, he no ion o o es s as a “li ing in as uc-
u e” emains a leap o many, e en now. Ne e heless, hese kinds o in e en ions, p ac ices,
and app oaches o ela ions wi h o es s, lands, and o he nonhumans may mos meaning ully
in luence clima e adap a ion planning (and po en ially also clima e mi iga ion). Vulne abili y, a
much-discussed aspec o assessing isks ela ed o clima e change, is no a na u al s a e o In-
digenous people. Much o he ulne abili y ela ed o clima e change acing Indigenous people,
whe he i be wild i e isks o he loca ion o communi ies in high- isk a eas a e due o colonial
policies. Why e (2013, p. 521) sugges s ha “ he ecological challenges o clima e change a e
en angled, o coupled, wi h poli ical obs uc ions” and ha socie al ins i u ions can ei he c ea e
mo e cons ain s o oppo uni ies o collec i e con inuance. In o de o c ea e mo e oppo uni-
ies o na iga ing clima e change, i is essen ial o see Indigenous communi ies as na iga ing
o en bu densome colonial his o ies and sys ems ha ha e eme ged om se le -colonial ame-
wo ks. Fu he mo e, i is c i ical o acknowledge ha Indigenous peoples also o e dis inc i e
knowledge and app oaches o being in good ela ions wi h bo h human and nonhuman wo lds.
Conclusion
Clima e change is wha an h opologis s migh call “li ely.” How we alk abou i shi s wi h
cul u al changes, and ha shi ing has s akes and consequences o he poli ics, sys ems, and
ins i u ions associa ed wi h clima e change (Fische , 2009; Rajan, 2012). When I ini ially began
o s udy clima e change in he ea ly 2000s, I ound ha how clima e change go alked abou
e lec ed social conce ns – ha ac s had “communal li es” and ha clima e change was a “ o m
o li e” ha e ol ed cul u ally and socially a he han being a ixed, scien i ic issue (Callison,
2014). In co po a e social esponsibili y discou se, o example, clima e change became “cli-
ma e isk” in o de o ap in o conce ns abou alue and in es men ha a e al eady embedded
in inancial ma ke s. Fo Ame ican e angelicals ac i e a ha ime, i was a ma e o “ca ing
o c ea ion,” and clima e ac s equi ed a “blessing” om “ us ed messenge s” ha made cli-
ma e change a eal and ac ionable issue o e angelicals. Fo Inui leade s, clima e change was
al eady a di ec expe ience. The e o e, ad oca ing o he A c ic and hei communi ies equi ed
bo h “pu ing a human ace” on clima e change and na iga ing colonialism, science, and a ying
kinds o poli ical ins i u ions and legal sys ems.
In many ways, he eme gence o “c isis” and “eme gency” as ways o alk abou clima e
change e lec widening cul u al anxie ies, as assessmen s and epo s moun wi h di e p edic-
ions and we wa ch as some o hose p edic ions, like massi e and de as a ing wild i es, become
eali y. Fo many who see clima e change as he i s epic c isis o humani y, he pas is seen
as a pa agon o s abili y. Ye , ou unde s anding o bo h s abili y and change a e cul u ally spe-
ci ic and ha e much o do wi h how we see humans in ela ion o nonhumans and he le el o
awa eness o he des uc ion and de as a ion w ough by colonialism. In an Indigenous knowl-
edge amewo k, s abili y is some hing ha mus be con inually assessed and main ained; i is
a esul o being in good ela ions wi h nonhuman ela i es and kin ha include lands, wa e s,
o es s, animals, and o he s. The e a e ecip ocal obliga ions and esponsibili ies ha a e pa o
Re hinking Ou His o ies and Rela ions wi h Clima e Change 25
hese ela ionships – many o which ha e been dis up ed by colonialism. As he wo k ela ed o
Indigenous bu ning p ac ices shows, mo ing owa d ecip oci y and ela ional hinking, based
on Indigenous knowledge and expe ise, p o ides a pa h o wa d h ough de as a ing impac s
ela ed o clima e change.
By si ua ing a e m like he An h opocene ha has been widely used as a means o un-
de s anding and a icula ing he p esen as deeply a ec ed by humans – and in c isis – wi hin
b oade discussions abou colonialism, he aim o his chap e has been o show how clima e
change is a c isis, bu no necessa ily a new one. Indigenous schola s, who ha e looked closely
a Indigenous knowledge and li eways alongside scien i ic a ionales and me hods, ecognize
he pas and ongoing impac o colonialism, and he ways in which clima e change ampli ies
ulne abili ies c ea ed by colonial imposi ions. In his sense, clima e change is indeed a con inu-
a ion o he c ises begun wi h colonialism and empi e-building ha span he las 500 yea s. Ye ,
Indigenous communi ies, along wi h hei ca e o lands, wa e s, and nonhumans, ha e pe sis ed
and o e a weal h o app oaches, knowledge, and expe ise abou how o na iga e and adap o
a clima e-changed u u e.
Re e ences
An h opocene Wo king G oup, Subcommission on Qua e na y S a ig aphy (2019), 21 May. h p://
qua e na y.s a ig aphy.o g/wo king-g oups/an h opocene/ (Accessed: Augus 28, 2023).
Bou salis, K. (2020) “The a o i e: e i ing he Indigenous c a o cul u al bu ning.” The Na whal.
h ps:// hena whal.ca/indigenous-cul u al-bu ning/ (Accessed: Augus 28, 2020).
Bou ke, M., A kinson A., and Neale, T. (2020) “Pu ing coun y back oge he : A con e sa ion abou col-
labo a ion and Abo iginal i e managemen .” Pos colonial S udies 23(4), pp. 546–551. h ps://doi.o g/1
0.1080/13688790.2020.1751909
Callison, C. (2021a) “Wha COVID-19 and clima e change each us abou ‘syndemics’.” Policy Op ions
3. h ps://policyop ions.i pp.o g/magazines/ma ch-2021/wha -co id-19-and-clima e-change- each-us-
abou -syndemics/ (Accessed: June 9, 2023).
Callison, C. (2021b) “Re using mo e empi e: U ili y, colonialism, and Indigenous knowing.” Clima ic
Change 167, p. 58. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10584-021-03188-9
Callison, C. (2020) “The wel e-yea wa ning.” Isis 111(1), pp. 129–137.
Callison, C. (2017) “Clima e change communica ion and Indigenous publics.” Ox o d Resea ch Encyclo-
pedia o Clima e Science. DOI: 10.1093/ac e o e/9780190228620.013.411
Callison, C. (2014) How clima e change comes o ma e : The communal li e o ac s. Du ham, NC: Duke
Uni e si y P ess.
Ch is ianson, A. C., Su he land, C. R., Moola, F., Gonzalez Bau is a, N., Young, D., and MacDonald, H.
(2022) “Cen e ing Indigenous oices: The ole o i e in he Bo eal Fo es o No h Ame ica.” Cu en
Fo es y Repo s 8(3), pp. 257–276.
Coch an, P., Hun ing on, O. H., Pungowiyi, C., Tom, S., Chapin F. S., Hun ing on, H. P., Mayna d N. G.,
and T aino , S. F. (2013) “Indigenous F amewo ks o Obse ing and Responding o Clima e Change in
Alaska.” Clima ic Change 120(3), pp. 557–567.
C u zen P. J. and S oe me , E. F. (2000) “The ‘An h opocene’.” Global Change Newsle e , May,
pp. 17–18.
Da is, H. and Todd, Z. (2017) “On he impo ance o a da e: O , decolonizing he An h opocene.” ACME:
An In e na ional E-Jou nal o C i ical Geog aphies 16(4), pp. 761–780.
Fo d, J. D., Came on, L., Rubis, J., Maille , M., Nakashima, D., Willox, A. C., and Pea ce, T. (2016)
“ Including indigenous knowledge and expe ience in IPCC assessmen epo s.” Na u e Clima e Change
6(4), pp. 349–353.
Gilio-Whi ake , D. (2019) As long as g ass g ows: The Indigenous igh o en i onmen al jus ice, om
coloniza ion o s anding ock. Bos on: Beacon P ess.
Fische , Michael M. J. (2009) An h opological u u es. Du ham, NC: Duke Uni e si y P ess.
26 Candis Callison
Hun ing on, H. P., Fe guson, S. H., Geo ge, J. C., Noongwook, G., Quakenbush, L., and Thewissen, J. G.
M. (2021) “Indigenous knowledge in esea ch and managemen .” In: The bowhead whale, edi ed by J.
C. Geo ge and J. G. M. Thewissen. Camb idge, MA: Academic P ess, pp. 549–564.
IPBES (2019) “Media elease: Na u e’s dange ous decline ‘unp eceden ed’: Species Ex inc ion Ra es ‘Ac-
cele a ing’.” In e go e nmen al Science-Policy Pla o m on Biodi e si y and Ecosys em Se ices (IP-
BES). h ps://ipbes.ne /news/Media-Release-Global-Assessmen (Accessed: May 8, 2019).
IPCC (2018) “Global Wa ming o 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Repo on he impac s o global wa ming o
1.5°C abo e p e-indus ial le els and ela ed global g eenhouse gas emission pa hways, in he con ex o
s eng hening he global esponse o he h ea o clima e change, sus ainable de elopmen , and e o s
o e adica e po e y.” Gene a: Wo ld Me eo ological O ganiza ion.
Koch, A., B ie ley, C., Maslin, M. A., and Lewis, S. L. (2019) “Ea h Sys em Impac s o he Eu opean A -
i al and G ea Dying in he Ame icas a e 1492.” Qua e na y Science Re iews 207, pp. 13–36.
K ol, D. U. and He e a, A. (2018) “Cali o nia wild i es we en’ always his des uc i e.” High Coun y News,
No embe 15. www.hcn.o g/a icles/ ibal-a ai s-cali o nia-wild i es-we en -always- his-des uc i e/
p in _ iew
Langlois, K. (2018) “When whales and humans alk.” Hakai Magazine, Ap il 3, h ps://hakaimagazine.
com/ ea u es/when-whales-and-humans- alk/
Lewis, S. L. and Maslin M. A. (2015) “De ining he An h opocene.” Na u e 519 (7542), pp. 171–180.
Maslin, M. and Lewis, S. (2020) “Why he An h opocene began wi h Eu opean colonisa ion, mass sla e y
and he ‘g ea dying’ o he 16 h cen u y.” The Con e sa ion, June 25. h ps:// hecon e sa ion.com/
why- he-an h opocene-began-wi h-eu opean-colonisa ion-mass-sla e y-and- he-g ea -dying-o -
he-16 h-cen u y-140661
Masco, J. (2017) “The c isis in c isis.” Cu en An h opology 58(15), pp. 65–76.
McG ego , D. (2004) “Coming ull ci cle: Indigenous knowledge, en i onmen , and ou u u e.” Ame ican
Indian Qua e ly 28(3), pp. 385–410.
PBES (2019) “Global assessmen epo on biodi e si y and ecosys em se ices o he In e go e nmen al
Science-Policy Pla o m on Biodi e si y and Ecosys em Se ices.” IPBES Sec e a ia , Bonn.
Rajan, K. S. (Ed.). (2012) Li ely capi al: Bio echnologies, e hics, and go e nance in global ma ke s. Du -
ham, NC: Duke Uni e si y P ess.
Sakakiba a, C. (2020) Whale snow: Iñupia , clima e change, and mul ispecies esilience in A c ic Alaska.
Tucson: Uni e si y o A izona P ess.
Smi h H. A. and Sha p K. (2012) “Indigenous clima e knowledges.” WIREs Clima e Change 3, pp. 467–476.
S e ensen, V. (2020) Fi e coun y: How Indigenous i e managemen could help sa e Aus alia. Rich-
mond, Aus alia: Ha die G an Publishing.
T ahan , M. (2019) “Documen ing colonialism: Millions killed, a changed clima e, and Eu ope ge s ich.”
Indian Coun y Today, Feb ua y 4, 2019. h ps://newsma en.io/indiancoun y oday/news/documen ing-
colonialism-millions-killed-a-changed-clima e-eu ope-ge s- ich-GF4REDdi 0-SBj10c_KZTg/
Uni ed Na ions (2013) “The Uni ed Na ions Decla a ion on he Righ s o Indigenous Peoples: A manual
o na ional human igh s ins i u ions.” Gene a: Asia Paci ic Fo um o Na ional Human Righ s Ins i u-
ions and he O ice o he Uni ed Na ions High Commissione o Human Righ s.
Weizman, E. 2015. The con lic sho eline. Gö ingen: S eidl.
Why e, K. P. (2013) “Jus ice o wa d: T ibes, clima e adap a ion and esponsibili y.” Clima ic Change,
120(3), pp. 517–530.
Why e. K. P. (2018) “Indigenous science ( ic ion) o he An h opocene: Ances al dys opias and an asies
o clima e change c ises.” En i onmen and Planning E: Na u e and Space 1(1–2), pp. 224–242.
Why e, K. (2020) “Agains c isis epis emology.” In: Hokowhi u, B., Mo e on-Robinson, A., Tuhiwai-
Smi h, L., La kin, S., and Ande sen, C. (eds) Handbook o c i ical indigenous s udies. New Yo k:
Rou ledge.
Wood, S. (2021) “A e he i e: The long oad o eco e y.” The na whal. h ps:// hena whal.ca/bc- o es -
i es- es o a ion-secwepemc/ (Accessed: Janua y 19, 2021).
Wo ld Me eo ological O ganiza ion (2023) “WMO global annual o decadal clima e upda e (Ta ge yea s:
2023–2027).” Wo ld Me eo ological O ganiza ion. h ps://lib a y.wmo.in /index.php?l l=no ice_
display&id=22272 (Accessed: June 25, 2023).
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-5
A dis inc sec ion on heo y migh seem expendable in a p ime on clima e change. Why bo he
when so many o he issues need a en ion? Why no cu o he chase, a oid academic pos u ing,
and limi heo e ical poin s o essen ial loca ions wi hin opical chap e s? I is he edi o s’ iew,
howe e , ha unde s anding some key Science and Technology S udies (STS) and social sci-
ence heo ies is essen ial o a deepe and mo e meaning ul unde s anding o clima e change.
Why heo y? Wha does i do? Who is i o ? In gene al, STS and social science heo ies p o-
ide guidelines o seeing he wo ld – in his case, how o see clima e change and i s ela ionship
o human beings and hei knowledge sys ems and echnologies. The social and na u al wo lds
a e e y complex, and e en mo e so when in eg a ed wi hin p oblems like clima e change.
Whe e does one look and how does one look a clima e change? Wha ques ions need o be
posed? This is whe e heo y p o ides guidepos s. A heo y makes ce ain ques ions impo an
and indica es whe e and how one should look o answe s. In mo e echnical wo ds, heo y
p o ides an on ology and epis emology.
On ology e e s o he na u e o wha one is s udying. On i s su ace, his migh seem ob i-
ous in he case o clima e change. A e we no jus s udying he buildup o g eenhouse gasses
and hei impac s on clima e, e es ial and aqua ic sys ems, and human socie ies? In STS and
social science esea ch his is oo simplis ic. Clima e change is also abou global powe a ange-
men s and inequali y, human pe cep ions and knowledge o he en i onmen , echnologies ha
cause he p oblem and po en ially p o ide solu ions, and so on. A heo y guides you in o seeing
whe he his o ha is an essen ial subs ance o clima e change.
Epis emology e e s o how one unde s ands and can de elop knowledge abou clima e
change. I includes esea ch me hods bu much mo e. In he case o clima e change, should
one p oceed by igno ing wha people hink abou he issue because people a e o en w ong,
and ocus ins ead on mo e “objec i e” da a ga he ed by scien is s o go e nmen al agencies?
O should we ocus on people’s pe cep ions and belie s abou clima e change because hey
signi ican ly impac hei eac ions o i ? Should one esea ch he na u al en i onmen and so-
cial a angemen s, scien i ic knowledge, and echnologies as sepa a e en i ies o combine hem
oge he in some way?
Collec i ely, he on ology and epis emology o social heo y in o m us o he subs ance o
issues we a e esea ching and how o ob ain knowledge abou hem. Myanna Lahsen in oduces
and emphasizes he impo ance o social cons uc ionis (some imes e e ed o as cons uc i -
is ) heo y in clima e change esea ch. Social cons uc ionism has a long his o y in STS esea ch
and an e en longe his o y in sociology and o he social sciences. The basic idea is simple. We
s udy how humans cons uc he wo ld a ound hem h ough hei cul u e-p oducing ac i i ies.
Pa II
Theo izing Clima e, Science,
and Socie y
In oduc ion
S ephen Zeh

28 S ephen Zeh
We migh s udy common discou ses, aming, ideologies, e e yday ac ions, o o he symbolic
p ac ices ha p oduce join unde s andings and o de in he wo ld.
Whe e social cons uc ionism becomes mo e p o oca i e and some imes con o e sial is
when i is di ec ed o scien is s’ esea ch and u h-claims abou he na u al wo ld. His o ically,
i was gene ally assumed ha h ough applica ion o he scien i ic me hod scien is s possessed
he abili y o de elop u h ul, eliable, and uni e sal knowledge, esul ing o e ime in a one- o-
one co espondence be ween na u e and wha scien is s said abou i . While social cons uc ion-
is s acknowledge ha scien i ic knowledge is gene ally eliable and use ul, hey emphasize i s
de elopmen as a socially and cul u ally con ingen ac i i y, opening he doo ha i could be
o he wise in di e en social and cul u al ci cums ances. Thus, social cons uc ionis s iew he
on ology o clima e change as a a ying bu some imes s able se o u h-claims ac oss scien-
i ic communi ies, poli ical ac o s, publics, en i onmen alis s, ossil uel indus y spokespeople,
media, and so on. Epis emologically, social cons uc ionis s esea ch he p ocedu es hese social
ac o s ha e used o build s able claims.
Lahsen explo es opposi ion o social cons uc ionis heo y in he s udy o clima e change.
Lahsen a gues ha some in luen ial social scien is s a e ea ul ha social cons uc ionis ap-
p oaches may empowe clima e change skep ics, open he doo o ela i ism (i.e., e e yone’s
claims abou clima e change a e equally legi ima e), and hinde p og ess owa ds mi iga ion
and adap a ion. Lahsen hen discusses he u ili y o social cons uc ionis heo y, no ing how i
opens new and impo an ques ions abou clima e change as a singula global p oblem and he
ela ionship be ween scien i ic knowledge and poli ical ac ion.
Zeke Bake akes a his o ical app oach o cla i y he close linkages be ween indus ial ossil-
uel-dependen echnologies and capi alism’s d i e owa ds e e -g owing p o i o loca e causes
o he clima e c isis expe ienced oday. Bake shows how hese close linkages o m he back-
d op o a dominan poli ical-economy heo y in he social sciences o en called “ eadmill o
p oduc ion heo y”. This heo y emphasizes he capi alis economic o ces ha his o ically and
cu en ly d i e a ossil- uel-dependen wo ld ha has as one consequence a changing clima e.
Bake ques ions he ole and posi ion o bo h science and echnology in his heo e ical ame-
wo k. A e hey clea sa io s and illains o is hei posi ioning much mo e complex?
Bake also in oduces he social science heo y o ecological mode niza ion, which empha-
sizes ha socie ies a e now going h ough eindus ializa ion, in oducing echnologies ha a e
mo e en i onmen ally benign. Wi hin his heo y, capi alism is lexibly open o di e en ypes
o en i onmen al consequences om damaging o bene icial. I s emphasis is on esea ching he
impo ance o en i onmen and en i onmen alism in con empo a y socie ies and how i impac s
he scien i ic knowledge and echnologies we p oduce.
Bake also in oduces empi ical s udies ha commen on he capabili ies o he eadmill o
p oduc ion e sus ecological mode niza ion heo ies o explain he cu en ela ionship among
science, echnology, capi alism, and clima e change. Bake a gues ha STS esea ch on clima e
change mus always be cognizan o and add ess he economic in e es s ha unde pin clima e-
impac ul beha io . Bake demons a es how i can be done.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-6
In oduc ion
Re lec ing skep icism abou mode n cul u al concep ions o science, echnology, and a ionali y
as engines o emancipa ion and p og ess, social cons uc ionism, wi h i s me hod o decon-
s uc ion, became one o he mos in luen ial cu en s in social science and humani ies du ing
he 1970s and 1980s, and a cen al heo e ical o ien a ion in Science and Technology S udies
(STS) (Fuchs and Wa d, 1994). Social cons uc ionism seeks o unde s and he ole o social
con ex s, p ocesses, powe dynamics, and cul u al belie s and alues in shaping he de elop-
men , in e p e a ion, and impac o scien i ic and echnological knowledge. I ecognizes ha
scien i ic knowledge and echnological a i ac s a e de eloped wi hin speci ic social, poli ical,
and his o ical con ex s, and ha hey e lec he pe spec i es, biases, p io i ies, and powe s uc-
u es p e ailing among he indi iduals and communi ies in ol ed in hei c ea ion. The me hod
o decons uc ion in ol es “opening up” (c i ical examina ion) o knowledge claims o iden i y
social and cul u al meanings and in luences ha make hem con incing, and in ha sense s able,
in pa icula con ex s.
The no ion ha human unde s anding o he wo ld is de e mined no solely by na u al o
inhe en p ope ies bu also by powe -in lec ed human in e p e a ion, language, and social in-
e ac ions challenges he p emise o a singula objec i e eali y. The implica ion o hese social
il e s is ha scien i ic and echnological knowledge is no me ely disco e ed o e ealed bu
also shaped (“cons uc ed”) h ough human pe cep ions, ac i i ies, and social nego ia ions. STS
esea che s a y in he ela i e weigh hey g an o social and subjec i e e sus mo e objec i e
ac o s, bu mos , i no all, ecognize ha objec i e eali y signi ican ly es ains wha can be
plausibly p esen ed as u h. In o he wo ds, hey do no subsc ibe o on ological ela i ism
( ha is, he iew ha eali y only exis s as cons uc ions, lacking a ma e ial objec i i y), despi e
common misunde s andings o ha e ec (Jasano , 1996).
Howe e , STS esea che s wo king wi hin a social cons uc ionis adi ion do gene ally sub-
sc ibe o me hodological ela i ism. This me hodological app oach equi es he esea che o
emain agnos ic abou he u h alue o scien is s’ claims, a ending ins ead o how eali y is
subjec o mul iple in e es s, pe spec i es, and in e p e a ions, media ed h ough in e ac ions,
language, and cul u al con ex s. Cons uc ionis analyses “open up” science and echnology in
he sense o e ealing assump ions, in e es s, and social and cul u al o ces ha unde pin he
e y s abili y o knowledge claims. They ask c i ical ques ions: Who is he knowe ? On wha
basis do hey claim o ha e au ho i y and speak he u h? Whe e do hey see om, wi h wha
limi s o hei ision, and wi h wha poli ical consequences?
Adop ing social cons uc ionism in he 1980s, he S ong P og amme in he sociology o sci-
ence also u ged “symme ical” sociological inqui y and explana ion in scien i ic con o e sies.
4 We Canno A o d No o Pe o m
Cons uc ionis S udies o Mains eam
Clima e Science
Myanna Lahsen
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
30 Myanna Lahsen
Rega dless o scien is s’ o socie ies’ pe cep ions o which side was co ec , all sides o he
con o e sy would be equally analyzed. This app oach eac ed agains (“weak”) sociological
and his o ical s udies o science and echnology ha sough o explain “ ailed” echnologies o
“ alse” heo ies in e ms o ex a-scien i ic ac o s, such as scien i ic subcul u al pa icula i ies
o b oade socio-poli ical biases and in e es s, while assuming ha “success ul” echnologies
and “co ec ” scien i ic heo ies we e consis en wi h na u al o ces and cap u ed a singula eal-
i y pe cei able by all (Ba nes and Bloo , 1982).
Thus, o example, social cons uc ionis s udies o he acid ain con o e sy in he 1980s
did no s a wi h he assump ion ha acid ain exis s and has damaging en i onmen al conse-
quences because mains eam scien is s ell us so. Ra he , hese s udies emained agnos ic abou
he eali y o acid ain. Ins ead, hey sough o explain bo h mains eam and non-mains eam
scien i ic claims in e ms o con ex ual social, cul u al, economic, o poli ical o ces. In o he
wo ds, hese s udies ook a symme ical app oach o each side o he con o e sy, as did social
cons uc ionis esea ch on social p oblems such as d ug addic ion, homelessness, o iolen
c ime. Impo an ly, his was a me hodological ool o ensu e igo ous sociological analysis. I
did no imply skep icism o denial ha acid ain exis ed.
App ehension Abou Cons uc ionis S udies o En i onmen al
Science and Technology
Wi h he ise o he an i-en i onmen al mo emen in he 1990s, some schola s inc easingly
weighed he alue o cons uc ionis esea ch agains conce ns o p o ec science and suppo
en i onmen al p o ec ion. They ea ed ha e ela ions o science as a human and poli ical en-
e p ise complica ed appeals o ha d scien i ic au ho i y o jus i y desi ed policies. This esponse
g ew in a con ex o in ensi ying, poli ically mo i a ed a acks on en i onmen al science as
a iously co up and insu icien ly ce ain o me i en i onmen al p o ec i e policies (Lahsen,
2005b).
The u ili y o decons uc ions o en i onmen al science hus g ew less immedia ely ob ious,
especially among s aunch science de ende s. STS schola s con inued o s ess he impo ance
o cons uc ionis s udies o science, bu hey inc easingly adop ed he idiom o co-p oduc ion.
In cons uc ionis STS, he e m co-p oduc ion emphasizes he mu ual in luences and es ain s
ha science and poli ical s uc u es impose on each o he . Science es ains wha can be plau-
sibly and legi ima ely said and done in poli ics, bu poli ics also shape and es ain wha passes
as scien i ically ue and wo hy o s udy. As such, wo k in science and enginee ing no only
p oduces knowledge and echnologies; i also shapes social and poli ical a angemen s a ound
hem. The e m “co-p oduc ion” sha pened concep ualizing language, bu did no help o e -
come an a e sion o cons uc ionis analysis in mains eam en i onmen al science – an a e sion
exp essed in he “omission s a egy” ha in ol ed igno ing and quie ly de aluing and discou -
aging cons uc ionis analyses o mains eam en i onmen al science.
App ehension abou decons uc ions o en i onmen al science is appa en in pee - e iewed
li e a u e, bu commonly kep o mo e p i a e con e sa ions. En i onmen al sociologis s ha e
been especially c i ical o cons uc ionis STS s udies o clima e science, albei a ely in he
open. Fo example, in in o mal commen s o me, wo op en i onmen al sociologis s exp essed,
sepa a ely, mind ulness abou an i-en i onmen al ac o s’ hi s o ammuni ion. In ha con ex ,
hey sha ed hei opinions ha (1) hose who p oduce cons uc ionis analyses o mains eam
clima e science a e “naï e” and, in he wo ds o ano he , (2) ha li le o alue has eme ged om
STS pe spec i es on clima e change. In e iewe commen s I ecei ed as edi o wi h a jou nal,
one o hem sugges ed ha he limi ed alue o such schola ship was ein o ced by “LaTou ’s
Cons uc ionis S udies o Mains eam Clima e Science 31
[sic] admission ha i is ha d o ell he di e ence be ween a ‘s ong’ cons uc i is posi ion in
STS and clima e change denial,” so li le can be expec ed om expanding his line o wo k.
This e iewe was e e ing o B uno La ou , a leading igu e in STS schola ship. This e iewe
de ined “ he p oblem o a social cons uc ionis iew o science” as consis ing in i s use ulness
o clima e change denial: “I science is a social cons uc ion s ongly in luenced by powe ela-
ions and p o essional and o ganiza ional ambi ions, hen we can asse ha clima e change is
jus a cons uc ion by clima e scien is s seeking o inc ease esea ch unding and/o p omo e
hei socio-poli ical agenda.” The ph asing e eals a se o in e lined assump ions ha a ely a e
explici and es ed: social cons uc ionis analyses o en i onmen al science (1) a e nega i e o
en i onmen al policy, (2) yield indings abou powe ela ions and incen i e s uc u es in sci-
ence ha con as wi h common (idealized) unde s andings o science, and he eby (3) weaken
he au ho i y o science o en i onmen al policy. Simila ly, a 2008 epo (Nagel, Die z, and
B oadben , 2010) om a sociology wo kshop unded by he US Na ional Science Founda ion
shows how misgi ings abou cons uc ionis s udies o mains eam science ha e shaped he
clima e esea ch agenda in en i onmen al sociology. The wo-day wo kshop con ened 40 so-
ciology acul y, g adua e s uden s, and policy expe s o de ine how sociological esea ch can
con ibu e o global e o s o unde s and he human dimensions o clima e change and suppo
and design s a egies o mi iga ion and adap a ion. Summa izing exis en esea ch and de in-
ing esea ch needs going o wa d, he epo p esen ed one o sociologis s’ asks as consis ing
in mapping and analysis o “social and cul u al p ocesses ha shape a i udes, discou ses, and
ideological dimensions o clima e change in public deba es and policy p ocesses” (Nagel, Die z,
and B oadben , 2010, p. 16). I did no men ion mains eam clima e science as me i ing socio-
logical a en ion, howe e . While i de o ed a chap e o he backlash coali ion and associa ed
scien is s, i made only a single, b ie e e ence o he possibili y o s udying he scien i ic main-
s eam. This e e ence was in a sen ence ha called o analysis o he consequences o con-
a ians’ use o non-scien i ic ou le s o hei wo k e sus he scien i ic mains eam’s eliance
on adi ional, e e eed jou nals (p. 69). In o he wo ds, when i came o mains eam clima e
science, Nagel, Die z, and B oadben (2010) called o sociological analyses only when i was a
posi i e oil se ing o highligh he nega i es in he case o con a ians.
An h opology shows simila endencies o en i onmen al sociology. Fo example, ew an-
h opological s udies exis on he socio-poli ical dimensions o in eg a ed assessmen models
(IAMs), e en hough hese a e deeply social, poli ical, and cen al in clima e policy, whe e hey
help jus i y delay o agg essi e mi iga ion (Dyke, Kno , and Wa son, 2021). Socio-poli ical di-
mensions a e buil in o how hey model he in e ac ions o clima ic and economic ac o s. Bo h
p esen ends and supposedly desi able and possible al e na i e u u e pa hways.
App ehension abou cons uc ionis heo y and symme ical analysis o clima e change sci-
ence is ound beyond he ields o en i onmen al sociology and an h opology. One o he mos
in luen ial books on clima e science o e he pas wo decades also s ee s clea o symme y.
