Be ge, E ling
Resea ch Repo
Reading no es on p ope y igh s and ins i u ions
Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies Repo , No. 02/24
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Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies (CLTS), No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences (NMBU)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Be ge, E ling (2024) : Reading no es on p ope y igh s and ins i u ions, Cen e
o Land Tenu e S udies Repo , No. 02/24, ISBN 978-82-7490-322-7, No wegian Uni e si y o Li e
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No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences (NMBU)
Reading No es on P ope y Righ s and Ins i u ions
E ling Be ge
Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies Wo king Pape 02/24
ISBN: 978-82-7490-322-7
Reading no es on p ope y igh s and ins i u ions
_________________________________________________________________________ii
Reading no es on p ope y igh s and ins i u ions
by
E ling Be ge
© Con en is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-
NoDe i s 4.0 In e na ional.
Co e Pho o © E ling Be ge
ISBN: 978-82-7490-322-7
Published in 2024 as CLTS Repo 02/24
Depa men o P ope y and Law, Facul y o Landscape and Socie y,
Cen e o Land Tenu e S udies,
The No wegian Uni e si y o Li e Sciences (NMBU),
N-1430 Ås, No way
Reading no es on p ope y igh s and ins i u ions
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Abs ac
The p esen wo k is a collec ion o essays. The i s one is new, w i en o he collec ion.
Then ollows 7 sepa a e essays o a ying age. They a e named
On he classi ica ions o p ope y igh s
A p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional change in he wel a e s a e
On he na u e o wel a e goods
P i a iza ion and he na u e o wel a e goods
On he egula ion o p o essions
On he assessmen o p ope y igh s sys ems
P ope y igh s heo y and sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion
They a e all conce ned wi h he na u e o p ope y igh s and how his helps us
unde s and a ious aspec s o he No wegian wel a e s a e
Key wo ds: p ope y igh s; collec i e ac ion; us owne ship; ypology o goods; wel a e s a e;
p i a iza ion; p o essions; esou ce u iliza ion; commons
JEL codes: P48, Q15, Q28, Z13, K11
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CONTENTS
Abs ac iii
Table o con en i
Lis o ables
Lis o igu es
P e ace i
A s a ing poin : On he undamen al impo ance o p ope y igh s 1
NOTE 1: On he classi ica ions o p ope y igh s 9
NOTE 2: A p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional change in he wel a e s a e 37
NOTE 3: On he na u e o wel a e goods 43
NOTE 4: P i a iza ion and he na u e o wel a e goods 59
NOTE 5: On he egula ion o p o essions 77
NOTE 6: On he assessmen o p ope y igh s sys ems 93
NOTE 7: P ope y igh s heo y and sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion 103
APPENDIX
Some da a on he consump ion o wel a e goods acco ding o class 125
REFERENCES
130
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 The e e yday concep ion o p ope y 11
Table 1.2 A classi ica ion o legally ecognized p ope y ela ions 13
Table 1.3 Bundles o igh s associa ed wi h posi ions in he esou ce managemen sys em 20
Table 1.4 Owne ship oles in us owne ship 22
Table 1.5 Typology o goods 23
Table 1.6 Types o ac o s, ypes o goods, and ypes o egimes 28
Table 2.1 The e e yday ideas o p ope y igh s 38
Table 2.2 Hoh eld's ideas o legal igh s 39
Table 2.3 Hoh eld's ideas o legal igh s and hei nega ion 40
Table 3.1 Types o goods a ailable o he wel a e s a e 45
Table 3.2 Va ious ways o handling ex e nali ies 52
Table 4.1 Examples o "mixed economies" in he p o ision o wel a e goods
Table 4.2 In e ela ions o p ocesses in ol ed in he p oduc ion and
consump ion o wel a e goods
63
67
Table 5.1 The p ope y igh s aspec s o he ela ions in he doc o -pa ien ole 79
Table 6.1 Aspec s o a p ope y ela ion 95
Table 7.1 The agedy o he commons. Payo ma ix in a game o "chicken"
Table 7.2 The agedy o he commons. Payo ma ix in a game whe e
ee iding has u ned he game o "chicken" in o he game o "p isone "
108
112
Table 7.3 De ining cha ac e is ics o p ope y ela ions in common p ope y 119
Table 7.4 Types o esou ces 121
LIST OF FIGURES
Figu e 1.1 Hie a chy o igh s 20
Figu e 4.1 Public goods, club goods, posi ional goods, p i a e goods 68
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PREFACE
The p esen wo k is some kind o s a us epo on my main in e es (as apa om my main
ac i i ies) o he las se e al decades. I s a ed as a collec ion o he pape s I had w i en
since I came o The Depa men o Land Use Planning in 1984. Howe e , hey a e no
ep oduced as hey we e p esen ed. All o hem ha e seen ex ensi e ew i ing, and some a e
now di ided among se e al.
The a ious pa s o he p esen manusc ip has been p esen ed in a leas 11 mee ings. The
i s migh ha e been a session a he XXVIII Wo ld Cong ess o he In e na ional Ins i u e o
Sociology in Albu ei a, June 1986; hen in a wo kshop a he XXIX h In e na ional Cong ess
o he In e na ional Ins i u e o Sociology, Rome, June 1989; a semina a he Ins i u e o
Social Resea ch and he Ins i u e o Applied Social Resea ch, Oslo, Janua y 1990; a session
a he Annual Con e ence o he B i ish Sociological Associa ion, Guild o d, Ap il 1990; a
wo king g oup a he No wegian Na ional Sociological Con e ence, Gei ange , May 1990; a
wo king g oup a he Eu opean Associa ion o De elopmen Resea ch and T aining Ins i u es
Gene al Con e ence, Oslo, June 1990; a wo king g oup a he Vilhelm Aube Memo ial
Symposium on "The Func ions o Law in he De elopmen o Wel a e Socie ies", Oslo,
Augus 1990; The na ional con e ence o sociology 1992, Mo sund, Lo o en, June 1992; The
III. Wo ld Con e ence o IASCP, Washing on, Sep embe 1992; he con e ence "Common
p ope y egimes: Law and managemen o non-p i a e esou ces", Feb ua y 1993; a he
Wo kshop on he Wo kshop, Blooming on, IN, USA, June, 1994; he Wo kshop in Poli ical
Theo y and Policy Analysis, Indiana Uni e si y, Blooming on, Decembe 1998.
I app ecia e he commen s ecei ed on hese occasions.
Some people ha e aken he ime and e o o ead some o he o iginal pape s and sha ed
wi h me hei eac ions. In pa icula my hanks go o T ond Pe e sen, Na alie Rogo
Ramsøy, Michael Walle s ein, Ul To ge sen, Lise Kjøls ød, Oddbjø n Knu sen, Ole Pe e
Opsand, O a B ox, Hans Se a dal, and Knu Boge. My second hough s, as p esen ed
he e, do no o en measu e up o he ad ice I ecei ed.
The collec ion o no es s a ed wi h he publica ion “Be ge, E ling. 1990. Some No es
Towa ds a P ope y Righ s Pe spec i e on Ins i u ional Change in he Wel a e S a e. INAS-
NOTAT 1990:9. Oslo: Ins i u o an end sosial i enskapelig o skning (INAS)”. The
numbe o no es was expanded du ing he 1990ies. Bu as I en e ed he 2000s my a en ion
was di e ed un il I became a pensione in 2016. Tha allowed ime o look in o old pape s
and p ojec s. I hink some o he no es s ill may hold some in e es .
E ling Be ge
May 2024
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A s a ing poin
E ling Be ge:
ON THE FUNDAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF PROPERTY RIGHTS
Le us s a wi h he undamen al conclusion. P ope y igh s ha e as pu pose o
p o ide people wi h secu i y and p edic abili y: secu i y o income and
p edic abili y o beha iou o people a ound hem.
A con enien s a ing poin o ou in es iga ion is Douglass C. No h's sho
and e y eadable book om 1990 "Ins i u ions, ins i u ional change, and
economic pe o mance". He e he explains: “Ins i u ions a e he ules o he
game in a socie y o , mo e o mally, a e he humanly de ised cons ain s ha
shape human in e ac ion” No h (1990, 3). This is a s a ing poin , bu i
ce ainly is no he whole s o y. A hu L. S inchcombe (1997) eminds us ha
la ge scale ins i u ions applies o o ganisa ions as well as indi idual ac o s. A
he co e o a la ge scale ins i u ion we ind a bu eauc acy ha is s a ed and
c ea ed o do a job o egula ing o ganisa ions and indi idual ac o s.
Ins i u ions a e mo e han jus ules. Fo a ule sys em o become an ins i u ion
i needs gua dians cha ged wi h he in e es and au ho i y o moni o and
en o ce he ule sys em. Hence, whene e we ind an ins i u ion we also ind a
g oup o people wi h a manda e o wa ch he pe o mance o he ules. A he
mos elemen a y le el he g oup o gua dians will be he people o he
communi y who de ise he ules. In mode n s a es we expec in mos cases o
ind a bu eauc acy as gua dians. These gua dians a e human beings wi h
belie s and alues, hey ha e less han pe ec knowledge and hey ha e
pe sonal as well as class in e es s. The e o e, he job pe o mance o he
bu eauc a s can be seen as a dis inc and sepa a e o ce besides he body o
ules. Bu nei he is his enough as a s a ing poin . To unde s and ins i u ions
we also need o see he d i ing o ces in hei genesis.
