How women's movements lead demands for democracy in the face of backlash and politicised religion

Khan, Ayesha; Sha p, Samuel
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How women's mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in
he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
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Repo
How women’s mo emen s
lead demands o democ acy
in he ace o backlash and
poli icised eligion
AYESHA KHAN AND SAMUEL SHARP
Feb ua y 2025
How women’s
mo emen s lead
demands o democ acy
in he ace o backlash
and poli icised eligion
AYESHA KHAN AND SAMUEL SHARP
ODI Global
203 Black ia s Road
London SE1 8NJ
Uni ed Kingdom
© ODI Global 2025
Online ISSN: 2052-7209
This wo k is licensed unde CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
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Views and opinions exp essed in his publica ion a e he esponsibili y o he
au ho (s) and should in no way be a ibu ed o he ins i u ions o which hey a e
a ilia ed o o ODI Global.
Khan, A. and Sha p, S. (2025) How women’s mo emen s lead demands o
democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion. ODI epo . London:
ODI Global (odi.o g/en/publica ions/womens-mo emen s-demands-democ acy-in-
backlash).
F on co e image: Women om di e se backg ounds and g ass oo s
communi ies p o es a an e en o ganised by SIHA calling o democ acy and
women’s human igh s, Kha oum, Sudan, 2019 C edi : S a egic Ini ia i e o
Women in he Ho n o A ica (SIHA)/Ula Osman.
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho s bene i ed om insigh s o he ini ial esea ch design du ing a wo kshop wi h schola s
Pila Domingo, Ca oline Ha pe , Naila Kabee , Deniz Kandiyo i, Maxine Molyneux, P agna Pa el and
Shi in Rai, held in Oc obe 2023 a ODI in London. We a e also g a e ul o u he eedback om
Naila Kabee , Maxine Molyneux, Jane Jaque e, Pila Domingo, Ján Michalko and Khawa Mum az.
We especially hank ou key in o man s who sha ed wi h us hei ime and insigh s.
We g a e ully acknowledge he suppo o ou Communica ions Team, Emilie Tan , Emily Subden
and P e na Dho e, esea ch assis ance wi h Spanish language ma e ials om Ru h Rodas-Kamminga
and Diana Jiménez Thomas Rod iguez, edi o ial guidance om Te ese Jonsson, ypese ing by
Ga h S ewa and p oo - eading by Hannah Caddick. The au ho s ake ull esponsibili y o any
weaknesses o omissions in his inal e sion.
Abou he au ho s
Ayesha Khan is a Senio Resea ch Fellow a he Gende Equali y and Social Inclusion eam a ODI
Global. He esea ch ocuses on eminis mo emen s, backlash o gende equali y, and democ acy.
Sam Sha p is a Resea ch Fellow in he Poli ics and Go e nance p og amme a ODI Global.
His esea ch ocuses on con empo a y challenges o democ acy and ci ic space and pa icula ly
how hese mani es in eme ging democ acies.

Con en s
Acknowledgemen s / V
Display i ems / VII
Ac onyms and abb e ia ions / VIII
Glossa y / IX
1 In oduc ion / 1
2 Me hods / 4
3 Global ends: democ acy, ci ic space and poli icised eligion / 5
3.1 Democ acy and ci ic space / 5
3.2 Religion in public li e and ins i u ions / 5
3.3 Coun y cases / 6
4 Women’s mo emen s, ci ic space and demands o democ acy / 9
4.1 I an / 10
4.2 Sudan / 12
4.3 Pakis an / 15
4.4 Summa y / 16
5 Religious poli ics and backlash / 17
5.1 Poli ical Islam: Sudan, Malaysia and Bangladesh / 18
5.2 Hindu na ionalism: India / 21
5.3 E angelical Ch is iani y: A gen ina and Mexico / 22
5.4 T ansna ional implica ions / 24
5.5 Summa y / 25
6 Mo emen s a egies / 26
6.1 Collec i e ac ion / 26
6.2 Women’s igh s ac i is s build new alliances / 27
6.3 Using secula ins i u ions o coun e poli icised eligious au ho i y / 33
6.4 Summa y / 35
7 Conclusion / 36
7.1 Recommenda ions o u he esea ch / 37
Re e ences / 39
Appendix 1 Lis o in e iew pa icipan s / 50
Display i ems
Boxes
Box 1 Ni Una Menos: a b oad-based coali ion agains gende -based iolence / 28
Box 2 Women’s mo emen alliances wi h new g ass oo s mobilisa ions: Indian esponse o Hindu
na ionalism / 29
Box 3 The ansna ional campaign o ecogni ion o he c ime o gende apa heid / 32
Tables
Table 1 Summa y o coun y cases / 7
Ac onyms and abb e ia ions
BJP Bha a iya Jana a Pa y
CEDAW Con en ion on he Elimina ion o All Fo ms o Disc imina ion agains
Women
FFC Fo ces o F eedom and Change
LGBT/LGBTQI+ lesbian, gay, bisexual, ansgende , quee , in e sex ( he plus sign
ep esen s people wi h di e se sexual and/o gende who iden i y using
o he e ms)
MANSAM Sudanese Women in Ci ic and Poli ical G oups
Mo ena Na ional Regene a ion Mo emen (Spanish: Mo imien o de
Regene ación Nacional), Mexico
NGO non-go e nmen al o ganisa ion
SIHA S a egic Ini ia i e o Women in he Ho n o A ica
SIS Sis e s in Islam
UCC uni o m ci il code
UK Uni ed Kingdom
US Uni ed S a es
WLF Woman, Li e, F eedom
WLUML Women Li ing Unde Muslim Laws
Glossa y
An i- igh s Well- esou ced mo emen s ha unde mine human igh s by p omo ing
pa ia chal powe h ough hype -na ionalis and exclusiona y ideologies.
They a ge ci il socie y and he igh s o women, LGBTQI+ people, mig an s
and mino i ies, wi h hei he o ic inc easingly ampli ied by poli ical leade s
globally (McEwen and Na ayanaswamy, 2023).
Au a Ma ch A eminis mo emen in Pakis an ha s a ed in 2018 and calls o gende
equali y and challenging socie al no ms, wi h annual ma ches held on
In e na ional Women’s Day (Kamal, 2022).
Hadi h Collec ions o he sayings o adi ions o he P ophe Muhammad, used by
Muslims as a key sou ce o Islamic eligious law and mo al guidance (Sayeed,
2024).
P o es an Ch is iani y A b anch o P o es an Ch is iani y also called E angelicalism o
E angelical P o es an ism, ha belie es in he necessi y o pe sonal
con e sion and sp eading o he Ch is ian ai h. Inc easingly connec ed
wi h ul a-conse a i e and an i- igh s g oups.
Fa wa An edic o a uling issued by a ecognised eligious au ho i y on a poin o
Islamic law (Shehabuddin, 1999).
Hindu na ionalism A poli ical belie ha a na ion’s policies should be based on eligious Hindu
and cul u al no ms.
Hindu a A igh -wing ideology ha ad oca es Hindu sup emacy and seeks o
ans o m India om a secula s a e in o a Hindu na ion (Sahgal, 2020).
Mad assa Schools o any educa ional ins i u ion, pa icula ly ocused on eligious
Islamic ins uc ion o Qu anic eaching.
Ni Una Menos A eminis mo emen ha o igina ed in A gen ina in 2015 and has since
sp ead ac oss La in Ame ica. Ini ially ocused on emicide (i is li e ally
ansla ed ‘no one [woman] less’), he mo emen expanded o ad oca e on
he legalisa ion o abo ion (Daby and Moseley 2022).
Poli ical Islam Mo emen s, ins i u ions and ideas ha b ing Islamic belie s and ac o s in o
he poli ical sphe e.
Sala i mo emen A e i alis mo emen wi hin Sunni Islam ha seeks o e u n o he o iginal
eachings o pious p edecesso s (Hasan, 2010).
Secula ism A wo ld iew o poli ical p inciple ha sepa a es eligion om he poli ical
ealm. I asse s ha a secula s a e’s policies should be go e ned by
non eligious conside a ions and emain sepa a e om eligious ins i u ions.
Sha iah law A legal sys em de ised om he Qu an. Sha iah cou s dispense jus ice on
c imes co e ed by Sha iah laws.
7
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
Table 1 Summa y o coun y cases
Coun y Poli ical egime
(V-Dem Ins i u e, 2024)3
Ci ic space
(CIVICUS, 2022)4
Pe cen age o popula ion
wi h no eligious a ilia ion
(Pew Resea ch Cen e , 2012)
A gen ina Elec o al democ acy Na owed 12.2%
Bangladesh Elec o al au oc acy Closed <0.1%
India Elec o al au oc acy Rep essed <0.1%
I an Closed au oc acy Closed 0.1%
Malaysia Elec o al democ acy Obs uc ed 0.7%
Mexico Elec o al democ acy Rep essed 4.7%
Pakis an Elec o al au oc acy Rep essed <0.1%
Sudan Closed au oc acy Rep essed 1%
3 V-Dem’s ‘Regimes in he wo ld’ da ase ca ego ises egimes as closed au oc acies, elec o al au oc acies,
elec o al democ acies o libe al democ acies. Elec o al au oc acies hold some elec ions, bu hey a e no
meaning ul, ee and ai . Elec o al democ acies ha e meaning ul, ee and ai elec ions, bu lack he indi idual
and mino i y igh s p o ec ions ha cha ac e ise libe al democ acies.
4 CIVICUS classes ci ic spaces on a scale ( om mos o leas open) o : open, na owed, obs uc ed, ep essed
o closed.