W i en by his o ians, Me chan o Doub (O eskes and Conway, 2010) ecei ed special a -
en ion and endo semen by Science, which exp essed a desi e o make i equi ed eading o
“all hose engaged in he business o con eying scien i ic in o ma ion o he gene al public.”1
A ha d-hi ing exposi ion o he ne wo k and campaigns o some high-le el scien is s and sci-
ence ad ise s wo king o unde mine public ai h in scien i ic knowledge, Me chan s o Doub
documen s ou decades o e o s o cas doub on he science showing ha global wa ming,
smoking, acid ain, and he ozone hole a e eal and dange ous phenomena. The book pe o ms
a ho oughly esea ched his o ical and sociological analysis o hese ac o s’ e o s o unde -
mine mains eam science. Al hough one o he au ho s is a ained STS schola , he book does
no p esen a balanced accoun o scien is s in ol ed in he knowledge con o e sies ha one
38 Myanna Lahsen
Nagel, J., Die z, T., and B oadben , J. (2010) “Wo kshop on sociological pe spec i es on global clima e
change.” In. www.asane .o g/ esea ch/NSFClima eChangeWo kshop_120109.pd . Na ional Science
Founda ion.
O eskes, N. and Conway, E. M. (2010) Me chan s o Doub : How a Hand ul o Scien is s Obscu ed he
T u h on Issues om Tobacco Smoke o Global Wa ming. New Yo k: Bloomsbu y P ess.
Pielke J , R. and Ri chie, J. 2021. “Dis o ing he iew o ou clima e u u e: The misuse and abuse o
clima e pa hways and scena ios, “ Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science, 72, 101890.
S e ens, M., MacDu ie, J. P., and Helpe , S. (2015) “Reo ien ing and ecalib a ing in e -o ganiza ional
ela ionships: S a egies o achie ing op imal us ,” O ganiza ion S udies, 36(9), pp. 1237–1264.
Swyngedouw, E. (2010) “Apocalypse o e e ? Pos -poli ical populism and he spec e o clima e change,”
Theo y, Cul u e & Socie y, 27(2–3), pp. 213–232.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-7
In oduc ion: Some Pa ial T u hs
Le ’s begin wi h a simple na a i e—a s o y nea ly s uc u ed wi h cha ac e s, a g im se ing,
and an oppo uni y o edemp i e ac ion. I goes some hing like his. Fi s , he e en e s a se o
people who in en echnologies ueled by bu ning ex ac ed and e ined s ocks o ossil ene gy.
Le ’s call hem indus ial echnologis s. The impac s a e ma elous: a new wo ld o machines
ha accele a es he human capaci y o anspo hemsel es and goods ( hink ca s and con aine
ships). A wo ld ma ked by he globally ans o ma i e ac o y sys em o commodi y p oduc ion.
And o many—bu by no means all—o us, an elec i ied wo ld wi h empe a u e-con olled
en i onmen s and gadge s in ou pocke s. And ye , o cou se, he s o y has a wis . Nex , he p o-
duc ion, consump ion, and li e cycles o hese e y echnologies gene a e clima e change ha
h ea ens o deeply dis up , i no wholly upse , he social and economic sys ems hey helped
o c ea e. Wha ’s mo e, hose people wi h he mos money and powe , whose in e es s in com-
modi y p oduc ion, economic g ow h, and p o i s helped push he ossil economy in o so many
aspec s o li e, appa en ly canno isk an al e na i e pa h. S ill u he , elec ed go e nmen o -
icials and hose nominally in cha ge o ul illing he will o he people ha e ye o de elop solu-
ions ha ha e meaning ully mi iga ed global wa ming by b inging down global g eenhouse gas
emissions. Many in u n c y oul: g eed, injus ice, e il! Pe haps we a e sla es o echnologies
ha b ing bene i s, bu which may spell doom? Bu alas, he sounding calls o ano he way
can be hea d, g owing loude . Scien is s, wo king wo ldwide, gain consensus on he na u e
o he p oblem, he issues socie ies likely ace in he u u e, and ways o ansi ion ene gy and
economic sys ems away om ossil uels and economic models based on compound g ow h o
success ully mi iga e majo clima e disas e s. And so, an in lec ion poin , a climax, is eached:
will people come oge he , lis en o scien is s, and sa e hemsel es whils cas ing down he old
gua d ossil-indus ial echnologis s— hose damned wol es in sheep’s clo hing?
I i is no ye appa en , he p eceding s o y is a ske ch, a g oss ca ica u e o some ou
cen u ies o mode n his o y and a whole ange o social g oups in he space o a single pa a-
g aph. E en so, I belie e i con ains some p o oca i e pa ial u hs hidden in he g ande my h.
S epping ou o he s o y, we may ake away he ollowing ques ions and conside hem mo e
se iously as issues o in ellec ual and public deba e: Fi s , wha ole did echnological o ces
play in global wa ming—i no as illains now unmasked, hen wha ? How do scien i ic and
echnological de elopmen s ac ually ela e o he economic and poli ical o ces ha ha e come
o domina e mode n ossil-indus ial, capi alis socie ies? Second, can scien i ic p ac ices and
p oduc s—coming om clima e science, en i onmen al science, g een design, enginee ing, and
so on— o m he c i ical solu ions o clima e c isis? Can echnological inno a ion and scien i ic
ingenui y, i no “sa io s,” go so a as o “decouple” ou economy om ou cu en modes o
5 Poli ical Economies o Clima e Science
Beyond Technological Villains and
Scien i ic Sa io s
Zeke Bake
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
40 Zeke Bake
o e -exploi a ion, was e, ecological des uc ion, and pollu ion? How can we si ua e echnical
ideas and p oduc s ha a e, on he one hand, cen al o ou complex, global, and ene gy-hung y
socie y and, on he o he hand, in es ed in adically inno a i e ways o esol ing en i onmen al
p oblems? I we mo e beyond illainizing echnology and holding science up as sa io , wha
pe spec i es and possibili ies migh open up o explo ing, ques ioning, e en ebuilding, he
ela ionship be ween science and echnology, poli ics, and he economy? In he emainde o
his chap e , I d aw om my own and o he s’ esea ch, p ima ily his o ical in na u e, o ake up
hese ques ions. This chap e will hus help o in oduce some basic ways o hinking abou he
economic and poli ical aspec s o clima e change and science, while going beyond he pa ial
u hs— he illains’ and sa io s’ na a i e—ske ched ou abo e. The concep s in oduced can
hen se e as a guiding heo e ical amewo k, called he poli ical economy o clima e change,
ha may be use ully applied o challenged in he o he chap e s in his book, and indeed, when
engaging o he s udies and media ega ding clima e change.
Did Technology Ge Us In o This Mess?
Technology, Economy, and Engines o Mode ni y
Fossil uel ex ac ion and ene gy consump ion mos apidly began o inc ease globally a ound
1950—when schola s oughly da e he ini ia ion o he G ea Accele a ion (S e en e al.,
2015). A his ime, global in eg a ion o inancial and commodi y ma ke s (and in a mo e
limi ed sense, in eg a ed go e nance and cul u e), co ela ed wi h a wide ange o socially and
ecologically impac ul pa e ns: inc easing a es o GDP (albei wi h clea ups, downs, and
inequali ies), apid human popula ion inc ease, inc easing a es o de o es a ion, inc ease in
g eenhouse gas emissions, decline in ishe ies s ocks wo ldwide, s eep inc eases in au omobile
use, ai miles lown, cemen p oduc ion, and mo e. I is emp ing o ocus on his ime pe iod
as he mos ele an con ex in which o explo e he poli ical and economic causes o global
wa ming. Indeed, i is clea ha he echnologies o globaliza ion ( anging om supply chain
logis ics and eigh shipping o co po a e conglome a ion and au oma ed p oduc ion, o he
in e ne and inno a ions in inancial ins umen s, o bioenginee ed ag icul u e and syn he ic soil
inpu s) ha e bound oge he and accele a ed economic p oduc ion, exchange, and consump ion.
This has, in u n, led o en i onmen al dis up ions ha a e global in scope, wi h clima e change
among hem.
Ye , I would a gue ha i was he ime o he Indus ial Re olu ion ha is cen ally impo an
o he social, economic, and echnological con ex in which ossil uels ook hold, and ha his
con ex shows how ossil uels we e insepa able om indus ial capi alism as an eme gen eco-
nomic and poli ical sys em. So, le ’s alk abou coal. Coal and he s eam engine, when wed o-
ge he in he la e eigh een h cen u y, p o ided a new means o ans o ming h ough combus ion
he ene gy held in England’s ich coal s ocks in o mo ion ha could powe machine y. This wed-
ding is a c i ical momen in he his o y o echnology and o capi alis economic p ocesses. Ma-
chines, pa icula ly s anda dized ones wi h in e changeable pa s p oduced on assembly lines,
could be manu ac u ed and pu o use in empowe ing o he mechanical p ocesses, o example,
English ex ile looms and mills. James Wa , o en c edi ed wi h he in en ion o he ans o ma-
i e Wa engine, ini ially did so unde he logic o e iciency, hus his amous 1769 pa en , i led
“A New In en ed Me hod o Lessening he Consump ion o S eam and Fuel in Fi e Engines.”
P e ious models, especially he Newcomen s eam engine, we e ema kably was e ul in e ms o
ene gy use. As i ook shape as a echnology, he s eam engine can easonably be called a e olu-
iona y engine o mode ni y. I connec ed di e se pa s o he wo ld h ough esou ce ex ac ion
Poli ical Economies o Clima e Science 41
(e.g. aw co on dependen upon sla e labo in he U.S. Sou h), ac o y p oduc ion (in a apidly
u banizing England ha en ailed he g ow h o a wo king class), and he ea ly de elopmen o
indus ial-capi alis economies ha globally linked people, ma ke s, s a es, and colonies wi h
na u al esou ces and manu ac u ed goods.
So, ossil uels and he echnologies o con e ing ene gy s ocks in o mechanical ene gy
helped powe he Indus ial Re olu ion and, ul ima ely, globalizing economic ma ke s. Impo -
an ly, he echnologies (including he s eam engine, inno a ions in coal ex ac ion and bu n-
ing, he ac o y sys em o p oduc ion, e c.) a e only poo ly unde s ood in isola ion om he
economic in e es s and social in es men s in he sys ems ha ha e p oduced hem, pu hem
o use, and made hem meaning ul. Ma xis geog aphe And eas Malm’s (2016) ea men o
coal and s eam powe in his his o ical accoun o he ise o capi alis English manu ac u ing
helps demons a e a leading app oach in STS, namely he social cons uc ion o echnology.
This app oach ea s echnologies as a e ac s ha only make sense when analyzed and si ua ed
wi hin hei con ex s o p oduc ion, use, and meaning. Fo his pa , Malm d aws upon a chi-
al e idence o show ha coal’s u ili y o s eam-powe ed manu ac u ing indus ies was no
jus abou i s ma e ial quali ies. Indeed, wa e -powe ed wheels we e widely in use in powe ing
co age indus ies and some la ge -scale manu ac u ing. Wa e powe was qui e e icien a he
job—no o men ion enewable. Ra he , he wedding o coal and s eam powe had mo e o do
wi h he capaci y o indus ialis s and ac o y owne s o cen alize p oduc ion in economically
ad an ageous places. Like landless peasan s who could popula e u ban slums and ac o y loo s,
and machines ha could be ins alled and made o un, coal could be dug up in he coun yside,
s o ed, and anspo ed o use whene e i was needed. Thus, coal, wage labo , machines, la ge
ac o ies, shipping acili ies, and he capi al o inance manu ac u ing ope a ions could all be
physically b ough oge he in o a new social and ecological sys em, namely mode n indus ial
ci ies popula ed by a g owing class o u ban wo ke s and powe ed by ossil ene gy and s eam-
powe ed machine y.
The de elopmen and use o echnology and he bi h o ossil capi al ( he accumula ion o
capi al h ough he exploi a ion o human labo and ossil uels) i hand in glo e. This basic
p inciple can be ex ended o o he commodi ies ha link oge he ossil uel, na u al esou ces,
echnological de elopmen , and economic in e es s: au omobiles and highways, ai planes, plas-
ics, oil igs, liqui ied na u al gas e minals—all o i . Pe haps hese and many o he echnolo-
gies ha cha ac e ize a ossil- ueled wo ld can be unde s ood bes when si ua ed as economic
a e ac s, a he han as s and-alone in en ions ha mo e, un, and pe o m on hei own.
The social and economic cons uc ion o echnologies can also help us hink anew abou
science. D awing om s udies o ea ly mode n England and i s coloniza ion o I eland, STS
schola and sociologis Pa ick Ca oll (2006) a gues ha mode n science was bu essed by
a mechanical philosophy and he use o expe imen s. Pionee ed by he likes o Robe Boyle,
William Pe y (and, la e , yes, James Wa ), mode n science eme ged mos powe ully as wha
Ca oll calls engine science. Engine science is less cha ac e ized by he e inemen o ideas, he
es ing o heo ies, and he making o knowledge h ough s anda d me hods, and mo e abou
he de elopmen , enginee ing, inke ing, and use o engines, di e sely unde s ood o include
me e s, scopes, g aphs, and chambe s. James Wa , in his wo k wi h he s eam engine and eco-
nomic in es men in ac o y p oduc ion, speci ically Bi mingham’s Soho Found y ha mass
p oduced s eam engines, was a quin essen ial disciple o engine science. Enginee ing, mechani-
cal philosophy, and economic in es men in he capi alis p oduc ion o commodi ies ma k he
ini ial exp ession o a ossil-based, incipien ly global economic sys em. I his is he case, hen
i s ands o eason ha echnology and science a e undamen al causes o global wa ming, e en
as echnological a e ac s a e ha dly illains in hei own igh .
42 Zeke Bake
The T eadmill o P oduc ion: Economic G ow h and he Role o “P oduc ion Science”
A leading poli ical-economic heo y ha helps explain he mode n indus ial economy in eco-
logical e ms—including he science and echnology ha help comp ise i —is eadmill o p o-
duc ion heo y. In his heo e ical model, he eadmill ep esen s he cyclical, bu expanding,
use o esou ces o p oduce commodi ies, o en wi h inc easing ene gy in ensi y and complexi y
o e ime.
In his model, business owne s, who exis in compe i ion wi h one ano he , a e in e es ed
in expanding hei p oduc ion o main ain ma ke sha e in a gi en sec o o he economy. Fo
example, when U.S. co n p oduce s in oduce new a ming me hods o inc ease yields (say,
h ough GMO echnologies and new o ms o chemical pes con ol), Mexican co n a me s a e
s uc u ally equi ed o do likewise i hey wan o s ay in business— ega dless o whe he he
new me hods a e en i onmen ally cos ly o oxic. (F ee ade ag eemen s mean, in his case,
ha U.S. and Mexican a me s a e no necessa ily p o ec ed h ough a i s o p ice con ols.)
Likewise, go e nmen s a e in es ed in he g ow h o he eadmill, because making and selling
mo e commodi ies leads o economic g ow h, in u n b inging jobs, weal h, and oppo uni ies o
le y axes on incomes and economic exchange. I p oduc ion ( ha is o say, he eadmill) slows
down, as in a ecession o dep ession o h ough egula ion on economic ac i i ies, go e nmen s
isk losing legi imacy om hei ci izens and in es o s will likely y o pack up, shi hei
capi al, and mo e p oduc ion and business elsewhe e. Wo ke s and consume s a e o en also
in es ed in he expansion o he eadmill because hey wan jobs and oppo uni ies o highe
le els o consump ion. The mo e success ul ha wo king people a e in ad ancing hei es ed
economic in e es s (e.g. by winning high wages in a ime o labo demand, o h ough ad ancing
he poli ical powe o labo unions), he mo e businesses will y o inno a e echnologically o
displace wo ke s. This in u n causes p oblems o unemploymen and an inc easingly echni-
cal di ision o labo . Bu mo e impo an o ou conce ns, i also leads o si ua ions o highly
complex sys ems ha may boos economic p oduc i i y bu will end o in ol e en i onmen al
isk, o example, heal h and biodi e si y cos s associa ed wi h pes icide use in ag icul u e, o
highe ene gy cos s o p oduc ion ha has u ned o machines o obo ics ins ead o human labo
o pe o m asks.
Technology is impo an he e. T eadmill o p oduc ion heo y explains echnological in-
no a ion p ima ily inso a as i helps business owne s and s a es boos economic capaci y,
o en a he expense o he en i onmen and esul ing in a mo e complex ecological sys em.
How does science i in o his p ocess? T eadmill heo is s ha e a use ul accoun o science
as a social ins i u ion. Allan Schnaibe g, in his 1980 book The En i onmen : F om Su plus
o Sca ci y, ini ially p oposed he eadmill o p oduc ion heo y o explain aspec s o wha
was discussed abo e as he pos -WWII G ea Accele a ion. Schnaibe g si ua ed science wi h
e e ence o he pos -wa eadmill, namely di e en ia ing p oduc ion science om impac
science. P oduc ion science is ha which is ins i u ionally, p ac ically, and in ellec ually con-
nec ed o he g ow h o he eadmill. Al hough pos -WWII science, in he U.S. and he So ie
Union mos p ominen ly, ela ed also o geopoli ical i al y—wha S ua Leslie (1993) and
o he s ha e e med he “mili a y-indus ial-academic complex” o Cold Wa science— he de-
elopmen and use o science o gene a e economic g ow h has been a basic ene o science
policy and go e nmen esea ch unding. On he o he hand, Schnaibe g a gues ha impac
science, especially in he en i onmen al sciences bu also in public heal h and some social
sciences, undamen ally sheds ligh on he impac s o he eadmill o p oduc ion o human
li e and ecologies, hus making legible he ela i e (un)sus ainabili y o cu en social and
economic sys ems.
Poli ical Economies o Clima e Science 43
The eadmill app oach o science/ echnology is impo an when conside ing he opic o
global wa ming because i calls in o ques ion he ele ance o economic in e es s, alues, and
goals ha play a hand in di ec ing scien i ic and echnological de elopmen s. By ex ension, his
app oach would ha e us analyze no only “clima e science” o unde s and he scien i ic and
echnical aspec s o global wa ming, bu also he echnologies and sciences ha ha e played
a ole in clima e change, whe he in cen u ies pas o on he o he end o uni e si y campuses
om he halls o “clima e and en i onmen al science.” The geology o hyd aulic ac u ing,
he chemis y o oil e inemen , he ae odynamics o wind u bines, he in en ion o inan-
cial ins umen s ha mo e money a ound he wo ld and inance economic p oduc ion— hese
a e all ele an aspec s o mode n echnoscience implica ed in global wa ming. To compa e, I
would a gue ha social cons uc ionis app oaches (see Lahsen, Chap e 4, his olume) ha
cen e a ound he echnological, scien i ic/in ellec ual, cul u al, and poli ical cons uc ion o
“clima e” may miss impo an dynamics linking science/ echnology o clima e, namely he dy-
namics o economic p oduc ion ha link echnology, science, and clima e. Clima e change, om
a poli ical- economic iew, is he ou come o s uc u al p ocesses, and ocus should hus emain
on he basic unde lying economic mechanisms.
I is wo hwhile o no e ha dis inguishing science in an ei he /o ashion as “p oduc ion”/
“impac ” science is o e ly simplis ic. In e es ingly, in my own his o ical esea ch on h ee cen-
u ies o clima e science, I do no ind ha clima e (and ela ed) sciences e e nea ly i in o his
bina y model (Bake , 2021). I would seem easonable ha con empo a y clima e science is
cen ally abou egis e ing among he la ges impac s o he G ea Accele a ion. As an impac
science, clima e science has undamen ally helped o make legible, explain, and p edic how
he ossil economy is impac ing human and ecological sys ems. Ye , clima e esea che s who
began o build he i s ma hema ical models o he global clima e in he 1950s and 60s—jus
as he eadmill and i s impac s we e accele a ing globally—we e mo e in es ed in he use
o hei science o in o m economic gains (e.g. h ough imp o ed o ecas ing o e en clima e
enginee ing—see Schube , Chap e 31, his olume) han o call a en ion o en i onmen al
p oblems. And oday, he bu geoning ield o “clima e se ices” emains as much abou p o ec -
ing economic in es men s om clima e impac shocks as i is in in o ming sys emic change
wi h espec o he economic d i e s o clima e change. Recen ly, me eo ologis s and clima e
scien is s hemsel es ha e b ough a en ion o he as inequali ies in access o clima e impac
science: In o he wo ds, hose ha may be mos ulne able o clima e impac s a e sys ema ically
less likely o ha e scien i ic and ela ed esou ces o o ecas and an icipa e hose impac s (O o
e al., 2021). The e o e, nea delinea ions be ween clima e- ele an sciences along he lines o
p oduc ion/impac ha e hei limi s. E en so, he lesson he e is ha o unde s and he con ou s,
emphases, and ques ions o a gi en scien i ic ield, i is wo hwhile o conside how i s ins i u-
ions, o ganiza ions, and indi iduals ela e o p e ailing economic in e es s and he poli ical
ins i u ions ha suppo hem. Such is he guiding hypo hesis in he ield called he poli ical
economy o science (Ty ield e al., 2017).
A e Inno a ion and Science ou Sal a ion?
Ecological Mode niza ion and he P omise o Inno a ion
I connec ing change in science and echnology o he dynamics o economic in e es s and po-
li ical ins i u ions makes sense, hen i s ands o eason ha we would expec science/ echnology
o change i economic ac o s became deeply conce ned abou , o o he wise p essu ed o deal
wi h, clima e change and ela ed en i onmen al p oblems. Fo example, i he in es men isk o

44 Zeke Bake
cons uc ing a new coal- i ed powe plan was oo high, o conce n o clima e impac s oo sali-
en , o enewable ene gy sys ems mo e easily exploi ed, hen go e nmen s o co po a e u ili ies
would no in es in coal plan s. Ins ead, hey would ake hem o line and in es mo e hea ily
in enewables. In u n, he a ailable echnology in his sec o would be scaled up by o de s o
magni ude, and esea ch and de elopmen would p oceed apace in line wi h calls o ene gy
ansi ions (see Pa VII, his olume).
Ecological mode niza ion heo y (EMT) is an app oach in he en i onmen al social sci-
ences (and o some ex en enginee ing and design ields) ha explains how en i onmen al
alues, issues, and p ocesses a e now independen o , bu inc easingly in luen ial in exis ing
economic, indus ial, and go e nance p ocesses. EMT a gues ha mode niza ion cen ally en-
ails e lexi i y abou socie y and na u e. Mode ni y, in o he wo ds, has his o ically en ailed a
ecogni ion, emb ace, and ac i e pu sui o a socie y ha shapes, i no con ols, i s own des iny.
The mode n wo ld makes i sel , i s his o y, and i s u u e, a he han being subjec o di ine o
na u al o ces. Indus ialism (and engine science) had ha nessed he powe o science and ech-
nology o bols e p oduc i e capaci y. Capi alism likewise ha nessed he powe o ma ke s o
exchange goods and mee human needs. O cou se, hese his o ical o ces caused p oblems oo,
namely exhaus ion o some na u al esou ces, dis up ion o ecological p ocesses, and pollu ion.
Ye , jus as indus ialis s ( hink, James Wa and his engine) sough o inno a e hei way ou o
he economic p oblem o sca ci y h ough machine p oduc ion, a he han elying on God o
ease hei su e ing, so oo ha e majo social ins i u ions sough o inno a e hei way ou o en-
i onmen al p oblems. They a e ins i u ions o ecological mode niza ion. The en i onmen al
mo emen , en i onmen al agencies in mos na ional go e nmen s a ound he wo ld, economic
p icing o pollu ion, in e na ional o ganiza ions like he IPCC (see Pa VI, his olume), and
he ise o en i onmen al sciences—all ep esen ins i u ional mani es a ions o en i onmen al
alues and in e es s in sus ainabili y.
Ecological mode niza ion and ela ed p og ams o sus ainable de elopmen ely hea ily
upon he p omise o echnological solu ions o p oblems o unsus ainabili y and pollu ion as
well as po e y and sca ci y. Only h ough echnological inno a ion can he cu en chains link-
ing ene gy use and economic g ow h be b oken, a con o e sial p ospec o en called he de-
coupling o ene gy and economy. As An Eco-Mode nis Mani es o (2015) has pu i , he goal
is o inno a e echnical, economic, and social sys ems o “libe a e he economy om na u e.”
In his iew, he p oblem is no so much ha human socie ies a e aliena ed om hei na u al
en i onmen s, bu a he ha hey a e oo elian upon hei exploi a ions o na u e. Cu ing
down Amazonian ain o es s o plan soybeans o a en ca le o eed bee -lo ing people hal -
way ac oss he wo ld ep esen s an ex eme eliance on an exploi a i e use o na u e o mee
human needs and wan s. I ’s echnically possible, bu absolu ely s upid. The same could be said
wi h s uc u es ha equi e collec ing wood o cook ood o e pollu ing, indoo o ens in u al
illages a ound he wo ld. Re u ning o na u e—as adi ional en i onmen alism would ha e
i —is no he answe . Ra he , he powe s o echnological inno a ion should in es in me hods
o deepening ou abili y o eo ganize, ein en , and manipula e na u e so ha people, busi-
nesses, and go e nmen s can inc ease e iciency, enhance ecosys ems’ unc ions, and escape
he whims and ha ms o na u e. Examples include p oduc de elopmen in he ield o “indus-
ial ecology,” which uses ma e ials and sys ems sciences o c ea e mo e cyclical p oduc ion-
consump ion-was e sys ems, o en e med “c adle o c adle” (as opposed o c adle o g a e)
p oduc ion. Indus ial ecologies canno escape he ules o he modynamics, bu hey can indeed
use design and cu ing-edge science o c ea e p oduc s ha in ol e minuscule was e o ene gy in
esou ces—say, compa ed o he o iginal s eam engines o oday’s “ as ashion” ha is hal way
o he land ill by he ime i is i s wo n.
Poli ical Economies o Clima e Science 45
Ques ioning Inno a ion in Socio echnical and Economic Sys ems
EMT acknowledges ha “inno a ion” is ha dly su icien o explain o p edic he up ake o
echnologies. This is because echnological change o s asis necessa ily happens wi hin socio-
echnical sys ems, including economic p essu es and incen i es (see Pa VII, his olume). Fo
example, i is widely accep ed ha ai plane a el is a signi ican con ibu o o global wa m-
ing. Ye , ai miles lown pe capi a a e exploding. Fu he mo e, in a ecen s udy o comme cial
a ia ion, B uce and Spina di (2018) show ha al hough mo e e icien ai planes, uel sys ems,
and ai a el sys ems exis , cu en o ms o ai a el a e en enched, o “locked in,” because
la ge co po a e playe s like Boeing ace economic isk in inno a ion and ace signi ican ba i-
e s in seeing new, a ailable echnologies b ough in o he mains eam. This example shows ha
ecological mode niza ion may be a pa ial o segmen ed p ocess, a he han a gene al heo y
use ul o explaining widesp ead economic ends. E en so, EMT helps o cen e he possibili-
ies o design and inno a ion ha inco po a e “na u al capi al” and ecological alues. Science
and echnology in hemsel es may no ha e a sal a ion unc ion, bu hey can help con on
en i onmen al p oblems caused by he “abe an ” indus ialism o old ha ailed o e ec i ely
alue na u e and elied oo hea ily upon unsus ainable esou ce use, including non- enewable
ossil uel s ocks.
Al hough EMT may help o explain g owing conce n in ci il socie y abou en i onmen al
sus ainabili y, and g owing s a e and business in e es in dealing wi h en i onmen al p oblems,
he heo y has been c i icized o being idealis ic. Le ’s e u n o coal. As an ene gy sou ce, coal
is dec easingly used in some places, like he U.S. and Eu ope. Ecomode nis s may see his as
a sign o ecological mode niza ion. Globally, in he case o coal and enewable ene gy ech-
nologies, he e is a di e en and pe haps mo e eadmill-like s o y: he e has ye o be a yea
since 2000 when e i emen o coal-based ene gy p oduc i e capaci y ou paced g ow h in global
ene gy ou pu om coal (I encou age you o explo e he Global Ene gy Moni o o obse e
global and na ional ends in ene gy p oduc ion and use, speci ically he Coal Plan T acke :
h ps://globalene gymoni o .o g/p ojec s/global-coal-plan - acke /dashboa d/). In o he wo ds,
despi e coal plan s being e i ed in many coun ies, mo e ene gy is being d awn om coal igh
now han las yea , and so on. In he impo an case o China, he sha e o coal-based powe
d opped om 53 pe cen o 44 pe cen in less han i e yea s ( om 2018 o 2022). E en so,
he o al amoun o coal-based powe in China ose o e ha same pe iod ( om 1010 o 1121
GW). The In e na ional Ene gy Agency ound o e a 1 pe cen inc ease in o al wo ldwide
coal consump ion in 2022, and he Agency has p ojec ed a ound he same le el o o al annual
consump ion h ough 2025. This would sugges ha he socio echnical sys em ha in ol es
coal is ela i ely obus . I is a eadmill wi h signi ican business and policy momen um despi e
gene al ecogni ion o e lexi i y abou en i onmen al cos s.
Conclusion
This chap e si ua ed clima e change and science wi h e e ence o economic and poli ical s uc-
u es. In he p ocess, I a gued ha he echnologies and sciences we hink o as ela ed o global
wa ming should be expanded. The s eam engine ins alled in a new ex ile mill in 1840s Man-
ches e and he pe ochemical e ilize being sp ayed on a whea ield in Albe a, Canada, each
ha e hei place: hese, and many o he s besides, a e p oduc s o echnoscience; hey o m mo-
men s in he g ow h and unc ioning o a capi alis economy, mani es in he las 75 yea s as he
G ea Accele a ion and he economic d i e s o he eadmill o p oduc ion. To conside clima e,
science, and socie y oge he , cen al a en ion mus emain on he simul aneous economic and
echnological basis o a ossil-based global socie y.
46 Zeke Bake
E en so, he p ocess o ecological mode niza ion is undeniable: clima e change and en i-
onmen al sus ainabili y a e inc easingly wo en in o nea ly all scien i ic disciplines. And he
chances you home own, s a e, o p o ince’s go e nmen has a “Clima e Ac ion Plan” a e p e y
high. En i onmen al alues a e a ea u e o he mode n wo ld, as is he will o inco po a e hem
in o policy and economic decision-making. STS schola s, including many in his olume, see
his as an oppo uni y o s udy, e alua e, and e en help design echnological sys ems and ways
o knowing ha a e democ a ically accoun able, anspa en abou hei unde lying alues and
assump ions, and when necessa y, modes o c i ical abou hei “sal a ion” po en ial.
Technology as illain. Science as sa io . These a e simplis ic and p oblema ic p oposi ions.
They ha e li le basis in he his o y o science and he his o y o ossil capi al. Wo se, hey
obscu e he a iega ed, and indeed con adic o y, ways ha science/ echnology ela e o global
wa ming, en i onmen al p oblems and a emp s o deal wi h hem. Bu he pa ial u hs ha
opened his chap e emain salien : ollow he economic in e es s, and he ela ionship be ween
clima e, science, and socie y will likely come in o be e ocus.