The ules we a e alking abou he e will usually be hough o as legal ules
p omulga ed by a cen al powe like a s a e. Bu hei o igin is much close o
ou e e yday li e. The o de ing o ou e e yday li es equi es con en ions and
no ms ha we lea n o ollow a an ea ly age. As communi ies g ow people
ind ha con en ions, like o example d i ing (wi h ho se and ca iage) on he
igh side (o he le side) o he oad a e use ul as long as e e ybody ollow
hem. Many local con en ions and no ms will, i hey a e use ul, become pa
o he legal code o a la ge communi y. Rules and egula ions equi e
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moni o ing and en o cemen o be e ec i e. This moni o ing is mos o en
done by each pe son wa ching bo h himsel and his neighbo s wi h an eye o
compliance wi h he no ms hey all had lea ned. This p o ides a powe ul link
be ween ins i u ion and beha io . A e y eadable in oduc ion o his link is
p o ided by Ma y Douglas in he book "How Ins i u ions Think" (1986).
Douglas' emphasis is on ways o hinking, he ca ego ies we use o classi y he
eali ies we obse e and how hese ela e o he ules we ha e lea ned o obey.
Bu he lea ning o beha iou ne e s ops. One may conclude ha Pálsson
(1998) exploi s his when he calls o es ablishing a link be ween he indi idual
lea ning o he ishe men and he collec i e ulemaking o he ishe ies
managemen .
Whe e do p ope y igh s come om?
So whe e do hese ins i u ions go e ning ou economies come om? An answe
o his ques ion is way beyond he scope o hese eading no es. The a ious
app oaches o he s udy o socie al ins i u ions in he a ious sec o s o socie y
gi e pa ial glimpses o he way hey cu en ly a e wo king. And he heo e ical
econs uc ions o hei in e nal logic gi e glimpses o why ce ain aspec s o
hem a e so pe sis en . Bu an unde s anding o he his o ical genesis o he
cu en s uc u es is no ye wi hin each.
Howe e , ha said, I canno esis men ioning some o he cu en discussions.
One o he mo e ecen su eys is G aebe and Weng ow (2021)'s book "The
dawn o e e y hing: a new his o y o humani y". On he ques ion o p i a e
p ope y hey conclude ha i s o igin is ound in he ideas o he sac ed (see
pages 156-163). Below in NOTE 1 i is sugges ed ha i some hing is abundan
people usually will no bo he o c ea e p ope y igh s. In he p ehis o ic
communi ies wi hou au ho i a ian ule s ha G aebe and Weng ow discuss, he
'objec s' o mos impo ance seemed o be social cons uc s such as incan a ions
o objec s needed in i uals asking he gods o help o suppo . These social
cons uc s we e mos o en ea ed as pe sonal p i a e p ope y jealously gua ded.
One o he de ining cha ac e is ics o p i a e p ope y is he abili y o exclude
o he pe sons om using o enjoying he p ope y. Thus he e can be a link
be ween he sac ed and he idea o p i a e p ope y. The link be ween he sac ed
and he idea o p ope y is ea lie sugges ed by Godelie ([1984] 1986, 75-81).
The sac ed is clea ly a social cons uc in he meaning o Sea le (2010). His
discussion o ins i u ions is well wo h conside ing. Sea le's i s book (1995)
was named "The Cons uc ion o Social Reali y", and was clea ly an allusion o
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NOTE 1
E ling Be ge:
ON THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF PROPERTY RIGHTS:
A su ey o li e a u e1
In oduc ion
A classi ica ion o p ope y igh s in ol es h ee classes o phenomena: he
“ hing” which is subjec o being p ope y, he ac o s “owning” hese “ hings”,
and he in e es s o he es o socie y, he "non-owne s", in he owne ship
ela ion. Hence we may o ganise ou in es iga ion a ound h ee ques ions:
Is he e any egula i y in he kinds o objec s (i.e. igh s o goods) ha
can be made in o p ope y?
Is he e any egula i y in he ypes o subjec s which may hold
p ope y ( ypes o owne s)?
Is he e any egula i y in he ules delinea ing owne s om non-owne s?
The answe o he i s ques ion seems o be no. His o ical and c oss-cul u al
s udies seem o show ha while he e wi hin a socie y may be clea and
cohe en ules o wha can be made in o p ope y, o he gene al case he e a e
absolu ely no consis en classi ica ion o wha can be ecognised as p ope y
and wha canno (Godelie [1984] 1986). The mos one is able o say is ha i
some hing is abundan (e.g. ai ) people will usually no bo he o make i in o
p ope y. Fo he p esen discussion we shall o cou se ha e land a he back o
ou mind, no so o en he copy igh s o a jou nal a icle.
The second ques ion leads us o he answe ha h ee di e en ypes o
en i ies a e usually ecognised as owne s:
a s a e (o i s equi alen ) may hold p ope y,
p ope ly de ined and legally ecognised g oups/ collec i es (such as
illages, ibes, o he local communi ies, amilies, use associa ions,
NGOs (non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions), and business co po a ions)
may hold p ope y, and
indi iduals may do so.
1 This is a e ised pape , i s w i en as a backg ound o 2 o he pape s Be ge and Aasen (2001) and Be ge
(2002). I was also deli e ed o COST Ac ion E19 in 2001 (Glück e al. 2003). Pa s o his NOTE is ound in
No wegian in Be ge (2011).
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Co esponding o hese ypes o owne s one speaks o s a e p ope y, common
p ope y, and p i a e o indi idual p ope y since he ules delinea ing owne s
om non-owne s o en di e o he a ious ypes o owne s.
The impo an dis inc ion be ween ypes o owne s lies in he di e ences in
how goals a e decided on and ac ion plans o mula ed and ac ed upon. Fo
indi idual ac o s, goals eme ge h ough a cul u al p ocess. These a e ac ed
upon wi hin he cons ain s posi ed by es ablished p ope y igh s and he
incen i es o ela i e p ices. Rela i e p ice is he e seen as a gene al concep
summa ising he ela ion be ween e o and bene i . People end o
choose wi hin hei in o ma ion cons ain s he a ailable ac ion al e na i e
p omising he mos bene i pe uni o e o . In his sense choices a e
bounded a ional (Simon 1957, 1986).
Collec i e ac o s a e comp ised o indi iduals each wi h hei own goals.
The o mula ion o collec i e goals as well as ac ion plans is he e o e subjec
o he p oblems o collec i e ac ion (Olson 1965, Ha din 1982). Bu also
hese ac o s a e subjec o he cons ain s o es ablished p ope y igh s, he
cos o ge ing app op ia e in o ma ion, and he incen i es o ela i e
p ices. The s a e is a pa icula ly impo an ca ego y because i has he
powe o ede ine p ope y igh s and ela i e p ices in a a ie y o ways,
bu always wi hin cons ain s om cul u e and social s uc u e. The s a e is
o en an owne wi h di ec esponsibili y o la ge a eas. I is always a
s akeholde in he sense o ep esen ing he public in e es in how he a ious
esou ces a e used. In ule-o -law s a es i s posi ion as esou ce owne is
subjec o es ablished p ope y igh s and p ocedu al ules o law making. In
o he s a es he wo oles o law make and esou ce owne end o become
con ounded.
The las ques ion we aised abou any egula i y in he ules delinea ing owne s
om non-owne s can be answe ed simply in e ms o he di e ences in
legi ima e powe s assigned o hem. Bu his is an answe ha needs much mo e
explana ions. We ha e o s a asking abou wha p ope y igh s eally a e.
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Wha a e p ope y igh s?
A he ou se i may be con enien o dis inguish be ween h ee concep s o
p ope y:
p ope y as unde s ood in he e e yday wo ld o common people,
p ope y as unde s ood in he ju isp udence o p ope y, and
p ope y as unde s ood in he social sciences.
These di e en concep ions o p ope y a e successi e gene aliza ions o he
o me . They a e nes ed in ha he legal concep o p ope y builds on and
implies he e e yday concep o p ope y in he same way as he social
science concep builds on and implies he legal concep o p ope y.
The e e yday concep ion o p ope y igh s
Ou e e yday concep ion o p ope y is clea in i s main implica ions. A
hypo he ical opinion poll abou he di e ences be ween mine and " hine", o
wha I can do wi h mine, wha you canno do wi h mine, wha you can do
wi h you s and wha I canno do wi h you s would e eal ai ly unanimous
opinions. Sna e (1972) in es iga ed he meaning inhe en in he e e yday
concep o p ope y. He ound i could be desc ibed by six ypes o ules,
h ee de ining he igh s o he owne and h ee ypes o ules egula ing he
ela ion be ween owne and non-owne s (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1
The e e yday concep ion o p ope y
Owne ship igh s:
The owne has a igh o use his p ope y, meaning,
o i is no w ong o he owne o use his p ope y, and
o i is w ong o all non-owne s o in e e e wi h he owne in his use o his p ope y.