Some o he cases a e es ablished democ acies,
ei he ea u ing ma ginal backsliding (A gen ina
and Mexico) o subs an ial backsliding, a guably
in o au oc a ic egimes (India). O he s a e
egimes ha hold elec ions bu ha e s uggled
o see p og ess deepening he quali y o
democ acy (Pakis an, Bangladesh and Malaysia).
Finally, o he s a e egimes ha emain closed
au oc acies, ha ing esis ed democ a isa ion
p essu es (I an and Sudan). Malaysia is he only
case ha has seen some imp o emen in he
quali y o libe al democ acy o e he las decade
(V-Dem Ins i u e, 2024).
None o he cases a e classed by CIVICUS as
ha ing ully open ci ic spaces, wi h Bangladesh
and I an ca ego ised as ‘closed’ ci ic spaces
– he leas open. In I an his se e e closu e o
ci ic space has se e ely ep essed he women’s
mo emen , wi h key senio igu es in jail and
s uden p o es e s killed du ing he 2022
Woman, Li e, F eedom (WLF) p o es s which
b ough ens o housands on o he s ee s in
p o es ac oss he coun y, as many a es ed,
and hund eds killed (Cen e o Human Righ s
in I an, 2024). The Indian Go e nmen has also
a ge ed ci ic ac i ism, silencing media and
ad ocacy o ganisa ions seeking o p o ec
mino i y Muslim igh s. In e na ional non-
go e nmen al o ganisa ions and o eign- unded
non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions (NGOs) ha e
es ic ed abili y o ope a e (wi h CIVICUS
classing i s ci ic space as declining om
‘obs uc ed’ o ‘ ep essed’), impac ing suppo
o women’s igh s ad ocacy (ICJ, 2020).
A gen ina has also seen ecen es ic ions, wi h
P esiden Ja ie Milei displaying a willing dis ega d
o ci il libe ies in pu sui o ‘economic shock
he apy’, including legisla ion a ge ing p o es e s
(Sha p and Milesi, 2024).

8How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
In all he coun y case s udies, a la ge majo i y
o ci izens hold eligious belie s. In mos o he
coun ies, eligious a ilia ion is nea uni e sal.
Mexico and A gen ina a e he only coun ies wi h
no able popula ions wi h no eligious a ilia ion and
e en he e hey emain a subs an ial mino i y. The
cases also demons a e a ange o ins i u ionalised
eligious bodies (such as he Sha iah cou s
in Pakis an, Sudan, I an and Malaysia and he
Fa wa Council in Malaysia). Fo some, eligious
o ganisa ions and pa ies ha e subs an ial impac
on he wide poli ical cul u e. This includes India’s
uling Bha a iya Jana a Pa y’s (BJP) ideology o
Hindu a, in luenced by he na ionalis o ganisa ion
he Rash iya Swayamse ak Sangh (RSS), Islamis
poli ical pa ies and o ganisa ions such as he
Jamaa -i-Islami in Pakis an and Bangladesh, and
he g owing E angelical Ch is ian o ganisa ions in
A gen ina and Mexico. The g owing poli icisa ion
o eligion can also in luence declines in ci ic
space. Fo example, in Sou h Asia, a owedly
secula ac i is s ha e been h ea ened and killed by
ex emis s o holding ‘a heis ’ iews (Chaudhu y,
2020; Kaka , 2021).
Women Li e F eedom ac i is g oup ga he ed ou side he UN headqua e s o emembe he one yea anni e sa y
o he dea h o Mahsa Amani, New Yo k Ci y, USA, 2023. C edi : S e e Sanchez Pho os/Shu e s ock.com
9
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
4 Women’s mo emen s, ci ic
space and demands o
democ acy
Feminis mo emen s ha e o en been a he
o e on o democ a ic mo emen s in many
con ex s. In o he con ex s, he demand o
democ a ic e o ms is o en, bu no always, a
he o e on o women’s claims. This chap e
ou lines how women’s mo emen s push o
democ a isa ion in closed au oc acies (I an and
Sudan; see Sec ions 4.1 and 4.2) and elec o al
democ acies wi h weak legi imacy (Pakis an; see
Sec ion 4.3). In all h ee coun ies, ci ic space is
closed o ep essed, and eligious au ho i y is
in eg a ed in go e nance s uc u es.
I anian women ha e been a he on lines o
mul iple wa es o ci il socie y p o es s agains a
heoc a ic s a e in which he legal sys em is based
on eligious law and he cle gy holds poli ical powe ,
demanding mo e igh s o women, ci il libe ies
and inclusi e democ acy. Thei mo emen su i es
despi e ep essed ci ic space and wi h laws, policies
and ins i u ions in place ha a e shaped by Islamic
doc ine. This con ex has weakened he policy
impac o hose oices calling o democ a ic
e o m. A he same ime, i has pushed some
eminis s o c ea e hei own pa allel delibe a i e
spaces in an icipa ion o a democ a ic u u e and
has cla i ied hei calls o a secula democ acy.
In Sudan, a b oad-based coali ion o women’s
ci il socie y g oups success ully mobilised o
b ing down a ep essi e and Islamis egime o
ini ia e a democ a ic ansi ion. Ac i is s iden i y
he ailu es o he democ a ic ansi ion, linked
o he new go e nmen ’s inabili y o deli e on
e o ms and b ing s abili y o he coun y. These
include no change in he poli ical se lemen ,
he pe sis en exclusion o women om
meaning ul poli ical pa icipa ion, and he poli ical
co-op a ion o women’s g oups. The Sudanese
case illus a es how eminis s unde s and hei
ac i ism as a poli ical p ojec o undo bo h gende
inequali y and he disc imina ion b ough by
eligious laws. Backlash in he o m o s alled
gende e o ms and g owing sexual iolence,
exclusion om meaning ul poli ical pa icipa ion
and enewed iolen poli ical con lic was he
p ice o he ailed democ a ic p ojec .
Pakis an is no an o icial heoc acy no is i in
a s a e o widesp ead con lic . Howe e , he
absence o meaning ul democ acy has limi ed
p og ess owa ds he goals se by i s women’s
mo emen in he 1980s, which esis ed gende
disc imina ion om s a e-led Islamisa ion
policies du ing a mili a y egime (1977–1988) and
demanded a e u n o democ acy. Like women’s
igh s ac i is s in I an and Sudan, hey challenged
poli icised eligious au ho i y and pu sued
b oade social jus ice goals based on equali y o
ci izen y. Bu democ a ic ins i u ions emain weak
and poli ical suppo o he legacy o Islamisa ion
con inues along wi h a ise in public eligiosi y.
Sa e delibe a i e spaces, ee om he h ea
o he eligious igh and s a e su eillance, a e
se e ely cu ailed, limi ing women’s collec i e
ac ion and public deba e abou inclusi e
democ a ic e o ms.
The emainde o his chap e discusses hese
cases in mo e de ail.
10 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
4.1 I an
I an has been a heoc a ic s a e wi h an elec ed
ci ilian go e nmen , o e seen by a council o
cle ics, since he 1979 e olu ion. The cle ics
hold unaccoun able poli ical powe , ejec ing
bo h democ a ic p inciples and equali y be ween
ci izens – men and women, and Muslims and
non-Muslims. This s uc u e led o a plu alis ic
women’s mo emen ac oss he ‘secula - eligious
di ide’, and esis ance om women and o he
social g oups who seek democ a isa ion (Hood a
and Sad , 2010: 886). Women’s deep engagemen
wi h public and poli ical li e, including many who
challenged he s a e’s na ow in e p e a ion o
women’s igh s in Islam, along wi h hose who
we e secula ad oca es o gende equali y, has
been c edi ed wi h s a ing he mo emen o
democ a ic and social e o m in I an (Hood a
and Sad , 2010).
The women’s mo emen has been dis inc ly
ocused on igh s-based ad ocacy agains
disc imina o y Sha iah laws. Thei ocus onlegal
e o ms and ci il and poli ical igh s in ac
posi ions hese ac i is s as adical wi h espec o
he heoc a ic egime (Tohidi, 2016). Pos -1979,
women’s g oups de eloped dis inc ways o align
hemsel es and/o con on powe ul eli es o
ad oca e o e o ms in pe sonal laws, g ea e
pe sonal eedoms (e.g. agains o ced eiling),
and challenge he Islamic Republic. Con empo a y
secula eminism de i es om he s a e’s
Islamic s uc u e and has been he ocus o a
wide coali ion o women ac oss he ideological
spec um (Tajali, in e iew).
The s uggle o democ a ic and ins i u ional
e o m achie ed only in e mi en poli ical
openings. A e o mis go e nmen was elec ed
(1997–2005), du ing which ci ic space opened up
and deba es o e secula ism and social e o ms
began o gain cu ency. In 2008, unde P esiden
Mahmoud Ahmedinejad (2005 -2013), women
o ganised one o he la ges public p o es s
since 1979, demanding cons i u ional e o ms o
end disc imina ion agains women. Upon his,
he go e nmen shu down women’s NGOs,
a es ing and ha assing ac i is s, and closing
media ou le s (Hood a and Sad , 2010). In he
name o na ional secu i y, i ha shly supp essed
ci ic space and collec i e ac ion, such as he One
Million Signa u es campaign, a g ass oo s e o o
push he go e nmen o elimina e disc imina o y
laws (Human Righ s Wa ch, 2008), and he G een
Mo emen p o es s, which in ol ed women,
s uden s and you h who challenged he e-elec ion
o Ahmadinejad (Akba , 2021).