Fu he Reading
Alkhalili, N., Dajani, M., and Mahmoud, Y. (2023) “The endu ing coloniali y o ecological mode niza ion:
Wind ene gy de elopmen in occupied Wes e n Saha a and he occupied Sy ian Golan Heigh s,” Poli i-
cal Geog aphy 103, 102871.h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.polgeo.2023.102871
Bonneuil, C. and F essoz, J. (2021) The Shock o he An h opocene: The Ea h, His o y and Us. New Yo k:
Ve so.
Ellul, J. (1990) The Technological Blu . G and Rapids, MI: Ee dmans.
Jo genson, A. K. and Cla k, B. (2012) “A e he economy and he en i onmen decoupling? A compa -
a i e in e na ional s udy, 1960–2005,” Ame ican Jou nal o Sociology 118(1), pp. 1–44. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1086/665990
Hawken, P., Lo ins, H., and Lo ins, A. (1999) Na u al Capi alism: C ea ing he Nex Indus ial Re olu-
ion. New Yo k: Li le, B own & Company.
Re e ences
Bake , Z. (2021) “Ag icul u al capi alism, clima ology and he ‘s abiliza ion’ o clima e in he Uni ed S a es,
1850–1920,” B i ish Jou nal o Sociology 72, pp. 379–396. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/1468-4446.12762
B eak h ough Ins i u e. “An ecomode nis mani es o,” (June 2015) DOI:10.13140/RG.2.1.1974.0646
B uce, A. and Spina di, G. (2018) “On a wing and ho ai : Eco-mode nisa ion, epis emic lock-in, and he
ba ie s o g eening a ia ion and uminan a ming,” Ene gy Resea ch & Social Science 40, pp. 36–44.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.e ss.2017.11.032
Ca oll, P. (2006) Science, Cul u e, and Mode n S a e Fo ma ion. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Leslie, S. W. (1993) The Cold Wa and Ame ican Science: The Mili a y-Indus ial-Academic Complex a
MIT and S an o d. New Yo k: Columbia Uni e si y P ess.
Malm, A. (2016) Fossil Capi al: The Rise o S eam Powe and he Roo s o Global Wa ming. New Yo k: Ve so.
O o, F. E. L., Ha ing on, L., Schmi , K., Philip, S., Kew, S., an Oldenbo gh, G. J., Singh, R., Kimu ai,
J., and Wolski, P. (2020) “Challenges o unde s anding ex eme wea he changes in lowe income coun-
ies,” Bulle in o he Ame ican Me eo ological Socie y 101(10), pp. E1851–60. h ps://doi.o g/10.1175/
BAMS-D-19-0317.1
Schnaibe g, A. (1980) The En i onmen : F om Su plus o Sca ci y. New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
S e en, W., B oadga e, W., Deu sch, L., Ga ney, O. and Ludwig, C. (2015) “The ajec o y o he
An h opocene: The G ea Accele a ion,” The An h opocene Re iew 2(1), pp. 81–98. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1177/2053019614564785
Ty ield, D., La e, R., Randalls, S., and Tho pe, C. (eds.) (2017) The Rou ledge Handbook o he Poli ical
Economy o Science. London: Rou ledge.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-8
As clima e change was cons uc ed as an en i onmen al p oblem in he 1980s and 1990s, one o
he i s opics Science and Technology S udies (STS) esea che s add essed was he mo emen
o scien i ic knowledge and in o ma ion in o poli ical delibe a ions and he public ealm. These
opics we e no unique o STS. O he social science disciplines (especially sociology, poli ical
science, and communica ions s udies) also con ibu ed esea ch, bu as we see wi h he chap e s
in his Pa , STS asks a mos ly unique se o ques ions and akes a di e en app oach. While
Pa VI add esses he policy con ex o clima e change, his Pa add esses he media’s ole in
knowledge ansla ion o publics.
I is impo an o unde s and bo h “media” and “publics” as plu ali ies. Media is plu al in i s
o m ( ele ision, social media, newspape s, e c.), ideological o ien a ion (poli ically conse a-
i e, libe al, e c.), sou ce o e enue (ad e ising, public, o go e nmen suppo ), and a ge ed
audience (in e na ional, na ional, egional, o local). Publics a e di e se along he ypical lines
s udied by social scien is s – social class, gende , ace, e hnici y, u ban/ u al, eligion, poli ical
leaning, and so on. Consequen ly, he same knowledge o in o ma ion may be in e p e ed, ep e-
sen ed, and unde s ood di e en ly by di e se media and publics. Tha doesn’ necessa ily mean
ha some media a e i esponsible, and some publics unin o med o unin elligen . Ra he , hey
b ing wi h hem di e en in e es s, men al models, alues, and so on, h ough which clima e
change knowledge is p ocessed.
A dominan app oach in he social sciences is o s udy he ypes o ames, s o ylines, opics,
and so on ha would be o in e es o di e se publics and pe suade hem o ake clima e change
se iously and change hei beha io . This app oach is some imes e e ed o as he “science o
science communica ion”. Social scien is s also esea ch how di e en media a e in luenced by
he ossil uel indus y and o he social ac o s who oppose ansi ions o enewable ene gy in
wha hey claim as he dis up ion o economical and dependable ossil uels in he ene gy sup-
ply sec o . These ac o s wo k h ough sub le o o e poli ical p essu e, o by di ec ly inancing
media ou le s ha ep oduce hei claims.
While hese opics also a e aised in STS esea ch, he p ima y oci a e media ansla ions
o scien i ic knowledge on clima e change, socio echnologies p oposed as solu ions, and he
in e ac ion o knowledge and alues amongs di e se publics. STS c i iques bo h he “de ici
model” o public unde s anding o clima e change and he “linea pa h model” be ween scien-
i ic knowledge p oduc ion, i s up ake in he media, and public ecep ion. Wo king ou side hese
models, STS esea ch emphasizes he in e ac ions among scien i ic knowledge, media a en-
ion, and public knowledge, alues, and local conce ns as clima e change in all i s complexi ies
eaches hem as an en i onmen al p oblem. A en ion is placed on di e se amings o clima e
Pa III
Media and Public Communica ion
abou Clima e Change
In oduc ion
S ephen Zeh
54 S ephen Zeh
he 16 yea s p o ided me hodological con inui y o he longi udinal s udy. Using LexisNexis
(now Nexis Uni) a icles we e iden i ied wi h sea ch e ms “clima e change” o “global wa m-
ing” appea ing in he headline. App oxima ely 3500 a icles we e ead and coded o he p es-
ence o majo news ames o “sub ames” (i.e., a speci ic subca ego y o a news ame such
as “d ough ” as a sub ame o en i onmen al impac ). Table 6.2 lis s ames and sub ames
ha we e iden i ied and coded in he analysis. They also we e coded o p esence o hyb id
ames – when wo o mo e news ames we e seamlessly me ged such ha he elimina ion o
one would la gely nega e he meaning o he ex . A hyb id ame add essed a he e ogeneous
clima e change ame, a he han wo o mo e sepa a e ames.
Table 6.2 Clima e change news ames and sub ames
F ames Sub ames
Economic Cos s o co po a e ac ions
Economic impac s o GCC
Economic oppo uni ies o mi iga ion o adap a ion
Policy impac s on economy
Causal ac o s Fossil uel ex ac ion & use
Capi alism/consump ion
Land use change/de o es a ion
Na u al causes
En i onmen al impac Adap a ion (non-human adap a ions)
Biodi e si y/species loss
Heal h
Sea le el ise/ looding
Dese i ica ion/d ough / i e
Ex eme wea he e en s
En i onmen al imposed secu i y h ea
Ag icul u e/ ishing
F esh wa e
Poli ical Policies
Policy ac o s
Poli ical delibe a ion
Science Disco e ies, new s udies, new epo s
Science unding o in as uc u e
Scien is s
Public GCC educa ion
Public no ms, alues, beha io s
Unde s anding, knowledge, belie s
En i onmen alis /ci il socie y ac ion
Social inequali y Unequal con ibu ions o GCC
Unequal mi iga ion-adap a ion obliga ions
Unequal ulne abili y o GCC
Technological/Design de elopmen s Adap a ion
Mi iga ion
Geoenginee ing

Clima e Change Communica ion 55
News F ames
The quan i a i e esul s indica e ha poli ical, science, en i onmen al impac s, and economic
ames and sub ames domina ed he ime in e al ac oss newspape s. O hese ou , poli i-
cal aming was he mos dominan . Recei ing much less a en ion we e ames a ound causal
ac o s; public knowledge, educa ion, unde s anding, and en i onmen alis /ci il socie y ac ion;
social inequali y; and echnological o design de elopmen s. The e was some a iabili y ac oss
newspape s and o e ime (e.g., he Financial Times ga e mo e a en ion o economic issues,
and ac oss he newspape s and na ions a en ion o public and social inequali y aming sligh ly
inc eased o e ime), bu he dominance o poli ical aming s ood ou ac oss bo h dimensions.
This inding sugges s ha clima e change was p ima ily ep esen ed as a poli ical p oblem a he
han a p oblem endemic o he capi alis economic sys em, consume p ac ices, lack o public
knowledge, o na ional o global inequali ies.
How migh we in e p e he signi icance o hese esul s? My p e e ed op ion d aws upon
he social heo y o Jü gen Habe mas. Habe mas dis inguished be ween he “sys em,” wi hin
which he included he economic and poli ical ins i u ions, and he “li ewo ld” which consis ed
o he e e yday wo ld o social and communi y ela ions. His a gumen was ha hese ha e
become di e en ia ed in capi alis socie ies. Fu he mo e, c ises occu ing in capi alis socie-
ies a e o en ans e ed om economic o poli ical ins i u ions whe e he go e nmen may be
blamed o laws wi hin he capi alis sys em (e.g., a p esiden , p ime minis e , cong ess, o
pa liamen blamed o high in la ion o high unemploymen ). The poli ical sys em may, in u n,
ans e he c isis o he li ewo ld whe e people blame each o he o hemsel es (e.g., a c isis
a ound a pandemic is ans e ed o go e nmen s which in u n may ans e i o he li ewo ld
whe e people blame each o he o no ollowing ules, no ge ing accina ed, e c.). Tu ning
o clima e change, we unde s and ha a i s oo s he p oblem is gene a ed h ough economic
p oduc ion and consump ion ac i i ies. Howe e , o e ime i could easily be ans e ed o
go e nmen s whom we hold esponsible o he p oblem and o gene a ing solu ions. I may
also be ans e ed o he li ewo ld whe e we blame ou sel es and o he s’ was e ul li es yles.
Wi hou add essing Habe mas’ heo y in mo e de ail, he empi ical esul s men ioned abo e
indica e ha clima e change was p ima ily amed as a poli ical p oblem in majo newspape s
om 2000–2015, a he han as a p oblem o capi alis p oduc ion and consump ion o e e yday
li e ac i i y. Newspape eading publics we e p edominan ly pushed o he iew ha go e n-
men s and poli icians we e esponsible o inding solu ions, a he han economic leade s o
communi ies and indi iduals. Because o i s global and complex na u e – i s “wickedness” –
go e nmen s we e ill-equipped a de eloping ea ies o passing legisla ion o educe g een-
house gas emissions. Meanwhile, economic o ganiza ions such as co po a ions o people in
hei e e yday li es may ha e el exone a ed om engaging in p o i - educing o li e-changing
beha io . The c isis was no ep esen ed as inhe en ly pa o hei wo ld.
This imbalance in newspape aming o clima e change may ha e acili a ed inac ion.
Ra he han pulling oge he because we a e all a aul and pa o he solu ion, newspape
ames pushed membe s o hese na ions in he di ec ion o holding go e nmen s and poli icians
accoun able. Th ough an STS app oach ha ecognizes clima e change is abou many he e oge-
neous hings ( ep esen ed he e simply as news ames), we hen empi ically see how newspape
co e age om 2000–2015 did no ep esen his di e si y in p opo iona e amoun s.
Hyb id F ames
Wha abou hyb id ames? As no ed abo e, conce n has been exp essed ha he media “ge
he science igh ” when w i ing abou clima e change. Wi hin he de ici model he e is he
56 S ephen Zeh
exp essed conce n ha membe s o he media may no su icien ly unde s and he science o
clima e change and consequen ly mis ep esen o igno e impo an ea u es. An STS pe spec i e
decons uc s his way o hinking by challenging he meaning o “ge ing he science igh .” Is
ge ing he science igh simply desc ibing scien i ic knowledge accu a ely as scien is s com-
munica e i in scien i ic pape s, p o essional con e ences, o pe sonal in e iews, pe haps sim-
pli ying i a bi o public consump ion? O is ge ing he science igh a p ocess o combining
scien i ic knowledge wi h o he clima e change conce ns as hey ela e o public knowledge and
alues, social inequali y, economic ma e s, and o he ames desc ibed abo e? This is whe e
hyb id aming is ele an . We migh conside hyb id ames as mo e accu a e desc ip ions o
clima e change because hey combine di e en ames oge he in ways ha desc ibe deepe ,
ela ional, and mo e complex aspec s o clima e change. Tha is, hey ap in o he wicked na u e
o he p oblem.
The 2000–2015 s udy indica es ha hyb id aming was common in hese newspape ac-
coun s. In gene al, jou nalis s did an e ec i e job o seamlessly combining ames o ap in o
he p oblem’s complexi y. Howe e , one no able sho coming in ol ed si ua ions whe e sci-
ence ames we e pa o hyb id ames. As expec ed, he e we e many ins ances o hyb id
ames in ol ing science and en i onmen al e ec s. In hese a icles, jou nalis s seamlessly
in eg a ed en i onmen al e ec s wi h he scien i ic esea ch and esea che s who eased hem
ou . Howe e , he e we e a ewe hyb id ames in ol ing science and o he news ames such
as poli ics, public knowledge o alues, o social inequali y. The combina ion o science and
en i onmen al e ec s made up a ound 50% o all ins ances whe e science was in ol ed in a
hyb id ame, wi h some a iabili y ac oss newspape s. F om an STS pe spec i e, his inding
sugges s ha jou nalis s we e e icen abou making s ong associa ions be ween he science o
clima e change and o he dimensions. To say i di e en ly, clima e change science was no o en
inco po a ed in o clima e change’s complexi y o wickedness.
Why migh his be he case? Some clues came om pe sonal in e iews wi h jou nalis s. Fo
example, a New Zealand jou nalis men ioned ha he was a aid o ge some hing scien i ically
w ong due o he ang y pushback he’d ecei e. “[T]he sensi i i y is some hing I’m e y awa e
o . People jump a he chance o ake us o he P ess Council, which is ou newspape s anda ds
council he e. I you make one sligh slip up he e a e a lo o eage eyes …. I jus ha e o be
ca e ul o be e y accu a e abou wha I’m saying” (Pe sonal In e iew, New Zealand Jou nal-
is ). O he jou nalis s exp essed di icul ies in e iewing academic scien is s who conside ed
hemsel es “bu ned by he p ess” in he pas . An accep ance o he de ici model and ela ed
linea model (i.e., scien i ic knowledge comes i s ollowed in a linea pa h o poli ical ac ion)
by scien is s and some jou nalis s may also be a eason. Wi hin hese models, an assump ion
( alse acco ding o STS esea ch) is ha objec i e scien i ic esea ch is conduc ed i s wi hou
ega d o poli ical, public, o economic implica ions. Only la e is ha knowledge in e p e ed
o i s poli ical, public, and economic ele ance. T ansla ing his o jou nalis ac i i y, hen,
pe haps some jou nalis s el p essu e o p ecisely desc ibe scien i ic knowledge wi hou u he
in e p e a ion, elabo a ion, o combina ion wi h o he news ames o make ce ain hey “go he
science igh .” Oppo uni ies o b ing science in o he he e ogeneous, wicked na u e o clima e
change we e consequen ly los .
Conclusion
I is impo an o he media o gi e good balance ac oss clima e change issues, bu no nec-
essa ily in a o m ha gi es equal oice o clima e change belie e s and naysaye s. Balance,
ins ead, eme ges wi h ep esen a ions o di e se dimensions o clima e change, as depic ed in
Clima e Change Communica ion 57
he news ames and sub ames men ioned abo e, and in ep esen ing i s he e ogeneous, wicked
cha ac e . Success in doing so gi es publics ulle in o ma ion abou clima e change – i s e ec s
on hem, public knowledge abou i , i s in eg a ion wi h global inequali y, policy possibili ies,
and so on.
We can ask how well he media has pe o med in p o iding balance. The abo e empi ical
s udy p o ides a pa ial answe by examining news ames and hyb id ames in na ional news-
pape s om 2000–2015. The esul s a e mixed. While a ange o news ames appea , he e was
also an imbalance owa d poli ical aming and away om closely ying clima e change o he
li ewo ld and o p oduc ion and consump ion ac i i ies ha cause he p oblem. As o hyb id
aming, one de ec ed limi a ion is a gap in ep esen ing clima e change science as seamlessly
associa ed wi h o he ames, wi h he excep ion o en i onmen al impac s. Wha his s udy
does no ell us is how he media has been doing o e he pas se e al yea s, especially as social
media has become a mo e salien mode o ob aining news. Pe haps eade s o his chap e can
design a s udy o add ess ha gap in knowledge. They migh also conside o he ypes o clima e
change ames no co e ed in his s udy.
Mo e gene ally, an STS app oach o media co e age o clima e change s ee s clea om an
o e ly simplis ic de ici model, ha all people need is mo e in o ma ion in mo e s iking lan-
guage and images o change hei minds and impo an ly hei beha io s. Clima e change and
mos o he en i onmen al p oblems a e a oo complex. My esea ch abo e only looks in one
di ec ion – a di e si y in news ames and hyb id aming in newspape s. STS esea ch also
looks a many o he esea ch p oblems such as di e en pa e ns be ween na ional and local
media (see Loose and Ca alho, Chap e 7, his olume), he use o images in clima e change
epo ing (see Schä e and Yan, Chap e 8, his olume), ep esen a ions o unce ain y and ig-
no ance, dis inc i e ea u es o social media ep esen a ions o clima e change, and so on. Read-
e s o his chap e migh , as a ma e o cou se, e lec upon how clima e change and i s di e en
dimensions a e cons uc ed in he media hey a end o. Wha is included? Wha is excluded?
Wha a e he implica ions o hose media decisions?
Fu he Reading
Boyko , M. (2019) C ea i e (Clima e) Communica ions: P oduc i e Pa hways o Science, Policy and
Socie y. Camb idge, UK: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess.
Re e ences
Co ne , A. J., Ma kowi z, E., and Pidgeon, N. F. (2014) “Public engagemen wi h clima e change: The ole
o human alues,” Wiley In e disciplina y Re iews: Clima e Change 5 (3), pp. 411–422.
Hulme, M. (2009) Why We Disag ee Abou Clima e Change. Camb idge, UK: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-10
Clima e Change Communica ion in B azil Ma e s
How is China’s g owing appe i e o po k and he USA’s massi e consump ion o bee linked
o B azil’s con ibu ion o clima e change? How does poli ical populism exace ba e clima e
change? Wha is he social dis ibu ion o gains and ha ms in ol ed in g eenhouse gas emi ing
ac i i ies? These ques ions illus a e some o he complexi ies o human-en i onmen ela ions
in he cu en wo ld. They also poin o connec ions be ween di e en scales and spaces in ol ed
in clima e change, as well as o impo an social jus ice issues. Clima e change communica ion
plays a c i ical ole in shaping public pe cep ions. The way in which he men ioned connec ions
a e ep esen ed and deba ed in public spaces, including mains eam and al e na i e media, can
ein o ce cu en ajec o ies o clima e (in)ac ion o s imula e ans o ma ion. The e o e, i is
essen ial o conside whe he di e en media ou le s make he ela ionships be ween economic,
poli ical, and social sys ems isible o opaque, whose oices and pe spec i es a e gi en p omi-
nence, and wha needs and alues a e p i ileged in media discou ses on clima e change.
Be o e we del e in o media and communica ion, le us look a some impo an clima e-
ela ed aspec s o B azil. I is widely ecognized ha he Amazon, a as po ion o i s e i o y,
possesses excep ional biodi e si y and plays a i al ole in he na u al egula ion o he clima e
sys em. Ye , bo h he Amazon and o he c i ical biomes, like he lesse -known Ce ado, ha e
been disappea ing a ala ming a es o e he las ew decades. Mos o he de o es a ion, delibe -
a e bu ning, and o he o ms o en i onmen al des uc ion a e ca ied ou o “ ee” land o ca le
aising and ood p oduc ion, which a e ied o na ional and in e na ional economic in e es s. In
ecen imes, as swa hs o B azil’s e i o y ha e been plan ed wi h soy, which is expo ed o
China o eed a apidly g owing pig a ming indus y (mee ing he demand o mea o a as -
expanding middle class). Mea and ag icul u al expo s o he USA and o Eu ope ha e been
con ibu ing o changes in B azil o longe . All o his helps explain why B azil is one o he
op en coun ies in e ms o g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Land use changes (especially
de o es a ion), oge he wi h ag icul u e and animal a ming, p oduce abou h ee qua e s o he
coun y’s g eenhouse gas emissions (SEEG, 2021).
The Economic Commission o La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean (ECLAC) has highligh ed
in a epo on he economics o clima e change ha he low en i onmen al sus ainabili y de el-
opmen model adop ed in he egion is obs uc ing he igh agains clima e change (CEPAL,
2015). Like o he La in Ame ican na ions, B azil hea ily elies on en i onmen al esou ces
and is highly suscep ible o he consequences o clima e change due o i s demog aphic and
socioeconomic s a us. En i onmen al go e nance in B azil aces se e al challenges. Fo yea s,
public policies and p o ec ions ha e been weakened, and unde he go e nmen o Jai Bol-
sona o (2019–2022), s a e supe ision o des uc i e p ac ices was la gely hal ed. A guing ha
7 Public Communica ion and Pe cep ions
o Clima e Change in B azil
Eloisa Beling Loose and Anabela Ca alho
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
Public Communica ion and Pe cep ions o Clima e Change in B azil 59
he coun y’s economic g ow h should be p io i ized e en i ha mean aking down a “ ew
ees,” populis Bolsona o s imula ed he plunde ing o B azil’s na u al spaces and esou ces.
Du ing his enu e, de o es a ion inc eased by 60% compa ed o he p e ious ou yea s, and
illegal mining ac i i ies expanded signi ican ly in he wo ld’s la ges ain o es , esul ing in
se e e en i onmen al and humani a ian consequences o indigenous popula ions such as he
Yanomami. In a e y unequal socie y like B azil’s, a powe ul ag icul u al and indus ial eli e
ends o accumula e weal h a he cos o all o he s. A hos o in e na ional co po a ions also lie
on he ea ning side. On he o he side lies a la ge pa o he popula ion ha s uggles o make
a li ing and ha is highly ulne able o ex eme wea he e en s due o poo quali y housing o
o he o ms o insecu i y.
Gi en he abo e, B azil ep esen s a c ucial case o explo e public communica ion and pub-
lic pe cep ions o clima e change. To add ess clima e change, i is impo an o unde s and i s
causes and pe cei e i as a isk ha al eady impac s he p esen and will be e en mo e chal-
lenging in he nea u u e. Quali y jou nalism and engaged ci izens may con ibu e o public
deba e and exe p essu e owa d public policies and o he ac ions o mi iga e clima e change.
This public engagemen can also help educe he isks o clima e disas e s and p epa e o a
eali y wi h highe empe a u es, mo e i egula ain all pa e ns, and mo e in ense and equen
ex eme e en s. In 2020, 78% o B azilians a ed clima e change as a e y impo an issue, and
his igu e inc eased o 81% in 2021 (based on su eys by ITS-Rio and Yale Uni e si y, 2022).
Despi e high le els o conce n, knowledge abou clima e change emained insu icien , wi h
only 21% o esponden s indica ing ha hey had ex ensi e knowledge o he opic; 46% el
ha hey had a mode a e unde s anding o clima e change; 24% said hey knew li le; and 8%
said ha hey knew no hing (1% did no choose any answe ).
Public pe cep ions o clima e change a e la gely in luenced by he media. While public un-
de s anding o clima e change is also in luenced by psychological, social, cul u al, and poli ical
ac o s, news media’s pe cei ed c edibili y and each make hem a i al a ea o s udy social ep-
esen a ions. Howe e , no all media ou le s a e he same and hei co e age o clima e change
may di e signi ican ly. The emainde o his chap e looks a ends in media co e age o
clima e change in B azil and examines di e ences and simila i ies be ween a ious ypes o
jou nalism, namely na ional mains eam media, a egional media ou le wi h hegemonic cha -
ac e is ics, and wo digi al al e na i e media pla o ms (see he nex sec ion o explana ions on
mains eam and al e na i e media).
The Media Landscape o B azil
The media play a c ucial ole in in o ming he public abou he causes, consequences, and s akes
in ol ed in clima e change, as well as in discussing esponse pa hways and p oposals. They
ha e he abili y o in luence public opinion, and o legi imize o con es public policies. Despi e
being commonly e e ed o as a singula en i y, he media a e made up o mul iple and o -
en dis inc ins i u ions, anging om public o p i a ely-owned, wi h di e en communica ion
s yles and me hods. Media di e si y is an impo an indica o o social and poli ical heal h, as
well as a c ucial ac o in he quali y o democ acies. In B azil, con ol o he media has his o i-
cally been in he hands o a ew amilies. Acco ding o he Media Owne ship Moni o (h ps://
b azil.mom-gm .o g/en/), he B azilian media sys em exhibi s signi ican concen a ion in e ms
o owne ship, audiences, and geog aphy.
Mains eam media can be dis inguished om smalle , al e na i e, media. The o me a e
ypically owned and/o ha e s ong connec ions wi h la ge co po a ions, and p io i ize p o i
as hei goal. Gi en hei economic and cul u al dominance, mains eam media may be e med

60 Eloisa Beling Loose and Anabela Ca alho
hegemonic. Thei app oach o jou nalism is “ op-down,” wi h a p e alence o o icial sou ces
and a ela i ely igid and hie a chical o ganiza ion o news p oduc ion. Al e na i e media
adop a “bo om-up” pe spec i e in hei jou nalis ic p ac ice, gi ing mo e space o ci izen
sou ces and o hose wi hou a oice in he news o majo media g oups. Al e na i e media a e
inancially sus ained by public con ibu ions o empo a y subsidies, which makes he p oduc-
ion p ocess mo e lexible and ee om he cons ain s o a single model. In p inciple, his can
allow o mo e c i ique o he es ablished poli ical and economic sys ems.
In B azil, access o jou nalis ic in o ma ion emains a signi ican challenge o many small
owns loca ed a om majo u ban a eas, pa icula ly hose si ua ed ou side o he Sou h and
Sou heas egions. The ise o messaging applica ions like Wha sApp and Teleg am has con ib-
u ed o he sp ead o disin o ma ion, pa ly illing he in o ma ion oid le by adi ional media
ou le s. Tele ision s ill domina es in e ms o ad e ising expendi u e wi hin he media indus y,
al hough i is g adually losing g ound o digi al al e na i es (Reu e s Ins i u e, 2022). Al hough
B azil boas s mo e sma de ices han people, in e ne access is s ill une en ac oss egions and
social g oups.
While in powe as P esiden o B azil, Jai Bolsona o o en ied o disc edi jou nalism.
Nume ous a acks on he p ess and jou nalis s we e ca ied ou , and public in o ma ion became
mo e di icul o ob ain. This led some news media o epea edly ques ion Bolsona o’s policies
and, as he dis up ion o en i onmen al p o ec ion was lag an , a la ge pa o he B azilian
p ess began o co e en i onmen al issues mo e equen ly, including clima e change.
T ends in Co e age o Clima e Change by B azilian Mains eam Media
Acco ding o Clima e Rada ’s moni o ing o clima e co e age in La in Ame ican newspape s
(h ps://conexioncop.com/ ada clima ico/), he e has been an inc ease in clima e- ela ed news in
ecen yea s. Howe e , such news i ems, which may discuss he clima e c isis o simply men ion
i , only cons i u e a ound 2% o he o al news analyzed. O e ime, he e has been signi ican
luc ua ion in media co e age o clima e change, p ima ily in luenced by in e na ional ac o s.
In Folha de São Paulo, a highly in luen ial B azilian newspape , he numbe o news s o ies
quad upled be ween he second hal o 2006 and he i s hal o 2007 (Fio a an i, 2007). This
su ge in a en ion was a ibu ed o signi ican e en s du ing ha pe iod, such as he elease o
mul iple Wo king G oup epo s by he IPCC and a G oup o Eigh (G8 – g oup o eigh lead-
ing indus ial na ions) mee ing. Simila ends we e obse ed in an analysis o 50 newspape s
be ween 2005 and 2008 (Vi a a, 2010), con i ming he impac o in e na ional e en s on news
agendas. Co e age o clima e- ela ed opics is o en d i en by majo scien i ic epo s like hose
om he IPCC, Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change (UNFCCC) con e -
ences, o disas e s ha may be connec ed o clima e change.
Wha do we know abou mains eam media co e age o clima e change in B azil? Va ious
s udies ha e demons a ed ha he e is a s ong dependence on news agencies, bo h domes ic
and in e na ional, esul ing in limi ed co e age o clima e change a he egional o local le el.
News epo s p ima ily ely on sou ces associa ed wi h he go e nmen . Rep esen a i es o he
scien i ic ield also ea u e equen ly. In con as , mains eam media do no gi e much isibil-
i y o en i onmen al ac i is s, indigenous peoples, adi ional communi ies, and o he ci izen
sou ces. Poli ical-economic ames ha e domina ed news co e age o clima e change. Fo in-
s ance, Veja, Is o É, Época, and Ca a Capi al, B azil’s la ges newsmagazines, ha e empha-
sized he cos s in ol ed in add essing clima e change (Gi a di e al., 2013) and Folha de São
Paulo has ocused on poli ical decisions and dispu es in in e na ional summi s, gi ing p omi-
nence o go e nmen al sou ces (Rodas and Di Giulio, 2017). The e is a no able esea ch gap
Public Communica ion and Pe cep ions o Clima e Change in B azil 61
in he co e age o clima e change on ele ision, which is pa icula ly conce ning as ele ision
emains a leading sou ce o in o ma ion and opinion-shaping in B azil. O pa icula in e es a e
majo b oadcas ne wo ks like TV Globo, bo h in hei egula news co e age o clima e change
and in hei special p og ams and documen a ies ha explo e he opic, such as he 2019 se ies
“Plane Ex emo” (“Ex eme Plane ”).
Wha abou media co e age o he Amazon? Gi en i s biophysical and symbolic signi i-
cance, i is wo h conside ing how he Amazon is co e ed in B azilian media. Despi e hei clea
connec ion, he clima e c isis and he des uc ion o he Amazon a e o en add essed sepa a ely.