Non-owne s may use he p ope y o he owne i and only i he owne gi es his pe mission,
and
The owne may pe manen ly o empo a ily ans e his igh s as de ined by ules 1. and 2. o
speci ic o he pe sons by consen .
Rela ional egula ion:
Punishmen ules: egula ing he cases whe e non-owne s in e e e wi h an owne 's use o his
p ope y.
Damage ules: egula ing he cases whe e non-owne s cause damage o someone's p ope y.
Liabili y ules: egula ing he cases whe e someone's p ope y h ough ei he imp ope use o
neglec causes damage o some pe son o he p ope y o some pe son.
Sou ce: Sna e (1972)
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Sna e (1972, pp.203-204) discusses he meaning o " igh o use". The
conclusion is ha an owne ac ing in a socie y is bound no only by owne ship
o any ools used in ac ing, bu i s o all by ules egula ing ac i i y wi hin
he socie y independen o owne ship o any ools used in he ac ion. Thus he
e e yday concep ion o owne ship p esupposes all o he ules wi hin he
socie y: he ex an ins i u ional s uc u e (No h 1990, 3).
Mos people would no doub ecognise hese p oposi ions as a a he ob ious
desc ip ion o hei e e yday wo ld. I , howe e , one asked abou he pu poses
o p ope y: why do we ha e such a hing as "p ope y", mos people would be
a a loss o an immedia e answe .
P omp ing a me s and landowne s o jus i y hei possessions, Newby, Bell,
Rose and Saunde s (1978) ound ou ypes o jus i ica o y ideologies hey
called capi alis ic, indi idualis ic, collec i is ic, and al uis ic jus i ica ions.
Those u ning o capi alis ic jus i ica ions emphasised ha hei p ope y was
ewa d o ha d wo k and isky in es men s. Those using indi idualis ic
jus i ica ions compa ed he la ge es a es o e e yday possessions like clo hes
o ca s. The collec i is ic jus i ica ions a gued ha wise managemen o
p ope y c ea ed wo k and income o many people besides he owne . And
he al uis ic jus i ica ions saw he owne only as a s ewa d o u u e
gene a ions. I is no coincidence ha hese a e he main a gumen s used by
philosophe s o jus i y p ope y (Fo e iews see Schla e (1951), Ree e
(1986), Wald on (1988), Munze (1990)).
The ju isp udence o p ope y igh s
Sna e (1972) in his in es iga ion o he e e yday concep o p ope y
p o ides a b idge be ween his concep and he legal concep .
A igh , as seen om he poin o iew o he igh -holde , is an
expec a ion abou he beha iou o o he ac o s a ec ed by he exe cise o
he igh . Coleman (1990a, 45-64)'s discussion o igh s o ac is ins uc i e
he e.
A p ope y igh , hen, is an expec a ion abou he beha iou o all non-
owne s. I is di e en om o he igh s (non-p ope y igh s) in ha he
expec a ion is legi ima e and ela es o he app op ia ion o eali y. The non-
owne s as well as he owne s accep i as legi ima e. A igh ecognised as a
p ope y igh ha e in de eloped democ a ic socie ies been gi en special
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s a us, p o ec ing he holde o he igh bo h om non-holde s and om he
s a e. I a legal sys em ecognises a igh as a p ope y igh , special
p ocedu es a e used and he holde o he igh is gi en special emedies o
help en o cing he igh agains con ende s.
The p ocess o how a igh comes o be ega ded as a p ope y igh is no
well unde s ood, bu i would seem o be connec ed o a p ocess o
legi imiza ion o au ho i y in ela ion o he de elopmen o a concep ion o
jus ice. In o he wo ds i is ied o he de elopmen o legi ima e and jus
use o powe . I may in his con ex be ins uc i e o s udy in mo e de ail he
discussion o "New P ope y" ha was ini ia ed by Reich (1964) asking abou
he ole o go e nmen in g an ing indi iduals a ious o ms o weal h "subjec
o condi ions which exp ess ' he public in e es .'" We shall e u n o his pape
below. In No way a ocused s udy o he his o y o land igh s o he lands used
by Sámi may be ins uc i e.
Rela ions among people a e dual in na u e since hey can be expe ienced
om wo pe spec i es. By he na u e o he p oblem, o egula e he s eams
o bene i s om human ac i i ies, a p ope y ela ion has o be an
asymme ical ela ion. Hoh eld (1913, 1917) saw his and ound ha igh s
ecognized by law had a dual asymme ical na u e. His p ojec was o
desc ibe legal igh s in gene al in as p ecise language as possible (see Munze
(1990, 17-22)), bu applied o ules speci ying he ela ions be ween one (o
mo e) owne (s) and all non-owne s in ega d o some en i y he owne (s)
ega d as hei p ope y his ypology also p esen s a classi ica ion o he
a ious legally ecognised p ope y ela ions. They o all in o ou pai s:
Table 1.2
A classi ica ion o legally ecognized p ope y ela ions
IF
OWNERS HAVE
THEN
N
ON-OWNERS HAVE
Use aspec s 1. claim- igh s du ies
2.
p
i ileges no igh s
Exchange aspec s 3.
p
owe s liabili ies
4. immuni ies no powe s
Sou ce: Hoh eld (1913, 1917)
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The a ious ypes o igh s and du ies a e all ied o ac ions and ansac ions:
wha owne s a e allowed o do o no do, wha non-owne s a e allowed o do o
no do, and how he powe o he legal sys em may help he owne s o p o ec
and exe cise hei igh s.
The expec a ions o he owne s abou he beha iou o he non-owne s,
appea s o he non-owne s as du ies owa ds he owne . The p i ileges o he
owne conce n which beha iou he owne is allowed wi hou ha ing o
conside he eac ions o he non-owne s. Co espondingly he non-owne s
ha e no igh s (i.e. expec a ions abou he beha iou o he owne ) ha can
in e e e wi h he beha iou o he owne .
The powe s o he owne a e he abili ies o olun a ily c ea e new legal
ela ions wi h a non-owne . The powe s o he owne a e cu ailed in he law
o con ac and include, o cou se, e e y hing om he sho ime en ing o a
consume du able o ou igh sale o , o gi ing away, an en i e es a e. I an
owne wan s o exe cises his powe o c ea e a new legal ela ion wi h a non-
owne , he non-owne s suscep ibili y o ha ing his legal posi ion al e ed is
called liabili y (see also Munze (1990, 18)). On he o he hand, an owne has
immuni ies agains a emp s om non-owne s o c ea e new legal ela ions o
in e e e wi h es ablished ela ions. The non-owne s ha e no powe s o c ea e
new legal ela ions.
To his mus be added ha he ocus o he p ope y ela ion in any case is
some pa icula bene i om some pa icula sou ce. The expec ed and allowed
beha iou s conce n his "some hing". The same does he possible new legal
ela ions. I is impo an o no e ha o a ela ion o be a p ope y ela ion, i
mus be en o ceable. The igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o he
owne s a e one way o ano he p o ec ed. Those iola ing hem do so a a eal
isk o su e ing sanc ions.
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Ex ending Hoh eld’s pa adigm o igh s and du ies
Hoh eld’s (1913, 1917) concep ion o legal ela ions applied o he ela ion
be ween owne and non-owne in ela ion o an objec also con ains he
nega ion o his ela ion, he "ju al opposi e" ( o example wha does absence o
a claim igh s /du ies ela ion mean?) as seen om he owne ’s posi ion:
RELATION
OWNER
N
ON-OWNER
ITS NEGATION
Use aspec s claim- igh s du ies no- igh s
p
i ilege no igh s du ies
Exchange aspec s
p
owe s liabili ies no-powe s
immuni y no-powe s liabili ies
Commons (1924) akes he discussion u he . He cla i ies he meaning o
he ca ego ies ou side he s ic ly legal con ex as well as he dis inc ion
be ween he di ec ly in e es ed pa ies (owne / non-owne ) and he
«unin e es ed» hi d pa y (such as he «public in e es ») o which Hoh eld's
«ju al opposi e» (nega ion) ela ion applies i in e p e ed in he meaning o a
limi on he owne / non-owne ela ion.
The social science concep o p ope y igh s
I is easily seen how he 6 ules desc ibed by Sna e can i in o he mo e
abs ac scheme o Hoh eld. Howe e , he legal concep o p ope y seems o
ha e los ouch wi h he e e yday concep , which sees p ope y as a " hing"
e en hough i ob iously implies his in i s ac ual applica ion. In i s abs ac
ocus on he ela ion be ween membe s o a socie y, he law has had o lea e
ou he p ope y seen as a “ hing” in o de o achie e i s main ask o b inging
jus ice o he ansac ions among people.
In he social sciences conce ned wi h socie al de elopmen his is no longe
possible. P ope y seen as a “ hing" has o be b ough back in. Bu he
" hing" b ough back in is e en mo e abs ac han he ela ional concep o
p ope y. Economis s migh say ha he abs ac " hing" is he “goods” and
“bads” o e e yday li e, he u ili ies o social ac o s. Sociologis s migh say i
simply is conc e e and e ec i e igh s and du ies – o maybe mo e amilia :
con en ions, ules, no ms and alues - as hese a e ac ually dis ibu ed in a
socie y. In gene al, social science seems o lack a p ecise echnical language
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o he discussion o p ope y igh s and ins i u ions. Buck (1998, 2-5)
demons a es how echnical e ms in law and poli ical science can con ey
di e en meanings.