US-based I anian schola and academic Mona
Tajali explains how he poli icised na u e o
he women’s mo emen o e decades led o
i s ‘secu i isa ion’, which enhanced he isks
o secula eminis s in pa icula . I pushed
many unde g ound o ab oad, allowing o he
ad ancemen o mo e mode a e women who
we e willing o wo k wi hin he amewo k o he
s a e (Tajali, in e iew). The secu i isa ion led o ‘a
clea disconnec be ween hese eligious g oups
and hose who ha e been acing c ackdowns
o he pas decades’, says Tajali. Collabo a ion
be ween secula eminis s and eligious women
o ad ance e o ms on speci ic issues, such as
blocking a 2006 bill o make polygamy easie
(Hood a , 2022), ga e way ‘ o clea di isions’
wi h p o- heoc acy women wi h access o powe
who bene i ‘ om he social capi al and s a us’ i
con e s (Tajali, in e iew).
The women’s mo emen suppo ed he new
‘Hope Go e nmen ’ o Hassan Rouhani
(2013–2021), who p omised o es ablish a minis y
o women’s a ai s and pe mi women g ea e
ole in public and poli ical li e (Pa sa, 2021).
11
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
The human igh s lawye Shahindokh Mola e di
was appoin ed o his cabine . An ad oca e o
I an o join he Con en ion on he Elimina ion
o All Fo ms o Disc imina ion agains Women
(CEDAW), she was adep a engaging wi h he
s a e (Tajali, in e iew). She s a egically used
he discou se o ‘gende jus ice’, an app oach
‘ o women’s igh o digni y, sa e y, and ull
pa icipa ion in socie y’ while ecognising social
and cul u al no ms, a he han he discou se o
gende equali y deployed by secula eminis s
(Tajali, 2023: 142). Soon, ha d-line conse a i es
o ced he esigna ion ‘jus because she had
a eminis bone in he ’ (Tajali, in e iew). She
wen o p ison o an i- egime p opaganda,
unde mining na ional secu i y and p omo ing
p os i u ion and sexual de iancy (Meh abi, 2020).
Cla i ying he demand o secula
democ acy
The Woman, Li e, F eedom p o es s agains
he o ced eiling o women, which began in
Sep embe 2022 ollowing he killing o Mahsa
Jina Amini in cus ody, ‘was a wa e shed momen ’
which ‘comple ely cla i ied ha wo king om
wi hin he heoc a ic s a e will no lead o any
adical change’, explains Tajali. Hood a and
Tajali (2023) a gue he p o es s a e he esul
o widesp ead public disa ec ion wi h ea lie
a emp s a e o m in I an, b inging oge he wide
public suppo o demand ‘subs an ial poli ical
and social change ha is ma kedly secula ’. Thus,
he ‘closu e o he s a e’ o women’s oices is
di ec ly linked wi h a deepened secula ism in he
mo emen oday, as well as in la ge sec ions o he
public (Tajali, in e iew). A wide coali ion o ci il
socie y g oups called o a secula s a e, wi hou
eligion in o ming laws and policies, and he end
o disc imina ion agains e hnic and eligious
mino i ies (Hood a and Tajali, 2023).
The go e nmen only ha dened i s s ance in
esponse o he h ea posed by he women’s
mo emen o hei g ip on powe . The ecen
decla a ion ha manda o y eiling (hijab) laws
will be en o ced e en mo e s ic ly, wi h g ea e
p esence o mo ali y police, indica es ha he
s a e knows ‘ ha , in he eyes o many, i ’s a
los ba le’ (Tajali, in e iew). Mo e women a e
e using o eil, while he go e nmen has no
accoun ed o i s clea iola ions o human igh s
in i s ep ession o he p o es s (Human Righ s
Council, 2024).
Many eminis s we e disabused o he idea ha
new elec ions may b ing back mo e women
in o poli ical o ice o e ec g adual e o ms.
I became clea ha he s a e was unwilling o
nego ia e and ha women need o ocus on a
ansi ion o democ acy ins ead. ‘They decided o
ensu e ha he women’s igh s p o es s yielded
angible esul s in p ac ice because i was such a
p og essi e, libe a o y p o es ’ (Tajali, in e iew).
The same g oup ha made a 2009 cha e o
women’s igh s c a ed he I an Women’s Bill
o Righ s, wi h i s i s d a published in 2023,
oge he wi h ac i is s om he diaspo a who had
been o ced o lee he coun y a e he 2009
c ackdown. Al hough i was o ganised la gely om
he diaspo a, he au ho s ob ained inpu o women
inside I an, including some in p ison. I s demands
include a ep esen a i e assembly o d a a new
cons i u ion, a secula democ a ic s a e and a
comp ehensi e lis o women’s human igh s.
The Bill o Righ s is concei ed as pa o a new
cons i u ion based on he Uni e sal Decla a ion o
Human Righ s and ela ed con en ions, and calls
o women’s equal ep esen a ion a all decision-
making le els, and social and en i onmen al jus ice
o build a plu alis secula democ acy (Feminis
Collec i e, 2023).
12 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
Feminis s unde s and democ a ic e o ms will
ake ime because democ a ic ins i u ions ha e
delibe a ely been weakened. Thus, many a e
wo king on ‘building pa allel sys ems’ in poli ics,
academic spaces and women’s g oups, using
i ual space o ha e impo an discussions and
deba es. ‘They’ e doing he homewo k o ha
e en ual democ a ic ansi ion’, explains Tajali.
As I anian eminis schola s ha e a gued be o e,
wi hou ‘democ a ic and accoun able s a e-
socie y s uc u es’, a eligious s a e will ely on he
ep ession o dissen using eligious ideology and
gende e o ms will emain impossible (Hood a
and Sad , 2010: 901).
4.2 Sudan
The Sudanese 2019 up ising saw Oma al-Bashi
emo ed om powe and he end o he Islamis
egime in powe o o e 30 yea s. Global media
published iconic pho og aphs o young women
leading demons a ion on he s ee s, symbolic
o he g oundswell o popula p o es (SIHA
Ne wo k, 2021). The 2019 e olu ion was an
ou come o he ‘ ep ession and aliena ion’ women
expe ienced unde poli ical Islam, ‘which pu
eno mous p essu e on he women’s mo emen s
o esis … and hei a emp o ind hei place
and capaci y o in luence socie y’, acco ding
o Hala Alka ib, Sudanese eminis ac i is and
egional di ec o o S a egic Ini ia i e o Women
in he Ho n o A ica (SIHA).
The e olu ion signi ied women’s implici
unde s anding ha democ a ic e o ms we e
impe a i e o achie ing hei igh s. I mobilised
a b oad coali ion o women, om u ban o
g ass oo s ac i is s (SIHA Ne wo k, 2021). Alka ib
no es i was g ass oo s women’s g oups, such
as s ee endo associa ions and o he s om
con lic -a ec ed a eas, ha main ained a cohe en
ision o hei demands o poli ical, economic
and social p o ec ion. ‘They we e he ones mos
exposed o he b u ali y o he legal sys em’ unde
he p e ious egime (Alka ib, in e iew). G ass oo s
g oups we e joined by young women om u ban
a eas who had been exposed o mili an Islam and
ela ed iolence (SIHA Ne wo k, 2021). Feminis
mobilisa ion was ins umen al o coo dina ing he
p o es s and pushing o gende equali y e o ms,
as a new gene a ion o ac i is s had come o age
who we e independen om ‘pa ia chal poli ical
pa ies’ (Alka ib, in e iew), in con as o he
his o ical women’s mo emen whose leading
o ganisa ions had s ong poli ical a ilia ions
(Ezeldeen, 2022; Thompson and Kos iainen, 2023).
Excluding women om meaning ul
poli ical pa icipa ion
Sudan’s poli ical eli e became one d i e o
he backlash agains he opening o e ed by
he 2019 e olu ion. T ansi ion go e nmen
leade ship soon a emp ed o co-op he
women’s mo emen and es o e he his o ical
pa e n o ensu ing i was no au onomous
om poli ical pa ies. The Sudanese Women
in Ci ic and Poli ical G oups (MANSAM), an
independen coali ion o ac i is s o med in 2018,
played a key ole in mobilising suppo o he
e olu ion and ensu ing women’s oices we e
hea d du ing he ansi ion. I has been desc ibed
as a ‘las a emp ’ o b ing oge he ac i is s
om a wide ange o backg ounds o coun e
he exploi a ion o women membe s o poli ical
pa ies (Abbas, 2023a). The Fo ces o F eedom
and Change (FFC), a coali ion o di e en poli ical
o ganisa ions, wo ked wi h MANSAM o b ing
oge he all he women’s g oups ha mobilised
du ing he e olu ion.
MANSAM signed on o he FFC decla a ion o
suppo he democ a ic ansi ion. I became a
ci il socie y componen in his b oade coali ion

13
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
bu wi hou he poli ical in luence, explains
Reem Abbas, who was a o me membe o he
coo dina ion commi ee. This p e en ed he
mo emen om g owing independen ly om
poli ical ac o s (Alka ib, in e iew). Women’s
g oups ha we e membe s o MANSAM bu
poli ically a ilia ed began o lea e, amid g owing
conce ns ha indi idual women we e using i
o ad ance hei pe sonal poli ical goals (Abbas,
2023a). A o m o backlash ‘be o e women had he
oppo uni y o claim igh s as a social g oup’ came
om among poli ical eli es who pa icipa ed in he
e olu ion ye s ill exp essed pa ia chal a i udes
and sidelined women’s pa icipa ion in poli ics
(Tønnessen and Al-Naga , 2024: 495).