The Amazon has his o ically been depic ed as a p is ine and un ouched landscape, wi h he hu-
man p esence o en e ased (excep o indigenous popula ions), ende ing he ela ionship be-
ween local communi ies and he o es in isible. Fo many yea s, he ocus was on he o es ’s
exube ance and wha was conside ed exo ic, while only a ew epo s o en i onmen al c imes
we e p oduced, and no sys ema ically.
In ecen yea s, he media ha e inc easingly co e ed issues ela ed o he Amazon, pa icu-
la ly illegal logging, he expansion o he ag icul u al on ie (including ca le anching and
soybean cul i a ion), and de o es a ion. This co e age is due o na ional public policies and he
in ensi ica ion o clima e change consequences. Du ing he pe iod o he Bolsona o go e n-
men , he e was an inc ease in media co e age on issues such as illegal mining (suppo ed by
he P esiden ), as well as ailu es o o opposi ion o he p ese a ion o indigenous lands. Ad-
di ionally, he g ow h o he global clima e deba e and he need o educe g eenhouse gas emis-
sions and p ese e he o es ’s abili y o cap u e ca bon dioxide ha e con ibu ed o he Amazon
ecei ing mo e a en ion.
Na ional co e age o he Amazon is ypically p oduced by news ooms loca ed in he dis an
Rio de Janei o-São Paulo axis, which adds o he challenge o adequa ely epo ing on he
egion. Al hough he e ha e been some imp o emen s in media co e age abou he Amazon,
signi ican p oblems pe sis . The his o ical me opolis-colony ela ionship, s emming om he
colonial e a, s ill pe sis s in wha is e e ed o as in e nal colonialism. Local communi ies
con inue o be excluded om decision-making p ocesses ha de e mine he u u e o he egion,
and na u e is o en iewed solely as an economic esou ce, bene i ing g oups ha do no eside
he e. The no ion o he Amazon as an emp y and backwa d egion, wai ing o de elopmen ,
has been p e alen o a long ime and was ein o ced by Bolsona o’s he o ic in a o o ex-
ploi ing i o economic gain.
O e all, he IPCC’s pe spec i e – ha clima e change is happening and is a esul o an h o-
pogenic ac ion – has been p e alen in he B azilian p ess. Howe e , wi h he an i- en i onmen al
go e nmen o Bolsona o, some poli ical au ho i ies and media ou le s ha e aligned wi h poli-
cies p opaga ing clima e change denial. The widesp ead dissemina ion o misin o ma ion
h ough social media and messaging apps, he o me go e nmen ’s a emp o disc edi he
p ess, and an inc ease in poli ical pola iza ion a e ac o s con ibu ing o he s eng hening o
iews opposed o scien i ic e idence. An opinion poll conduc ed in July 2019 by Da aFolha
(h ps://da a olha. olha.uol.com.b /opiniaopublica/2019/07/1988289-pa a-85-dos-b asilei os-
plane a-es a- icando-mais-quen e.sh ml) ound ha 15% o he B azilian popula ion did no be-
lie e in global wa ming – almos double he numbe om a su ey conduc ed abou a decade
ea lie (8%).
Regional Media Focusing on Na ional and Global Scales
How is clima e change ep esen ed in media ha ope a e a he local o egional scales? Gi en
ha clima e change is a global issue, do hey ma e a all? Local and egional jou nalism is
62 Eloisa Beling Loose and Anabela Ca alho
an impo an a ena o connec ing clima e change wi h ci izens’ daily li es. I can link clima e
change o speci ic social si es and expe iences and can o e quali ied in o ma ion o exe cis-
ing en i onmen al and poli ical ci izenship. Resea ch has shown ha he local scale is mo e
accessible o ci izens and o e s mo e oppo uni ies o engagemen wi h clima e change. Local
jou nalism is also be e sui ed o expose local ulne abili ies o clima e change, examine so-
cioeconomic inequi ies, and sc u inize o icial policies o ackle he sou ces and consequences
o clima e change in a gi en a ea. A e all, all g eenhouse gas emissions occu in pa icula
spaces (al hough e y unequally a ound he wo ld) and clima e change impac s also ma e ialize
in speci ic loca ions.
In Cu i iba, he capi al o he s a e o Pa aná and he mos populous ci y in sou he n B azil,
Gaze a do Po o is one o he main news media. Al hough Cu i iba is o en ci ed as a model
ci y in en i onmen al e ms, i aces clima e change- ela ed isks such as loods, landslides, and
s o ms, especially hail. P eca ious dwellings and unde p i ileged social g oups a e pa icula ly
exposed o hese impac s, and he e a e also o ecas s o a highe incidence o clima e change-
de i ed diseases.
A s udy o news pieces published in Gaze a do Po o in 2013 (Loose, 2020) e ealed in e es -
ing hin s on clima e change jou nalism a he local scale. The analysis showed ha he gene al
message was ha he clima e was changing and ha humans con ibu e signi ican ly o he
accele a ion o his phenomenon. This message was consis en wi h p oposi ions o he IPCC.
Scien i ic knowledge was he dominan mac o- ame in he newspape ’s co e age.
Despi e he in equen use o he e m “ isk,” i s meaning was con eyed equen ly, pa icu-
la ly in news headlines, sub i les, and leads co e ing scien i ic epo s and p ojec ions ega ding
he impac s o clima e change. The co e age, howe e , emphasized clima e haza ds ha we e
dis an om he local communi y, such as he mel ing o pola ice caps. These indings p o ide
insigh in o he decisions made by jou nalis s when epo ing on scien i ic s udies. Al hough
isks we e u ilized o cap u e eade s’ a en ion, he de achmen o clima e- ela ed isks om
people’s daily li es educed eade s’ awa eness o he p oximi y o hese isks.
The cons an use and ep oduc ion o ma e ials om news agencies c ea ed a dis ance be-
ween he epo s o Gaze a do Po o and he eali y o he s a e o Pa aná o he ci y o Cu i iba.
While he global scale is ele an and necessa y o discuss clima e change, i s disconnec edness
wi h ci izens’ daily li es ends o obscu e nea by esponsibili ies o e a p oblem ha a ec s
e e yone, albei in di e en ways. The newspape ’s epo s did no add ess he go e nance o
clima e change beyond in e na ional poli ics no encou age public deba e on such ma e s. Pos-
sible o ms o ac ion o a oid o educe GHG emissions o o de elop adap a ion and esilience
a he local o egional le els we e ha dly explo ed.
Simila o i s co e age o clima e change policies, Gaze a do Po o d ew ex ensi ely on
ma e ials om na ional and in e na ional news agencies when epo ing scien i ic knowledge
on clima e change. I p edominan ly con ibu ed o he dissemina ion o p e ailing scien i ic
iews on clima e change, especially hose o he IPCC and B azilian Panel on Clima e Change
(PBMC), wi h li le oom o o he pe spec i es, such as hose o B azilian and La in Ame ican
scien is s in e es ed in local aspec s.
Di e en , Bu No So Much: Clima e Change Co e age by Al e na i e Media
To explo e jou nalis ic discou ses beyond hose cons uc ed by na ional and egional main-
s eam media, his sec ion ocuses on al e na i e media ou le s. While bo h ypes o media sha e
a se o alues and echniques, hey end o di e in hei co e age. Al e na i e media ou le s,
being non-comme cial, ha e g ea e eedom o epo on he causes and esponses o he clima e
Public Communica ion and Pe cep ions o Clima e Change in B azil 63
c isis, highligh di e se oices and ac ions om he Global Sou h, and alue local pe spec i es
and knowledge. His o ically, al e na i e jou nalism has aken a s ance agains injus ices and
inequali ies, ejec ing he no ion o neu ali y, impa iali y, o objec i i y ha domina es main-
s eam media. The ques ion hen a ises: how does al e na i e clima e jou nalism a e in B azil?
Conexão Plane a (h ps://conexaoplane a.com.b /) and Colabo a (h ps://p oje ocolabo a.
com.b /) a e wo digi al news p ojec s specializing in en i onmen al issues ha a e pa o he
al e na i e media landscape. Thei edi o ial lines a e dedica ed o p omo ing a mo e sus ainable
socie y, and hey equen ly co e clima e change- ela ed issues. In a s udy o he 2019–2020
pe iod, Loose (2022) analyzed how and when hese media ou le s co e ed clima e change.
Th ee peaks in co e age we e obse ed: du ing he COP-25 pe iod, he s uden clima e s ikes in
Sep embe 2019, and in Ap il–June 2020 in connec ion wi h he COVID-19 pandemic. Con en
ela ed o clima e change was ca ego ized based on i s ocus on causes, e ec s, solu ions, p o-
clima e ac ions (such as demons a ions and campaigns), and c i icism o inac ion. Discu si e
ma ke s we e also examined o e eal silences, ep esen a ions, and he mos ecu ing playe s
in he news.
A signi ican po ion o news s o ies ocused on global impac s a he han on scales and e-
ali ies close o he audiences o hese al e na i e media ou le s. The s ance was p edominan ly
cha ac e is ic o he Global No h. Mos co e age p esen ed science as he sole au ho i a i e
sou ce o knowledge, simila o he app oach o mains eam media. Scien is s held conside able
in luence in he clima e deba e wi hin hese al e na i e media and we e o en ci ed in suppo o
he discou ses o ac i is s and p omo e s o clima e solu ions. While scien is s a e c ucial ac o s
in comba ing denialism and misin o ma ion, hei p ominence ein o ces a single pe spec i e
( he scien i ic one), which can hinde he plu aliza ion o oices in clima e co e age. T adi ional
knowledge based on a close ela ionship wi h na u e, o example o indigenous peoples, i -
e side communi ies, and quilombolas communi ies (descendan s o ensla ed B azilian-A ican
people), was unde ep esen ed in news epo s abou clima e change in al e na i e media. The
need o economic g ow h was le unques ioned, wi h only occasional c i icism o he neo-
libe al discou se (i.e., discou se ha emphasizes ee ma ke economics) when compa ed o
he p omo ion o a g een economy du ing he pos -pandemic eco e y. Manage ial solu ions,
such as inc eased ene gy e iciency, less pollu ing anspo a ion, and ca bon p icing, we e o -
en men ioned. These obse a ions sugges ha he dominan alues, ou ines, and c i e ia o
newswo hiness in he jou nalis ic ield s ongly in luence clima e change co e age e en in
al e na i e media.
Despi e his, se e al dis inc i e ai s we e iden i ied in he co e age. Regula epo ing was
dedica ed o p o-clima e ac ions, such as s ee demons a ions, celeb i y s a emen s and poli i-
cal pledges, exhibi ions, und aising and campaigning, as well as o he e en s aimed a aising
awa eness and p omo ing clima e ac ion. This e lec s an engaged jou nalism ha also empha-
sized blun c i icism, a a e occu ence in mains eam media due o comme cial in e es s. Ci il
socie y sou ces we e gi en mo e co e age han o icial sou ces, pa icula ly poli ical sou ces.
Howe e , he ac i is s ha we e mos equen ly consul ed o quo ed we e only a ew indi idu-
als, namely celeb i y-ac i is s ha we e al eady well-known igu es such as G e a Thunbe g.
Local ac i is s, including indigenous people igh ing o he p o ec ion o B azilian o es s, did
no ecei e as much a en ion as migh be expec ed. This co e age limi ed he di e si y o oices
and consequen ly he ange o pe spec i es.
One dis inc i e aspec o he al e na i e media ha we e analyzed conce ns he posi ioning
o jou nalis s alongside ac i is s. In hei edi o ial sel -p esen a ion, hese media ou le s openly
decla ed hei commi men o expanding en i onmen al awa eness by p o iding quali ied in-
o ma ion, and did no y o hide subjec i i y behind discu si e s a egies ha p e ended o be
70 Mike S. Schä e and Xiaoyue Yan
impac s o isuals ha e shown ha ea appeals (messages aiming o elici ea by highligh ing
dange s and su e ing), which o en appea in clima e change communica ion, can elici nega-
i e emo ions and s i le ac ion – while o he , less commonly used isuals (like depic ions o
solu ions) e oke posi i e emo ions and can imp o e people’s belie ha hey can ake ac ion o
add ess clima e change.
Analyzing Social Media Visualiza ions o Clima e Change
The eme gence and ise o social media ha e changed how issues like clima e change a e pub-
licly communica ed, pe cei ed, and engaged wi h. Social media ha e become impo an sou ces
o clima e- ela ed con en o many. They ha e changed he undamen al logic o public com-
munica ion by allowing o many- o-many communica ion, bypassing es ablished ga ekeepe s
like jou nalis s, and enabling membe s o he public o au ho , dis ibu e, sha e, o commen
upon con en and ake an ac i e pa in he public discussion o clima e change.
So a , howe e , only e y ew s udies ha e analyzed clima e change image y on social
media. They mos ly employ discou se analysis, quali a i e o quan i a i e con en analysis ha
ely on manual coding and modes sample sizes ( om one o 200 isuals). O en, hey a e case
s udies ocusing on single well-known o ganiza ions o pe sons, like G eenpeace and G e a
Thunbe g, o p ominen e en s like he COP summi s. They equen ly employ mul imodal
Table 8.1 Co e indings om he esea ch ield
Analyses o News Media Image y Analyses o Social Media Image y
Typical esea ch
app oach
Mos ly quan i a i e o quali a i e con en
analyses o p in media image y om
Wes e n coun ies.
Mos ly manual a ian s o con en
analysis o small samples, usually
om one social media pla o m.
Co e indings The use o image y in news media has
inc eased.
News ou le s a ound he wo ld adop ela i ely
simila image y o clima e change.
The selec ion o news image y can be
p oblema ic.
News image y o clima e change is
in luenced by jou nalis s, news p oduce s,
bu also many s akeholde s.
Visual con en has conside able in luence on
audiences.
Visuals on social media di e om
news image y.
Numbe o ideos suppo ing consensus
iews abou clima e change and
skep ical ideos di e conside ably
om pla o m o pla o m.
Ac i is s and ac i is g oups ha e been
shown o use social media isuals
ex ensi ely.
Di e en ypes o isuals ecei e
di e en le els o engagemen s on
social media.
Limi a ions Lack o mul imodal analysis ha is aking
image y as well as w i en ex , sound, o
ideo in o accoun .
Focus o en on case s udies and lack o
la ge-scale (e.g. compu a ional) analyses.
Focus la gely on English-language da a and
Wes e n coun ies.
Mos ly single pla o m s udies, o en
analyzing Twi e .
Lack o quan i a i e and compu a ional
analyses.
Focused la gely on English ma e ials
and Wes e n coun ies.

News and Social Media Image y o Clima e Change 71
app oaches, aking isual and ex ual a ibu es o pos s in o accoun . Se e al indings can be
dis illed om he ield:
Fi s , e en hough ew s udies ha e compa ed his sys ema ically, isuals on social media
seem o di e om news media image y. On Twi e , memes, mo i a ional quo es, and sc een-
sho s ha e been shown o be he mos common isualiza ions o clima e change, ollowed by
po ayals o indi iduals like poli icians and celeb i ies. Visualiza ions o clima e change conse-
quences, he mos popula isual ca ego y in he news, a e less impo an on social media. When
ocusing only on “ op wee s” (de ined by Twi e as “ he mos ele an ” wee s o a sea ch
que y based on he pla o m’s “popula i y” measu e ha con ains in e ac ions, sha es, and o he
ac o s), he use o isuals changes. While he image y in op wee s o en po ays indi iduals,
hese a e mo e o en ci izens a he han poli icians and celeb i ies who a e p ominen in news
media. Images o clima e consequences and solu ions a e he second mos p e alen ca ego y
among op wee s, ollowed by images depic ing p o es s and scien i ic image y. Memes on In-
s ag am and Facebook ha e been shown o call mos ly o awa eness and ac ion agains clima e
change, ollowed by memes a acking libe al and conse a i e poli ical iews and poli icians.
Second, s udies analyzing audio- isual con en ha e shown ha he numbe o ideos sup-
po ing consensus iews abou clima e change e sus clima e-skep ical ideos di e s conside -
ably om pla o m o pla o m. A YouTube analysis in 2018 showed ha among 200 andomly
selec ed ideos on clima e change, he majo i y opposed he scien i ic consensus (Allgaie ,
2019). On TikTok, he science o clima e change is a ely a opic, bu a la ge majo i y o ideos
on he pla o m suppo he scien i ic consensus, o en coupling since e appeals wi h humo -
ous ex o isuals when men ioning he issue. I is no able, howe e , ha some widely iewed
ideos exis on TikTok as well ha e u e an h opogenic clima e change, and ha a subs an ial
p opo ion o TikTok ideos wi h clima e- ela ed hash ags a e i ele an o he issue. They jus
“hijack” he buzz gene a ed by he hash ags o d aw a en ion o hemsel es.
Thi d, ac i is s and ac i is g oups use social media isuals ex ensi ely o b oadcas hei
iews, mobilize hei audiences, and illumina e he absence o news media co e age. This was
especially ue o young ac i is s, who a e mo e accus omed o social media logics. The p ime
example is ac i is G e a Thunbe g who communica ed he weekly clima e s ikes on social
media and has become a global icon and an impo an communica o o he issue. She has been
shown o ame clima e change as a mo al and e hical issue on Ins ag am and o use isuals
o mo i a e collec i e ac ion, o example, by depic ing p o es signs and smiling pee s while
engaging in ac i ism. Ac i is s some imes come oge he and p o es du ing impo an clima e
e en s like COP mee ings. In hei p o es ideos on YouTube du ing COP15, ac i is s isually
po ayed hemsel es as soldie s o eedom igh e s. The isual discou se ocuses on he nodes
o wa , injus ice, and esis ance. Among ac i is g oups, G eenpeace uses h ee main isual
hemes on Ins ag am o communica e a “clima e c isis” in Indonesia: clima e c isis h ea s, an
u gen need o swi ch o enewable ene gy, and calls o mo e en i onmen ally iendly poli ical
egula ions. En i onmen al NGOs also pos ad e isemen s abou clima e change on Facebook,
in which hey equen ly combine ex s on pollu ion and e icacy wi h isuals o clima e impac s
and ex s abou p o es wi h isuals o collec i e ac ion.
Fou h, di e en isuals ecei e di e en le els o engagemen on social media. Social media
allow indi iduals o become bo h con en p oduce s and ep oduce s by sha ing, liking, and
commen ing on speci ic con en . The e o e, unde s anding he d i e s o social media engage-
men is impo an o analyses o ( isual) communica ion o clima e change. Se e al schola s
ha e ocused on his ques ion. They ha e shown ha despi e hei in equen occu ence, p o-
es isuals egula ly ecei ed he highes engagemen on Twi e , ollowed by people- ela ed
isuals. In con as , memes, mo i a ional quo es, and sc eensho s gene a ed limi ed amoun s o
72 Mike S. Schä e and Xiaoyue Yan
engagemen despi e hei p e alence. On YouTube, ideos in a o o he scien i ic mains eam
pe spec i e ba ely ou numbe ed hose agains i in e ms o iews. On TikTok, ideos o na u al
disas e s and he en i onmen al e ec s o clima e change ypically ge mo e iews, likes, and
commen s han o he ideos. Al hough making up only a small po ion o clima e ideos on
TikTok, ideos ha sp ead misin o ma ion abou clima e change ea ned many iews as well.
Limi a ions and he Way Fo wa d
Gene ally, esea che s ha e paid less a en ion o clima e change images han me i ed by hei
impo ance. Consequen ly, se e al o he indings abo e a e less de ini i e han hey should be.
Since he amoun o clima e change isuals is clea ly ising in news and social media and hei
e ec s on audiences a e signi ican , mo e esea ch is u gen ly needed in his ield. In addi ion,
his esea ch needs o be mo e di e se – in he cases i analyses, he con ex s and coun ies i
d aws hem om, and he news and social media i ocuses on. Wi h hei unique concep ual
and me hodological app oaches, mo e STS esea ch would be pa icula ly help ul in p o iding
an addi ional concep ual g ounding.
In addi ion, cu en esea ch on clima e change communica ion in news and social media
has clea gaps and limi a ions. Mos esea ch analyses p in media and o en ocuses on single
news media o social media (mos ly Twi e ) wi hin each s udy. E en hough isuals a e dis-
semina ed ac oss bo de s and socio-poli ical con ex s, and can a el ac oss language ba ie s,
esea ch con inues o concen a e almos en i ely on English-language ma e ials and Wes e n
na ions. O en media wi hin cul u es and na ions mo e ulne able o clima e change a e igno ed
such as coas al coun ies in sou h and sou heas Asia. Despi e he impo ance o unde s anding
how clima e isuals a ec audiences, exis ing esea ch equen ly does no in es iga e impac s.
A signi ican gap in news media s udies is hei lack o mul imodali y. S udies usually con-
cen a e only on isuals such as s ill images and pho og aphs. Bu isuals unc ion in conce
wi h o he modali ies, such as ex s, and can ha e a ying e ec s on audiences acco dingly.
Mo e s udies examining news isuals in conjunc ion wi h o he modali ies should be conduc ed.
Social media analyses should go beyond Twi e and expand hei iew o include social me-
dia pla o ms wi h la ge use bases like Facebook and cen e ed a ound isuals like Ins ag am.
In addi ion, s udies ac oss pla o ms a e equi ed since di e en social media pla o ms ha e
unique logic and a o dances. Schola s should also pay a en ion o speci ic online isuals like
memes, sc eensho s, and gi s and conside hei po en ial o use by clima e change skep ics. In
gene al, he ole o isuals o he dissemina ion o dis- and misin o ma ion and clima e- ela ed
conspi acy heo ies needs ques ioning.
Finally, he ole o gene a i e a i icial in elligence, which p o ides o iginal esponses o use
p omp s based on supe ised and ein o cemen machine lea ning echniques, o he isualiza-
ion o clima e change should be analyzed (Schä e , 2023). Tools like DALL.E, Midjou ney, o
S able Di usion can al eady p oduce pho o-like isualiza ions ha could change isual com-
munica ion abou clima e change (among o he issues) conside ably.
Fu he Reading
Bu i, R. V. and Dumi , J. (2008) “Social s udies o scien i ic imaging and isualiza ion.” In Hacke , E.
J., Ams e damska, O., Lynch, M., and Wajcman, J. (Eds.). The Handbook o Science and Technology
S udies. Camb idge, MA: MIT P ess, pp. 297–317.
Me ag, J. (2020) “Clima e change isuals: A e iew o hei e ec s on cogni ion, emo ion and beha iou .”
In Holmes, D. and Richa dson, L. (Eds.), Resea ch Handbook on Communica ing Clima e Change.
Chel enham, UK: Edwa d Elga Publishing, pp. 153–160.
News and Social Media Image y o Clima e Change 73
O’Neill, S. J. and Smi h, N. (2014) “Clima e change and isual image y,” Wiley In e disciplina y Re iews:
Clima e Change, 5(1), pp. 73–87.
Schä e , M. S. (2020) “In oduc ion o isualizing clima e change.” In Holmes, D. and Richa dson, L.
(Eds.), Resea ch Handbook on Communica ing Clima e Change. Chel enham, UK: Edwa d Elga Pub-
lishing, pp. 127–130.
Wozniak, A. (2020) “S akeholde s’ isual ep esen a ions o clima e change.” In Holmes, D. and Rich-
a dson, L. (Eds.), Resea ch Handbook on Communica ing Clima e Change. Chel enham, UK: Edwa d
Elga Publishing, pp. 131–142.
Re e ences
Allgaie , J. (2019) “Science and en i onmen al communica ion on YouTube: S a egically dis o ed com-
munica ions in online ideos on clima e change and clima e enginee ing,” F on ie s in Communica ion,
4: 36, pp. 1–15.
Gie yn, T. F. (1999) Cul u al Bounda ies o Science. Chicago: Uni e si y o Chicago P ess.
Gus on, D. H. (2001) “Bounda y o ganiza ions in en i onmen al policy and science: An in oduc ion,”
Science, Technology, & Human Values, 26(4), pp. 399–408.
Jasano , S. and Kim, S. H. (Eds.) (2015) D eamscapes o Mode ni y: Socio echnical Imagina ies and he
Fab ica ion o Powe . Chicago: Uni e si y o Chicago P ess.
Ma es, N. and Moa s, D. (2015) “Mapping con o e sies wi h social media: The case o symme y,”
Social Media+ Socie y, 1(2), 2056305115604176.
Schä e , M. S. (2023) “The No o ious GPT. Science communica ion in he age o a i icial in elligence,”
JCOM – Jou nal o Science Communica ion, 22(2), Y02.
S a , S. L. and G ieseme , J. R. (1989) “Ins i u ional ecology, ‘ ansla ions’ and bounda y objec s: Ama-
eu s and p o essionals in Be keley’s Museum o Ve eb a e Zoology, 1907–39,” Social S udies o Sci-
ence, 19(3), pp. 387–420.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-12
Building on he wo k o Pa III, he chap e s in his Pa con inue o explo e how knowledge
abou clima e change is amed and media ed. Bu ins ead o looking a he media, he chap e s
in Pa IV u n hei a en ion o social and cul u al mo emen s. These mo emen s, and he non-
go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) who a e o en e e ed o as social mo emen o ganiza ions,
ha e a p o ound impac on socie y. C i ical sociologis s used o hink abou social mo emen s
in e ms ha we e la gely in o med by Ma xis analysis; he wo king class was conside ed as
he locus o social change. Bu his changed du ing he 1960s and 1970s. Ra he han he wo k-
ing class, i was a di e en se o social mo emen ac o s who eme ged o p o oundly impac
he shape o socie y in he Global No h, including he Ci il Righ s, Women’s, Gay Libe a ion,
Peace, and En i onmen al Mo emen s. Sociologis s and o he social mo emen schola s spend
conside able e o o s udy hese social mo emen s, examining opics such as how, when, and
whe e social mo emen s eme ge, g ow, mobilize, and dissipa e, as well how hey shape socie y.
Science and Technology S udies (STS) has impo an a eas o a ini y wi h social mo e-
men schola ship. Social mo emen s a e an in eg al pa o democ a ic socie ies, gi ing oice
o posi ions o dissen o opposi ion. Fo his eason, a la ge pa o STS is conce ned wi h how
o dina y people can ha e g ea e pa icipa ion in he decisions ha a ec hem (Chil e s and
Kea ns, 2016). In addi ion, many STS schola s a gue ha STS should help open up issues o
public impo ance ha a e domina ed by he p esump ion ha scien i ic expe ise has a aken-
o -g an ed au ho i y o de e mine how social issues should be unde s ood and wha should
be done abou hem (Wynne, 2003). He e we can see he cons uc i is oo s o STS showing
h ough. Tha is, STS is well sui ed o analyzing how en i onmen al issues a e deba ed in public
because i e uses o g an science he ul ima e say in how p oblems should be de ined.
Sociologis s and his o ians wo king in a eas adjacen o STS also esea ch he clima e de-
nialis mo emen as a “coun e mo emen .” T acing connec ions be ween he ossil uel lobby,
conse a i e hink anks, public ela ions i ms, poli icians, and indi idual scien is s, hese
schola s ha e a gued ha clima e denialism is mo i a ed by he belie ha go e nmen s should
no egula e he ma ke and should no impede he abili y o indi iduals o pu sue p i a e p o i
(B ulle, 2021; Dunlap and McC igh , 2015). In o he wo ds, jus as he e a e social mo emen s
u ging go e nmen s and businesses o ac on clima e change by educing emissions, so oo a e
he e social mo emen ac o s who u ge he opposi e. STS schola s poin ou how a key a ea o
simila i y be ween hese wo seemingly con adic o y mo emen s is an image o science ha is
uni ied and capable o p oducing ce ain y h ough a singula scien i ic me hod (La ou , 2015).
Fo en i onmen alis s, clima e science g ounds hei claims ha we should educe ossil uel
use; o clima e denialis s, any supposed de ia ion o miss ep om a highly idealized e sion o
science is eason o disc edi he en i e y o clima e science.
Pa IV
NGOs, Ci il Socie y, and
Social Mo emen s
In oduc ion
Ma k Va dy

76 Ma k Va dy
As S e en Yea ley de ails in Chap e 9, he e is a plu ali y o ways ha en i onmen al NGOs
in e ene in he public aming o clima e change. Conside ing he School S ikes and F idays
o he Fu u e mo emen , Yea ley asks i he clima e jus ice mo emen migh ha e ound a new
his o ical ac o . Tha is, he School S ike s can be conside ed on he same scale and scope as
he new social mo emen s iden i ied ea lie , which eme ged in he 1960s and 1970s. Bu new
clima e mo emen s (NCMs), such as he Ex inc ion Rebellion, ace simila challenges as he
ea lie gene a ions o en i onmen al NGOs, which pe ain o hei eliance on he social au ho -
i y o science. In conside ing hese issues, Yea ley aises impo an poin s o conside abou how
he plu ali y ha STS sees in science can be ex ended in o he clima e jus ice mo emen .
In Chap e 10, Adam Fleischmann d aws om his e hnog aphic esea ch wi h NGOs o en-
gage wi h ques ions o how o make clima e change a ac able social p oblem. Th ough his
in-dep h and long- e m esea ch wi h Clima e In e ac i e, Fleischmann shows how he aming
o science and policy can be ewo ked by ac i ely engaging o dina y people in simula ions
o in e na ional clima e nego ia ions. In hese sessions, indi iduals adop he oles o a ious
na ion-s a es and en e in o nego ia ions as i hey we e ac ing on ha coun y’s behal . In his
way, Fleischmann shows us how clima e change is no jus a ma e o communica ing he co -
ec science bu also engaging wi h di icul , con en ious, and all- oo-human poli ics.
While he i s wo chap e s in Pa IV expand ou unde s anding o he plu ali y o ways NGOs
a e ac ing o make clima e change a social and poli ical p oblem, he hi d chap e conside s a con-
se a i e cul u al mo emen associa ed wi h clima e denialism. Mo e speci ically, Allison Fo d
d aws om he e hnog aphic esea ch o show how people who iden i y hemsel es as “p ep-
pe s” unde s and and deal wi h disas e . P eppe s ac i ely p epa e o u u e disas e s by making
hemsel es as sel -su icien as possible. The p eppe s who Fo d discusses in Chap e 11 en ision
a u u e in which disas e s ha e ende ed many o he in as uc u es, goods, and se ices ha a e
pa o li e in indus ialized na ions una ailable o unwo kable. Fo d shows us how p eppe s sha e
a common eali y wi h en i onmen alis s, namely a ealis unde s anding o he po en ial o dis-
as e , such as hose caused by loods, i es, and d ough s. Bu while hey a e awa e o he po en ial
o disas e , p eppe s a e skep ical o clima e change p ecisely because o hei conse a i e and
libe a ian belie s, which a e agains go e nmen al egula ion. Fo d shows how hei commi men s
o ideological belie s lead hem o “ski he ame” o an h opogenic clima e change ha is p o-
mo ed by he e y NGOs ha Yea ley and Fleischmann conside in hei chap e s.