Howe e , social science is in e es ed in he social powe a ached o p ope y
igh s. The alloca ion o igh s and du ies in ela ion o pa icula esou ces
de e mine whose goals will coun by how much in he choice o managemen
goals, in he iming and du a ion o ex ac ion, in he applica ion o echnology,
and in he in ensi y o e o expended o achie e he goals. Bu e en mo e
impo an : in any socie y hose who ha e much p ope y also will ha e much
powe in he sense ha hey will be able o a ec s he li es and des inies o
o he people – he non-owne s.
The c ucial dis inc ion be ween he legal concep ion o p ope y and he social
science concep ion is bes seen by ocusing on p ope y seen as conc e e
exis ing, e ec i e igh s used in he e e yday app op ia ion o eali y. The
legal concep ion is conce ned only wi h hose igh s ecognised by he law
as p ope y igh s. Righ s gi en he s a us o p ope y igh s by he law a e
ea ed di e en ly om o he igh s. The p ocedu es in cou a e di e en .
The emedies g an ed he igh s holde s a e di e en . The es ain shown by
he s a e in in e e ing wi h hese igh s a e o en ema kable.
In con as o his he social science concep ion o p ope y also includes
igh s no cu en ly ecognised as p ope y igh s by he law (excep in he
concep o common law), p o ided he igh s ac ually exis and a e used in
he e e yday app op ia ion o he wo ld. This opens he possibili y o
s udying changes in p ope y igh s: he eme gence o new igh s, how people
exe cise hei new igh s, and inally he ecogni ion o hei new igh s by he
legal sys em as p ope y igh s. Fo mo e on he na u e o igh s see Coleman
(1990a).
I is usually aken o g an ed in he s udy o p ope y igh s ha p ope y igh s
include all he claim- igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies ecognised
by (ma u e) legal sys ems (Hono é 1961). “Owne ship” o some hing o
“p ope y igh s” o some hing is conside ed a “bundle” o igh s. Howe e ,
he discussion o p i a e p ope y igh s is usually ocusing on he igh o
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exclusion om he good and he possibili y o aliena ing he igh o i s
u ili y. The cen al ea u e is he owne ’s powe o aliena e his p ope y
ei he in bequea hing o in ade. Wi hou he igh o aliena ion and
exclusion, he es o he bundle o igh s seems o be heo e ically
unin e es ing o he (p i a e) p ope y igh s pa adigm. Howe e , a igh ,
e en i in i sel inalienable o applying o a good only pa ly, may gi e ise
o a aluable s eam o bene i s, some o which may be alienable. In
be ween he alienable and inalienable he e a e all possible a ia ions o he
condi ionally alienable. These no comple ely alienable igh s can be as
p i a e as any comple ely alienable and excludable good. The p oblem is
no aliena ion o no , bu moni o ing and en o cemen o wha e e igh s
he e a e, on he one hand, and he dynamic consequences o ansac ion
cos s and dis ibu ional equi y, on he o he . This means ha o s udy how
p ope y igh s wo k we need o “unbundle” he bundle o igh s assumed by
he simple concep ion o “ hing owne ship”.
P ope y igh s and s akeholde s
The discussion o p ope y igh s so a has shown ha “owne ship igh s” has
as i s complemen he “no-owne ship” du ies on he one hand, and, on he o he
hand, he ole o he disin e es ed hi d pa , he s a e. F om his i is seen ha
in all si ua ions e ec i e p ope y igh s will be de ined by h ee ypes o ules:
S a u o y igh s and du ies o owne s,
Cus oma y igh s and du ies o non-owne s,
S a u o y modi ica ions o cus oma y and s a u o y igh s and du ies
o by limi ing he op ions o (land) owne s (zoning egula ions
o land use planning),
o by egula ing he beha iou o bo h owne s and non-owne s, and
o by egula ing he use o echnology.
P ope y igh s in his meaning do no only de ine owne s ( hose wi h
en o ceable igh s), bu mo e gene ally “s akeholde s” (anyone wi h a
legi ima e in e es in a esou ce). S akeholde s a e he owne s and he non-
owne s wi h a legi ima e in e es in he esou ce.
S akeholde s wi hou s a u o y p ope y igh s ep esen a di icul y o many
legal sys ems. They usually do no ha e legal s anding in cou p oceedings.
Du ing he las decades he e has been a g owing emphasis on ci izen
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pa icipa ion in he managemen o he en i onmen (Appels and 2001). This
has led o new app oaches gi ing s anding o s akeholde s based on hei
ep esen a ion o a gene al public in e es . This p ocess can be iewed as a
s ep owa ds gi ing public goods legal p o ec ion.
In an empi ical s udy o he igh s and du ies o s akeholde s in some
pa icula esou ce he sepa a e con ibu ions o se e al sou ces ha e o be
conside ed:
cus oma y beha iou owa ds he esou ce as de ined by he local cul u e,
legisla ion de ining he igh s and du ies o a holde o he pa icula
esou ce,
public legisla ion on en i onmen al p o ec ion and esou ce managemen ,
and
ideas o equi y in dealing wi h compe ing in e es s in he esou ce.
The ela i e s eng h o he a ious sou ces can be expec ed o a y om
socie y o socie y, om communi y o communi y, and, pe haps, also o
a ious ypes o goods.
Righ s o managemen
Righ s seldom come one by one. Usually hey a e de ined gene ally and will
be hough o as bundles in he sense ha he gene al desc ip ion o hem will
allow o some kind o speci ica ion in o «elemen a y» igh s. The ules o
speci ica ion, howe e , may a y. This leads o di e en bundles o igh s.
The key is he speci ica ion ule.
In a esou ce go e nance pe spec i e he mos impo an dimension o
p ope y igh s is hei ole in he managemen o esou ces. The goals o he
go e no will hen ame he speci ica ion. Based on he in e es s o he
owne , he managemen p oblem may be speci ied acco ding o:
decisions u he ing p oduc i e and p o i able ac i i ies,
consume in e es s o he bene icia y o he esou ce, and
subsis ence secu i y o esou ce use s.
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pa icula pe son. Bu wi h inc easing c owding he e will be an inc easing
numbe o ex e nali ies a ec ing o he goods in he wood. A some poin
he cos o hese ex e nali ies may be high enough o make he cos o
exclusion easonable. Assuming he c owding is eal and no jus
heo e ically possible, a wha deg ee o c owding does his happen? Real
e idence seems o be missing. All a gumen s end up wi h a poli ical “choice”
a some poin in his o y.
Bu o he p esen discussion he e is one in e es ing aspec o he
di e en choices in No way and England. In No way he igh o access o
woodland is concei ed as sepa a e om he land. In England i is bundled
wi h he land.
Ex e nali ies
An ac i i y gene a es an ex e nali y i he e is an unwan ed ma e ial
consequence o ac o s no aking pa in he ac i i ies gene a ing he
consequence. In common pool esou ces he ex e nali y is o he queuing
ype causing compe i ion among app op ia o s and dis ibu ion p oblems
be ween hose i s in he queue and hose las , bu wi hou a ec ing he
u ili y o he good app op ia ed. In club goods he ex e nali y is o he
c owding (o hinning) ype. This ype o ex e nali y p oduces dis ibu ion
p oblems in ela ion o non-membe s and causes h eshold e ec s in he
u ili y o he good. By se ing he numbe o club membe s o some hing nea
he h eshold, he u ili y o he good can be p ese ed. Bu equi y p oblems
be ween membe s and non-membe s ha e o be add essed.
I should be kep in mind ha hese a e analy ical ca ego ies. Real wo ld
goods such as pas u e, wildli e, imbe , o biodi e si y will usually be a
mix u e o he a ious ypes o analy ical goods, and hus he p ope y igh s
o he esou ce need o sol e he pa icula mix o ex e nali y p oblems ound
in each case. We mus also see ha he p oblems o exclusion and
sub ac abili y as well as he cha ac e is ics o he ex e nali ies a e shaped in
p o ound ways by he echnology used in he app op ia ion o he good. Wha
ac ually happens in o es ac i i ies depends no only on he ins i u ions bu
also on he a ailable echnology, including knowledge abou how o
ans o m esou ces in o some hing mo e desi able.
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An in e es ing case whe e echnology helped sol e he c owding p oblem is he
adio spec um whe e alloca ion o equencies o ansmission o signals
c ea ed eno mous p oblems o communica ion. New echnology combined
wi h managemen solu ions simila o mode n commons managemen has
basically esol ed he p oblem (Be ge and K anakis 2011).
Types o esou ces and ypes o owne s
I is in e es ing o no e ha he a ious ypes o esou ces hus iden i ied
ha e a ce ain co espondence o he ypes o owne s discussed abo e. In
pa icula i would seem ha a pu e club esou ce migh be sui able o
common owne ship. A pu e public esou ce would need no owne ship, and a
pu e common pool esou ce would, pe haps, equi e s a e owne ship.