The pa e n o excluding women om meaning ul
pa icipa ion in he ansi ion was ine i able
because he e was no undamen al change in wha
Abbas e ms ‘ he mili a ised poli ical ma ke place’,
which ensu es ha adi ional leade s o a med
men would always e ain con ol. Leade s o he
ansi ion did no use he oppo uni y o change
he poli ical se lemen , ailing o push back agains
mili a y enc oachmen in o all sec o s o challenge
he au ho i y o ibal leade s (Abbas, in e iew).
Women p essed on wi h hei demands, such as
ha Sudan should sign CEDAW (SIHA Ne wo k,
2021). The ansi ion go e nmen passed some
e o ms o limi ex eme eligious in e p e a ions
and disc imina o y laws agains women, which
we e no well implemen ed. The go e nmen was
unable o esis he e u n o he mili a y and i
lacked su icien in e na ional suppo . I could
no con ol iolence agains women, no hei
pe secu ion o mino c imes (Alka ib, in e iew).
Ci ic space du ing he ansi ion emained
cons ained and ac i is s began o wo y abou
su eillance and ge ing a es ed. The g ass oo s
women’s g oups who we e on he on line o
ad oca ing o democ acy and hei igh s we e
a ge ed by he FFC because hey e used o
align hemsel es wi h any poli ical o ganisa ions
(Alka ib, in e iew). The poli ical coali ions used he
ci il socie y mo emen , and he women’s g oups
wi hin i , ‘ o add in o hei poli ical capi al’ (Alka ib,
in e iew). MANSAM was unable o ep esen
he di e se in e es s o Sudanese women (SIHA
Ne wo k, 2021). FFC iewed MANSAM as ‘ he
women’s side o he house’ and discou aged i s
membe s om engaging in p o es s and o he
ac ions o demand accoun abili y om he
new go e nmen on i s s a ed commi men s o
women’s igh s. The new go e nmen ailed o
a i y CEDAW and o he in e na ional ins umen s,
s op he pe secu ion o women o selling alcohol
and end punishmen s such as s oning o dea h,
which we e in oduced by he p e ious Islamis
egime. The go e nmen ’s ailu es began wi h i s
inac ion on women’s issues bu indica ed ha ‘ he
w i ing was on he wall’ in e ms o he iolence
ha was o come (Alka ib, in e iew).
MANSAM b ough oge he women who we e
a ilia ed wi h poli ical pa ies (wings o women’s
g oups wi hin pa ies), women-led ci il socie y
o ganisa ions and ci ic g oups, such as p o essional
o ganisa ions, in he la ges women’s coali ion in
Sudan. I ocused on o e all legal e o m, achie ing
success wi h he emo al o he law on d ess code,
and wo king on peace alks as a p io i y (Abbas,
in e iew). Howe e , he in luence o poli ical
pa ies unde mined ag eemen on a minimum
common pla o m (Abbas, 2023a). MANSAM was
c i icised o being used ‘as a mobilising machine y
o he FFC in p epa a ions o he nex s age’ o
poli ical ansi ion (Alka ib, in e iew).
Younge eminis s and g ass oo s women who
had come ou o he e olu ion g ew dissa is ied
(Abbas, 2023a). They o ganised he Sudan
Women P o es Pla o m o main ain ocus on an
14 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
agenda o amily law e o m, access o esou ces
and employmen , sexual and gende -based
iolence, and legal and poli ical sys em e o m.
FFC indica ed hese p o es s we e an unnecessa y
dis up ion (Alka ib, in e iew).
A new mili a y egime ook powe in a 2021 coup
and a ge ed women p o es e s who pa icipa ed
in he e olu ion. The backlash agains women
gained pace and cases o sexual iolence
inc eased d ama ically (ISHR, 2022). The Rapid
Suppo Fo ces (RSF) en e ed in o con lic wi h
he Sudanese a my in 2023, ecalling he ea lie
s a emen o RSF leade Mohamed Hamdan
Dagalo ha ‘anyone ha doesn’ igh doesn’
ha e an opinion’ (Abbas, 2023b). As Alka ib
says, ‘I hink he backlash has been so ho i ic,
he coun y’s ailu e o a ain democ acy has
impac ed e e y hing’.
Alaa Saleh, clad in whi e, leads chan s du ing a p o es in esis ance agains au ho i a ianism and he igh o
democ acy in Kha oum, Sudan, 2019. The image was hea ily sha ed on social media. C edi : Lana Ha oun | X.
15
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
4.3 Pakis an
Pakis an has become inc easingly Islamised since
i s c ea ion as a homeland o Muslims in 1947,
wi h nega i e consequences o he igh s and
eedoms o eligious mino i ies and women
(Saeed, 2007; Khan, 2018; Nelson, 2021). Islam is
he s a e eligion and he cons i u ion equi es all
laws o be in consonance wi h Sha iah. A Council
o Islamic Ideology ad ises he go e nmen o
ensu e law and policy con o ms o Islam. Pa allel
Sha iah cou s exis o dispense jus ice on c imes
pe aining o adul e y, he and in oxica ion
co e ed by Sha iah laws. The women’s mo emen
gained momen um agains s a e- un Islamisa ion
measu es implemen ed unde mili a y ule
(1977–1988). I s leading oice a he na ional le el,
he Women’s Ac ion Fo um, called o a secula
democ a ic s a e in i s 1991 cha e (Khan, 2018).
The s uggle o democ acy, spea headed
by poli ical pa ies wi h mass membe ship, is
a s a k con as o he op-down poli ics o
Islamisa ion in Pakis an (Khan, 2018; Mu i e al.,
2020). Democ a ic ins i u ions a e weak, while
he s onges poli ical s akeholde emains he
mili a y, meaning he coun y is cha ac e ised
as a hyb id democ acy (Adeney, 2017). Pakis ani
socie y has become mo e demons a i ely
eligious a e Islamisa ion. The public ole o
eligion is now mo e b oadly accep ed as a
no m, wi h mili an eligious o ganisa ions o en
en o cing hei in e p e a ion o doc ine ou side
o es ablished law (Basi , 2020; Human Righ s
Commission o Pakis an, 2023). P og essi e
poli ical pa ies no longe use he e m ‘secula ’
in policy documen s o public s a emen s, o
ea o being accused o he c ime o blasphemy.
The mos popula poli ical pa y, he Pakis an
Teh eek-i-Insa , p omised o build a de ou
socie y while deploying a bina y aming o
eminis s as wes e n, a heis and immo al and
inc easing cu bs on ci ic space and media
eedoms (Talbo , 2022).
Pakis an has a long his o y o cul i a ing o ces
o he eligious igh , including he Taliban, o he
mili an g oups and mo e mains eam eligious
poli ical pa ies (Khan, 2018). The legacy o
Islamisa ion means ha elec ed legisla o s ha e
been eluc an o challenge disc imina o y
eligious laws and policies (Nelson, 2021).
The women’s mo emen , led by a g oup called
Women’s Ac ion Fo um, spea headed opposi ion
o Islamisa ion h oughou he 1980s and
demanded bo h gende equali y and democ a ic
e o ms (Khan, 2018). Wo king oge he wi h
elec ed ep esen a i es, hey achie ed he i s
legisla i e gende quo a in 2002, b inging a
wa e o legal e o ms o add ess sexual iolence,
domes ic iolence, honou killings and o he
c imes, bu hey we e unable o emo e exis ing
Sha iah laws no hose agains blasphemy (Khan
and Naq i, 2018).
The new eminis mobilisa ion, known as
Au a Ma ch, b ings oge he a wide g oup o
women ep esen ing c oss-class and eligious
denomina ions, and inclusi e o di e se gende
iden i ies. Pa ly inspi ed by he global #MeToo
mo emen , i s annual e en s since 2018 a e
celeb a ed in a widening numbe o u ban
cen es on In e na ional Women’s Day. The
Au a Ma che s now con on g owing numbe s
o hos ile coun e -ma che s, equi ing police
p o ec ion om eligious poli ical pa y ac i is s
who hu l s ones a hem and allege hey a e
u e ing blasphemous slogans (Kamal, 2022).
Unlike he gene a ion o ac i is s ep esen ed
by Women’s Ac ion Fo um, he Au a Ma ch is
eluc an o di ec ly challenge disc imina o y
eligious laws, e en hose a ec ing he Ch is ian
communi y, o ea o o ending he sen imen s
16 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
o a ulne able eligious mino i y. Sa a Malkani
helped o ganise he i s Au a Ma ch and
collabo a es equen ly wi h i s Ka achi-based
collec i e.She is conce ned ha side-s epping
some o he wide issues in Pakis ani law and
socie y allows he poli icised eligious lobby
o wield a s ong in luence on en enched
doc inal laws ha emains highly exclusiona y o
eligious mino i ies and esis an o p og essi e
in e p e a ion (Khan, 2018; Nelson, 2021). Malkani
belie es ha Au a Ma ch ac i is s may no
ques ion bodies such as he Fede al Sha ia Cou
and he Council o Islamic Ideology because ‘a
lo o people iew i as a wall’, and an unwinnable
ba le. Ins ead, ac i is s sea ch o ‘c ea i e
ways, in e es ing ways’ o ad ance hei claims
wi hin exis ing ins i u ions and non-secula legal
amewo ks, in e ec o ‘by-pass’ he wall.