As he chap e s in Pa IV emind us, clima e change is no jus a scien i ic issue. In o de o
us o unde s and i as a social and poli ical p oblem, we need o pay a en ion o he my iad ways
i becomes known, communica ed, and unde s ood by people, including he NGOs and o he
cul u al and social mo emen ac o s.
Re e ences
B ulle, R.J. (2021) “Ne wo ks o Opposi ion: A S uc u al Analysis o US Clima e Change Coun e mo e-
men Coali ions 1989–2015,” Sociological Inqui y, 91(3), pp. 603–624.
Chil e s, J. and Kea nes, M. (2016) Remaking Pa icipa ion: Science, En i onmen and Eme ging Pub-
lics. Abingdon: Rou ledge.
Dunlap, R.E. and McC igh , A.M. (2015) “Challenging Clima e Change,” in Dunlap, R.E. and B ulle, R.J. (eds.)
Clima e Change and Socie y: Sociological Pe spec i es, New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, pp. 300–332.
La ou , B. (2015) “Telling F iends om Foes in he Time o he An h opocene,” in Hamil on, C., Bonneuil,
C., and Gemenne, F. (eds.) The An h opocene and he Global En i onmen al C isis. London: Rou ledge,
pp. 145–155.
Wynne, B. (2003) “Seasick on he Thi d Wa e? Sub e ing he Hegemony o P oposi ionalism: Response
o Collins & E ans (2002),” Social S udies o Science, 33(3), pp. 401–417.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-13
In oduc ion
En i onmen al non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) and ad ocacy g oups ha e long been
enowned o hei s un s and campaigning, no leas in ela ion o issues a ound clima e change.
They moun noisy p o es s in he ace o ai po cons uc ion p ojec s; a in e na ional clima e
nego ia ions hey s age ma ches and “shadow e en s” o exe p essu e on he delega es; and
hey ha e adap ed ea lie an i-nuclea mobiliza ions o oppose new coal- i ed powe s a ions,
acking, and hose ca bon cap u e and s o age acili ies ha depend on links o ossil uel indus-
ies. In he las ew yea s, new g oups ha e eme ged ha apply di ec ac ion in no el ways, such
as he Sun ise Mo emen in he USA. In he USA and B i ain, and in nume ous o he coun ies,
one p ominen g oup is he Ex inc ion Rebellion, known as XR, which was ounded in he UK
in 2018. XR ocuses on di ec ac ion e en s o d aw a en ion o he clima e c isis and h ea s
o biodi e si y. I s me hods esemble hose o he Occupy mo emen ha p o es ed banks and
capi al in he con ex o economic aus e i y a e he inancial c isis o 2007–2008. In one s and-
ou XR p o es , in 2019 a o me Pa alympic a hle e managed o supe -glue himsel o he op
o a B i ish Ai ways plane a a London ai po a o ed by business a ele s, dis up ing many
ligh s o he day.
U gency is he key heme o XR, as memo ably communica ed by i s logo, which uses a s yl-
ized “X” o e oke an hou glass o glass ime , highligh ing ha ou ime is unning ou . Some
membe s o XR in B i ain hen eshaped hemsel es in o he mo e p ecisely ocused Insula e
B i ain (2021), a campaign o ganiza ion demanding ha go e nmen in e ene so ha new so-
cial housing and he exis ing s ock o dwellings be adequa ely insula ed (i is widely ag eed ha
he UK was es a lo o na u al gas in hea ing poo ly designed domes ic spaces). Insula e B i ain
suppo e s caused cons e na ion and delays by blocking oads, hus highligh ing socie y’s ad-
dic ion o ossil uels. A la e spin-o , Jus S op Oil (da ing om 2022), buil on his adi ion
o non- iolen p o es and began by “occupying” ucks anspo ing pe oleum p oduc s and by
using a ious means o block a ic on eeways and majo b idges. In Oc obe 2022, wo Jus
S op Oil ac i is s h ew canned oma o soup a a celeb a ed Van Gogh pic u e o sun lowe s in
London’s Na ional Galle y as pa o a mo e owa d p o es s in he cul u al sec o s. Sa e behind
p o ec i e glass, he Van Gogh pain ing was undamaged, bu he inciden , which was in ended
o s imula e discussion abou wha socie y alues and why, spa ked ou age.
The s ance o hese g oups is adical. P o es o s a e o en a es ed o no comp omising hei
commi men s o hei goals. They mobilize h ough social media and o some ex en online bu
ha e e y li le adminis a ion o o e head, making hem dis inc om g oups such as G een-
peace and F iends o he Ea h, who – hese days – a e p o essionalized g oups wi h o ices and
en s o pay, and who need o solici dona ions om ounda ions and middle-class suppo e s.
Bu his makes i all he mo e no able ha on Jus S op Oil’s websi e hey choose o ha e a
9 Non-Go e nmen al O ganiza ions and
he En i onmen al Mo emen
Challenges in Clima e Change F aming
S e en Yea ley
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
78 S e en Yea ley
p ominen quo e in e y la ge le e s a ibu ed o Si Da id King, he o me Chie Scien i ic
Ad iso o he B i ish Go e nmen : “Wha we do o e he nex h ee o ou yea s, I belie e,
is going o de e mine he u u e o humani y” (Jus S op Oil, 2023). King made his commen
in a speech he ga e a he 2021 Clima e Eme gency Summi in Aus alia whe e he wen on o
say, “We a e in a e y, e y despe a e si ua ion.” King’s ema k has been ci ed by XR also; hei
websi e in okes him, s a ing “This s u is eal. The science is clea . Ou u u e is no ” (Ex inc-
ion Rebellion, 2023). The key poin is ha , despi e hei ac i ism and spon anei y, hei supe -
gluing and soup-based p o es s, hese clima e p essu e g oups a e keen o show ha hei claims
a e a i ied o endo sed by senio scien i ic igu es. This indica es some hing impo an abou
en i onmen alism and clima e change.
Clima e F aming and he Role o Science
This conspicuous ole o scien i ic au ho i y a ises p ecisely because he con incingness o
hese g oups’ message depends on he no ion ha hei claims ha e a basis in ac ual accu acy –
ha hey a e no simply ma e s o opinion o ideology, bu can wi hs and expe , scien i ic sc u-
iny. En i onmen alis s, mo e han any o he ype o campaigne , need o pe suade he public
ha hings a e in ac he way hey say hings a e, e en when some o he claims hey a e mak-
ing seem – a i s glance a leas – o be coun e -in ui i e o implausible: ha me hane-hea y
“bu ps” om cows and sheep can wa m he a mosphe e signi ican ly, ha minu e plas ic sphe es
in cosme ic p oduc s can end up accumula ing in ocean c ea u es, o ha bu ning coal, gas, and
oil can unse le he en i e global clima e. Mos o he social mo emen claims a e based a ound
jus ice, ai ness, o igh s, as wi h he Ci il Righ s mo emen , he Women’s Mo emen , and
ac i ism a ound LGBTQ+ iden i ies. In he case o clima e change, a big challenge has been o
exp ess he s eng h o e idence o he eali y o clima e e ec s and o comba hose who ha e
se ou o sow doub . The di icul y o en i onmen alis s a ises om wo sou ces. In pa , he e
is he ac ha clima e change has gene ally been a g adual p ocess so ha o dina y people ha e
mos ly no been able o de ec i o dis inguish i om gene al wea he a iabili y on a casual
basis. This means ha en i onmen alis s ha e had o ely on he social au ho i y o science o
a gue ha he clima e is indeed changing and ha pa icula ins ances o obse ed changes a e
a ibu able o an h opogenic causes. Second, since clima e change has a isen p ima ily om
ossil uel consump ion (and is hus ied o all so s o economic ac i i y), a emp s o ake s eps
o comba global wa ming ha e been opposed o ques ioned by many in indus y and in ensi e
ag icul u e, by lo s o ehicle manu ac u e s, by igh -leaning poli icians and policy make s
(who a e o en inclined o iew i as a le -wing a emp o egula e he ma ke ), many banke s,
and mos di ec ly by ossil uel indus ies and p oduce s hemsel es. E en some es ablished
labo unions ha e oiced skep icism, based on pe cei ed h ea s o wo ke s’ li elihoods. All o
hese g oups, mo i a ed by ideological, economic, o poli ical conce ns, ha e ques ioned he
scien i ic basis o clima e change, which can make he en i onmen alis s all he mo e insis en
ha science be g an ed au ho i y.
Since hei o ma ion in he 1970s, celeb a ed en i onmen al mo emen o ganiza ions
in he Global No h ha e o en p o es ed agains he es ablishmen , including es ablishmen
scien is s, o e issues such as nuclea powe , ag icul u al chemicals, and he desi abili y o
gene ically modi ied c ops and oods. In he clima e case, en i onmen alis s ha e hus ound
hemsel es in an unusual si ua ion. Wha hey see as he wo ld’s leading en i onmen al p ob-
lem is ully endo sed by he mains eam scien i ic communi y and, in p inciple a leas , by mos
wo ld go e nmen s whose ep esen a i es ha e now signed o on six se s o In e go e nmen-
al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC) epo s and, o e whelmingly, signed up o he 2015 UN
Non-Go e nmen al O ganiza ions and he En i onmen al Mo emen 79
Figu e 9.1 Sc eensho o homepage o Scien is Rebellion.
Sou ce: See h ps://scien is ebellion.o g/.
Le ’s begin wi h a undamen al insigh in Science and Technology S udies (STS) and ela ed ields
like an h opology: he inc edible bu simple ac ha hings ha e been di e en in he pas , hey a e
di e en in some places on Ea h igh now, and hey can and will be di e en in he u u e. This
idea, in one way o ano he , also mo i a es he ac o s and o ganiza ions whose wo k is he ocus
o he esea ch I will discuss in b ie in his chap e . Fo nea ly a decade, I ha e conduc ed a se ies
o s udies o a ne wo k o non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) ope a ing a he in e sec ion
o expe ise in clima e change poli ics and clima e science in No h Ame ica. Th ough hei wo k,
hese expe ac i is s ecognize ha hings can be di e en han he p esen s a e o hings, how-
e e en enched, including accele a ing clima e change. The people and o ganiza ions who make
up he ne wo k add ess he challenges o global an h opogenic clima e change in di e en ways:
h ough science communica ion and educa ion, policy and da a analysis, coo dina ion and con en-
ing, compu e modeling, and g ass oo s o ganizing. Howe e , hey all ha e his in common: hey
a e all expe s in shaping he space whe e poli ical and scien i ic knowledge mee . In my esea ch,
I use ools and pe spec i es om STS and ela ed ields like an h opology and social mo emen
s udies o s udy how hese g oups help people unde s and and ac on global clima e change.
This s udy is pa o a la ge esea ch agenda abou he challenges and possibili ies o ad-
d essing global an h opogenic clima e change bo h poli ically and epis emologically ( ha is,
ega ding knowledge abou clima e change, i s his o y, how we know wha we know abou i ,
and, e en, how clima e change can be known in he i s place). In doing his wo k, I egula ly
con end wi h he high-s akes ques ions ha ouble esea che s, expe ac i is s, and, I’m su e,
many s uden s. How do we unde s and and ac on he scale o he global clima e? How can hu-
mans e en g apple wi h he as consequences o ou collec i e ac ion? My esea ch shows how,
in my in e locu o ’s spaces o expe ise, bo h clima e change science and poli ics a e nego ia ed,
p oblema ized, and made in e enable. In o he wo ds, i shows how hese g oups make clima e
change a i id and conc e e issue o hei publics.
In his chap e , I i s explo e some STS insigh s abou global an h opogenic clima e change,
which help us unde s and bo h he challenges couched in he abo e ques ions and he wo k o
expe ac i is s o shape he space o clima e science and poli ics. I hen u n o his wo k mo e
di ec ly, ocusing on an example o e hnog aphic ield esea ch in clima e mo emen NGOs,
p o iding e hnog aphic de ails and a na a i e anecdo e, be o e concluding by conside ing he
insigh s STS and NGOs o e o e hinking clima e change, i s challenges, and possibili ies.
STS Insigh s: Unde s anding Global Clima e Change
Clima e change as i is unde s ood by clima e science is global. Tha is, i is a phenomenon
ha encompasses he whole plane and all i e sphe es o he Ea h’s plane a y sys em— he
10 Expe Ac i is s and NGOs
Unde s anding and Ac ing on Global
Clima e Change
Adam Fleischmann
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-14

Expe Ac i is s and NGOs 87
a mosphe e (gases), he li hosphe e ( ocks), he hyd osphe e (wa e ), he c yosphe e (ice) and
he biosphe e (li ing hings). Global clima e change is also an h opogenic, meaning i is caused
by humans (some mo e han o he s). Global an h opogenic clima e change, as a way o desc ib-
ing human-caused changes in he global clima e sys em, is an issue ha is known h ough he
concep s and ins i u ions o Wes e n science. This global hinking has an ongoing his o y, o en
enmeshed wi h he his o ies o colonialism and impe ialism. As some STS schola s ha e pu i ,
“Concep ions o he wo ld as a globally connec ed sys em o de ed by physical, chemical, and
biological laws ha e a long his o y, anima ed no jus by abs ac heo e ical ad ances bu by
p ocesses o Eu opean expansion and he impe ial hi s o bo h ac s and esou ces” (Beck
e al., 2016, pp. 1060–1061). This means ha he scien i ic concep o a global clima e is inhe -
en ly ied in wi h—canno be unde s ood disconnec ed om—social, cul u al, and poli ical his-
o ies. I is in his sense ha i is “cons uc ed” as a concep . And his cons uc ion has a his o y
and is ac i ely ep oduced. While now unde s ood wi h inc easing deg ees o speci ici y, ha
speci ici y is made up o a complex cons ella ion o assemblage o phenomena, people, hings,
and e en s.
The idea o clima e as a single, global uni had al eady been p oposed by he mid-19 h cen-
u y. Howe e , ea ly heo e ical models o a mosphe ic ci cula ion— he mo emen o ene gy
and ai h ough he a mosphe e and oceans—had se ious limi a ions in ackling he s agge ing
complexi y o he p oblem o a global sys em. This place-based, a mos egional, concep ion o
he clima e emained un il echnological ad ances ollowing he Second Wo ld Wa . I was he
ad en o compu e models, du ing and a e he wa , ha could begin o handle he p ac ical
ask o con i ming a heo y o gene al a mosphe ic ci cula ion. This allowed o he ealiza-
ion o he concep o a global clima e, p e iously imagined in e ms o physical laws bu no
p ac ically calculable. This b eak h ough led he way o sys ems heo ies o gene al ci cula ion,
which connec ed he oceans, land, geology, li ing hings, and ice (all i e sphe es o he Ea h’s
sys em) in he la e hal o he wen ie h cen u y (Fleischmann and Yip, 2019). The no ion o a
global clima e hus eme ged, p oduced by he complex se o ela ions h ough which we ha e
come o know and unde s and i (Edwa ds, 2010): a cons ella ion o scien is s and me eo ologi-
cal phenomena, discou ses and ins i u ions, na ional me eo ological se ices and massi e com-
pu e models, sa elli es and wea he s a ions, and a chi es—physical hings and ac ual e en s
in ime.
Ye as STS schola Paul Edwa ds pu i in his in luen ial his o y o clima e science and
modeling, “No one li es in a ‘global’ clima e. Wi hou scien i ic guidance, no e en he mos
cosmopoli an a ele could pe cei e a global a e age empe a u e change o abou [1.2°C], he
amoun we ha e seen so a ” (Edwa ds, 2010, p. 4). We can’ see changes in clima ic a e ages
o e 30 yea s and we can’ pe cei e he global clima e i sel , in all i s globali y, pe se. We can,
o cou se, see i s me eo ological impac s and cumula i e e ec s, he “na u al” elemen s ha
o m pa o i s cons uc ed na u e. We can wi ness how i s accumula ing, in e ac ing sys ems
change how we expe ience he day- o-day a ia ion o he s a e o he a mosphe e wi h espec
o i s e ec s on human li e (o he wise known as he wea he ). We can measu e he global cli-
ma e, and model i , p ojec ing i in o he u u e and he pas . Bu in i s e y globali y, i is a sum
g ea e han i s knowledge-p oduc ion-sys em pa s. No one li es in a global clima e. Global
clima e change is bo h cons uc ed by and beyond humans.
The dynamic and pe haps coun e in ui i e challenges o unde s anding and ac ing on cli-
ma e change desc ibed abo e a e due in la ge pa o he global na u e o clima e change. Bu ,
o cou se, his does no mean he global clima e is no “ eal.” I is g ounded in obse a ions
and o he empi ical da a, a global knowledge in as uc u e, and equi es ac i e ep oduc ion
h oughou his sys em—in o he wo ds, i s ealness is ep oduced in all he elemen s ha make
88 Adam Fleischmann
i up. The labo and main enance o his knowledge-p oduc ion sys em is he e y eason why
we can e en hink o a plane a y clima e as some hing o be obse ed, unde s ood, a ec ed by
human ac i i ies, ca ed abou by he gene al public, and managed h ough he poli ical egula-
ion o he composi ion o he a mosphe e. Knowing his concep and i s his o y can help us
unde s and and add ess many o he challenges su ounding clima e change ha can eel o e -
whelming and ine i able.
In sum, STS pe spec i es ha e augh us ha pe haps mo e han o he complex and chal-
lenging social and na u al p oblems o a ce ain in e con inen al magni ude, he changing global
clima e is always a combina ion o phenomena and knowledge. Yes, clima e change is pa ially
made up o massi e and changing phenomena like wea he pa e ns. And STS eaches us ha
we can only know hese changing phenomena on a global scale because o a global scien i ic
knowledge sys em and he his o y o impe ialism and expansion ha p oceeds i . I is bo h con-
s uc ed by humans and exis s beyond us. This ension is inhe en o he issue o clima e change
and mus be con inually aken up anew, including in esea ch. Nex , I’ll sha e some o wha I’ e
lea ned om one g oup wi hin he ne wo k I’ e s udied.
STS Resea ch: Fieldwo k in Clima e Mo emen NGOs
Clima e In e ac i e is a small US-based nonp o i clima e change NGO and one o ganiza ion
whose s a and pa icipan s o med a key g oup o in e locu o s o my s udy. Th ough my
esea ch wi h he Di ec o and Co- ounde o Clima e In e ac i e, D ew Jones, I ha e lea ned
ha he dynamics o he global clima e sys em a e no in ui i e. We d i e ca s, p oducing ca -
bon emissions in he US o Canada, ye he e ec s a e seen, much soone and mo e in ensely,
a away in Bangladesh o G eenland, o example. People p oduce emissions oday, bu i is
ou child en, g andchild en, and g ea -g andchild en who will deal wi h g owing consequences
like d ough , sea-le el ise, and inc easingly ex eme wea he . To pu i ano he way, clima e
change is complex and he e ogeneous, wi h dynamic cha ac e is ics ac oss ime and space. All
o his makes e ec i e ac ion on clima e change di icul o inspi e o enac , o e en o imagine,
o mos people. Ye jus elling people his in o ma ion doesn’ do much. In ac , D ew Jones
in eg a ed his insigh in o he o ganiza ion’s e y ounda ion.
STS insigh s on he dilemmas o he complex, global p oblem o clima e change help ex-
plain why simply elling people abou he challenging global cha ac e is ics o clima e change
is no enough o help gal anize ac ion o sol e he issue. As MIT Sloan School o Managemen
p o esso and Clima e In e ac i e senio ad ise John S e man liked o say du ing my s udy,
“Resea ch shows ha showing people esea ch doesn’ wo k.” Th ough his pi hy and cle e u n
o ph ase, S e man is summa izing he insu iciency o weakness o he de ici model, which
is some imes e e ed o as he in o ma ion de ici model o science de ici model. The de ici
model sugges s ha i only he public had he co ec in o ma ion, hey would unde s and he
p oblem, ake app op ia e ac ion, and c ea e poli ical o social change. Unde he assump ions
o his model, poli ical ac ion on clima e change plays ou in pa icula ways: clima e scien is s
bes ow knowledge abou clima e change upon di e se publics, who a e hen a ionally inci ed o
ake ac ion in he o m o lobbying, pe i ioning, p o es ing, and o he en i onmen al wo k; his,
in u n, in luences expe leade s o ac h ough legal and policy engagemen .
While his model is p e alen in public discou se, i is c i icized ex ensi ely by STS schol-
a s, as well as by Clima e In e ac i e. As my in e locu o s a Clima e In e ac i e explained, jus
elling people wha “ he science says,” ha is, explaining wha scien i ic esea ch claims, does
no wo k. Fo issues like clima e change, elling people wha o hink o how o ac doesn’
ha e an impac on con incing people o he impo ance o he issue o inspi ing hem o ac . As
Expe Ac i is s and NGOs 89
in e disciplina y STS, an h opology and jou nalism schola —and au ho o Chap e 3 in his
book—Candis Callison, w i es, clima e change “enables ques ions beyond wha he ealm o
wha science o e s” (Callison, 2014, p. 23). Tha is, simply knowing he complexi y o global
clima e change does no help people o m answe s o he high-s akes emo ional and exis en ial
ques ions ha clima e change, and inac ion on i , p o okes.
E hnog aphic da a om my s udy on clima e change NGOs builds upon hese insigh s. To-
day, ollowing decades o wo k om schola s in STS, an h opology, sociology, and ela ed
ields, esea che s conduc e hnog aphy in o ganiza ions like NGOs, among scien is s and ac i -
is s, as well as emo ely in “spaces” wi hou a speci ic geog aphic loca ion (Fleischmann, 2022;
Knox, 2020). Resea ching clima e change e hnog aphically in-pe son and emo ely, I ha e been
able o s udy and lea n om expe ac i is s who each people he non-in ui i e dynamics o
global clima e change and—mo ing beyond he de ici model—inspi e hem o ake ac ion in
hei own li es.
Clima e In e ac i e was ounded on he idea ha alues and expe iences, no in o ma ion, a e
wha eally shape people’s pe cep ions and ac ions. The o ganiza ion’s simple compu e mod-
els, ools, and games c ea e oppo uni ies o people o lea n o hemsel es abou he clima ic,
economic, and geopoli ical sys ems ha shape ou wo ld. Clima e In e ac i e c ea es in e ac i e
simula ions, imely analysis, decision-suppo ools, and expe ience-based educa ional games and
wo kshops ha endea o o empowe people, om school child en o he US P esiden ’s clima e
eam, o each hei goals in add essing clima e change. Thei wo k combines inno a ions in cli-
ma e modeling and educa ion. Mo e speci ically, hey use simple, in e ac i e compu e models
ha can un o ee on a lap op, simula ing changes in global empe a u e, ca bon emissions,
o ene gy policy in li e ally one second. They use hese models in expe ience-based games and
wo kshops ha o e pa icipan s he oppo uni y o ole-play na ional and in e na ional e o s
o educe global g eenhouse gas emissions. Wi h oo s in sys ems dynamics modeling and open-
access, expe ience-based design, and educa ion, Clima e In e ac i e con ibu es a unique in e en-
ion on clima e change ha engages people socially, emo ionally, and physically. In doing so, hey
p o ide insigh s in o how a social scien is and clima e ac ion p ac i ione s alike wo k o g asp
global an h opogenic clima e change as an eme gen objec o s udy and poli ical ac ion.
Employing e hnog aphic me hods like pa icipan obse a ion in my s udy o Clima e In e -
ac i e, I was able o pa icipa e in and obse e aining o and endi ions o he o ganiza ion’s
model-based educa ional ole-playing games. He e, I p o ide a e y b ie e hnog aphic anec-
do e, in combina ion wi h insigh s on he global na u e o clima e change, in o de o demon-
s a e an STS app oach o s udying clima e change and clima e ac i is s.
Box 10.1
The Wo ld Clima e ole-playing game is being held in an in ima e oom in a building
o he main chapel a G ace Ca hed al in San F ancisco. The g oup o us, abou 20
people, ange in age om la e 20s o 60s o 70s a e mo ed in o g oups o wo o i e,
wi h each g oup ep esen ing a coun y o g ouping o coun ies. We huddle oge he
and p epa e ou nego ia ing app oaches based on he p o ided p in ed posi ion b ie -
ing. My g oup, he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, is made up o he h ee younges people
in he oom, mysel , B en , and Elena, plus a la e-come , a whi e-hai ed man named
Abe.
90 Adam Fleischmann
Fo each nego ia ing ound, we mo e ac oss he oom, ga he in g oups. We make
ou demands and concessions hen glee ully scu le, whispe ing, back o ou huddle o
eamma es. A e each ound, back in ou g oups, we eco d wha we’ e nego ia ed:
1) ou in ended educ ions in g eenhouse gas emissions (peak yea , educ ions s a
yea , and pe cen age o educ ion pe yea ), 2) ou mone a y con ibu ion o he G een
Clima e Fund, and 3) how much we’ll educe de o es a ion and inc ease a o es a ion
(plan ing ees). A e sho speeches a e made and p oposals announced, ou acili a-
o , a Re e end playing he UN Sec e a y Gene al, quickly en e s he numbe s in o
he ins an clima e model, C-ROADS. Changes appea in global empe a u es, CO2
le els, sea-le el ise, and mo e. Ou goal is unde 2°C wa ming by 2100, and p e e -
ably 1.5°C.
A i s , he nego ia ions a e eng ossing, bu poli e, no oo u gen , playing in o he s e-
eo ypes I’d cons uc ed in my head abou so -spoken olde eligious olks. Teams China
and “O he De eloping” ad oca e o hei igh o de elop, India emphasizes needing
help om iche coun ies. The Eu opean Union (EU) is playing poli e ha dball, hough.
A middle-aged woman wi h sho , g aying hai and sha p glasses, she’s uncomp omising
in he s eely insis ence ha he US and “O he De eloped” coun ies mus ma ch he EU’s
leade ship in he igh agains clima e change. We on Team US, o one, do no gi e in,
main aining he ecalci an posi ion o a T ump Adminis a ion-e a US ha has pulled ou
o he Pa is Ag eemen .
A e se e al ounds o nego ia ions, he Sec e a y Gene al s e nly wa ns us o he con-
sequences o come should we no nego ia e s onge emissions- educ ion commi men s.
He shows us Shanghai unde wa e , London subme ged by he Thames. As empe a u es
inc ease, disas e looms. Pa icipan s soon ealize how li le hei coun ies’ modes con-
ibu ions a e changing he esul s in he compu e model. Nego ia ions ge nas ie , mo e
u gen . As he ime uns ou , delega es nego ia e u gen posi ions “in cha ac e ” wi h hei
coun y’s in e es s in mind, bu aiming o he global empe a u e goal. The acili a o
en e s ou inal numbe s in o he C-ROADS and we’ e no h o 2°C, headed o a dange -
ously wa ming wo ld.
By he end o he game, we s ep ou o ou oles as delega es a he Uni ed Na ions and
e e yone is appealing o he Re e end o ha e ano he ound. “I wanna ge ha numbe
down!” he o me EU delega e shou s, complaining. Heads nod in ag eemen ac oss he
oom, aces c eased in cons e na ion. Someone o me ly om he Chinese delega ion
says hey could see his las ing all day. Pa icipan s alk abou how hey el empowe ed
o caugh up by he ole hey we e playing. The Re e end shows us in he model wha i
akes o ge below 2°C, hen guides us h ough a deb ie ing exe cise ha in i es pa ici-
pan s o si and e lec on u u e possibili ies. “When we alk abou u u e scena ios o ou
clima e,” ou acili a o du i ully says, “we spend mos o he ime ocused on how bad he
wo s -case u u e looks o how di icul change will be. Ins ead, I’d like o us o spend
jus one minu e silen ly conside ing he possibili y ha we could c ea e his be e u u e
om ou scena io.” A e his momen o e lec ion, we’ e encou aged o sha e wha we
would lo e abou being pa o his so o u u e—and wha we could do, wi h ou skill
se s and in ou communi ies, o s a enac ing ha ision. People men ion he desi e o
s a campaigning o elec i y he ehicle lee a hei wo kplace and ge in ol ed wi h
local en i onmen al g oups.
Expe Ac i is s and NGOs 91
Al hough we s a ed slowly, he Wo ld Clima e simula ion a G ace Ca hed al had us pa ici-
pan s iled up. People we e smiley, ang y, s ubbo n, glee ully o ne y, and down igh upse . A
sense o u gency pe aded he oom once we ealized jus wha i would ake o u n he em-
pe a u e down—se ious emissions educ ions om no jus he US and EU bu “de eloping”
coun ies, oo. I quickly became appa en ha global clima e sys em dynamics a e no s aigh -
o wa d. I also became clea ha clima e nego ia ions a e social and poli ical a ai s in which
he powe ela ions and inequi ies o he eal wo ld come o he o e; hey a e no simply echni-
cal exe cises o delibe a ing a ional ac ion in o med by science, as he de ici model migh sug-
ges . Ideally, Clima e In e ac i e’s clima e-policy simula ions a e mean o each people some
o his dynamic complexi y o he clima e-policy sys em, ela ing hei own li es o b oade
sys ems and equi y issues, while eaching hem o connec delayed and dis an clima e causes
and e ec s ha a e no in ui i e. Clima e In e ac i e’s simula ions aim o ul ima ely build use s’
capaci ies o do some hing abou clima e change in hei own way, in hei own communi ies—
connec ing knowledge o posi i e isions and ways o ake ac ion, c ea ing new possibili ies on
clima e change. They do his no h ough showing people esea ch, bu by allowing people o
lea n o hemsel es h ough in e ac i e expe iences.
While I saw i s -hand he ans o ma i e and ene gizing impac Clima e Ini ia i e can ha e
on people, i s app oach does ha e limi a ions. Clima e In e ac i e’s wo kshops and ole-playing
games ha e been un in 140 coun ies o mo e han 225,000 pa icipan s, bu his numbe is
pal y compa ed o No h Ame ican o global popula ions. Thei s is an app oach o quali y
mo e han quan i y. Bu e en his will no mo e e e yone who pa icipa es in hei lea ning
expe iences o ac . Howe e , o he people ha i does, Clima e In e ac i e’s engaging lea ning
expe iences enable hem o o m immedia e ela ions be ween hei li es, he global clima e, and
u u e ways o being in he wo ld. And, impo an ly, his helps people o no only unde s and bu
also eel empowe ed o ac on clima e change.