T ansac ion cos s
Mos eal esou ces will con ain aspec s o mo e han one o he ypes
iden i ied. The dis inc ions a e, howe e , impo an o he design o p ope y
igh s in ha ules o ans e mus depend on he possibili y and cos o
excluding some non-owne om he esou ce ( he ansac ion cos s and
possibili ies o gene a ing ex e nali ies om en o cing a con ac o
ans e o igh s). And i mus ake in o conside a ion o wha deg ee he
esou ce (o mo e p ecisely he alue o he esou ce) is di isible. I he alue
is indi isible i is mos p obably inalienable as well (like knowledge o skill
once acqui ed). Con e sely conside a ions o en i lemen s and equi y may
lead o conside a ions o inalienable igh s. The ules de ining and
p o ec ing such igh s hen has o con o m o he ules go e ning club
esou ces and public esou ces.
P ope y Righ s Regimes
Fou ypes o egimes a e usually ound and labelled indi idual p i a e
p ope y, s a e p ope y, common p ope y and open access.
Indi idual P i a e P ope y Righ s
This is he o dina y e e yday concep o p ope y applied o p i a e ci izens.
The e is a single decision make known as he owne exe cising all igh s,
p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o an owne .
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S a e P ope y Righ s
In discussing s a e p ope y igh s i is ocused on hei public cha ac e .
They a e by some seen as being held in us o he people and should be
managed by he wise and well-in en ioned s a e bu eauc a s o he g ea es
good o he g ea es numbe o people. O he s ha e ocused on he inhe en
di icul ies in designing ules o do his e en in he bes o ci cums ances.
The many examples o s a es wi h co up se an s making s a e p ope y in o
some hing bes desc ibed as open access o e en hei own p i a e
p ope y, should wa n agains oo much ai h in he s a e in gene al (Os om
1993).
Common P ope y Righ s
In he discussions o p i a e and public p ope y, he common p ope y
igh s a e by some seen as he ideal combina ion o p i a e and s a e aspec s
o p ope y, and by o he s as ge ing he wo s combina ion o he wo. I is
well wi hin he p obable ha all a gumen s abou he i ues and
sho comings o common p ope y may be ue in some speci ic con ex and
wi h some speci ic combina ion o igh s and du ies as de ined by some
speci ic poli ical sys em. I is impossible ha all a gumen s can be ue in
gene al (Os om 1990).
Open Access Regimes
Fo a esou ce wi h open access, nobody is es ed wi h he igh s, p i ileges,
powe s and immuni ies o an owne . This means ha all bene i s om he
esou ce a e open o app op ia ion by anyone willing and able o do so. The
dis inc ion be ween open access/ no owne ship and common owne ship is
impo an . Egge sson (1990, 36) uses he label "communal p ope y" o wha
he e is called common p ope y and "common p ope y" o wha he e is called
open access (no p ope y). Also Wald on (1988) uses "common p ope y" o
deno e an open access esou ce.
The logic o he u ilisa ion o a "common p ope y esou ce" (Wa ming (1911),
Go don (1954), Sco (1955), Ha din (1968)) in he sense used by Egge sson
and Wald on applies in eali y o he esou ce wi h no owne ship and no
e ec i e egula ions, he open access esou ce. Fo a ue common p ope y
esou ce he logic will apply only unde pa icula ly speci ied ci cums ances.
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Needless o say, he open access esou ce is a anishing specie excep o he
a mosphe e and he oceans ou side e i o ial bounda ies. The a mosphe e is an
open access esou ce. Du ing he pe iod 1950-1990 se e al e o s a c ea ing a
egime go e ning he use o he a mosphe e esul ed in no hing. The e o was
mos ly uelled by a conce n o i s use by ai planes and la e on he need o
inding sui able spo s o sa elli es. By he 1990s he conce n wi h pollu ion
a ec ing clima e had eme ged. Bu he e was no sys em o go e nance. Buck
(1998) in he discussion o global commons concludes ha he a mosphe e is no
a commons, bu a common pool esou ce, o an open access esou ce in he
e ms used he e. Since Ha din (1968) such esou ces ha e been known o be
suscep ible o des uc ion. Use s o such esou ces a e con on ed wi h a social
dilemma and may easily slide in o a social ap (Os om 2005). This is he
si ua ion oday o gases u he ing a wa me clima e.
Types o ac o s, ypes o goods and ypes o egimes
The i s app oxima ion o he ques ion o who he owne s a e, in oduced
he dis inc ion be ween indi iduals, a ious ypes o collec i es, and he
s a e. This dis inc ion was behind he classi ica ion o p ope y igh s egimes
in o p i a e, common, and s a e p ope y igh s egimes. Abo e we discussed
he a ious ypes o goods one migh ind in he “ hings” owned: p i a e
goods, common pool goods and public goods.
Pu ing he concep s besides each o he like below migh sugges he e is a
one- o-one co espondence o ype o ac o , ype o good and p ope y igh s
egime. Bu ha is misleading. McKean (2000) poin s ou ha a lo o
concep ual con usion can be aced o he use o ”public” and ”p i a e” o
dis inguish ypes o ac o s, ypes o goods, and ypes o p ope y igh s
egimes.
Table 1.6
Types o ac o s, ypes o goods, and ypes o egimes
Type o Ac o Type o Good P ope y Righ s Regime
P i a e (Indi idual) P i a e P i a e
Public (Collec i e) Common Pool Common (public)
S a e (Public) Public S a e (public)
Sou ce: McKean (2000)
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Pe spec i es on sys ems o p ope y igh s
A p ope y igh s sys em can, sho and imp ecise, be de ined as an
ins i u ion de e mining: “Who will bene i how much o how long and in
wha ways om which esou ce(s)?” Answe ing he “who” ques ion will
iden i y who will legi ima ely be able o wi hd aw esou ce uni s and make
decisions abou esou ce managemen . Tha is: i de e mines who holds
p ope y igh s o e he esou ces.
Acco ding o Godelie ([1984] 1986, 76) " he concep o p ope y may be
applied o any angible o in angible eali y", and ules o p ope y igh s will
"always assume he o m o no ma i e ules, p esc ibing ce ain o ms o
conduc and p osc ibing o he s unde pain o ep ession and sanc ions". Bu
he also wa ns "P ope y only eally exis s when i is ende ed e ec i e in and
h ough a p ocess o conc e e app op ia ion." (p. 81). In o de o unde s and and
app ecia e Godelie 's wa ning he e we mus consul Sea le (1995). Sea le is no
p eoccupied wi h p ope y bu wi h how ou belie s abou he wo ld come abou ,
including belie s abou p ope y igh s (see mo e in Meidinge (2008)).
P ope y igh s in he means o p oduc ion a e usually ecognized as one o he
majo ins i u ions o a socie y. In Ma xian social science he ela ions o
p oduc ion (i.e. he dis ibu ion o p ope y igh s) is seen as one o he
majo ins i u ion o socie y de ining among o he hings he class di isions o
socie y (Els e 1985). Howe e , p ope y igh s as such seem o ha e been aken
as a he unp oblema ic.
Giddens (1981, 113), o example, w i es:
"The concep o "p ope y" was ne e analysed by Ma x, and i would be necessa y o
discuss i a some leng h we e one o a emp a sa is ac o y elucida ion o he no ion.
Fo my pu poses he e i is enough o speci y a minimal ca ego iza ion o how
"p ope y" migh be analysed. Fi s o all, p ope y has a con en , p ope y is
some hing. The chie o m o p i a e p ope y in he means o p oduc ion in class-
di ided socie ies is land, e en i he o ma ion o money capi al h ough comme ce
and ag icul u e may be a a om negligible phenomenon. In capi alism he main
o ms o p i a e p ope y a e ac o ies, o ices, machine y, e c., howe e much land
(i sel capi alized) migh emain a necessa y p oduc i e esou ce. I is di icul o
unde es ima e he sociological signi icance o his di e ence, and Ma x p o ides us
wi h a amewo k o analysing i - again, especially in sec ions o he G und isse3.
3 Ma x (2008 [1858])
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"P ope y", o cou se, also implies no ma i e igh s o con ol o ma e ial esou ces.
He e we can use ully ecognize a ia ions in he le el and ypes o alienabili y o
esou ces."
I hink Giddens' c i ique o his o ical ma e ialism migh ha e p o i ed om a
mo e ho ough unde s anding o he concep o p ope y. An h opological and
his o ical esea ch has demons a ed ha p ope y igh s sys ems a e no
immu able s uc u es. They change and ans o m in esponse o mo e p essu es
han he o ces o p oduc ion. Some imes i may be app op ia e o speak o a de
ac o de elopmen o p ope y igh s e en hough he pa icula igh s as ye a e
un ecognised by he law as p ope y igh s. This migh be he case o some
de elopmen s in o ganized labou -capi al ela ions, social secu i y; compa e e.g.
Reich (1964), o he igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o he membe s o
he mo e success ul p o essions; e.g. Pe kin (1981).
P ope y igh s conce ns he p ac ices, ules and belie s which de e mine who
will ge which bene i s om which esou ces. P ope y igh s "help man o m
hose expec a ions which he can easonably hold in his dealings wi h o he s"
(Demse z 1967, 347). This means ha p ope y igh s a e a cen al pa o
human in e ac ion. E en in si ua ions whe e he ac ual on-going in e ac ions
ha e no hing o do wi h he dis ibu ion o bene i s, one can see ha he
p e ailing p ope y igh s a ec he amewo k o in e ac ion a leas by
de ining and in using he space- ime se ing o he in e ac ion wi h pa icula
meanings. This iew o p ope y igh s means ha hey a e a cen al pa o all
social ins i u ions and ha ins i u ional change means changes in p ope y
igh s.