S ill, he dis inc dange s o que ying he s a e-
led in e p e a ion o eligion include igilan e
killings by mobs, mili an o ganisa ions, a es s by
law-en o cemen agencies and mo e (Ispahani,
2017; Ul Mus a a, 2016). T eading ca e ully
wi hou di ec ly challenging doc ine s ill does
li le o lowe he isk o ac i is s in ci ic space
in he con empo a y en i onmen o an i-
eminis backlash and eligious e ou , ex emis
o ganisa ions, and eligio-poli ical pa ies.
E en as young eminis s con inue o make igh s-
based claims, Malkani wonde s a wha poin
hei demands will become mo e poli ical and
con on he ac ha Pakis an does no ha e a
secula cons i u ion and ‘ ha we ha e a eligious
lobby and a conse a i e lobby ha has claimed
he en i e space o in e p e wha Islam equi es’.
As she pu i , ‘ he e’s no meaning ul con on a ion
wi h ha p oblem’. The c i ical challenge is he
closu e o public deba e a ound hese ques ions,
which has a ec ed how eminis s concep ualise
he way o wa d. The e a e no longe sa e
delibe a i e spaces in which o hold meaning ul
con e sa ions abou Islamisa ion. Malkani belie es
ha only ‘i we we e o ha e democ acy in a mo e
meaning ul sense’ would i be possible o ind ou
whe e he people o Pakis an s and – whe he
hey a e suppo i e o ‘secula amings’ o
eligion ‘ umps ou demands o sexual equali y,
sexual eedom and so on’. This discussion will
only be possible wi hou ea o epe cussion and
in a clima e o in o med deba e.
4.4 Summa y
This chap e has shown how eminis mobilisa ions
signi ican ly con ibu e o democ a isa ion
p ocesses in h ee con ex s whe e ci ic space
is cons ained and democ a ic ins i u ions a e
weak o no inclusi e o women. In I an, women
ha e s a ed o c ea e pa allel delibe a i e
spaces and plan o a democ a ic ansi ion
wi h suppo om diaspo a ac i is s. In Sudan,
despi e women’s leade ship ole in pushing o
a democ a ic ansi ion in 2019, women’s oices
we e la gely sidelined and he new ci il wa has
de ailed p og ess. Pakis an’s weak democ acy
and cons ained ci ic space has also weakened
eminis s’ uni ied call o democ a ic e o ms,
despi e he women’s mo emen ’s p e ious his o y
o challenging mili a y ule. In all h ee coun ies,
poli icised eligious in luence has cons ained
women’s oices in ci ic space and no aligned wi h
democ a ic e o ms.
23
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
The eminis ac i is s in e iewed suspec ha
much o he g owing in luence o E angelical
g oups comes h ough hei poli ical connec ions
and inancing, wi h many epo edly inancing
poli icians’ elec o al campaigns and ‘smea
campaigns’ agains hose in a ou o legal
abo ion (anonymous ac i is , in e iew). Da a
(2021: 13) has analysed his phenomenon in
Eu ope, whe e he iden i ies ‘da k money om
he US Ch is ian Righ ’ as p o iding he inancial
backing o much an i-gende ac i ism.
An ac i is in e iewed desc ibed he pe cep ions
in A gen ina:
Wha E angelical g oups ha e is a lo o money
… and a lo o powe h ough money. So,
hey inance legisla o s’ campaigns, inance
communica ion campaigns and inance a acks.
In Mexico, oo, socially conse a i e E angelicals
p o ided an impo an pa o he base ha
b ough P esiden And és Manuel López
Ob ado o powe , wi h he E angelical Solida i y
Encoun e Pa y pa o he uling alliance
alongside López Ob ado ’s Na ional Regene a ion
Mo emen (‘Mo ena’) (Rojas, 2022). Despi e
Mo ena being a le -wing mo emen , P esiden
López Ob ado ’s populis uling app oach
o en speaks o mo e conse a i e ideologies,
including h ough an emphasis on ‘mo al enewal’
o socie y, pe haps pa ly in luenced by his
E angelical base o suppo (Olson, 2020).
The in e iewees in bo h Mexico and A gen ina
exp essed a sense ha E angelical ad ocacy
g oups c oss lines ha Ca holic g oups do no wi h
ega ds o an i-gende ac i ism, wi h E angelicals
and linked conse a i e g oups pu suing mo e
agg essi e coun e ad ocacy and o en digi al
ha assmen (anonymous ac i is , Pé ez-Pazos,
in e iews). An A gen ine ac i is in e iewed also
desc ibes a campaign om E angelical g oups o
encou age people no o wa ch a ic ional Ne lix
se ies abou an E angelical pas o , co-w i en by
Claudia Piñei o, a enowned A gen ine au ho
p ominen in abo ion igh s campaigns. The
in e iewee sugges s ha his kind o campaign
is no some hing you would imagine om he
con empo a y Ca holic Chu ch in A gen ina (a
leas no in a conce ed, public manne ). While
eminis ac i is s in bo h coun ies (anonymous
ac i is , Pé ez-Pazos, in e iews) desc ibe
collabo a ion wi h elemen s o he Ca holic
Chu ch (see Sec ion 6.2), E angelicals emain s e n
opponen s o gende equali y.
5.4 T ansna ional implica ions
The ansna ional mo emen o poli ical Islam
has had in ica e and long-las ing impac on
women’s igh s since he 1970s. The sp ead o
Wahhabi Islam ac oss he Muslim wo ld is well
documen ed. The Sala is mo emen , oo, has
ans o med he poli ics o Muslim-majo i y
coun ies (N. Hasan, 2010; A a , 2016; Khan, 2018).
The ise o Hindu a poli ics is al eady e idencing
c oss-bo de implica ions. In Bangladesh, a
new Hindu ex emis g oup, he Hindu Mahajo ,
o Bangladesh Na ional Hindu G and Alliance,
claims o be he ic im o Islamic undamen alism
and demands inancial esou ces and g ea e
poli ical ep esen a ion (Singha, 2021). Hossain
says i is suspec ed o ecei ing unding and
poli ical suppo om India. I onically, g oups
associa ed wi h i a e lobbying agains equal
igh s in he Hindu pe sonal laws, when a UCC
al eady exis s in neighbou ing India. Hindu women
ac i is s wo king o pe sonal law e o m ha e
been in imida ed by he Hindu a-a ilia ed
ga ekeepe s o hei communi y, along wi h he
ecen Awami League go e nmen , in o backing
o om hei ad ocacy (Hossain, in e iew).

24 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
A e he go e nmen ’s ecen o e h ow, a
leading eminis schola and ac i is joined an
appeal wi h o he s om he egion, asking he
Indian go e nmen o e ain om in e e ing
in Bangladesh’s democ a isa ion p ocess by
p omo ing alse in o ma ion abou an i-Hindu
ac i i ies (Azim e al., 2024).
E angelical chu ches and associa ed ‘ eligious
igh ’ ad ocacy g oups in luen ial in an i-gende
ac i ism in Mexico and A gen ina also ha e
ansna ional links, in pa icula wi h he US
E angelical mo emen (Zilla, 2018). Da a (2021)
documen s how US ‘Ch is ian igh ’ o ganisa ions
bo h ain and ad ise an i-gende ad ocacy
g oups ab oad, wi h a se o ‘mega dono s’ om
he US also p o iding unding o an i- igh s
g oups in e na ionally.
The ise o eligious undamen alism in poli ics
has ans o med he landscape o ac i ism o
women’s igh s globally – and no jus wi hin hese
o ganisa ions’ coun ies, whe e hey exe cise
di ec poli ical powe . The connec ions among
diaspo a communi ies a e s ong, and mig an
communi ies in wes e n coun ies o en gain
s eng h om eligious in luences as hey con end
wi h xenophobia and acisms in hei adop ed
homes. As P agna Pa el a gues, he ise o eligious
iden i y among Muslim communi ies in he UK was
a esponse o he impac o Islamic undamen alism
emana ing om coun ies such as I an and Saudi
A abia om he 1980s onwa ds. Today in he
London Bo ough o Towe Hamle s (UK), many
women among he la ge Bangladeshi mig an
communi y ha e adop ed he Saudi-s yle eil, as
indeed in o he Muslim con ex s (Riaz, 2013).
Religious o ganisa ions o m coali ion g oups
and p o ide se ices o women. Pa el ained as a
lawye and was a ounding membe o he Sou hall
Black Sis e s and he global ne wo k Women
Agains Fundamen alism (Ka z, 1995). She belie es
hese eligious g oups aim o con ol hei local
cons i uencies, con ain women, and p omo e
a homogenous Muslim, Hindu o Sikh iden i y,
de ined in illibe al, undamen alis e ms, ye hey
ha e gained s a e ecogni ion o hei e o s as
he UK adop ed ‘mul i- ai hism’ as o icial policy
(Pa el, 2008). Muslim undamen alis s in he UK
who call o mo e ai h-based schools and laws
o accommoda e hei eligious alues ame his
as an issue o eedom o eligion, while eminis
c i ics see i as he imposi ion o a igid and
conse a i e ai h upon indi iduals, pa icula ly
gi ls (Cowden e al., 2024). ‘These demands we e
an i- igh s and an i-democ acy, wi h women being
he i s casual ies’, says Pa el. Today we see Asian
women’s shel e s and o ganisa ions wi h names
ha ep esen hei eligion, a he han secula
iden i y, she says, and he poli ical le in B i ain
is unable o espond e ec i ely o he challenge
posed by eligious undamen alism. C i ically,
and e en ou side he UK and ac oss Sou h Asia,
‘secula ism and he idea o secula eminism ha e
become di y wo ds’ (Pa el, in e iew).