Conclusion
To conclude, le ’s u n back o he insigh ha opened his chap e : hings ha e been di e en in
he pas , hey a e di e en in some places on Ea h igh now, and hey can and will be di e en
in he u u e. When i comes o clima e change, STS and he ela ed ields o an h opology and
social mo emen s udies each us ha global an h opogenic clima e change is a combina ion o
“na u al” and “social” phenomena and scien i ic knowledge. Ye jus as global an h opogenic
clima e change is, in pa , cons uc ed by humans, so a e he social, poli ical, and economic sys-
ems ha ha e caused i —and h ough which we a e esponding o i . In o he wo ds, he p ob-
lem o clima e change is no simply a “na u al” phenomenon caused by, ye beyond humans; i is
cons uc ed, and i can be cons uc ed di e en ly. The e is possibili y, wiggle oom, he po en ial
o do hings di e en ly. The cu en s a e o hings is no ine i able, inescapable. Resea ch agen-
das like he one in oduced in his chap e can show how clima e ac o s ac i ely shape he space
o clima e science and poli ics o make clima e change a i id and conc e e issue o people o
unde s and and ac upon. In doing so, hey e eal he possibili y o al e na i e u u es.
Fu he Reading
Callison, C. (2014) How Clima e Change Comes o Ma e : The Communal Li e o Fac s. Du ham: Duke
Uni e si y P ess.
Fleischmann, A. (2023) “Fi e, Ice, and Flood,” Ame ican An h opologis , 125(1), pp. 199–201. A ailable
a : h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/aman.13813.
Knox, H. (2020) Thinking Like a Clima e: Go e ning a Ci y in Times o En i onmen al Change. Du ham:
Duke Uni e si y P ess.

92 Adam Fleischmann
Re e ences
Beck, S., Fo sy h, T., Kohle , P. M., Lahsen, M., and Mahony, M. (2016) “The Making o Global En i-
onmen al Science and Poli ics.” In U. Fel , R. Fouché, C. A. Mille , and L. Smi h-Doe (Eds.), The
Handbook o Science and Technology S udies. Camb idge, MA: MIT P ess, pp. 1059–1086.
Callison, C. (2014) How Clima e Change Comes o Ma e : The Communal Li e o Fac s. Du ham: Duke
Uni e si y P ess.
Edwa ds, P. N. (2010) A Vas Machine: Compu e Models, Clima e Da a, and he Poli ics o Global Wa m-
ing (1s ed.). Camb idge, MA: MIT P ess.
Fleischmann, A. (2022) Possibili y in an E a o Clima e Change: An h opology, Knowledge, Poli ics. PhD
Disse a ion, McGill Uni e si y, Mon eal, Quebec.
Fleischmann, A. and Yip, J. (2019) “‘Cul u e’ and Clima e Change: An h opology and he G ea es Chal-
lenge o Ou Time.” [Con e ence P esen a ion] Changing Clima es: Ame ican An h opological Associa-
ion, Vancou e .
Knox, H. (2020) Thinking Like a Clima e: Go e ning a Ci y in Times o En i onmen al Change. Du ham:
Duke Uni e si y P ess.
In oduc ion: P eppe F ames
P epping, de i ed om he e b “ o p epa e,” is a g owing cul u al mo emen o mo e han 20
million people a ound he wo ld who an icipa e and p epa e o disas e (Sa agosa, 2020). Some
p eppe s ocus on sho - e m disas e esponse h ough eme gency p epa edness. They s ockpile
ex a supplies like ood, eme gency wa e , wa e il e s, cooks o es, and o he equipmen ha
doesn’ ely on elec ici y o gas lines, and cons uc plans o ei he “bug ou ” (escape he a ea
whe e disas e hi s and head o a sa e, p e-planned des ina ion) o “bug-in” (hunke down in
place and plan o wai ou he disas e ). Some p eppe s s op he e. Bu o many p eppe s, he
goal o p epping is o su i e a much bigge disas e : “ he end o he wo ld as we know i ,” o ,
as hey call i , TEOTWAWKI.
In an icipa ion o disas e , p eppe s s ockpile ood, ga he eme gency supplies, lea n how o
communica e o e ham adios, and s udy i s aid and eme gency medical in e en ions. Many
p eppe s also p epa e o li e as sel -su icien households when he wo ld as we know i ends. The
wo ld as we know i e e s o a mode n, complex, indus ialized socie y. This means li e in a 21s -
cen u y, globalized, weal hy, capi alis democ acy. Li e in such a socie y is ma ked by a deep di i-
sion o specialized labo . This di ision o labo is in opposi ion o a sel -su icien li es yle, in which
a household mee s almos all o i s own needs wi hou elying on ex e nal ins i u ions and sys ems
ha many o us ake o g an ed in he indus ialized wo ld, including oads and highways, unning
wa e , elec ici y, Wi-Fi, and sewage managemen . To li e a sel -su icien li es yle hus demands
looking back in ime o how people li ed p io o he sp ead o hese in e connec ed echnologies.
P epping o igina ed in he Uni ed S a es in he la e 20 h and ea ly 21s cen u ies, abou he same
ime ha he concep o an h opogenic clima e change en e ed Ame ican public discou se. I ’s linked
o bu dis inc om ea lie wa es o in e es in sel -su iciency h oughou Ame ican his o y, such as
back- o- he-land mo emen s. While back- o- he-land mo emen s and p epping bo h o ien a ound a
c i ique o mode ni y and i s human cos s, p epping is unique in i s ixa ion on disas e .
P epping is in many espec s an en i onmen al p ac ice. In an icipa ing disas e , p eppe s
mus hink abou how o mee hei bodily needs o su i al, wellbeing, and com o , ou side o
complex ne wo ks o ma e ial lows ha a e he de aul way mos ci izens o weal hy, indus ial-
ized economies ge hei needs me (Schlosbe g and Coles, 2015). Planning whe e you will ge
wa e , how you will gene a e hea , and wha you will ea once socie y has collapsed, while doing
away wi h municipal wa e in as uc u e and se ice, he elec ic g id, and g oce y s o es a e
exe cises in en i onmen al imagina ion. Howe e , as I will show in his chap e , p eppe s a ely
hink o alk abou he en i onmen , unless p omp ed o do so.
This chap e is based on my e hnog aphic obse a ions o p eppe s, which I unde ook be-
ween 2014 and 2018. I d aws om semi-s uc u ed, in-dep h in e iews ha I conduc ed wi h
11 Ski ing he F ame
P epping and he Conse a i e Poli ics o
Clima e Change
Allison Fo d
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-15
94 Allison Fo d
20 p eppe s and pa icipan obse a ion o social si es whe e p eppe s we e isible, including
public e en s, such as exposi ions, ai s, in-pe son mee ings o online clubs, isi s o p i a e
businesses, and p i a e e en s ha I was in i ed o a end h ough my connec ions o he p ep-
ping communi y. I also conduc ed a digi al e hnog aphy o unde s and he ways p eppe s use he
in e ne as a social space o exchanging in o ma ion, ideas, and imagining disas e scena ios
amongs “like-minded people.”
I a gue ha p epping is a conse a i e cul u al mo emen ha allows Ame icans who a e skep-
ical o unce ain abou clima e change o ski he ame o clima e change en i ely. To ski some-
hing means o mo e a ound i s bo de , side-s epping i comple ely, whe eas aming is a concep
ha social scien is s use o desc ibe he pe cep ual “o ganiza ion o expe ience” (Go man, 1974).
Social mo emen aming heo y explo es how poli ical ac o s p oduce and main ain meaning
in o de o pu o wa d hei cons uc ion o eali y (Snow e al., 1986). While scien is s ame
clima e change as eal, dange ous, and an h opogenic (human-caused), and hus si ua e i as a
social p oblem, conse a i es o e a con adic o y aming o clima e change as non-p oblema ic
(F eudenbu g, 2000; McC igh and Dunlap, 2003). The alidi y o go e nmen in e en ion in he
ma ke o manage en i onmen al isk is a he hea o con es ed clima e ames.
The p eppe s who I esea ched ocused di ec ly on disas e s, which hey unde s and as eal.
Bu ins ead o aming such disas e s in ela ion o clima e change, hey adop a depoli icized
esponse o en i onmen al isk by ocusing on wha I call he cons i uen elemen s o clima e
change. The cons i uen elemen s o clima e change e e o he e ec s o clima e change ha
can be expe ienced, alked abou , and unde s ood wi hou e e ing o clima e change i sel . Fo
example, we can alk abou he likelihood o expe iencing a majo s o m wi hou acknowledg-
ing ha ha likelihood inc eases because o a wa ming globe. The s o m emains in he ame,
while he cause o i s inc eased equency and se e i y s ays ou side o he ame, and hus
ou side o he con e sa ion. I a gue ha p eppe s a oid engaging wi h he scien i ic discou se
o clima e change, which challenges hei unde s anding o social eali y. This includes bo h
disas e scena ios and his o ical e en s ha hey d aw on o cons uc an al e na i e amewo k
ha ocuses on indi idual esponsibili y o espond o disas e and downplays go e nmen in-
e en ion as a solu ion o isk.
How do P eppe s Feel Abou Clima e Change?
Compa ed o people in o he na ions, Ame icans ind i mo e di icul o alk abou clima e
change, and Ame icans a e much mo e likely o epo clima e skep icism (McC igh e al.,
2016). Ye i is impossible o igno e ha we a e li ing on a plane unde going majo a mosphe ic
and ecological changes, many as a consequence o human indus y. P eppe s a e all oo awa e
o he p e alence o disas e . John, a p eppe in Idaho, old me,
Now, wi h he abili y o communica e ins an aneously anywhe e in he wo ld, people a e
seeing calami ies occu wi hin a housand miles o hei house. They’ e seeing i es ha a e
killing people and des oying p ope y, and aking e e y hing you [sic] own. They’ e seeing
loods, and hey’ e seeing … e e y hing; ea hquakes, hu icanes.
I wasn’ jus ha people we e exposed o mo e in o ma ion abou disas e , John con inued, bu
ha he ne wo ks o dependency buil in o mode n li e we e also mo e isible.
Then you ha e … his is qui e eal … because you can see his you sel . The e a e poli i-
cal and go e nmen al p oblem ha occu , like [in] Long Beach, down sou h Cali o nia.
Ski ing he F ame 95
Longsho emen wen on s ike, jus a ew yea s ago. “Who ca es? A bunch o union com-
mies down in he e, who ca es?” Excep o one hing, ha hese guys ook ca e o all
hese ships, o b ing in ood and s u ha comes up he e, in ucks.
All o a sudden [ he g oce y s o es], hei shel es a e s a ing o look ba e, because all
hey ha e le [a e] Tabasco sauce and salsa … No only can i happen, i has wice, up
he e. You’ e seen i .
The isibili y o disas e s a ound he wo ld combined wi h pe sonal expe iences o he p eca i y
o ex ended ne wo ks o goods and se ices lea e p eppe s eeling ulne able—a eeling ha
is uncom o able o people whose poli ical leanings include a deep commi men o pe sonal
esponsibili y and sel - eliance.
Despi e being hype -awa e o disas e and conce ned abou isk, when I asked John i he was
conce ned abou clima e change he esponded,
I’ e done a lo o s udy on ha . Tha ’s like being conce ned abou sunligh because i ’s a
na u al phenomenon. The pe e ed concep o clima e change ha ’s been going a ound is
a disgus ing smoke sc een o gain mo e con ol o e he popula ion. The clima e’s always
changing. We ha e no had wo yea s in a ow he e o he same wea he .
John d aws on amilia conse a i e alking poin s ha ejec clima e science and a ibu e
changes in he clima e o na u e. This builds on he conse a i e mo emen ’s a emp o con-
s uc wha sociologis s Aa on McC igh and Riley Dunlap (2003) call he “non-p oblema ici y”
o clima e change. Al hough John a emp s o claim au ho i y o e he opic (“I’ e done a lo
o s udy on ha ”) and engages lay scien i ic language, his a gumen he e is no eally scien i ic,
bu social.
We o en hink abou clima e denial as a disag eemen abou science. Bu clima e denial is no
oo ed in a ional scien i ic deba es, bu a he in poli ics (Jacques, 2006). I we ake se iously he
magni ude o dange ous, an h opogenic clima e change, and ace he ac ha human combus-
ion o ossil uels is i s oo cause—some hing jus abou all quali ied clima e scien is s ag ee on
(O eskes, 2004)— hen he p oblem is no he science. I ’s he poli ical implica ions o wha he
science ells us. The p edominan esponse ha scien is s ha e ad oca ed o in ol es majo go -
e nmen al egula ions, which conse a i es and indus y g oups oppose on p inciple.
The poli ical signi icance o John’s ejec ion o clima e change comes ou no in his a emp
o explain away he science, bu in he a ec i e salience o his e e ence o clima e change as
a “disgus ing smoke sc een o gain mo e con ol o e he popula ion.” In his powe ul u n o
ph ase, he be ays his dis us o clima e scien is s, and he ins i u ions ha suppo hei abil-
i y o dissemina e clima e science and poli ical ecommenda ions abou how o espond. He e,
John e eals ea ha he discou se o clima e change is a poli ical ool ha is being used by he
scien i ic eli e o exe con ol o e he popula ion.
Hank, ano he conse a i e p eppe , esponded simila ly o John when I asked abou clima e
change, bu he was mo e di ec abou his emo ional esponse. The opic made him so ang y ha
he p ac ically shu down wha had o he wise been a iendly and engaged con e sa ion. This
was especially no ewo hy because he es o he in e iew was ma kedly di e en in one. By
he ime I b ough up clima e change, Hank and I had been alking o se e al hou s al eady, and
he had main ained a iendly and g ega ious demeano despi e ou common unde s anding o
he deep poli ical di e ences be ween us.
We had success ully emained iendly and engaged h oughou discussions abou con en-
ious, poli icized opics such as ace, immig a ion, eligion, guns, and he T ump Adminis a ion
102 Tama Law
In Chap e 12, Anki Bha dwaj d aws om h ee disc e e geog aphies om ieldwo k ac oss
India o show he place-based na u e o science, echnology, and jus ice and highligh s he scala
implica ions o add essing a global p oblem a a local le el. Speci ically, he poin s o how he
jus ansi ion o he use o low-ca bon ene gy echnologies no only needs o be meaning ul
o emission educ ions bu , mo eo e , o he li ed expe iences o local wo ke s and esiden s.
Th ough his si ua ed app oach o clima e jus ice, Bha dwaj a gues ha clima e jus ice will come
when he knowledge made by local people, and hei ac ions o educe emissions in he wo lds
whe e hey li e and wo k, a e aken se iously by esea che s and policymake s.
Emphasizing a jus ene gy ansi ion, Kend a Kin zi (Chap e 13) ocuses on Jo dan’s na-
ional deca boniza ion p og am as i ela es o enewable ene gy sys ems. Kin zi uses he con-
cep o a o dances o hink h ough how di e en sola in as uc u es can enable o disable
di e en kinds o social p ac ices, a ec ing who is included o excluded om his ene gy ansi-
ion. In Jo dan, many households bene i om pe sonal oo op sola he mal sys ems o dimin-
ish he e ec s o ising elec ici y cos s. Howe e , o he s including e ugees and asylum seeke s
in o mal camps and in o mal se lemen s a e unable o access hese bene i s. Th ough his ex-
ample, Kin zi e eals how seemingly highly bene icial sola socio echnical in as uc u es can
none heless con inue o shape he une en dis ibu ion o he bu dens o clima e change.
A ending o how esea che s migh add ess con empo a y clima e injus ices in p ac ice,
Roopali Phadke (Chap e 14) ocuses on he poli ics o public pa icipa ion wi hin he in a-
s uc u al e-design and emo al o locks and dams along he Mississippi Ri e . D awing om
Phadke’s unde g adua e lab esea ch wi h he U.S. A my Co ps’ implemen a ion o a place-
based model in in as uc u e design, he chap e o e s a me hodological lesson on how o
engage local communi ies. Implemen ing “ups eam engagemen ,” Phadke illus a es how go -
e nmen agencies can econs uc no ions o accoun abili y and esponsibili y o engage he
public in echnology design.
Finally, in Chap e 15, Shang ila Joshi e iews se e al key o ms o clima e jus ice: dis ibu-
i e, pa icipa o y, epis emic, and ans o ma i e jus ice. Th ough he example o Nepal’s Gu hi,
an Indigenous commons go e nance ins i u ion, she akes se iously he ole o he commons o
clima e jus ice showing how eclaiming he commons may be ans o ma i e in enabling cli-
ma e jus ice ac oss a ious con ex s and scales. Essen ial o eclaiming he commons is a espec
o and empowe men o Indigenous knowledges and how ha se ices he di e en elemen s
o clima e jus ice.
Re e ences
Sul ana, F. (2022) “The Unbea able Hea iness o Clima e Coloniali y,” Poli ical Geog aphy, 99, p. 3.

In oduc ion
In his chap e , I p esen o you b ie accoun s om h ee as ly di e en owns ac oss India.
These s o ies a e abou he changes hese places a e unde going due o he clima e c isis. Wi h-
ou ac ion, he owns will come apa a hei seams. People who eside and wo k in hem a e
acing di e consequences bu a e also o ging c ea i e esponses. Thei s o ies poin o a pa e n o
how we all ela e o clima e science and echnology. Wi h hese accoun s, I hope o con ince you
12 Pos ca ds om Small Town India
Si ua ed Clima e Jus ice, Science,
and Technology
Anki Bha dwaj
Figu e 12.1 App oxima e loca ions o he small owns in he Indian subcon inen . Joshima h si s in he
majes ic bu clima e- ulne able Himalayas, Rajko in he d y, sh ubby Sau ash a egion in
he Guja a peninsula, and Da anage e, sou he nmos , in semi-a id cen al Ka na aka. Each
own is mo e han wo hund ed kilome e s by oad away om he nea es majo ci y, Deh a-
dun, Ahmedabad, and Bengalu u espec i ely.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-17
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
104 Anki Bha dwaj
ha building a wo ld o lowe g eenhouse gas emissions and p o ec ions om clima e impac s,
which is also jus and equi able, in ol es a si ua ed unde s anding o he unique ha ms and
p io i ies acing he wo ke s and esiden s o each place. The map, below, is o help loca e you
imagina ion.
Joshima h, U a akhand, Janua y 2023
C acks appea ed in homes ac oss he small ancien own o Joshima h which had s ood o mo e
han a housand yea s. Many esiden s, eeling unsa e, soon e acua ed hei dwellings. The e
was much specula ion abou wha caused he c acks. En i onmen al ac i is s ook o social
media o lay blame on clima e change. They poin ed o a lood ha had a ec ed he egion jus
wo yea s ea lie . A glacie had bu s , o e whelming dammed i e s and sa u a ing he soil wi h
liquid, weakening he land he own sa on. Scien is s ag eed in pa , s a ing ha hough he
lood was igge ed by a landslide, he glacie was mo e p eca ious due o he inc easing a e age
empe a u e caused by clima e change.
C i ics o s a e in as uc u e de elopmen a gued ha i was no clima e change, bu he
apid cons uc ion o oads, buildings, and hyd opowe dams in he Himalayas ha led o he
c isis. Local esiden s, alongside allied geologis s and en i onmen alis s, blamed unneling o
a nea by dam p ojec which hey posi ed up u ed an aqui e and des abilized he land unde
he own. Ac i is s pu up signs in he own’s main ma ke , blaming he go e nmen agency in
cha ge o he dam’s cons uc ion. They poin ed o a epo eleased by he na ional go e nmen ’s
space agency which used sa elli e da a o show apid subsidence o land in he las wo weeks.
Howe e , he go e nmen quickly dispu ed ha he land was sinking due o hei hyd opowe
p ojec s. The Minis e o Powe de ian ly a gued ha a commi ee o expe s showed ha dams
led o ewe landslides and mo e g eene y. Enginee s es i ied ha he cons uc ion was pe -
ec ly sa e. Jus a day a e he space agency’s epo ha showed apid subsidence was eleased,
i was no longe accessible; he go e nmen had aken i down.
Da anage e, Ka na aka, Ma ch 2017
I had been walking abou i e minu es on a dus y oad, o a local highway on he edge o Da-
anage e, when he ai became no iceably smokie . I came up o a igh ow o one-s o y hu s,
on he oo o each we e slim, cha ed chimneys, emi ing a soo y smoke. Tha mus be black
ca bon, I hough o mysel , one o he wo s o ende s o he g eenhouse gas e ec causing cli-
ma e change. In on o he hu s, men we e ca ying sacks illed o he b im; on he g ound, ice
was d ying. I was in Mandakki Bha i, an a ea known o making pu ed ice. I asked a wo ke
i I could go inside, cu ious abou wha caused he smoke. He ges u ed me in.
The oom was s i lingly ho , no only om he baking sun bu also om a blazing ea hen
o en in he cen e o he oom ha was hea ing a bowl o wha appea ed o be black sand. In
a ma e o minu es, I was swea ing p o usely, and my h oa began i ching. I could no imag-
ine how he wo men c ouched a ound he o en el . One o hem sp inkled wha looked like
sawdus in o he o en, bols e ing i s hea . The o he ook a bowl ull o husked, d ied ice and
d opped i in o he hea ed sand. He pulled a s ing ha d opped a la ge whisk ha chu ned he
ice and sand. In a ma e o seconds he g ains o ice pu ed up, which one wo ke sie ed ou
and ossed in o a huge pile in he co ne . He immedia ely d opped ano he ba ch o aw ice
in, wo king in a p ac iced and quick hy hm. The manage pee ed in, cu ious abou who I was.
I poin ed a he o en and asked him abou he empe a u e, shocked a how quickly he ice
pu ed. “500, 500 deg ees,” he mu e ed.
Pos ca ds om Small Town India 105
Mandakki Bha i was he subjec o g and designs by he municipal go e nmen o educe
emissions in Da anage e. Bu eauc a s wan ed o add ess ai pollu ion om he adi ional pu -
ing p ocess by ou i ing oo s wi h sola panels and subsidizing elec ic o ens o eplace he
exis ing ea hen ones. They commissioned enginee s a a go e nmen uni e si y o design an
elec ic o en. Ye , wo ke s ejec ed p o o ypes as he o ens could no each he high empe a u e
necessa y o pu ice quickly. No did he elec ic o en impa he cha ac e is ic smoky as e
hei pu ed ice was known o . Bu eauc a s did no hide hei us a ions and con usion om
me ha wo ke s ejec ed a echnology ha educed emissions.
Rajko , Guja a , Oc obe 2017
Enginee s we e busily shu ling back and o h in a la ge, luo escen ube-li oom in Rajko ,
looking o e plans o a na ional go e nmen scheme o p o ide “Housing o All.” The own’s
chie enginee p oudly announced ha hey we e on ack o build 6000 subsidized homes ha
yea . She in oduced me o he igh -hand man, who hen sa me down nex o his compu e o
show me he bluep in s in mo e de ail. I was amilia wi h he basic empla e o go e nmen -
buil housing in India: a udimen a y block o eigh la s, wo on each loo sepa a ed by an open
s ai well, o en buil wi h shoddy conc e e. I s pain would peel in a ew yea s, and ew would
choose o li e in hem. Ye , I no iced some small di e ences in he d awings he was showing
me. The windows we e sligh ly mo e se back in o he walls and he openings in o he s ai -
well sligh ly la ge han usual, bo h o which I ema ked o he enginee . He smiled and asked:
“Building dekhna hai?” (“Do you wan o see he building you sel ?”)
The nex hing I knew I was on he back o his mo o bike speeding h ough Rajko ’s a ic
on a ho and dus y day, wea ing a spa e, mus y helme he kindly len me. A e passing some
ields, whe e cows we e g azing, we a i ed a a se o la s, abou 40 in o al, eshly pain ed
in shades o whi e and ea hy yellow. He p oudly guided me h ough he la s, showing me he
windows designed o keep he shade ou , and he openings o en ila e he buildings. He also
poin ed ou he sys em o pipes and anks o ha es and s o e ainwa e , a p ecious necessi y in
d y Rajko whe e many households only ecei ed ap wa e o 20 minu es a day. He ook me o
he oo , pain ed a s a k whi e o e lec hea . “Cool oo ,” he said, p oudly pu ing ou his ches ,
and p oceeded o ell me ha hey we e ins alling sola panels soon.
O e he es o he a e noon, he ook me o ano he se o la s i e minu es away, and hen
ano he , whe e people we e al eady li ing, milling abou he public a ea. The e, a sign ead
“G ow T ees, Go Sola .” I e u ned la e wi hou he enginee in ow, o ask esiden s how hey
el abou hei expe ience li ing in he la s. Many exp essed happiness wi h hei new homes,
ba ing he dis ance om he ci y cen e . The go e nmen was going o build six housand mo e
o hese his yea , and pe haps mo e he yea a e , and ye mo e a e ha .
Clima e Change as Local, Con o e sial, and Unce ain
The h ee accoun s challenge an in luen ial way o hink abou science, echnology, and jus ice.
Speci ically, we conside science and echnology o be uni e sal, o cons an ac oss he wo ld.
The e is good eason o belie e so. The science ha es ablishes he eali y o clima e change
is based on he cons uc ion o models o geophysical phenomena o he whole Ea h, building
on clima e da a collec ed ac oss many coun ies. A sola panel wo ks he same in he hu in Da-
anage e whe e wo ke s pu ice, s a e-buil la s in Rajko , o on he oo o you home. The
scien i ic measu emen o sinking land is based on common p inciples whe he in he Himalayas
o he Rockies. Belie ing clima e change is abou us ing his globally uni o m science; hose
106 Anki Bha dwaj
ha ejec hese globally s able ac s a e labeled clima e denie s. Bu some o hose who s udy
science and echnology ha e come o unde s and hem as no globally uni o m and con ex -
less bu local o si ua ed. Science and echnology, hey a gue, a e he p oduc o many small
decisions people make oge he in speci ic se ings such as labo a o ies, ield si es, homes, and
wo kplaces. Wha comes o ma e is no abs ac p inciples o he echnologies hemsel es, bu
how people adap hem o local se ings and p oblems. This has p o ound consequences o how
we unde s and clima e change, a phenomenon we end o hink o as impac ing he whole plane
uni o mly.
Jus ice oo can nea ly map on o pa e ns o global inequali y. Clima e jus ice can be de-
ined ac oss se e al dimensions: who gains om o is ha med by clima e change (dis ibu-
ion), who should bea he cos o he ac ion ( esponsibili y), who in luences decision-making
(p ocedu al), whose in e es s a e seen as legi ima e ( ecogni ion), and who dese es compen-
sa ion o pas ha ms ( epa a ion). I is undeniable ha he ich ha e p o i ed mo e om he
consump ion o ossil uels, and he e o e bea mo e esponsibili y o he c ises, while he
poo es will no ha e he esou ces o su i e he ha ms o clima e change, u he ing hei
ulne able su e ing. A he global scale, colonialism and globalizing capi alism ha e s uc-
u ed a s a k inequali y. Many o he poo es a e in he equa o ial global Sou h, hea ily popu-
la ed egions o pos colonial A ica, Asia, and Ca ibbean and La in Ame ica. This is a c uel
ac , as much o clima e change’s mos icious impac s including hea , ains, d ough s, and
s o ms will be mos p onounced in his egion. The poo also ha e li le ep esen a ion in he
halls o powe and con ol o e decision-making. Thei in e es s a e seen as less legi ima e.
As a esul , i hings do no change, hey will sys ema ically ha e less in luence on ac ions o
espond o clima e change.
Clima e jus ice is deba ed on he global s age in a diploma ic i be ween he iches coun-
ies in he global No h and he poo es coun ies in he global Sou h and is o en cha ac e ized
in e ms o a con lic be ween he ha es and ha e-no s. Ye , such a global unde s anding o
clima e jus ice, while a use ul guide, p o ides li le de ail on how people’s li es will change in
esponse o clima e change. Those impac ed by clima e change will likely ha e hei own de ini-
ions and pu sui s o jus ice o med depending on hei si ua ion. The challenges hey ace due
o clima e change, he p io i ies hey ha e in esponse and he capaci y o achie e hei goals,
will likely a y locally. Clima e jus ice is hus no only a global pu sui bu also a local one.
I e m his si ua ed clima e jus ice, he locally une en ways in which people expe ience he
consequences o clima e change, unde s and he c isis, ge in ol ed, p io i ize demands, and
de ise p ojec s o a jus u u e.
The h ee ske ches I ou line abo e indica e ha clima e science, echnology, and jus ice will
ha e di e en meanings in di e en si ua ions. The i s wo examples show how poli ical dis-
cussions on clima e change end o go. They a e con o e sies, si ua ions in which people disa-
g ee o e he explana ions o e en s o he solu ion o p oblems. Con o e sies a e common in
science, as hey in ol e skep icism o explana ions and solu ions which a e s ill unce ain (when
he likelihood o co ec ness is unclea ) and inde e mina e (when ele an causes a e unclea ).
Con o e sies p o ac deba es, using up p ecious ime necessa y o a oid he mos dange -
ous consequences o clima e change. Bu hey can also gene a e possibili ies o he many a -
ec ed o aise hei conce ns. In my i s ske ch ega ding he land subsidence in Joshima h,
we see con o e sy a ound he causes o a seemingly “na u al” geophysical e en ha ha med
people. Is clima e change o blame? In he case o he plans o deca bonize adi ional pu ed
ice p oduc ion in Da anage e, we see con o e sy a ound educing g eenhouse gas emissions,
known as ei he mi iga ion o deca boniza ion, a necessi y i we a e o a oid dange ous cli-
ma e change. A e echnologies o educe emissions sui able? The hi d ske ch abou low-ca bon,
Pos ca ds om Small Town India 107
public housing de elopmen in Rajko poin s o a means o educing emissions ha while
small, was no con o e sial. Does i p o ide a lesson on how clima e ac ion can be pu sued
wi hou con lic ?
Con es ing Scien i ic F ames Beyond he Popula
The deba e o e wha caused he c acking homes in Joshima h e eals ha s uggles o e wha
we hink is happening, o knowledge abou he c isis, will se he g ounds o jus ice in clima e
con o e sies. When e en s ha e mul iple possible causes, g oups will seek o es ablish knowl-
edge so ha i bols e s explana ions sui able o hei posi ions. Sociologis s call his o ganiza ion
o knowledge a ame: wha is conside ed impo an , how i is po ayed, wha is explained,
and wha is igno ed. Clima e con o e sies o en in ol e mul iple, con lic ing scien i ic ames.
Powe , in pa , is he abili y o impose one’s ame on o he s.
A he global scale, as amoun s o plane a y-scale models ha e unde pinned a se led scien-
i ic ame ha clima e change is eal and dange ous. The ame is se led h ough consensus –
an ag eemen amongs a as majo i y o scien is s. Bu hese plane a y-scale da a and models
ha e ye o cap u e in icacies a he scale mos amilia o us, such as he places we li e and
wo k, lea ing local clima e science unse led.