Eisens ad (1968, 410) de ines social ins i u ions as " egula i e p inciples
which o ganize mos o he ac i i ies o indi iduals in a socie y in o de ini i e
o ganiza ional pa e ns om he poin o iew o some o he pe ennial, basic
p oblems o any socie y o o de ed social li e".
B omley (1989a, 77-78), hinking o economic ins i u ions, inds ha hey may
be de ined as he sum o "consensual a angemen s o ag eed upon pa e ns o
beha io ha comp ise con en ions", and he " ules and en i lemen s ha
de ine - wi h bo h cla i y and ob ious sanc ion - indi idual and g oup choice
se s".
S inchcombe (1997) eminds us ha o a ule sys em o become an ins i u ions
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i needs gua dians cha ged wi h he in e es and au ho i y o moni o and en o ce
he ule sys em. A he mos elemen a y le el he people who de ise he ules
may do so hemsel es. In mode n s a es we in mos cases expec o ind a
bu eauc acy.
B omley a i es a he ins i u ional s uc u e o socie y as he undamen al
a iable o s udy in o de o unde s and he dynamic o he economic sys em.
The s udy o social ins i u ions seems o be he mee ing g ound o sociologis s
and economis s (Swedbe g 1987). Bu compa ed o e.g. Scho e (1981) and
Williamson (1975), B omley has come much close o he sociological conce ns
wi h dis ibu ions and social jus ice as undamen al aspec s o social
ins i u ions.
Acco ding o Lewis (1986, 58): "A egula i y R in he beha io o a popula ion P
when hey a e agen s in a ecu en si ua ion S is a con en ion i and only i i is
ue ha , and i is common knowledge in P ha , in any ins ance o S among
membe s o P: (1) e e yone con o ms o R; (2) e e yone expec s e e yone else
o con o m o R; (3) e e yone p e e s o con o m o R on condi ion ha o he s
do, since S is a coo dina ion p oblem and uni o m con o mi y o R is a
coo dina ion equilib ium in S."
Theo e ical s udies o p ope y igh s
The academic s udy o p ope y igh s has concen a ed on esol ing he
ela i e me i s o simple sys ems o p i a e indi idual igh s compa ed o
sys ems o common p ope y.
The wo ks, pa icula ly hose by Coase (1937, 1960), Alchian (1965), Demse z
(1967), Alchian and Demse z (1973), Williamson (1975, 1981), Posne (1972),
No h and Thomas (1973, 1977), and No h (1990) ha e been associa ed wi h
he eme gence o a p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional de elopmen
(B omley (1989a, 12), Ba dhan (1989, 3-17), Egge sson (1990, 33)).
I should be added ha also B omley, Ba dhan, and Egge sson (s ongly
in luenced by No h) a e con ibu o s o his adi ion. While B omley
(1989a) and Egge sson (1990) mainly p esen hei own app oach o
ins i u ional economics, Ba dhan (1989) dis inguishes h ee app oaches o he
ole o ins i u ions in economic de elopmen : 1) he Ma xian app oach, 2)
he CDAWN app oach (named a e Coase, Demse z, Alechian, Williamson,
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and No h) ocusing on he ole o ansac ion cos s, and 3) he impe ec
in o ma ion app oach e e ing o Acke lo and S igli z: see e.g. Acke lo
(1970) and S igli z (1985).
One impo an esul was o see he dis inc ion be ween he open access
esou ce and he esou ce managed as common p ope y (Ci iacy-Wan up
and Bishop 1975). While open access esou ces a e wi hou any managemen
egime and end o become des oyed as p edic ed by Ga e Ha din’s (1968)
me apho o “The agedy o he commons”, esou ces owned in common o
as p i a e indi idual p ope y a e indis inguishable in he heo e ically simple
si ua ion o (1) pe ec in o ma ion, and (2) no ansac ion cos s (Baland and
Pla eau 1996). Howe e , i is ecognised ha in he eal wo ld a ailable
in o ma ion is a om pe ec and ansac ion cos s a e conside able.
Pa icula ly in o ma ion abou he s a us o esou ces ends o be skewed
owa ds he sho e m and di ec ly obse able. Slow and no so easily
obse ed changes o en come as su p ises. This is as much a p oblem o local
communi y managemen as i is o p i a e indi idual and e en s a e
managemen . In addi ion, he la ge he ecosys em o be managed is, he
mo e complex is he in o ma ion a ailable. And i i is a ailable a all, he
cos o implemen ing i in a managemen sys em is conside able.
The p oblems encoun e ed in he managemen o he o es lands can be said o
ha e i s o igin in co-o dina ion p oblems cons ained on he one hand by
ecosys em dynamics and on he o he hand by conside a ions o equi y
among owne s. Due o he mul iplici y o ac i i ies and he di e si y o ac o s,
hei ac i i ies need co-o dina ion.
Collec i e ac ion e e s o ac i i ies ha equi e he co-o dina ion o e o s
by wo o mo e indi iduals (Olson (1965), Ha din (1982)). Collec i e ac ion
becomes p oblema ic o a g oup o people when hei ac ions a e
in e dependen : when one pe son’s ewa d is dependen on he ac ions o
o he s (Axel od 1984, 1997). Independen choice in an in e dependen si ua ion
is called a social dilemma. Social dilemmas a e si ua ions whe e wha seems
o be he bes cou se o ac ion om one ac o 's poin o iew will, i pu sued
by all ac o s, lead o esul s conside ed wo se han easible al e na i es. The
exac cha ac e o a social dilemma is hus shaped by alue sys ems,
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echnology and esou ce cha ac e is ics (No h 1990, Ch2).
Collec i e ac ion p oblems appea a wo le els: Fi s in ecognising he
necessi y o coo dina ion and egula ion o beha iou . Second, he p oblem
appea s in making he ules o egula ion, and o moni o ing and sanc ioning
beha iou go e ned by he ules. Designing a sys em o p ope y igh s o
some pa icula esou ce (e.g. ish) has been s udied as a p oblem in collec i e
ac ion, pa icula ly in connec ion wi h he managemen o open access
esou ces (Taylo (1987), Os om (1990), Sandle (1992), Os om, Ga dne ,
and Walke (1994)). The de elopmen o game heo y has been a
decisi e ool in hese s udies (Gin is 2000, Came e 2003).
The gene al p oblem consis s in supplying public goods in “op imal”
quan i ies. Rules and hei sys ems o moni o ing a e called ins i u ions.
Ins i u ions a e public goods. Public goods, club goods and common pool
goods a e in simple models o collec i e ac ion p one o unde -supply due o
incen i es o ee- iding. The p oblem o supplying such goods a socially
op imal le els has been ex ensi ely s udied wi h o mal models,
expe imen al s udies, and ield s udies. The e is a disc epancy be ween
heo e ical p edic ions o s anda d models and obse a ions om ield
s udies. The le els o coope a ion a e highe han expec ed e en hough less
han op imal. Expe imen al s udies con i m his and sugges ha he o mal
models could be imp o ed by including concep s such as “ us ”, “ epu a ion”,
and “ ecip oci y” (Gin is e al. (2005), Feh and Gäch e (2000), Be g,
Dickhau , and McCabe (1995)). A g oup wi h a highe le el o us , s onge
no ms abou ecip oci y, and membe s wi h be e epu a ions o being
us wo hy will mo e easily o e come social dilemmas and ake collec i e
ac ion.
In economics he e is an implici ocus on exclusion and aliena ion in he
emphasis on e iciency in he alloca ion o p oduc i e esou ces. Tie enbe g
(2000) desc ibes he s uc u e o p ope y igh s necessa y o p oduce
e icien alloca ions in a well- unc ioning ma ke economy. Well de ined
p ope y igh s ha e he ollowing cha ac e is ics:
exclusi i y – all bene i s and cos s acc ue o he owne ,
ans e abili y – all p ope y igh s should be ans e able h ough
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a olun a y exchange, and
en o ceabili y – p ope y igh s should be secu e om seizu e o
enc oachmen s by non-owne s.
The impo ance o he alloca ion o p ope y igh s has no always been
acknowledged. Coase (1960) a gues ha in a neo-classical economy (wi h
ze o ansac ion cos s) « ee» ade in asse s will always lead o an op imal
esou ce u ilisa ion. Hence, alloca ion o p ope y igh s does no ma e o
e icien ou comes, while any es ic ion on ade will be de imen al o i .
S igle (1989) labelled his esul he «Coase Theo em», and many
economis s seem o s op eading a ha poin . Howe e , Coase ecognised he
limi a ions o he “ heo em”. The assump ions equi e ha all ac o s a e
a ional and possess comple e in o ma ion abou all o he ac o ’s p e e ences
and s a egies, and ha ansac ion cos s and weal h e ec s a e ze o.