5.5 Summa y
This chap e shows he ansna ional impac
o poli icised eligion, ex ending globally, e en
in o con ex s like he UK, whe e he impac
on women’s ac i ism in some communi ies
e eals he de-secula isa ion o hei claims and
discou se. Feminis mobilisa ions a e con ending
wi h he long legacy o poli ical Islam, he ise o
Hindu na ionalism and E angelical Ch is iani y,
which is challenging secula p inciples and
unde mining commi men s o women’s equal
igh s and inclusi e democ acy.
25
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
6 Mo emen s a egies
The in e iewed ac i is s iden i ied a numbe o
use ul s a egies o p o ec , and esis u he
e osion o , hei igh s as hey con end wi h
challenges o democ acy and a backlash o
gende equali y ha is o en uelled by poli icised
eligion. This chap e shows how impo an
collec i e ac ion emains o ad ance women’s
gende equali y goals. Con empo a y challenges
o democ acy and ci ic space a e p o iding
oppo uni ies o new alliances wi h o he social
jus ice mo emen s, and e en wi h p og essi e
eligious o ganisa ions on ce ain issues. Women’s
mobilisa ions a e mos able o con on poli icised
eligious au ho i y and i s de imen al e ec s
on gende igh s when he s a e is commi ed o
secula ism and he p o ision o ci il cou s and
jus ice sys ems.
6.1 Collec i e ac ion
Collec i e ac ion emains a key s a egy o
women o ad ance gende equali y claims and
push o ci ic spaces hemsel es o emain open
and inclusi e. La ge public mobilisa ions a e an
in eg al ea u e o he eminis mo emen in
Mexico and ha e been able o in luence and push
o p og ess, e en on doc inal issues such as he
dec iminalisa ion o abo ion.
Mexico Ci y se a p eceden as he i s
ju isdic ion o legalise abo ion in 2007, wi h,
a e a gap o 12 yea s, some o he s a es
ollowing. The b eak h ough momen came
in 2021, wi h he Sup eme Cou uling ha
o c iminalise abo ion was uncons i u ional
(Taylo , 2023). Feminis collec i e ac ion has
been key a all s ages, wi h la ge-scale public
mobilisa ions o en a demons a ion o solida i y
ac oss di e en eminis g oups and pa o a
b oade Ma ea Ve de (G een Tide) mo emen
o abo ion igh s, wi h demands o legalisa ion
s a ing in A gen ina and sp eading ac oss La in
Ame ica (Tamés, 2023). The Chie Jus ice o he
Sup eme Cou c edi ed hese ac i is s, and hei
‘legi ima e demands’, as in luen ial in he landma k
2021 uling (Ki oe , 2022). As s a e-le el
legalisa ion has been slow, eminis mo emen s
ha e deployed legal s a egies and con inued o
ma ch (Tamés, 2023; Ramos, 2024).
Feminis mo emen s hus ely on a ci ic space
ha is su icien ly open o allow o such
mobilisa ions, al hough his also allows o
coun e -mobilisa ions (Ruibal, 2014). Pé ez-Pazos,
a Mexican eminis and u ban planne esea che ,
desc ibes an abo ion igh s ma ch and
coun e ad ocacy:
We had p o-li e con ingen s nex o us … and
while we sang, we jumped, we hugged each
o he , wha hey did a ound us was kneeling,
hey we e p aying, because hey belie e in
some hing di e en han us.
Fo eminis s like Pé ez-Pazos, such
con on a ions wi h opposing iews illus a e
he signi icance o an open and inclusi e secula
public sphe e.
His o ically in A gen ina, as ac oss much o
La in Ame ica, women played a cen al ole in
p o-democ acy s uggles. In esponse o mili a y
abuses, o ganisa ions which ini ially ocused
on women’s igh s became key elemen s o
la ge mo emen s o de end human igh s
(Jelin, 1994; Waylen, 2000). A imes, his
included collabo a ion wi h elemen s o he
Ca holic Chu ch, which, unde he in luence o
26 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
libe a ion heology, became explici ly in ol ed in
poli ics, ad oca ing o he igh s o he poo and
p o ec ion o human igh s (Hale, 2018; Philpo ,
2007). The elec ion o P esiden Milei in 2023 has
b ough new h ea s o ci ic space and economic
secu i y. Today, in luen ial mo emen s such as Ni
Una Menos (no one [woman] less) simila ly aim
o b oad coali ions, using a plu alis app oach and
aming eminis s uggles as social jus ice s uggles
o mobilise b oad segmen s o he public.
In coun ies whe e ci ic space does no
encou age public deba e and dissen , i has
been mo e challenging o women o ad ance
hei claims and build public suppo h ough
collec i e ac ion. In Malaysia, SIS ad oca e o he
ecogni ion o gende equali y wi hin Islam, and
con end his equi es a neu al secula s a e and
democ a ic dispensa ion, ‘ o gua an ee a dialogic
public ci il space de ined abo e all by ole ance’
(Reilly, 2017: 489). A igh s-based c i ique agains
eligiously en o ced gende disc imina ion, o
example a gues ha o ced hijab denies Muslim
women he igh o choice, mo al au onomy
and pe sonal independence (O hman, 2006).
Howe e , he p omo ion o women’s igh s as
ela ed o Islam opens women o cha ges o
sedi ion because he Sul an o Malaysia is bo h
head o s a e and i s eligion, hus e ec i ely
cu bing he sa e delibe a i e p ac ice so essen ial
o a heal hy ci ic space (Isa, in e iew).
Whe e s a es ha e mixed commi men s
o secula ism, women’s mo emen s ha e
demons a ed mixed success in coun e ing
challenges o he sepa a ion o eligion om
poli ics. In Bangladesh, when a succession o
mili a y ule s in oduced e o ms o inc ease
eligious au ho i y by, o example, emo ing
secula ism as a cons i u ional p inciple, li ing he
ban on eligious poli ical pa ies, and decla ing
Islam o be he s a e eligion (Malik, 1995;
Chowdhu y, 2010), women’s g oups led public
p o es s in 1988 claiming ha eligion should
emain in he p i a e, no public, sphe e (Nazneen,
2018). They won a Sup eme Cou uling o
es o e he p inciple o secula ism, bu eligious
g oups accused women’s igh s ac i is s o being
agen s o wes e n impe ialis s and unde mining
Islam (Nazneen, 2018). Wi h he 2009 elec ions, a
mo e p og essi e go e nmen allowed eminis s
o ad ance some p og essi e legisla ion, bu
unde p essu e om he ex emis eligious
o ganisa ion Hi aza -ul-Islam, i e used o suppo
he Sup eme Cou ’s uling o emo e Islam as he
s a e eligion (Nazneen and Masud, 2017).
6.2 Women’s igh s ac i is s build
new alliances
Women’s igh s ac i is s a e building new alliances
amid backlash and cons ain s on ci ic space,
hus ensu ing hey s ill engage in collec i e
ac ion o gende equali y. These alliances may
be a he local, na ional o ansna ional le el,
and some imes e en include some p og essi e
eligious g oups.
Social jus ice mobilisa ions
Women join g ass oo s social jus ice
mobilisa ions in sha ed esis ance o he e osion
o democ acy and ise o eligion in poli ics.
The elec ion o P esiden Milei in Oc obe 2023
signi ican ly al e ed he landscape o women’s
mo emen s in A gen ina and b ough hem in o
allyship wi h addi ional ci ic mo emen s and
in e es g oups. These g oups in u n ha e been
able o bene i om he mobilisa ion capaci y o
Ni Una Menos (see Box 1).
27
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
Box 1 Ni Una Menos: a b oad-based coali ion agains gende -based iolence
The Ni Una Menos mo emen began om public ou age in A gen ina a he emicide o a eenage
gi l. A wee om jou nalis Ma cela Ojeda ac ed as a spa k, oughly ansla ed as: ‘Businesswomen,
a hle es, ac esses, hey a e killing us, a e we no going o do any hing?’. Social media was used o
coo dina e a mass p o es agains pe sis en gende -based iolence wi hin a ew weeks. O ganise s
o he i s ma ch say he aim was o build a b oad mo emen which b ough oge he di e se
g oups o comba gende -based iolence, wi h he goal ‘ o y and each all ages, all sec o s and he
en i e coun y’ (anonymous ac i is , in e iew). The ini ial ma ch mobilised mo e han 200,000 in
Buenos Ai es alone.
The Ni Una Menos mo emen g ew o in eg a e ad ocacy and mobilisa ion o mo e con o e sial
igh s issues beyond gende -based iolence. I is a key pa o he G een Tide mo emen o
ep oduc i e jus ice, popula ising he use o g een sca es as a symbol o he igh o legalised
abo ion. This inspi ed o he egional spin-o s ac oss La in Ame ica, including in Mexico. In
A gen ina, Ni Una Menos p o es s led o he c ea ion o a Minis y o Women, Gende and Di e si y
and became a ca alys o he legalisa ion o abo ion in 2020 (Daby and Moseley, 2022).
The in luence o Ni Una Menos illus a es he alue o eminis mobilisa ions building b oad
coali ions. F om he ou se , he mo emen aimed o use explici ly plu alis discou ses and s a egies
and collabo a ed wi h o he mo emen s. An ac i is in e iewed explained he in en ion ha
‘anyone could use Ni Una Menos’, including eminis s along wi h hose who had ne e been ac i is s.
I s decen alised s uc u e has allowed he mo emen o in eg a e di e en in e es g oups. The
in e iewee desc ibed how, when he mo emen shi ed o ocus on he legalisa ion o abo ion, i s
decen alised s uc u ed allowed i o in eg a e di e en in e es g oups, include ac o s, jou nalis s
and lawye s (anonymous ac i is , in e iew). This enables dis inc g oups o main ain space unde
he banne o Ni Una Menos.