E en when pe inen , clima e change migh no be he i s cause on people’s minds when
hey ace a c isis. Fo example, he i e o Joshima h’s esiden s ocused on he go e nmen
agency o building a nea by hyd opowe dam and no necessa ily hose esponsible o clima e
change, he posi ion emphasized by en i onmen al ac i is s. I would be a mis ake, hough, o
conside he esiden s’ cause as di e en om one o clima e jus ice. They igh ly no e ha
go e nmen cons uc ion pu s hem in ha m’s way, and his ha m will only be u he in ensi ied
due o clima e change. Clima e change ac s as a h ea mul iplie , exace ba ing ha ms people
a e al eady amilia wi h. Bu as such ha ms can ha e o he ele an , and mo e locally amilia
causes, calls o clima e jus ice do no ha e o be amed in he name o clima e change, bu he
h ea ul a a a s i will unleash.
In a c isis, no single cause may eadily s and ou o blame. Ins ead, di e en s akeholde s
wield science o de end hei p e e ed cause. Wha is conside ed u h is es ablished in a public
deba e be ween al e na i e explana ions. In classical accoun s o con o e sies o en i onmen al
knowledge, schola s ha e o en coun e posed he expe scien i ic knowledge used by s a es and
i ms wi h ci izen science. Popula science is knowledge made by a local communi y, based on
hei cul u al adi ion, made c edible by alignmen wi h li ed expe ience, and communica ed
h ough s o ies. In Joshima h, esiden s d ew on hei own expe iences and local knowledge o
hei egion o blame new hyd opowe cons uc ion o he ha ms hey aced. Bu hey also d ew
om expe scien i ic epo s by geologis s and sa elli e da a om go e nmen agencies ha
bols e ed hei claims. The go e nmen also ci ed geologis s and enginee s who a gued ha he
dam was sa e. Clima e ac i is s leaned on global scien i ic da a, and compu a ional models, o
poin owa d he ole o clima e change. The con o e sy was no o e hose who belie ed “The
Science” e sus hose who did no . The e was no single scien i ic posi ion on he issue. I was
ins ead a public con es be ween di e en scien i ic ames o explain he c isis.
I clima e jus ice is abou o wa ding communi y pe spec i es and wel a e, hen i seems ha
ci izen science aligns wi h mo emen s o jus ice. Bu in Joshima h, calls o jus ice did no jus
in ol e expe ience and adi ion-based knowledge bu also p o essional science ha aligned
wi h hei claims. I in ol ed go e nmen agencies disag eeing openly o e causes, leading one
o censo he o he in an a emp a con olling he na a i e. Alongside adi ional wisdom, local
communi ies can ind p o essional scien i ic da a such as om go e nmen sa elli es use ul in

108 Anki Bha dwaj
bols e ing hei call o jus ice. Bu hose opposed o clima e jus ice oo can ma shal hei own
na a i es and da a. The clima e c isis hen poses a p oblem o how we come o know, and make
decisions abou , he causes o ha ms we ace.
The Una oidable Weigh o Wha Exis s o Jus T ansi ions
The second ske ch shows he in luence o a communi y’s adi ional knowledge on clima e
ac ion. In Da anage e, wo ke s commi ed o exis ing adi ional p ac ices o making pu ed
ice, e en as i pollu ed he ai hey wo ked in and wo sened hei heal h. While open o he use
o sola panels, hei expe ience wi h he p o o ype elec ic o ens made hem skep ical ha i
would p o ide he empe a u e necessa y o p oduc ion. They came o belie e ha he elec ic
o ens would make hei li es ha de and he e o e con inued o aise conce ns.
STS schola s ha e s udied how we change ou use o echnologies o e ime o echnology
ansi ions. To educe g eenhouse gas emissions, socie ies will ha e o unde ake he mind-
boggling ask o shi ing om using ossil- uel ene gy o sou ces ha do no emi ca bon. We
ha e unde aken such as ene gy ansi ions be o e. Ea ly socie ies used biomass (wood o
o he o ganic ma e such as pea ) o ene gy, hen inc easingly added mo e uels ha we e mo e
e icien such as whale oil, coal, and e en ually ossil oil and gas. As o oday, acco ding o he
S a is ical Re iew o Wo ld Ene gy, we mee a ound 80% o ou ene gy needs wi h ossil uels.
The ansi ion o a oid dange ous clima e change will in ol e eplacing ossil uels wi h low-
ca bon sou ces o ene gy. This will be a p o ound social change. A s ake is how people make,
wo k, mo e, and li e in com o , and he cos s hey bea o do so. Labo and social mo emen s
calling o a jus ansi ion a gue ha his shi o low-ca bon ene gy should add ess he needs
o wo ke s and ci izens such as gain ul employmen , social wel a e, and clean en i onmen s.
I should shi he cos s o he ansi ion no o he poo es bu o hose mos esponsible o he
high consump ion o ossil uels.
The case o Da anage e shows ha a ansi ion o low-ca bon ene gy will ha e o change
long-exis ing adi ions and labo p ac ices o using ca bon-in ensi e uels. Jus ansi ions will
in ol e an una oidable eckoning wi h how educing emissions will in ol e ans o ming li e-
lihoods, o how people secu e he necessi ies o hei li es. E en when he go e nmen subsi-
dized he economic cos o he o ens hemsel es, he wo ke s a gued ha he elec ic o ens
would educe he p oduc i i y o hei labo , likely ex ending hou s in a s i ling wo kplace o
p oduce he same amoun , while aking away a p e e ed as e.
The go e nmen ’s clima e- iendly aim o deca bonize he adi ional p ac ice al e ed, no
because he wo ke s did no belie e in clima e change bu because hey saw he p oposed ech-
nology as insu icien ly aligned wi h hei exis ing li es. The up ake o low-ca bon echnology
was no a echnical bu a he a social and cul u al p oblem. Wha came o ma e was whe he
he speci ic, cul u al p ac ices in Mandakki Bha i could be deca bonized wi h exis ing ech-
nology wi hou dis up ing he p io i ies o labo e s. This indica es ha d bu una oidable local
choices o achie ing a jus ansi ion: how will we change he many cul u ally speci ic p ac ices
ha ha e come o ely on ossil uels? And i i canno be done wi hou cos s o he mos ulne -
able, is i wo h i o apidly educe emissions?
S yles o Clima e Jus ice
In he second and hi d cases, go e nmen bu eauc a s aimed o educe emissions, bu hey
adop ed di e en app oaches. In Da anage e, bu eauc a s ba gained wi h wo ke s o e he sui -
abili y o low-ca bon echnology bu aced opposi ion when wo ke s amed he ansi ion as
Pos ca ds om Small Town India 109
dis up i e o hei wo k. In Rajko , bu eauc a s did no alk o he esiden s hey we e building
o , o en an indica o o clima e injus ice. Bu in hei p ojec , esiden s con inued li e unin-
e up ed and did no see any nega i e impac s o a p ojec o educe emissions on hei li es.
The ci y enginee s had buil low-ca bon housing o he ci y’s poo e esiden s wi h only small
changes o amilia housing.
Due o he g a i y and global scope o he c isis, esponding o clima e change will equi e
as , dis up i e social changes. Bu he ansi ion o using less ene gy and mo e om lowe ca -
bon sou ces can also in ol e small changes. They jus need o be widesp ead. In Rajko , build-
ing apa men s ha used less ene gy mean only weaking he s a us quo: sligh ly changing he
size and posi ion o windows, choosing he igh pain , and p ocu ing inc easingly a o dable
sola panels. Rajko ’s bu eauc a s c ea i ely added hese clima e- iendly ea u es o hei exis -
ing p ac ices. I equi ed no new money o majo policy on he pa o he go e nmen . I did
no dis up hei li es o pose unbea able cos s o lowe -income esiden s. Fo be e o wo se,
esponding o clima e change can look like con inuing as-is.
In con as o Da anage e, emission educ ion in Rajko ’s low-ca bon homes aligned wi h so-
cial wel a e. Residen s bene i ed because hei homes would be sligh ly coole and hei elec ic
bills sligh ly lowe han usual. Ac ion o educe emissions need no be dis up i e. I can ha e
social co-bene i s. These bene i s include mo e han be e homes. O he low-ca bon p ojec s
such as public ansi , elec i ied and e icien appliances, new g een public spaces, and easily
accessible se ices can mean heal hie , and mo e equi able ci ies. The ocus on co-bene i s u ns
ou a en ion o how clima e ac ion add esses he o he p essing social and en i onmen al needs
o people.
S udying such a si ua ed jus ice in ol es analyzing how clima e ac ions a e ela ed o ac o s
o si ua ional impo ance such as housing, po able wa e , a o dable elec ici y, li elihoods, and
cul u e. The impo ance o each aspec o jus ice shi s in ele ance, depending on he conce ns
o he ac o s in ol ed. Fo example, he p ocedu al jus ice o in ol ing wo ke s in discussions
a ound low-ca bon echnologies in Da anage e igh ly ga e oppo uni ies o wo ke s o aise
hei conce ns bu s ymied he dis ibu ion o low-ca bon echnologies.
The e was a lack o p ocedu al jus ice in Rajko bu he dis ibu ion o sola panels and cool
housing o he ci y’s low-income esiden s in ol ed ecogni ion o hei clima e ulne abili y,
and dis ibu ion o alle ia e ha ms. Jus ice is no one-size- i s-all. I in ol es conside a ion o
local cul u es and si ua ions. People c ea e clima e jus ice in hei own s yle by coming oge he
o de ine i in ways consis en wi h hei needs.
Conclusion
Clima e change will b ing ex ao dina y changes o o dina y places. Bu i s changes will no be
uni o m, and nei he will clima e science, echnology, and jus ice. Clima e change will mul iply
exis ing h ea s o loods, hea , and d ough in ci ies. I will also mobilize g oups wi h di e ing
wo ld iews and complemen a y scien i ic indings. Cul u e will shape how people ame he
c ises hey ace and he solu ions hey suppo , as will p o essional scien i ic indings and in-
no a i e echnologies. Dis up ions o wha people hold dea , such as how we adi ionally make
ood, will in i e opposi ion. Bu he changes ha will be e ou li es will quie ly ind a place
in ou homes.
Ra he han ocus on he big disag eemen s o e abs ac ed ac s and global p inciples, a
si ua ed app oach helps us see ha bo h knowledge abou clima e change, and ac ions o educe
emissions will be made by people in he local wo lds whe e hey li e and wo k. Causes o cli-
ma e jus ice ha aim o educe emissions and inc ease wel a e will ha e o conside how people
110 Anki Bha dwaj
make a li ing, and wha hey easu e abou he wo ld a ound hem. The si ua ions in Joshima h,
Da anage e, and Rajko a e unique, bu hey e eal a u h. The success o clima e science,
echnology, and jus ice will no be won in a global deba e, o descend by in e na ional ia , bu
be buil piece by piece, in e e y place, including a ound you co ne .
Fu he Reading
Angelo, H. (2022) “Boom own: A sola land ush in he Wes ,” Ha pe ’s Magazine, Decembe 12.
A aos, M. (2023) “Democ acy unde wa e : Public pa icipa ion, echnical expe ise, and clima e in a-
s uc u e planning in New Yo k Ci y,” Theo y and Socie y, 52(1), pp. 1–34.
Bha dwaj, A. (2022) “S yles o deca boniza ion,” En i onmen al Poli ics, Taylo & F ancis, pp. 1–23.
Boye , D. and Howe, C. (2019) Wind and Powe in he An h opocene, Du ham, NC: Duke Uni e si y
P ess.
Cas o, B., & Sen, R. (2022). E e yday Adap a ion: Theo izing clima e change adap a ion in daily li e.
Global En i onmen al Change, 75.
Dubash, N.K. (ed.) (2020) India in a Wa ming Wo ld: In eg a ing Clima e Change and De elopmen , New
Delhi: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Ellio , R. (2021) Unde wa e : Loss, Flood Insu ance, and he Mo al Economy o Clima e Change in he
Uni ed S a es, New Yo k: Columbia Uni e si y P ess.
Rice, J.L., Cohen, D.A., Long, J., e al. (2020) “Con adic ions o he clima e- iendly ci y: New pe spec-
i es on eco-gen i ica ion and housing jus ice,” In e na ional Jou nal o U ban and Regional Resea ch,
44(1), pp. 145–165.
Schlosbe g, D. and Collins, L.B. (2014) “F om en i onmen al o clima e jus ice: Clima e change and he
discou se o en i onmen al jus ice,” WIREs Clima e Change, 5(3), pp. 359–374.
Táíwò, O.O. (2022) Reconside ing Repa a ions, New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
In oduc ion: A Roo op View o Sola The mal Sys ems in Jo dan
Summe days a e ho in he no heas e n co ne o Jo dan, nea he bo de wi h Sy ia. The sun bea s
down ac oss he golden hillsides, pene a ing he hin walls o many o he houses ha popula e he
owns and illages along he bo de . On a b igh sp ing day in 2022, I d o e ou o a Jo danian il-
lage nea he ci y o I bid o mee wi h Ma yam, a woman who had ins alled a sola he mal wa e
hea e on he oo op o help conse e ene gy and educe he mon hly elec ici y bill. Ma yam’s
amily mig a ed o his illage om Damascus o e a cen u y ago, and gene a ions o he amily
ha e buil homes and ga dens ha made use o he ich ecological di e si y o his egion. As I
walked up o he house, he sun glin ed o he golden s alks o ba ley and lowe ing ui ees ha
in e laced he old s one buildings. Si ing on he e anda o Ma yam’s house, we d ank min lem-
onade and a e esh loqua , a small o ange ui , ha Ma yam had jus ha es ed om he ga den.
We alked abou he challenges and oppo uni ies o household enewable ene gy sys ems in
he illage. She explained how elec ici y p ices had become inc easingly una o dable amids
na ion-wide ene gy sec o e o ms, wi h mon hly elec ici y bills becoming an unbea able bu -
den o many households in he illage. In addi ion, she had been no icing shi s in he local
clima e in ecen yea s, as clima e change b ough bi e ly cold winds and ice in he win e and
ex ended pe iods o d ough in he summe . Ma yam ook me up o he oo o show me he
small sola he mal sys em ha she ins alled. I uses he he mal ays o he sun o hea ubes
illed wi h wa e , which is hen piped di ec ly in o he house. As we explo ed he o m and unc-
ion o he sys em, Ma yam sha ed how his simple a ay had educed he elec ici y bills and
he eliance on he local elec ici y dis ibu ion company. This enewable ene gy sys em ga e
he mo e economic independence and di ec con ol o e he com o o he home.
A ound he wo ld oday, many indi iduals, communi ies, and go e nmen s ecognize he
u gen need o apid deca boniza ion. Deca boniza ion, o he educ ion o global g eenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions, can ake many di e en o ms. Renewable ene gy ansi ion is a key
piece o deca boniza ion and can include simple enewable ene gy echnologies like Ma yam’s
oo op sola he mal sys em, as well as mo e complex enewable echnologies like la ge-scale
wind a ms wi h ba e y s o age sys ems. Deca boniza ion also includes making changes o he
buil en i onmen , which can ake he shape o small in e en ions like ins alling be e house-
hold insula ion and swi ching o mo e e icien ligh bulbs, as well as la ge-scale in e en ions
like ans o ming u ban and u al anspo a ion and ag icul u al sys ems o educe he use o
hyd oca bon-based inpu s like gasoline and pe ochemical e ilize s.
The go e nmen o Jo dan, among o he s a ound he globe, has se ambi ious deca boniza-
ion a ge s and de eloped na ional p og ams o each hese goals. Jo dan is a middle-income
coun y ha aces mul iple, p essing de elopmen challenges, including high unemploymen
13 Sola A o dances and he S uggle o
Clima e Jus ice in Sou hwes Asia
Kend a Kin zi
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-18
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
In oduc ion
On a igid nigh in Feb ua y 2021, housands huddled on he ailings o Uppe S . An hony
Falls in Minneapolis, he i s majo lock and dam on he Mississippi Ri e , o pee down a In-
digenous a is Moi a Villia d’s ligh and sound show, Madweyaashkaa: Wa es Can Be Hea d.
Ou a en ion was ocused deep inside he 400 by 50- oo lock chambe a loa ing images o
G andmo he moon, i e, ea h, wa e , and he jingle d ess dance en wined in swi ling colo s.
Challenging he his o ies o iolence and acism ha ha e de ined ou ela ionship wi h he
i e , his piece asked us o imagine how physical and social in as uc u es can p omo e heal-
ing amids pandemic and acial up isings. The pe o mance was su p isingly sanc ioned by he
A my Co ps o Enginee s, he agency ha has o ce ully held he Mississippi Ri e in place o
mo e han a cen u y.
Like many wa e agencies ac oss he US and he wo ld, he Co ps’ manda e is apidly shi -
ing away om i s 19 h-cen u y mission o ha ness i e s o comme cial exploi a ion owa d a
21s -cen u y need o epai i e s acing clima e change impac s such as biodi e si y loss. Fo
example, Co ps p ojec s ha e been impac ed by in asi e species, unp edic able looding, and
ede al manda es o es o e des oyed ish habi a s. In 2018, he agency was di ec ed by he
US Cong ess o comple e a mul iyea , mul imillion-dolla s udy o de e mine wha “ alue” he
Ame ican public de i es om he ope a ion o in as uc u e on he Mississippi, pa icula ly in
he uppe basin whe e comme cial na iga ion is no longe economical. I is likely ha he Co ps
14 Ups eam Engagemen in he E a o
Clima e Change
Roopali Phadke
Figu e 14.1 Mockup o Madweyaashkaa.
Sou ce: Wi h pe mission om No he n ligh s.mn.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-19
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.

Ups eam Engagemen in he E a o Clima e Change 119
will ecommend di es men , as hey ha e done elsewhe e, and pe haps e en pu sue dam e-
mo al and massi e i e es o a ion.
The e is no p eceden o undamming a i e sys em he scale o he Mississippi, encompass-
ing he ou h-la ges wa e shed in he wo ld. The me e ac o imagining his u u e will ha e
majo consequences o how he Co ps ope a es a ound he na ion and ipple e ec s o millions
who li e down i e . Wi h massi e injec ions o public money coming o in as uc u e e i ali-
za ion in an e a o clima e change and g een ene gy de elopmen , his is an ex ao dina y ime
o conside how 21s -cen u y i e managemen can become a o ce o clima e jus ice. He ein,
achie ing clima e jus ice equi es us o acknowledge and epai he damage done o ecosys ems
and communi ies.
I begin he chap e wi h a his o ical look a why he Mississippi was dammed and d edged,
and he long- e m social and en i onmen al implica ions o hese e o s. I hen desc ibe how
STS-in o med app oaches o pa icipa o y esea ch and c i ical in as uc u e s udies can be
applied o hinking abou he u u e o he Mississippi Ri e . The hi d sec ion desc ibes he
communi y-based esea ch conduc ed by my esea ch lab o e he las se e al yea s and how he
lessons we’ e lea ned can apply o u u e Co ps’ ac ions. I end wi h e lec ions on he implica-
ions o his case s udy o hinking abou he ole o wa e in as uc u e in an e a o clima e
changes and clima e jus ice.
The Mississippi’s T ans o ma ion
The Mississippi, he second longes i e in No h Ame ica, a els om i s o igins in Lake
I asca in no hwes e n Minneso a 2,350 miles sou h o he Gul o Mexico. The i e is hyd o-
logically and adminis a i ely di ided in o h ee sec ions: he Uppe Mississippi, om i s head-
wa e s o he con luence wi h he Missou i Ri e nea S . Louis; he Middle Mississippi, which
is down i e om he Missou i o he Ohio Ri e ; and he Lowe Mississippi, which lows om
he Ohio o he Gul o Mexico.
The Co ps buil and ope a ed he Mississippi’s in as uc u e wi h a ba le gene al’s in en o
o e 150 yea s (F ankel, 2018). Founded in 1755, he Co ps is a b anch o he US Depa men o
De ense. I is one o he wo ld’s la ges public enginee ing, design, and cons uc ion agencies.
Cong ess i s au ho ized he Co ps o cons uc six dams in he headwa e s a ea be ween 1880
and 1907 o suppo a ocal and powe ul lou milling and imbe indus y. Figu e 14.2 shows
he s a e o he i e in he ea ly 1900s when he Meeke Dam was cons uc ed. This was he i s
and no he nmos lock and dam on he Mississippi Ri e . In 1910, he Co ps buil Ame ica’s
i s na ional dam wi h a hyd oelec ic plan a Lock and Dam 1 in S . Paul.
Today, he Co ps ope a es a “s ai way o wa e ” ha consis s o nea ly 30 locks and dams on
he Uppe Mississippi Ri e be ween Minneapolis and S . Louis o pe mi ba ge a ic and p o-
ec a ms and ci ies om looding. The Co ps also main ains a nine- oo -deep channel o enable
na iga ion h ough his s e ch. Be ween he i s and las lock, he Mississippi d ops 420 ee
o e he cou se o 670 miles. Be o e channel cons uc ion, he dep h o he Uppe Mississippi
a e aged app oxima ely h ee ee and was as low as one oo deep nea S . Paul in d y seasons.
The Uppe Mississippi’s indus ial pas and imagined u u es canno be sepa a ed om his o-
ies o na i e dispossession. The locks and dams on he Uppe Mississippi e ec i ely d owned
he wa e alls, sand ba s, islands, and go ges ha once co e ed his e i o y. The Dako a people,
who occupied he egion o nea ly 10,000 yea s be o e he onse o se le colonialism in 1680,
we e dis ega ded and abused when he i e was claimed as a comme cial esou ce. The con lu-
ence o he Mississippi and Minneso a Ri e s, sac ed g ounds known o he Dako a as Bdo e,
was made in o a mili a y base whe e he Dako a we e imp isoned du ing he Wa o 1862. The
120 Roopali Phadke
Dako a s ill claim his e i o y and a e deeply connec ed o he poli ics o in as uc u e de el-
opmen in he egion.
Mo eo e , he i e ’s indus ial pas is also insepa able om he iolence o sla e y, an i-
Blackness, and he ongoing dispossession o Black communi ies. His o ians ha e desc ibed
how he Mississippi se ed as bo h e uge and opp esso o hose ensla ed peoples who oiled
he c ops and labo ed on he boa s o he an ebellum economy (Zeisle -V als ed, 2019). Zoning
and edlining policies in he 20 h cen u y u he seg ega ed Black popula ions, simul aneously
ba ing hem om he i e while exposing hem o he impac s o oxic indus ies ha ook up
esidence on he banks (Mille , 2020).
In 2015, he Co ps was o ced o close he uppe mos lock o block he sp ead o in asi e
ca p u he ups eam. This was he i s ime a na igable wa e way in he US was closed o
s em he ide o an in asi e species. Soon a e , he US Cong ess passed he Wa e Resou ces
De elopmen Ac o 2018 (PL 115–270), which au ho ized he Co ps o conduc a disposi ion
s udy ha co e s he h ee uppe mos locks and dams in Minneapolis and S . Paul. This includes
Uppe S . An hony Lock and Dam, Lowe S . An hony Lock and Dam, and Lock and Dam 1.
The goal was o de e mine whe he i was s ill in he public’s in e es o he Co ps o con inue
owning and main aining hem (a a cos o $1.6 million pe yea ) now ha hey no longe mee
a na iga ion pu pose.
The Co ps comple ed hei epo on he i s s uc u e, Uppe S . An hony Falls, and ha e
mo ed on o examine he wo o he s uc u es in a second s udy scheduled o be comple ed by
Figu e 14.2 Meeke Dam Cons uc ion.
Sou ce: A my Co ps o Enginee s S Paul Dis ic .
Ups eam Engagemen in he E a o Clima e Change 121
2024–25. The disposi ion s udy p ocess examines h ee op ions: 1) no ac ion, 2) pa ial disposal
(deau ho ize and e ain some lood mi iga ion ea u es), and 3) ull disposal (deau ho ize and
comple ely dispose). A e disposal, he acili y is up o sale o ans e ence o ano he public
o p i a e en i y. I is also possible ha he s uc u es can be emo ed. Cong ess also di ec ed
he Co ps o conside o he measu es o “p ese e and enhance ec ea ional oppo uni ies and
he heal h o he ecosys em” and “main ain he bene i s o he na u al ecosys em and human
en i onmen ” (US Cong ess, 2018). The Co ps is al eady in ol ed in es o a ion p ojec s in he
uppe basin, including d edging pools along he loodplain and using he sedimen o cons uc
islands and es o e we land ish and wa e owl habi a .
In e es in es o ing he Mississippi Ri e is ep esen a i e o dam emo al and i e es o a-
ion mo emen s c opping up ac oss he US and Eu ope. O e 1,340 dams ha e been emo ed
ac oss he US, wi h 930 emo ed since 1999 (Ame ican Ri e s, 2017). On he Uppe Mississippi,
i e es o a ion will be a highly complex ac o enginee ing h ough which new islands and
channels would be c ea ed o es o e whi ewa e condi ions. Remo ing he dams would mean
ha in he d y season (July–Augus ) i would be possible o wade ac oss a wo- oo i e in he
ci y, which oday he Co ps holds a a minimum nine- oo dep h. Those who li e, wo k, and
play in and along he i e ha e many ideas abou wha he i e is and wha i should be. The
Co ps’ conside a ion o dam emo al and i e es o a ion has d awn impassioned and con lic -
ing esponses. Some ad oca e o keep he dams while many wan o ee he i e and gi e land
back o Na i e peoples.
Schola ly Inspi a ions om STS
I ha e engaged wi h STS schola ship on pa icipa o y echnology design and c i ical in a-
s uc u e o esea ch his case. STS schola s ha e desc ibed, analyzed, and expe imen ed wi h
ci izen-led echnology assessmen and communi y-based esea ch. In he ealms o en i onmen
and clima e, STS pa icipa o y expe imen s ha e included consensus con e ences, ci izen ju ies,
and delibe a i e polls on opics ha ange om assessing bio echnology o geoenginee ing he
plane . My en i onmen al schola ship models a o m o STS ac ion- esea ch, which I’ e e-
e ed o as “place-based echnology assessmen ,” ha connec s local policy ac o s wi h social
mo emen demands h ough mul isi e, mul iscale esea ch collabo a ions (Phadke, 2014).
I e oke place-making o unde sco e he impo ance o designing echnology, such as lock
and dam in as uc u es, in ela ionship wi h hose who li e, wo k, and play in he e y en i on-
men s we seek o change. Social scien is s and humanis s ha e come o de ine in as uc u e
as a complex and changing se o objec s, laws, and knowledge p ac ices ha manage, main ain
and epai places (Anand, Gup a, and Appel, 2018; Jackson, 2014; Edwa ds, 2003; Mi chell,
2002). Neglec ed and abandoned in as uc u es, like lead wa e mains and oil pipelines, a e
si es o in ense poli ical con lic in he e a o clima e change because hey may ail o sa ely
deli e esou ces. In as uc u al ailu es end o a ec people unequally. Thus, hei manage-
men and epai allow us o conside how issues o gende , ace, colonialism, and classism ela e
o place-making.
Focusing on “ups eam” engagemen allows me o connec c i ical in as uc u e s udies wi h
place-making design. Ups eam e e s o public engagemen wi h po en ial p oblems and solu-
ions a an ea ly s age o he esea ch and de elopmen p ocess, a he han downs eam when
p oblems and social con o e sy a e expe ienced (Roge s-Hayden and Pidgeon, 2007). Ups eam
engagemen has been used ac oss a wide se o echnology con ex s om nano echnology o
gene ically modi ied o ganisms. While “ups eam” he e e e s o p ocess, he concep is pa -
icula ly use ul o hinking abou go e ning i e s ha mo e ac oss complex cul u al and physical
122 Roopali Phadke
e ains. In he con ex o he Co ps’ disposi ion s udies on he Mississippi, he abo e wisdom
helps us conside he limi a ions o con en ional public engagemen p ac ice and how we migh
in e ene owa d g ea e inclusi e, e lexi e, and c ea i e engagemen .
Wo king in collabo a ion wi h se e al local and na ional i e o ganiza ions, my unde g adu-
a e s uden esea ch eam has documen ed, in e p e ed, and expe imen ed wi h public engage-
men p ocesses. By examining which modes o engagemen enable o shu down imaginings o
a u u e i e , we’ e aimed o c ea e ups eam oppo uni ies o e lec ion among publics who
ha e been excluded and ha med by pas app oaches. Ou wo k has included a chi al documen
analysis, public su eying o hund eds o people, expe in e iews, and ocus g oup i e ou s.
The nex sec ion desc ibes ou app oach and indings.
Modeling Ups eam Collabo a i e Resea ch
This p ojec began in 2018–19 when he Co ps’ launched i s i s public hea ings abou he u-
u e o he Uppe S . An hony Lock and Dam. Be ween 2000–23, ou esea ch g oup e iewed
all he public commen s ecei ed by he Co ps and moni o ed news accoun s and social media.
We also in e iewed local and na ional expe s and conduc ed su eys and ocus g oups. The
wo k culmina ed wi h a esea ch epo deli e ed o he Co ps wi h a se o ecommenda ions
abou how o imp o e hei engagemen e o s. I desc ibe below ou indings and e lec ions
om he Co ps abou hem.
Public commen s ecei ed by he Co ps o e ed insigh s in o how esiden s pe cei ed he
impo ance o he locks and dams o hei sense o place. O he 114 submissions, 84 commen s
opposed ull disposi ion and 17 commen s a o ed pa ial disposi ion o he Uppe S . An hony
Lock and Dam. Mos esponden s asked he Co ps o s ay, ci ing us in hei abili y alone o
main ain he i e in as uc u e ha ma e s mos o quali y o li e. Fo example, one esiden
w o e: “We a e ex emely skep ical ha he e is any o he o ganiza ion wi h he inancial o
o ganiza ional capaci y o manage his c i ically impo an acili y.” Minneapolis Mayo Jacob
F ey, along wi h ci y council membe s, w o e ha he Co ps “a e he only en i y ha can con-
inue o manage hese s uc u es wi h he expe ise and o e sigh ha conside s i s e ec on he
sys em o locks, dams, cu o wall, b idges, lood mi iga ion, municipal wa e , indus ial uses,
anspo a ion, and ec ea ion ha impac s millions o Ame icans.” While he public commen s
o e whelmingly old he Co ps o s ay, he agency’s disposi ion epo on Uppe S . An hony
Falls concluded ha “ he e is no ede al in e es in con inuing o own and ope a e he p ojec ,
and ecommends ull disposal, combined wi h o e ing a mone a y incen i e o expedi e he
disposal”.
Communi y g oups s epped in o ind a way o wa d gi en he Co ps’ desi e o abandon he
acili y. This p ocess, now pa o “The Falls Ini ia i e,” c ea ed a p ocess o ans o m he deac-
i a ed, conc e e lock in o “an iconic des ina ion” hono ing he si e’s Indigenous his o y. As an
ac o place making, he Falls plan emphasizes how in as uc u e can be enego ia ed o add ess
se le -colonial injus ices ela ed o land and wa e dispossession. The Na i e Leade ship Coun-
cil o F iends o he Falls, he nonp o i s ee ing he e o s, w i es on hei websi e ha “We
ha e an oppo uni y o c ea e a place o healing a Owámniyomni (meaning ‘ u bulen wa e s’
in he Dako a language), o S . An hony Falls, ha acknowledges he pas and ad ances a mo e
equi able and inclusi e u u e.” Ea ly concep ual d awings include na i e landscape, walking
pa hs, and places o ga he and connec o he i e . The Co ps a e cu en ly in nego ia ion wi h
he Ci y o Minneapolis o con ey he land o e o he ci y, and hen back o he Dako a people.