Recognising his, he conclusion by Coase (1991) and neo-ins i u ional
economis s (No h (1990), Egge sson (1990)) is ha poli ics, ins i u ions and
dis ibu ion o igh s do ma e . The impac o es ic ions on aliena ion is
a om ob ious, no e en o he e iciency o he economy.
Social science ou side economics has used a mo e empi ical app oach.
S udies o so-called "p imi i e" socie ies show elabo a e social s uc u es
egula ing decision making and u ilisa ion o common p ope y esou ces
(Be kes 1989). The de elopmen o legal sys ems o complex socie ies also
show ha he i s p oblems hey se ou o egula e among owne s o
common p ope y a e decision making on u ilisa ion and exchange o igh s o
he esou ces. The law gi es he owne s he necessa y igh s and powe s o
se up a "go e nmen " a he same ime as i p o ec s he indi idual owne
agains misuse o he powe es ed in such go e nmen s. The ac ual
p oblems o go e nance o common p ope y, and he need o he legal
backing, will depend on he numbe o co-owne s. Whe e he numbe o
owne s is small, i seldom is a p oblem (Ellickson 1991). Bu in many
coun ies, all o a la ge pa o he land is in p inciple a "commons" o in s a e
owne ship. The la ge he numbe o "owne s" he mo e he u ilisa ion p ocess
will esemble he u ilisa ion p oblems o he open access esou ce o he
highe he policing cos s will be. Fo once a go e nmen is ins alled; i s cos s
ha e o be co e ed. The p oblems o axa ion appea .
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ecognized by he law as p ope y igh s. Righ s gi en he s a us o p ope y
igh s by he law a e ea ed di e en ly om o he igh s. The p ocedu es in
cou a e di e en . The emedies g an ed he igh s holde is di e en . The
es ain shown by he s a e in in e e ing wi h hese igh s a e o en ema kable.
In con as o his he social science concep ion o p ope y also includes igh s
no cu en ly ecognized as p ope y igh s by he law, p o ided he igh s
ac ually exis and a e used in he e e yday app op ia ion o he wo ld. This
opens he possibili y o s udying changes in p ope y igh s: he eme gence o
new igh s, how people exe cise hei new igh s, and inally he ecogni ion o
hei new igh s by he legal sys em as p ope y igh s.
This concep ion o p ope y igh s also may begin o jus i y he i le chosen o
his essay: "a p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional change in he wel a e
s a e". One o he ema kable hings o he wel a e s a e is he speed wi h which
new igh s ha e eme ged and he quan i y o hem. A he ou se he igh s
g an ed by he wel a e s a e ha e no been seen as p ope y igh s, bu many o
hem ha e become so, de ac o. The p oblems o his si ua ion ha e been
deba ed a leas since Reich (1964) called a en ion o "The New P ope y":
he g an s o go e nmen la gesse which he wel a e o many people had
come o depend on. The same deba e has been going on in No way a leas
since he 1920s, uelled by legisla ion conce ning egula ion o business
ac i i ies and p ices (Ø elid 1984). Howe e , he heo e ical connec ion
be ween he p oblems deba ed and he p ope y igh s heo y we e no
ecognized. I is in e es ing o no e ha he mos in ense deba es we e p o oked
by single cases whe e he igh s and emedies o indi idual ci izens we e in
opposi ion o he igh s and needs o he socie y as in e p e ed by he
go e nmen Ø elid (1984, 110), jus as emphasized by Godelie ([1984] 1986,
81).
The p esen essay is no an a emp o sol e any o hese p oblems. Ins ead i is
an inqui y in o he concep ual ounda ions o he a ious p oblems in ol ed. I
is a kind o p elimina y s udy necessa y be o e an empi ical in es iga ion can
be unde aken. The in es iga ion can be said o be based on h ee a he
simpleminded ques ions:
is he e any egula i y in he kinds o objec s (i.e. igh s o goods) ha can be made in o p ope y?
is he e any egula i y in he ypes o subjec s which may hold p ope y ( ypes o owne s)?
is he e any egula i y in he ules delinea ing owne s om non-owne s?
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The answe o he las ques ion is al eady men ioned abo e in he commen s on
he ela ional concep ion o p ope y p oposed by Hoh eld.
The answe o he i s p oblem seems o be no. His o ical and c oss-cul u al
s udies seems o show ha while he e wi hin a socie y may be clea and
cohe en ules o wha can be made in o p ope y, o he gene al case he e a e
absolu ely no consis en classi ica ion o wha can be ecognized as p ope y
and wha canno . The mos one is able o say is ha i some hing is abundan ;
people will usually no bo he o make i in o p ope y. Con ining ou a en ion
hen o he wel a e s a e, some in e es ing aspec s o wel a e goods a e
discussed unde he labels "p i a e goods, posi ional goods, club goods, and
public goods".
The second ques ion leads us o he answe ha h ee di e en ypes o en i ies
will usually be ecognized as owne s: a s a e may hold p ope y, p ope ly
de ined and legally ecognized g oups (mos o en illages, ibes o amilies,
bu in mode n economies also companies, ounda ions and simila legal en i ies)
may hold p ope y, and indi iduals may do i . Co esponding o hese ypes o
owne s one speak o s a e p ope y, common p ope y and p i a e o
indi idual p ope y since he ules delinea ing owne s om non-owne s o en
di e o he a ious ypes o owne s.
The di icul pa , howe e , is o combine he pa ial insigh s om di e en
s udies o achie e a cohe en pic u e o how de ini ion and dis ibu ion o
igh s in e ac wi h es ablished s uc u es o p oduce a changing ins i u ional
sys em. Two essays ies o app oach his p oblem, one on he egula ion o
p o essional o ganiza ions conside ing a p o ession as a p ope y igh s
sys em, and one on he managemen o esou ces wi hou owne s (o en called
common p ope y esou ces).
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NOTE 3
E ling Be ge:
On he na u e o wel a e goods6
Wel a e goods
Wha is mean by "wel a e good" is seldom spelled ou p ecisely. I should,
howe e , no be con used wi h collec i e goods (Mishan and Mishan 1981) o
public goods (Samuelson 1954). Mishan p e e s collec i e goods as he
designa ion o wha usually a e called public goods. Since Samuelson's
de ini ion o a public good as a good whe e pe son A's consump ion o he good
did no in e e e wi h pe son B's consump ion, he public good concep has
e ol ed, bu he label, despi e Mishan's e o , has s uck.
Wel a e goods a e p o ided by a public agency o consume s ( he public) ee
o a a cos below p oduc ion cos . Hu man (1989, 1) de ines "Wel a e
commodi ies" as "encompassing goods and se ices ex ended o consume s
ee o cha ge o a a ying use ees and cha ges scaled below cos s...". This
de ini ion p esumes ha he wel a e good is a pa icula p oduc somehow
desi ed by he consume and will hus exclude goods like pensions o aid in
he o m o cash. One may, howe e , hink in e ms o a gene alized wel a e
good like "minimum s anda d o li ing" and look a he aid in cash as a public
subsidy owa d his good.
The below cos equi emen implies ha he consump ion o he wel a e good
will no ha e he same dis ibu ion as he dis ibu ion o income, which
de e mines he dis ibu ion o consump ion o goods supplied a ull cos . The
aim o p o iding a wel a e good is usually o achie e a edis ibu ion o goods,
measu ed o ins ance agains wha he dis ibu ion would ha e been wi h ull
cos p o ision, o inc ease he o al wel a e o he socie y.
The e a e se e al adi ions whe e he s udy o he dis ibu ion o wel a e goods
is impo an . Du ing he ea ly 70ies qui e some e o wen in o he
es ablishmen o social indica o s and a sys em o social accoun ing. This
es ablished a adi ion o publishing social su eys. Ano he adi ion is ocused
on he le el o li ing su eys conduc ed egula ly in se e al coun ies.
6 This is a sligh ly modi ied e sion o a pape published in 1991 in Sosiologisk Å bok 7:55-73 (Be ge 1991a).
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Comp ehensi e s udies ocusing pa icula ly on wel a e goods a e mo e
uncommon. The mos ele an s udies a e usually ocused on a single wel a e
good (e.g. Whi ehead e al. (1988) on heal h ca e se ices, Lundq is (1986)
on housing, Bloch (1974) on police se ices). Le G and (1982) p o ides an
assessmen o s udies o he dis ibu ion o public expendi u e on heal h ca e,
educa ion, housing and anspo . He no es "Un o una ely, he e is no
s a is ical e idence conce ning he dis ibu ional impac o he pe sonal social
se ices" (p.18) o di ec ed a he e alua ion o he o e all objec i e o mo e
equali y in he dis ibu ion o wel a e (e.g. Ko pi (1978), Ringen (1987)).
E en by economis s he ques ion o who ge s which bene i s wi h espec o
wel a e goods has no been add essed in he same way as he consump ion o
o dina y goods. A leas his is he imp ession con eyed by Dea on and
Muellbaue (1980) in hei su ey o consume beha iou .
Fo he p esen s udy we shall look a wel a e goods as any hing p o ided o
he consume s ( he ci izens o a s a e) a a p ice below p oduc ion p ice wi h
he in en ion o achie ing a mo e equi able dis ibu ion o wel a e among he
ci izens o he s a e.