The se e i y o P esiden Milei’s economic
e o ms, cu s o public se ices and inc easing
po e y a es ha e b ough social and economic
jus ice issues o he o e on o eminis
ad ocacy (anonymous ac i is , in e iew).
Milei has also h ea ened ci ic space and an
independen media, in oducing measu es
o allow o easie p osecu ion o p o es o s
and closing La in Ame ica’s leading Spanish-
language news agency (Sha p and Milesi, 2024).
Feminis mo emen s ha e played an impo an
ole in opposing Milei’s e o ms, including wi h
he Con ede a ion o Wo ke s and in de ense
o he public uni e si y, as well as h ough a
women-led coun e -mobilisa ion (Lambe ucci
and Cen ene a, 2023). The ac i is in e iewed
explained ha when he go e nmen is pu suing
a ‘ ans e sal’ a ack on ‘e e y hing ha has o
do wi h human igh s and he igh s o su i al’
i is necessa y o eminis s o be allies o
b oade mo emen s. As he esponse o Milei
demons a es, i is he mos p essing issues
o he ime, along wi h he ela ed poli ical
cons ella ions, ha con igu e he allies o
28 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
eminis mo emen s. Whe e hese p essing
issues a e b oade ques ions o social and
economic jus ice, his may include a ypical allies
om eligious g oups (a opic e u ned o in
Sec ion 6.2.2).
In India, he ascen o Hindu na ionalism since
he 1980s seeks o undo he accommoda ions o
eligious plu ali y o e ed by he cons i u ionally
secula s a e. Hindu na ionalism seeks o p o ide,
in e ec , an ‘an i-secula al e na i e’ (Hasan, 2010:
943). Public suppo o he BJP and he ideology
o Hindu a is ans o ming he na ional imagina y
in o an exclusiona y new majo i a ian na ional
iden i y (Needham e al., 2007; Anand and Lall,
2022; Jayal, 2022). Muslim women in Delhi became
he public ace o p o es o he 2019 Ci izenship
(Amendmen ) Ac and a new na ional egis e
o ci izens. They buil coali ions wi h o he poo
communi ies o espond o he Hindu na ionalis
a ack on igh s, as discussed in Box 2.
Box 2 Women’s mo emen alliances wi h new g ass oo s mobilisa ions:
Indian esponse o Hindu na ionalism
The 2019 Ci izenship (Amendmen ) Ac p o ides access o Indian ci izenship o ic ims o eligious
pe secu ion who a i ed in he coun y be o e 2015, bu excludes Muslims. The new Na ional Regis e
o Ci izens equi es documen a y e idence o ances y o pe mi egis a ion as an Indian ci izen,
disp opo iona ely disen anchising women and poo and ma ginalised communi ies (Choudhu y
Lahi i, 2021).
Muslim women in Delhi ga he ed in Shaheen Bagh and became he public ace o p o es o bo h
hese laws. Mos we e in ol ed in con en ious poli ics o he i s ime. They asse ed hei igh s
o engage in he public sphe e, asse hei Muslim iden i y and also claim hei ci izenship o India
a he same ime (Rai, 2020; Choudhu y Lahi i, 2021). Las ing o e 100 days, hei p o es s became
he longes in e gene a ional si -in demons a ions in India since independence (Chop a, 2021).
Thei ‘popula cons i u ionalism’ ea u ed mass eci a ions o he cons i u ion’s p eamble, a i ming
he secula and democ a ic na u e o he Republic o India. Women we e a emp ing o ‘ eshape
ci izenship’ by de ending he secula cons i u ion and ejec ing ‘Islamophobic and exclusiona y
populis na ionalism’ (Rai, 2020: 271).
Soon a e , in 2020–2021, he Fa me s’ Mo emen (Kisan Andolan), eme ged in p o es igge ed by
he go e nmen ’s ul ima ely unsuccess ul a emp o impose es ic i e laws a ou ing co po a e
igh s o e ag a ian wo ke s (Singh, 2022). I s oo s lay in he ag a ian c isis in u al India caused
by landlessness, ising cos s, a m deb , unemploymen , en i onmen al deg ada ion and a wa e o
a me s’ suicides (Singh, in e iew). The p o es s mobilised housands o women, who joined he
men in hei communi ies in a p o es o wo million people in he capi al, Delhi, whe e hei peace ul
encampmen las ed one yea (Singh, 2022).

29
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
Box 2 Women’s mo emen alliances wi h new g ass oo s mobilisa ions:
Indian esponse o Hindu na ionalism (con inued)
Singh belie es ha he women’s p o es s and Kisan Andolan ga e he p edomina ely u ban-based
Indian women’s mo emen a key lesson in how o build alliances. P o es ing a me s, uni e si y
s uden s, he Bha a iya Muslim Mahila Andolan and he Na ional Women’s Associa ion all came
o show hei suppo o he p o es o s o Shaheen Bagh (Chop a, 2021). Unde s anding ha
he cu en go e nmen is sys ema ically disen anchising he poo ‘sec ion by sec ion’ – Adi asi
(indigenous ibes), Dali (scheduled cas es), a me s o Muslim, Singh explains:
The do s we e joined be ween how he agenda o Hindu a, o lynching, o banning cow
slaugh e , how hese a ious laws and policies we e, in ac , disen anchising ci izens, Muslim
ci izens, and how he ci izenship law ac ually disen anchised mo e powe ully he women.
(Singh, in e iew)
In I an, women’s g oups a e building new alliances
o solida i y in he ace o se e e s a e ep ession,
now ha opposi ion g oups a e ‘doing he
homewo k o ha e en ual democ a ic ansi ion’
hemsel es, says Tajali. New sha ed in e es s
ha e eme ged, o example wi h Ku dish women
and he LGBTQI+ communi y, bo h o whom
expe ience ongoing opp ession in he coun y.
Ku dish women in I an ha e had a mo e hos ile
engagemen wi h he I anian s a e, which denies
hem, as Sunni Muslims, he p o ec ion o e ed o
eligious mino i ies, and disc imina es agains hem
based on e hnici y and hei poli ical o ganisa ions
demanding g ea e au onomy (Yildiz and Taysi,
2007). The slogan jin, jiyan, azadi (woman, li e,
eedom) was o iginally a Ku dish p o es slogan
(Gup a, 2023), e oca i ely ende ed in o Pe sian,
zan, zindagi, azadi, in he wake o he cus odial
killing o a Ku dish woman, Mahsa Jina Amini, in
I an, and he ensuing WLF p o es s ac oss he
coun y. A g oup o ac i is s om inside and
ou side I an published a mani es o in 2023 o
complemen he ‘Rainbow Wa e’ o LGBTQI+
p o es o s who pa icipa ed in he WLF mo emen .
They, oo, demand an end o he ‘apa heid egime
o sex and gende ’ as pa o he s uggle agains
pa ia chy, exp essing solida i y wi h ongoing
esis ance agains he ‘ y anny and au oc acy’ o
he egime, exhibi ed h ough s uden p o es s and
union and labou s ikes, while demanding an end
o all o ms o disc imina ion on he basis o gende
iden i y o sexuali y (Bida zani, 2023).
Allyship wi h eligious au ho i ies
Feminis s may be able o de elop allyship
wi h eligious au ho i ies on speci ic goals
depending on coun y con ex s. On non-
doc inal issues, eligious g oups in Mexico a e
o en no opponen s (and some imes allies)
o eminis s. Ma cela O opa (in e iew), he
ounde o De enso as Digi ales and pa o
he Ley Olimpia mo emen , con as s abo ion
igh s ac i ism wi h ac i ism agains digi al
ha assmen . F en e Nacional pa a la So o idad
(Na ional F on o Sis e hood) ad oca ed o
an ‘Olimpia Law’ agains digi al ha assmen ,
inspi ed by he expe iences o Olimpia Co al
Melo, who had been a ic im o dissemina ion
o non-consensual sexual images (Ca illo, 2022;
30 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
O opa e al., 2024; Pea son, 2020). The main
opposi ion o he law came om ‘ eedom o
exp ession’ ad ocacy g oups (Sua ez Es ada,
2022). In con as o abo ion issues, he lack
o engagemen o eligious au ho i ies (ei he
collabo a i e o opposi ional) was no able.
Pé ez-Pazos (in e iew) also desc ibes de ou
Ca holics who, while o e ing s ong opposi ion
on abo ion igh s, suppo eminis ad ocacy
agains gende -based iolence. The mos ly
secula poli ical se lemen allows o ela ions
be ween eminis s and eligious g oups oday
o be la gely issue-dependen , wi hou in oking
undamen al dispu es o e he ole o eligion in
policy p ocesses.
In A gen ina, eminis s buil coali ions wi h
eligious g oups based on speci ic issues, o
example wi h p og essi e elemen s o eligious
g oups suppo i e on women’s igh s demands.
The in luence o many eminis mo emen s, bo h
in e ms o p og ess wi h ega ds o women’s
igh s and in esis ing an i- igh s backlash, has
come om hei abili y o build b oad coali ions
o ad ance pa icula causes (Ande son, 2022).
The ac i is s in e iewed in bo h Mexico and
A gen ina ha e been able o wo k on ad ancing
ep oduc i e igh s wi h Ca ólicas po el De echo
a Decidi (Ca holics o he Righ o Decide),
a p o-abo ion g oup ac i e since he 1990s
and inspi ed by ‘Ca holics o Choice’ in he US
(Ngo, 2021; He nández, 2023).