Ou analysis o public commen s in he i s pa o he s udy indica ed ha while he public
us s he Co ps’ echnical expe ise, he e is g ea unease wi h he aming o he public p ocess.
Ups eam Engagemen in he E a o Clima e Change 123
The Co ps i s s udy was na owly ocused on he locks and dams, and no he u u e o a i e
ha is he li eblood o he egion. The Co ps ou inely esponds o ques ions asked by membe s
o he public by saying “ ha ’s no in he scope o he p ojec ”. Membe s o he public o en
espond by asking how he scope o he s udy can be expanded so in as uc u e goes beyond
conc e e and s eel.
The low le els o public engagemen wi h he Co ps’ i s s udy begged asking how ups eam
o ms o public pa icipa ion migh aid he policy p ocess. We wonde ed how he Co ps could
be e unde s and public conce ns be o e hey began he second pa o hei disposi ion p ocess
aimed a he nex wo locks and dams: Lowe S . An hony and Lock and Dam 1. This was pa -
icula ly impo an because he e a e al eady s ong calls om ac oss he na ion o unlock his
se en-mile s e ch o he Mississippi o es o e Big Rapids habi a .
To inc ease mo e inclusi e and in en ional ups eam public engagemen , we helped c ea e
a pa ne ship called he Fu u e Mississippi Collabo a i e, made up o local and na ional i e
gua dian o ganiza ions wi h expe ise in engaging di e se communi ies.1 We began by collec -
ing and analyzing 270 hand-w i en su eys a di e en si es along he i e nea he locks and
dams in ques ion. The su eys ound ha only 3% o esponden s had pa icipa ed in he Co ps
public inpu p ocess. Only .7% ( wo people ou o 270) epo ed hey had a ended a public
mee ing and only 2.6% said ha hey pa icipa ed h ough public commen s. The majo i y o
esponden s did no know he p ima y pu pose o he locks and dams. This gene al lack o
knowledge and engagemen indica ed a need o expanded ou each and educa ion.
Acknowledging his lack o public awa eness was a p oblem, he Co ps pa ne ed wi h us
o inc ease public engagemen . In summe 2022, we designed and hos ed 13 in e ac i e ou s,
which also se ed as ocus g oups. Ou ou guides desc ibed he his o y o he locks and dams
and he ques ions he Co ps was conside ing. Co ps s a joined us on hese ou s and p o ided
access o he lock and dam acili ies so pa icipan s could ge up close o he i e in as uc u e.
Figu e 14.5 includes images om ou walking, biking, kayaking, and boa ing ou s ha included
h ee communi y council ou s, wo BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and people o colo ) ou s, and
one you h-cen e ed ou . O e 400 people applied o hese g oups, and 250 people o all ages
and abili ies ul ima ely ga he ed a he wa e . We collec ed 233 mo e su eys om ou pa ici-
pan s o ga he hei opinions on he u u e o he i e .
Among ou indings, we lea ned wha ypes o in o ma ion su ey pa icipan s hough
would be use ul o know p io o pa icipa ing in a Co ps disposi ion s udy. Many pa icipan s
eques ed in o ma ion abou ecological impac s (26.4%) and social and communi y impac s
(21.3%). Tou pa icipan s also wan ed o lea n mo e abou sedimen oxici y, cu en and u u e
cos s o lock and dam main enance, and he cos o dam emo al.
Ou ocus g oup ou s also asked pa icipan s: “Wha do you wish o he Mississippi Ri e ?”
Among o he sen imen s, many esponden s emphasized gi ing land back o Na i e peoples.
Commen s included: “I wan Indigenous olks o ha e he mos say— hey ca e o be e s and-
a ds o he land, and wa e , ha e ances al ies and a e owed some so o epa a ions o hei
o cible exile/expulsion om he place,” “To decolonize his i e , he in as uc u e, he na a-
i es, allow humans o connec wi h a mo e na u al i e co ido , o heal and lo e he i e so
ha we may heal and lo e ou sel es,” and “To be e u ned o he communi ies hey impac mos
and his o ically ha e been hei ca e ake s.”
We p o ided he Co ps wi h a summa y se o ecommenda ions based on ou indings. We
ad ised hem o o e educa ional esou ces and public ou s, p esen communi y membe s wi h
isual ep esen a ions o how a u u e Mississippi Ri e migh look, and collec basic demo-
g aphic in o ma ion abou who submi s commen s and a ends public e en s. We also u ged he
Co ps o build pa ne ships wi h you h and you h-led o ganiza ions. We ound ha you h a e

124 Roopali Phadke
Figu es 14.3, 14.4, 14.5 Local esiden s on ocus g oup ou s.
Sou ce: Macales e esea ch eam.
Ups eam Engagemen in he E a o Clima e Change 125
deeply in e es ed in hinking abou he u u e i e and ha e inno a i e ideas abou imp o ing
engagemen wi h di e se publics.
The Co ps launched i s o icial scoping p ocess o he second hal o he disposi ion s udy
in No embe 2023. O e 300 people submi ed commen s, which is mo e han double he num-
be hey ecei ed he i s ime a ound. We belie e his is e idence o he impac o ou wo k
in s imula ing public in e es and engagemen . The scoping epo eleased by he Co ps also
called ou ou e o s in helping o model how hey migh o e come ba ie s o pa icipa ion.
This is key o clima e jus ice. Agencies like he A my Co ps a e o en pe cei ed as using public
consul a ion o simply main ain he s a us quo— o essen ially check he box ha hey “engaged
he public” wi hou gi ing ca e ul a en ion o wha he public wan s. By shining a ligh on how
ups eam engagemen wo ks, we hope o shi how and when he public ge s in ol ed in Co ps
p ocesses and c ea e place-making ou comes ha a e well suppo ed by local communi ies.
The Co ps’ disposi ion s udy is s ill un olding. The indings o he s udy may igge a ede al
en i onmen al impac s a emen e iew, which could ake a decade o comple e gi en he com-
plex socio-economy, hyd ology, oxicology, and ecological dynamics o i e es o a ion. The
decision-making p ocesses a ound his p ojec will likely un old o e a gene a ion—a gene a-
ion ha is likely o see p o ound changes in he egional and global clima e. Fo hese easons,
i was impo an o model inclusi e and in en ional ups eam public engagemen o en anchise
di e se communi y membe s in ca ing o and abou hei i e long in o he u u e.
Conclusion
This case s udy has applica ions well beyond he Mississippi and wa e p ojec s. Clima e
jus ice issues a e implica ed in nea ly e e y in as uc u e decision being made o engende
a g een economy. F om wind a ms o ca bon cap u e p ojec s, communi ies need o engage
ups eam o p ojec designs. They need o be asked o weigh in on whe e hings should be
loca ed, how big we should build, and how economic cos s and bene i s a e dis ibu ed. This
kind o communi y-o ien ed app oach is bes done h ough deep collabo a ions be ween s a e
agencies and locally si ua ed o ganiza ions who know how o engage neighbo s wi h espec
and a a speed ha ins ills us . Ou wo k wi h he Co ps sugges s ha such pa ne ships a e
possible.
Clima e change a ec s in as uc u e in p edic able and unknowable ways. We expec dis up-
ions om ex eme wea he e en s will bend o b eak some anspo a ion, elec ic ansmission,
and wa e sys ems. This will ha e p o ound impac s on communi ies, and disp opo iona ely
bu den hose mos ulne able wi hin hose socie ies. O he inc emen al changes, such as species
mig a ions, will be ha de o p edic . Adap ing o clima e change will equi e building esilience
h ough he s eng hening o li e al and me apho ical walls and b idges. Place-based app oaches
o in as uc u e design p o ide oppo uni ies o di e se g oups o conside he u u es hey
wan o p o ec and enac .
Acknowledgmen s
This p ojec has been unded by he Na ional Science Founda ion (SES#1947152).
No e
1. This collabo a i e includes he F iends o he Mississippi Ri e , Ame ican Ri e s, and he Na ional
Pa ks Conse a ion Associa ion and he Uni e si y o Minneso a.
126 Roopali Phadke
Re e ences
Ame ican Ri e s. (2017) “Res o e he Go ge.” www.ame ican i e s.o g/2015/03/ es o e- he-go ge/
Anand, A., A. Gup a, and H. Appel (eds). (2018) The P omise o In as uc u e. Du ham: Duke Uni e si y
P ess.
Edwa ds, P. (2003) “In as uc u e and Mode ni y,” in Mode ni y and Technology, eds. T. J. Misa, P. B ey,
and A. Feenbe g. Camb idge, MA: MIT P ess.
F ankel, T.C. (2018) “Taming he Migh y Mississippi,” Washing on Pos . Ma ch 14.
“www.washing onpos .com/g aphics/2018/na ional/mississippi- i e -in as uc u e/?u m_
e m=.1396c970bc8a
Jackson, S. (2014) “Re hinking Repai ,” in Media Technologies: Essays on Communica ion, Ma e iali y,
and Socie y, eds. T. Gillespie, P. Boczkowski, and K Foo . Camb idge: MIT P ess.
Mille , G. (2020) When Minneapolis Seg ega ed. New Yo k: Bloombe g Ci y Lab. www.bloombe g.com/
news/a icles/2020-01-08/mapping- he-seg ega ion-o -minneapolis
Mi chell, T. (2002) Rule o Expe s: Egyp , Techno-poli ics, Mode ni y. Be keley: UC P ess.
Phadke. R (2014) “G een Ene gy, Public Engagemen and he Poli ics o Scale,” in The Handbook o Sci-
ence, Technology, and Socie y, eds. D. Kleinman and K. Moo e. New Yo k: Rou ledge P ess.
Roge s-Hayden T. and N. Pidgeon (2007) “Mo ing Engagemen ‘Ups eam’? Nano echnologies and he
Royal Socie y and Royal Academy o Enginee ing’s Inqui y,” Public Unde s anding o Science 16(3):
345–364.
U.S. Cong ess Public Law 115-270. (2018) Ame ica’s Wa e In as uc u e Ac o 2018. www.cong ess.
go /bill/115 h-cong ess/sena e-bill/3021/ ex
Zeisle -V als ed, D. (2019) “A ican Ame icans and he Mississippi Ri e : Race, His o y and he En i on-
men ,” Thesis Ele en 150(1): 81–101.
In oduc ion
Du ing ieldwo k in Nepal, a go e nmen o es o icial e ealed o me ha Nepal’s es eemed
communi y o es y model o o es go e nance was p edica ed on he Gu hi, an Indigenous
commons go e nance ins i u ion o Ka hmandu’s Newa. This was in iguing o me because I
hail om ha communi y. My amily has always been pa o a ious Gu hi associa ions com-
p ised o ex ended kin ne wo ks ha con inue o make impo an decisions abou communi y
esou ces ela ed o ood, li e cycle i uals, and o he cul u al p ac ices. I did no know he Gu hi
had inspi ed he communi y o es y model I had s udied as an unde g adua e s uden and la e
pos -doc o al esea che .
Communi y o es y is an app oach o o es managemen ha ecognizes he sel - go e nance
capabili ies o local o es use g oups, as opposed o lea ing o es managemen en i ely o
go e nmen agencies. The ushe ing in o communi y o es y as go e nmen policy in he
1970s was he ou come o decades o s uggle o e e i o y be ween local o es use s and he
Nepali s a e. As I desc ibe in de ail in my book, Clima e Change Jus ice and Global Resou ce
Commons (Joshi, 2021), hese s uggles a e ongoing, and he ushe ing in o ca bon o se ing
p og ams could e ode he sel -go e nance powe s ha communi y o es use g oups won a e
much s uggle. Meanwhile, he Gu hi which is an in eg al pa o Newa cul u al iden i y and
au onomy has also been h ea ened by he Nepali s a e and comme cial in e es s. Bo h o ms
o commons go e nance a e a isk o commodi ica ion enabled by he s a e. This ug-o -wa
be ween commoning and commodi ica ion ep esen s a de ining s uggle o ou imes. In his
chap e I a gue ha e o s o ake back a ious commons a ound he wo ld a e examples o
clima e jus ice in ac ion.
Clima e jus ice is a mul i- ace ed concep and he e a e nume ous ways o unde s and and
implemen i . Schola s ha e iden i ied dis ibu i e, pa icipa o y, and ans o ma i e jus ice di-
mensions (Schlosbe g, 2007; Walke , 2012). Dis ibu i e jus ice akes issue wi h he highly
unequal dis ibu ion o g eenhouse gas emissions and clima e impac s in he wo ld, wi hin and
ac oss coun ies. Pa icipa o y jus ice ecognizes ha hose who a e mos a ec ed by and ul-
ne able o clima e impac s end no o ha e he powe o in luence decision-making, and s i es
o coun e his injus ice. Beyond hese dis ibu i e and pa icipa o y jus ice conce ns, schola s
call o ans o ma i e jus ice o disman le s uc u es such as capi alism and colonialism ha
hey a gue o m he oo cause o he clima e c isis. I sugges ha he ac o aking back he
commons in a ious o ms – as in he con ex o o es go e nance in Nepal – con ibu es o
ans o ma i e jus ice by enac ing s uc u al changes in how esou ces a e go e ned, acili a ing
a mo e equi able dis ibu ion o esou ces and a g ea e deg ee o pa icipa ion wi hin commu-
ni ies. Thus, he scaling up o hese e o s o ake back he commons is impo an o clima e
jus ice.
15 Clima e Jus ice
Taking Back he Commons
Shang ila Joshi
DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-20
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
230 Ma k Va dy
subjec and objec , media ing and connec ing embodied expe iences wi h he ma e ial wo ld.
In Chap e 29, Fö s e uses he example o wo di e en ins alla ions – bo h o which ea u e
algae – o discuss esponses o clima e change. On he one hand, esponses o clima e change
can ecycle old ways o o ien ing o he na u al wo ld by domina ing na u e and o cing i o
se e human needs h ough concep s such as ecosys em se ices. On he o he hand, hey can
open up space o new ways o connec ing wi h he complexi y o he wo ld. To assis wi h
unde s anding he la e , Fö s e ’s chap e de elops a heo y o “p ocessual aes he ics,” which
p o ides a ocabula y o make connec ions be ween he physicali y o clima e change, a , and
expe ience. Jus as Wal e Benjamin a gued ha a p o ides a way o connec ing wi h a wo ld
ha is beyond ha o language, so oo does Fö s e ; p ocessual aes he ics engages wi h “p e-
e lec i e, p e-concep ual in e ela edness.”
In Chap e 30, w i ing om he pe spec i e o bo h a p ac icing a is and a schola , Ka olina
Sobecka applies he ancien philosophical concep o “a e ed ision” in new ways o conside
how a is ic p ac ices can help us hink h ough wha an e hical esponse o clima e change
migh look like. Bu his is no an easy ask. In o de o g apple wi h clima e change, a is s mus
ecognize and espond o he his o ies o colonialism and capi alism ha a e no only ela ed
o he p oduc ion o clima e change bu also o he p oduc ion o bo h science and a . Sobecka
uses clouds as ma e ial o hink wi h as she conside s hese issues, illus a ing how di e en his-
o ical concep s o unce ain y ha e been o med in ela ion o clouds. Gi en ha he plane a y
hea ing associa ed wi h clima e change is in ensi ying condi ions o unce ain y, i is impo an
o conside how we can espond o su p ises in in en i e and c ea i e ways ha celeb a e play-
ulness, no domina ion.
Taken oge he , he chap e s in Pa IX emind us o he abundance o human c ea i i y. In an
e a when clima ic e en s a e inc easingly likely o ake us by su p ise, he wellsp ing o c ea i -
i y p o ides insigh in o how we – indi idually and collec i ely – can build good ela ions wi h
human and mo e- han-human o he s.
Re e ences
Benjamin, W. (1996) “The heo y o c i icism,” in Bullock, M. and Jennings, M.W. (eds.) Selec ed W i ings,
Volume 1: 1913–1926. Camb idge, MA: Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, pp. 217–219.
Chak aba y, D. (2012) “Pos colonial s udies and he challenge o clima e change,” New Li e a y His o y,
43(1), pp. 1–18.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003409748-37
E en i he wo ld ge s se ious abou clima e ac ion in he nex couple o decades, he nex ew
cen u ies will e y likely in ol e s eadily inc easing a es o sea le el ise. In his chap e , I dis-
cuss Hous on, Texas, as an example o an amphibious ci y o show how we can espond o sea
le el ise. How much wa e is coming exac ly? I ’s a complica ed ques ion o answe because a
lo depends on how quickly humans can s op adding o he concen a ion o g eenhouse gases
in he Ea h’s a mosphe e. So, ins ead o ce ain ies, clima e scien is s end o o e possible
scena ios and hen a e hose scena ios in e ms o hei likelihood o occu ing. One o he
mos impo an se s o clima e scena ios comes cou esy o he Uni ed Na ions In e go e nmen-
al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC), a collec ion o many o he mos accomplished clima e
expe s in he wo ld. The IPCC scena ios a e called Rep esen a i e Concen a ion Pa hways
(RCPs) and hey ake in o accoun many ac o s including ene gy use, popula ion g ow h, eco-
nomic ac i i y, and echnological de elopmen . The RCPs blend all hese ac o s oge he in o a
measu e o adia i e o cing, which acks oughly how much sola ene gy is being apped by
g eenhouse gases in he ea h’s a mosphe e and no e lec ed back in o space.
Tha ene gy imbalance is calcula ed in wa s pe squa e me e so when you see RCP 4.5 in
he clima e li e a u e i means oughly 4.5 wa s pe squa e me e a e being added o he ene gy’s
ene gy sys em by sola adia ion. RCP 4.5 is desc ibed by he IPCC as a ela i ely mode a e
scena io—some scien is s go as a as o say i ’s he mos likely scena io—in which annual global
g eenhouse gas emissions peak a ound 2040 and hen begin o decline. RCP 8.5 is he highes
emissions scena io ha IPCC o e s and i ’s some imes desc ibed as he “business as usual” sce-
na io, in which he wo ld doesn’ s ongly commi o ene gy ansi ion away om bu ning ossil
uels and in which ene gy use and economic ac i i y a e allowed o g ow a cu en ajec o ies.
Wha does his all ha e o do wi h sea le el ise? Qui e a lo ac ually. Some hing e en clima e
scien is s don’ discuss e y o en is ha e en RCP 2.6, he mos op imis ic IPCC scena io in
which he wo ld ac s swi ly and decisi ely o lowe i s ca bon oo p in , assumes a mosphe ic
CO2 equi alen concen a ions a ound 430–480 pa s pe million (ppm) in he yea 2100. Tha ’s
highe han oday’s concen a ions bu no by e y much.
The ouble is ha acco ding o paleoclima ologis s— he scien is s who s udy he his o y
o he Ea h’s clima e sys ems— he las ime he Ea h expe ienced an ex ended pe iod o ime
abo e 400ppm CO2 was du ing he Pliocene Epoch, h ee million yea s ago, when he global
a e age sea le el was 20 o 25 me e s (65 o 82 ee ) highe han i is oday. I akes a while
o glacial masses and ice shee s o ca ch up wi h a mosphe ic condi ions so we’ e no going
o ecei e all o ha mel wi hin ou li e imes. The cu en high-end p ojec ions o sea le el
ise in 2100 a e only 2.2 me e s (7.2 ee ). Bu e en ha le el o ise will be ca as ophic o
many o Ame ica’s coas al ci ies as hey cu en ly exis . Much o coas al Sou h Flo ida, om
Naples o Miami o F . Laude dale will be unde wa e wi h se en ee o sea le el ise. Di o o
28 Amphibious Ci ies
Dominic Boye
This chap e has been made a ailable unde a CC-BY-NC-ND license.
232 Dominic Boye
Gal es on, TX, New O leans, LA, Cha les on, SC, and A lan ic Ci y, NJ. The nex ime you a e
on a web b owse , ake a look a he Na ional Oceanic and A mosphe ic Adminis a ion’s Sea
Le el Rise Viewe , which is a ailable a : h ps://coas .noaa.go /sl /. This in e ac i e ool allows
use s o zoom in o coas al a eas and see wha a eas will be looded wi h a ying amoun s o sea
le el ise. Fo example, i can show you wha he Bos on a ea looks like a 7 ee o sea le el
ise, and he pic u e isn’ p e y. And i you look a sea le el ise p ojec ions and hei impac on
ci ies globally, especially in Asia, 7 ee o sea le el ise means po en ially displacing li e ally
hund eds o millions o people. The C40 Ci ies Clima e Leade ship G oup p ojec s ha some
800 million people li ing in 570 coas al ci ies will be a high isk om sea le el ise and coas al
looding by 2050 and ha is less han 30 yea s om now.
So, wha can be done beyond he ob ious goals o ending ossil uel use as quickly as pos-
sible and downscaling ene gy and esou ce use o sus ainable le els? Wha clima e science is
elling us is ha he wo ld needs o s a p epa ing, and quickly, o he eali y o wha migh be
called amphibious ci ies. En i onmen al an h opologis Caspa B uun Jensen (2017) w i es,
A e a ew cen u ies whe e e es ializa ion was in he ascendan , he amphibious is
gaining new li e. In many pa s o he wo ld, wa e now seems o be lowing back in o
land, subme ging coas al a eas on a semi-pe manen basis o c ea ing ecu en loods,
making he insu iciency o e es ial esponses inc easingly appa en .
(p. 225)
Wha Jensen means is ha coas al ci ies a e inc easingly going o ha e o lea n o li e wi h he
ou ine p esence o wa e . They will need o lea n how o adap o idal incu sions, mo e in ense
s o ms and ain all, inc easing saliniza ion o eshwa e esou ces, and mo e equen loods.
Tha e m “ lood” is c ucial; long be o e he wo s impac s o sea le el ise a e el , loods
will become a mo e cons an companion o coas al u ban li e a ound he wo ld. Bu wha ex-
ac ly is a “ lood”? On he one hand, he answe seems qui e simple. A lood means ha wa e
is somewhe e i ’s no supposed o be. Bu landscape a chi ec s Anu adha Ma hu and Dilip da
Cunha (2001) ha e challenged he seeming ob iousness o his idea. They a gue ha he con-
cep o looding is a symp om o colonial ca og aphy. Tha is o say, i is di icul o disen angle
he idea o looding om he his o ical, o en colonial wo k o con olling we ness, o con ining
i o ce ain abs ac ly de e mined i e landscapes, hus ende ing all o he space as “d y” and
i o human owne ship and occupa ion. Ri e s, acco ding o hem, a e always a leas pa ly
human c ea ions as humans y o main ain a ixed bounda y be ween d y land and wa e cou se.
Ra he han hinking abou d y land and wa e cou se as s able, opposi e en i ies, Ma hu and Da
Cunha challenge us o hink abou plane a y li e as an ocean o we ness in which d y land is
always an excep ion and ne e he ule (see Howe, Chap e 36, his olume).
Tha kind o pe spec i e—a pe spec i e which is o en o eg ounded by Science and Tech-
nology S udies (STS) schola s who ouble he way ha dis inc ions a e d awn be ween na u e
and cul u e—could be aluable a a ime when coas al u ban amphibiousness is on he ise. Un-
like he mo e com o ably e es ial ci ies o he Holocene pe iod, he amphibious ci ies o he
An h opocene will ha e a blu ie bounda y be ween wa e and d y land. Bu wha i we ied o
econside ha blu iness no as a bug bu as a ea u e? Amphibians do no need we ness o su -
i e, hey h i e in we ness. Wha i we could simila ly conside we ness no as a condi ion o
u ban li e o be ba led bu as a condi ion ha could and should be emb aced? Wha new modes
o u ban li e could eme ge om ha a i ude adjus men ?
Much o my own imagina i e wo k on u ban we ness has ocused on my adop i e home o
Hous on, a megaci y esiding in ances al we lands, a muddy place since i s incep ion and a si e
Amphibious Ci ies 233
o cons an looding. Buil o e coas al p ai ie, woodlands, and swamplands, Hous on’s sea ch
o d y land has been a cons an ye p eca ious en e p ise since he beginning. As Hous on a -
chi ec La y Albe explains (1997), e o s o “di ide swampland in o solid g ound and wa e -
cou se” ha e been he cen al in as uc u al s uggle o he ci y’s his o y; “ o li e, we sepa a e
some hing d y and some hing we om he undi e en ia ed muck” (p. 144).
In Hous on, he ocean o we ness has in ensi ied in ecen yea s. A e h ee so-called “500-
yea s o ms” isi ed he ci y wi hin he space o 24 mon hs be ween 2015 and 2017, he s akes o
his s uggle heigh ened. Hu icane Ha ey alone esul ed in $125 billion wo h o damage and
illions o cubic ee o lood was e. A one poin du ing he s o m, 18 inches o wa e co e ed
70% o he su ace a ea o Ha is Coun y, home o mo e han 4.5 million people. Floodwa e s
damaged 204,000 homes—75% o hem ou side he o icial loodplain. In he s o m’s a e ma h,
Ha is Coun y o e s app o ed an unp eceden ed $2.5 billion dolla lood bond o pay o 181
s o mwa e in as uc u e p ojec s o help educe lood isks. The p ojec s anged om home
buyou s o widened, channelized wa e cou ses, new b idges, expanded ups eam de en ion sys-
ems, and so on. This sounds imp essi e and i may e en educe lood isks empo a ily o some
esiden s. Howe e , he la ges s o mwa e in as uc u e p ojec Hous on has seen since he
1930s—P ojec B ays—cos $550 million and ook o e 20 yea s o comple e. And ye Ha ey
inunda ed he neighbo hoods i was mean o keep d y all he same.
Hous on will likely no become a uly coas al ci y in his cen u y. Bu i Pliocene-like a -
mosphe ic condi ions a e allowed o endu e o a pe iod o cen u ies, Hous on will e en ually
become a coas al ci y a 20–-25 me e s o sea le el ise. Meanwhile, mo e u gen h ea s a e
looming om s o m- ela ed wa e y p eca i y. Hous on is home o a deepwa e po and he
la ges pe ochemical indus ial assemblage in he Uni ed S a es. On any gi en day, Hous on
bunke s 9 billion gallons o pe ochemicals in aging, poo ly egula ed con aine s, mos o hem
jus a ew ee abo e sea le el and si ua ed nea he Hous on Ship Channel, which lows all he
way down o he Gul o Mexico. Disas e modele s ha e de e mined ha i a Ca ego y 4 o
Ca ego y 5 hu icane we e o make land all a Gal es on Bay and push a s o m su ge back up
he Ship Channel, i is e y likely ha Hous on would expe ience a massi ely ca as ophic pe -
ochemical spill, p obably he wo s such disas e in U.S. his o y. Tha could happen his yea ,
i could happen nex yea . Wi hou majo changes o Hous on’s economy and in as uc u e, i
may be ha Hous on doesn’ li e o see i s ully amphibious u u e.
S ill, while igh ing o change oday, we y o emain op imis ic abou wha he u u e migh
b ing, wha i migh mean o li e happily wi h ou muck. Wo king oge he wi h my pa ne
Cymene Howe (see Chap e 36, his olume) and local a is Ilse Ha ison we ied o imagine
wha a ully amphibious Hous on o he u u e migh look like. We challenged ou sel es o look
pas oday’s Hous on and i s cu en ela ionship o wa e and wonde ed how an amphibious ci y
migh e ol e and wha i s physical and cul u al o ms migh look like. Wha kinds o amphibi-
ous sensibili ies will eme ge as hopeless p ojec s o “de ense” agains wa e yield o accep ance
o we ness as coas al luidi y g ows? Figu e 28.3 o e s a glimpse o a possible amphibious
Hous on.
This amphibious Hous on has long le i s ecocidal in es men in ossil uels behind i . Those
in as uc u es—pipelines, anke s, s o age con aine s—a e li le mo e han cu ious ee s on he
inge o a ci y ha now expe iences coas al ides and dense mang o e o es s a i s pe iphe y.
Hous on’s cha ac e is ic 20 h-cen u y sp awl is also now a hing o he pas . The e is no mo e
e es ial au omobili y since d y land is sca ce. Cul-de-sac subu banism makes no sense in a
place wi hou ca s and lawns. This Hous on has adap ed i s u ban o m by becoming dense
and mo e e ical o lowe i s esou ce use and demands upon local ecosys ems. A complica ed
sys em o massi e s il s and lo a ion appa a uses allows homes and businesses in he co e o he
234 Dominic Boye
ci y o ei he ise abo e he wa e o o ebb and low wi h i . Mos anspo a ion a ound own is
aqua ic, wi h sailboa s and sola -powe ed mo o boa s being he mos popula . A he pe iphe y,
many s uc u es, especially hose in es ed in Hous on’s new dominan indus y—sus ainable
aquacul u e—a e modula . Sphe ical s uc u es ha look like ish eggs en u e ou o ha es
om aqua a ms in he la ge , wa me Gul o Mexico. When supe cyclones h ea en, he mod-
ules can band oge he o p o ec ion and loa in packs. In his wo ld, a s o m su ge can edis-
ibu e he loa ing elemen s o Hous on empo a ily bu i can ne e ully inunda e o des oy
hem. The dominan heme o amphibian Hous on is o mo e wi h wa e a he han agains i .
The ocean o we ness always has he inal wo d.
In ano he collabo a ion wi h he Egyp ian a is (and cu en Hous on esiden ) Ganzee we
explo ed he in e media y o m o Hous on as a s il ed Aquapolis. This ision o ano he pos-
sible Hous on has accep ed he p esence o wa e e en hough i has gone o g ea leng hs o
ec ea e he no ms o d y u banism by aising he whole ci y in o he sky. We iew his possible
u u e as in some ways mo e likely han he amphibious emb ace discussed abo e. Bu e en
Aquapolis will no longe be able o hink abou loods in he same way. Wa e is no an in asi e
o ce in Aquapolis, a he an ambien condi ion.
These kinds o specula i e imagina i e exe cises a e impo an . I you li e in a coas al o
nea -coas al ci y you sel you migh wan o y his ou o you sel . Wha could an amphibious
New Yo k look like? O Guangzhou? O Manila? You can become a designe o amphibious
ci ies, c ea ing memo ies o he u u e, b eadc umbs o us all o ollow o wa d.
Figu e 28.1 Specula i e design o an amphibious Hous on.
Sou ce: Ilse Ha ison.
Amphibious Ci ies 235
Figu e 28.2 Aquapolis Hous on.
Sou ce: Ganzee .

[Document text truncated for crawler view.]