Collabo a ions can also esul om pa icula
poli ical cons ella ions allying eligious g oups
wi h eminis s esis ing a acks on democ acy and
ci ic space, o on b oade social jus ice issues. Fo
example, as desc ibed in Sec ion 6.2.1, eminis s in
A gen ina ha e ound hemsel es allying wi h he
Ca holic Chu ch, which ‘comes ou o ques ion
po e y in he coun y’ (anonymous ac i is ,
in e iew) in esis ance agains P esiden Milei’s
d as ic economic e o ms, e en hough i holds
opposing iews on ep oduc i e igh s. As an
A gen ine ac i is in e iewed summa ised:
Today we ind ou sel es in a e y pa icula
momen in A gen ina because e e y hing is
u ned upside down, so we he eminis s ind
ou sel es e wee ing wha he Ca holic Chu ch
says.
As he Ni Una Menos mo emen demons a es,
‘ he e is some hing e y posi i e abou secula
eminism ha ing he capaci y o build wi h eligions,
including he Ca holic eligion’ (anonymous ac i is ,
in e iew). How eminis s ame hei ac i ism in
o de o build such coali ions is o en s a egic,
based on ecognising he need o ga ne su icien
public suppo . Simila ly, eligious ac o s deploy
‘s a egic secula ism’ in a enas whe e eligious
a gumen s ca y less weigh (Mo án Faúndes,
2018; Vaggione, 2018; Reu e swä d, 2021). Howe e ,
his collabo a ion is only possible wi h ce ain
eligious g oups and on ce ain issues whe e he e
is acco dance. In A gen ina, he close associa ion
be ween he E angelical Chu ch and a - igh
conse a i e g oups has made i a key opponen
o p og ess in women’s igh s, such ha he
in e iewee sugges ed ha eminis collabo a ion
wi h p og essi e Ca holic g oups becomes e en
mo e impo an in esis ing E angelical-linked
eminis backlash.
T ansna ional ac i ism
The cons ain s o ci ic space in he coun y cases
ha e ensu ed ha ansna ional and diaspo a
ne wo ks a e i al o ad ancing gende equali y as
a human igh .Women’s oices om he diaspo a
ensu e ha he s uggles o hei ellow ci izens a e
no o go en by he in e na ional communi y. Thus,
a i ual ci ic space c ea es a sense o communi y
p o iding knowledge and esou ces o eminis s.
31
How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
The ci il wa in Sudan (2023–) has o ced many
leading eminis ac i is s o lee hei coun y.
Reem Abbas is now in exile in Egyp , whe e she
con inues wi h esea ch and w i ing, speaking in
webina s and mee ings, men o ing eminis s and
conduc ing ainings, ‘doing any hing ha I can
do’ (Abbas, in e iew). I anian eminis s con inue
hei ad ocacy om he diaspo a o c a he
Bill o Righ s discussed in Sec ion 4.1. Pe haps
one o he mos powe ul ou comes o he WLF
p o es s was he bi h o a ‘global I an’, as millions
o diaspo a I anians suppo ed and ollowed he
up ising in eal ime, achie ing a closeness on
bo h sides ha was unp eceden ed (Baya , n.d.).
T ansna ional eminis g oups a e c i ical
pla o ms o ad ance women’s igh s claims a he
in e na ional le el whils also p o iding suppo o
eminis s wi hin hei own coun ies. This epo
has e e ed o some o hese o ganisa ions, such
as SIHA in he Ho n o A ica. SIS in Malaysia
bene i om he esou ces and global ad ocacy
wo k o Musawah, a Muslim ansna ional eminis
o ganisa ion. Women Li ing Unde Muslim Laws
(WLUML; see Box 3), whe e Mona Tajali plays
a leade ship ole, has a global epu a ion o
p o iding esea ch esou ces and aining o
suppo eminis s in he Middle Eas , Eu ope,
A ica and Asia since i s incep ion in he 1980s.
Box 3 The ansna ional campaign o ecogni ion o he c ime o gende
apa heid
Women Li ing Unde Muslim Laws membe s a e schola s and ac i is s d awn om all con ex s
whe e Muslims eside. I was among he i s o campaign o he ecogni ion o gende apa heid
in I an in he 1980s, a campaign which now includes A ghanis an as he second coun y (WLUML,
2023). I has aken many yea s o I anian eminis s wi hin he coun y o ecognise he sys em
o gende apa heid. In 2023, he human igh s ac i is and Nobel Peace P ize Lau ea e Na ges
Mohammadi w o e a le e om p ison ou lining he 19 laws and policies in he coun y ha
cons i u e gende apa heid (Mohammadi, 2024).
I anian ac i is s wo k oge he wi h in e na ional ac o s and agencies, such as UN Women, and
A ghanis an’s eminis s o push he in e na ional communi y o ecognise gende apa heid
(UN Women, 2023). As Mona Tajali (in e iew) says:
They’ e hinking o i as ye ano he ool o add ess I an’s backlash, and also ecognising ha
he p essu es om in e na ional communi y has been e y limi ed when i comes o gende
pe secu ion ... And hey’ e saying ha i i helps o I anians and A ghans o come oge he ,
hen le ’s do so.
Legal schola Ka ima Bennoune, who c a ed he a gumen o gende apa heid’s legal ecogni ion,
is a o me council membe o WLUML. Tajali is cu en ly di ec o a he WLUML Feminis
T ansna ional Leade ship Ins i u e, which b ings young women ac oss he egion oge he , beginning
wi h i ual mee ings and mo ing on o in-pe son ga he ings, o build solida i y and collec i e ac ion
‘conside ing he in e connec edness o issues ac oss bo de s’ (Tajali, in e iew).
32 How women’s mo emen s lead demands o democ acy in he ace o backlash and poli icised eligion
T ansna ional solida i ies a e necessa y o
coun e he in luence o ex emis na ionalis and
eligious poli ical ideologies because hey, oo,
ha e ansna ional each. P agna Pa el belie es
in e na ional ecogni ion o A ghanis an and
I an as gende apa heid egimes would also
suppo women in mino i y communi ies wi hin
he UK o esis ‘ undamen alis p essu es’. She
has obse ed how he Sou h Asian diaspo a in
he UK has been impac ed by Hindu a poli ics,
Sikh na ionalism, he sp ead o Sala is eligious
mo emen , and poli ical Islam in luenced by
he I anian e olu ion, Saudi A abia and e en
Pakis an (Pa el, in e iew). Mino i y women
ha e o g apple wi h eligious undamen alism
as well as ga ekeepe s who ep esen hei ai h
communi ies wi h a ‘conse a i e and e en
misogynis and homophobic eligious agenda’
(Pa el, 2008: 18). T ansna ional solida i ies
would suppo women o ecognise he poli ical
impe a i es behind iden i y-based poli ics and he
dange s o eligious undamen alism, and sha e
esis ance s a egies (Pa el, in e iew).
6.3 Using secula ins i u ions o
coun e poli icised eligious
au ho i y
ODI Global esea ch and in e iews unde sco e
he endu ing alue o secula s a e s uc u es and
ci il cou s o women’s igh s ac i is s who ha e
o con end wi h poli icised eligious au ho i ies.
Whe e s a es a e su icien ly secula , eminis s
can ad oca e o women’s igh s wi hou always
challenging he poli ical powe o eligious
au ho i ies.Mexico has a long his o y o he
sepa a ion o chu ch and s a e, and g ea e
scep icism ega ding he use o eligious
a gumen s in public policy – which has
con ibu ed o mo e p og essi e policy ou comes
(Amuchás egui e al., 2010; Blanca e, 2023).
Feminis mo emen s ely on a ela i ely open
ci ic space ( o women’s igh s ad ocacy) and
ci ic ins i u ions o ad ance hei claims – and
ha e made p og ess e en on doc inal issues
dispu ed by eligious g oups. The sus ained
secula poli ical se lemen allows o ela ions
be ween eminis s and eligious g oups oday
o be la gely issue-dependen , wi hou in oking
undamen al dispu es o e he ole o eligion
in policy p ocesses. Fo example, in deba es
abou eme gency con acep ion, eminis g oups
g ounded hei ad ocacy in public suppo o
secula poli ics, a guing ha hei opponen s
we e imp ope ly ‘[allowing] eligious no ions
o in o m public policymaking’ (Amuchás egui
e al., 2010: 997). None heless, con es a ions
be ween eminis s and eligious g oups emain on
doc inal issues (e.g. abo ion and di o ce) ha
challenge deeply held eligious belie s and whe e
he Ca holic Chu ch is mo e o ce ul in de ending
i s space in he public sphe e (H un and Weldon,
2018). Reu e swä d (2021) explains how es ic i e
abo ion e o m ailed in one s a e while in
ano he i succeeded because an i-abo ion
mo emen s had be e access o poli ical and
economic eli es h ough he chu ch.
Ac i is s desc ibe he alue o de eloping
new eminis na a i es, a b oade aming o
ad ocacy goals and mo e plu alis discou se o
mee he challenges o he cu en momen .
In A gen ina and Mexico, ac i is s employ
plu alis app oaches and s a egically ame
hei ac i ism o ga ne b oade public suppo
and build coali ions. This can in ol e a oiding
o eg ounding secula language which may
p o oke he Ca holic Chu ch o E angelical
g oups. Ni Una Menos in A gen ina amed i s
ad ocacy a ound abo ion igh s as a social
jus ice issue (e.g. emphasising he heal h isks o
un egula ed abo ions). This success ully allowed
ac i is s o limi mo e con en ious deba es wi h
39
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