A ypology o goods
The dis inc ion be ween public and p i a e goods (Co nes and Sandle 1986)
de ines ca ego ies o goods acco ding o whe he he consume s a e
excludable (pe son x can be excluded om he bene i s) o non-excludable
(pe son x canno be excluded om he bene i s) and whe he he e is i al y
o non- i al y in he consump ion o he good. Tha means bene i s a e
di isible o indi isible. Baumol and Oa es (1988) call his dis inc ion
deple able o undeple able. Bu hey a e no qui e consis en in hei
e minology. "An undeple able ex e nali y is hus one o which consump ion
by one indi idual does no educe he consump ion o anyone else." (no e 15,
p.19). The p e e ence he e o di isibili y s. indi isibili y has i s
backg ound in p ope y igh s heo y and he possibili y o assigning
p ope y igh s o a good.
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Table 3.1
Types o goods a ailable o he wel a e s a e
Consume s a e
- excludable - non-excludable
Bene i s a e
- di isible p i a e posi ional
- indi isible club public
Sou ce: Table 1.5 abo e
1. P i a e goods
P i a e goods a e excludable and ha e i al y in consump ion. These a e
he o dina y consume goods which one can buy in a ma ke .
2. Public goods
Public goods a e non-excludable and ha e non- i al y in consump ion. A ypical
example o a public good may be he p o ec ion gi en by NATO's lee o
T iden subma ines wi h nuclea weapons. Some would pe haps a he call he
nuclea weapons a public bad, bu he logic o he a gumen is symme ical o
good o bad. The na u e o he pu e public good is such ha i he good is
p oduced a all, i will be a ailable o all whe he hey pay o i o no . I
NATO is able o p o ec one coun y, all coun ies will be p o ec ed. This is so
because he e is no way o , ei he heo e ically o p ac ically, excluding
any pe son o p o ince om he p o ec ion. The ealiza ion ha his was
he case o an impo an class o goods, and he concomi an ee ide
p oblem in collec i e ac ion (Olson 1965), led o impo an heo e ical
de elopmen s o public policy (Co nes and Sandle 1986).
This de ini ion o public goods means ha he e a e jus h ee ways a public
good can appea . A public good (o bad) may
appea by i sel as na u al phenomena (e.g. a beau i ul sunse o a iolen
s o m), o i may
appea as a by-p oduc (unin ended consequence o ex e nali y) om
o he social p ocesses (e.g. solida i y o anomie), o i may
appea because e e yone (o a leas enough people) con ibu es
olun a ily o by o ce ( axa ion) o i s p oduc ion. Sociologis s ha e
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concen a ed mo e on he p oblem o how public goods come o be
p o ided han how hey a e consumed. (Fo de elopmen s in he heo y
o collec i e ac ion see e.g. Ha din (1982) o Ma well, Oli e , and P ahl
(1988)).
This de ini ion o pu e public goods also implies ha hey a e no wel a e
goods as de ined abo e. They a e deli e ed o he ci izen a hei ull p ice,
collec ed by he gene al ax. Only i he e is inequali y in he consump ion o a
pu e public good and only i his inequali y is no a esul o ee choice by he
consume , can he good be called "a wel a e good" (pe haps s aining he
e m a bi ) since hen he consume no being able o consume acco ding o his
o he p e e ences will ha e, h ough axes, con ibu ed a subsidy o he good
consumed by all hose being able o consume acco ding o will.
3. Club goods
Those goods which a e nei he pu e public goods no pu e p i a e goods a e
called impu e public goods. An in e es ing ype o public good ound bo h
among pu e and impu e, is he me i good. The basic cha ac e is ic o a me i
good is ha i e lec s he p e e ences o an eli e o uling g oup and is
imposed on (o p ohibi ed om) indi idual consume s Judge (1979, 375).
Goods which a e excludable and a leas pa ly non- i al in consump ion
ha e been called club goods by Co nes and Sandle (1986). I was called
oll good by Os om and Os om (1977). Pa ly non- i al means ha he ini ial
si ua ion is one o non- i al y. I can be called a club good because o he
na u e o he exclusion mechanism. The exclusion mechanism is like a
bounda y. You can pa ake he club good once you a e wi hin he bounda y.
Once you a e inside he bounda y he good has he cha ac e o a pu e public
good. As long as he numbe o membe s in he club is below " he ca ying
capaci y" o he club, he club good is a ailable o all. The exp ession
"ca ying capaci y" is delibe a e and alludes o he ecological concep and i s
ela ion o c owding and he agedy o he common. Bu as he numbe o
membe s inc ease c owding will lead ei he o de e io a ing quali y o he
good o compe i ion o access o he good. A dec easing numbe o
membe s may lead o analogue p oblems o hinning: he e will be oo ew
o sha e he cos o keeping up he quali y o he se ices and e en ually
compe i ion o exi be o e he ma ke in membe ships collapses comple ely
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(e.g. selling he house be o e he p ice goes down oo a ). The oad sys em
illus a es he p oblem o c owding. The oad sys em oday is a club whe e
i le o a ca (and some imes willingness o pay he oad- oll) is he
membe ship ca d (and explains Os oms' choice o " oll good" as hei e m
o he concep ). As he numbe o membe s who use he club inc eases,
c owding leads o slowdown in a ic (de e io a ing quali y o he p oduc )
and dange ous d i ing (compe i ion).
I is wo h emphasizing he necessi y o membe s o en e and use he club.
Unlike pu e public goods, club goods ha e a olun a y elemen in so a as i
equi es an in en ional ac o he consume o app op ia e he good.
4. Posi ional goods
Goods wi h i al y in bene i s, and whe e he consume is a leas pa ly non-
excludable, a e no , like club goods, explici ly labelled by Co nes and Sandle
(1986). One migh pe haps call hem "impu e p i a e goods". Taylo (1987,
6), discussing he de ini ion o public goods, obse es: "di isibili y does no
en ail excludabili y, al hough impo an examples o non-excludable, di isible
goods a e no easy o come by: economis s ha e sugges ed such examples as a
ga den o lowe s, whose nec a can be app op ia ed by indi idual bees bu
pa icula bees canno be excluded om consump ion." The pu e case o a
non-excludable and di isible good may no be ound o exis in i sel , bu hen
ew impo an goods do. Ac ual social con ex s may impose he cha ac e is ic
o non-excludabili y on any kind o di isible good. My choice o label,
posi ional goods, is inspi ed by Hi sch ([1976] 1978). Hi sch ha e no p ecise
de ini ion o a posi ional good. He says "The posi ional economy, ela es o all
aspec s o goods, se ices, wo k, posi ions, and o he social ela ionships ha
a e ei he (1) sca ce in some absolu e o socially imposed sense o (2) subjec
o conges ion o c owding h ough mo e ex ensi e use." (p. 27). He inds o
example ha " a ic conges ion can be seen as only a special case o he
wide phenomenon o social conges ion, which in u n is a majo ace o social
sca ci y." (pp.3). His concep ion o a posi ional good ob iously con ains bo h
club and posi ional goods as de ined abo e. The posi ion aken he e is ha
he e is a majo and consequen ial dis inc ion be ween he sca ci ies o club
goods and he sca ci ies o posi ional goods. Since he one ype o good whe e
he (dis)u ili y o spa ial c owding is he main a ioning me hod, has been
called club goods, i seems con enien o pu he label "posi ional good " on
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he o he whe e he (dis)u ili y o wai ing ime in a queue is he main a ioning
me hod. These dis inc ions will be elabo a ed below. Pa ial non-
excludabili y means ha he si ua ion usually is conside ed o be one o
excludabili y, bu may unde ce ain ci cums ances app oach one o non-
excludabili y. Non-excludabili y may, howe e , be mo e pe asi e also o
wha s anda d economic heo y would call p i a e goods han one commonly
is led o belie e.
A he ou se hen, he posi ional good, in a echnical sense, is a pu e p i a e
good. Bu du ing i s consump ion some hing happens o make i some hing else.
G ano e e and Soong (1986) in es iga e consume in e ac ions in he
consump ion o p i a e goods and iden i y a " o wa d bandwagon e ec " i
someone buys a p oduc because o he s al eady ha e i , and a " e e s
bandwagon e ec " i someone s ops buying because oo many people ha e
bough i . These a e p ecisely he p ocesses Hi sch ([1976] 1978) associa ed
wi h he posi ional economy. In hei ex eme o m we ind he p ocesses
ep esen ed in he po la ch ce emony o some p imi i e peoples as well as he
phenomena in mode n socie y Veblen ([1899] 1976) desc ibes as "conspicuous
was e" and "conspicuous consump ion".
The consequences o consume in e ac ions a e such ha e en hose who do
no in end o consume, o e en ha e no conside ed consump ion o he
p oduc s, sha e some o he bene i s (o losses). The consume in e ac ions
c ea e he posi ional economy and make he good non-excludable: no one can
escape being classi ied as ei he ha ing he good o as no ha ing he good.
Wha happens seems o be some kind o symbolic ans o ma ion o he
good. The pu e p i a e good is ans o med o a symbol and imbued wi h a
meaning sha ed by all ele an ac o s.
Bou dieu ([1979] 1984) explo es p ecisely his p ocess o consump ion in his
s udy o how he cul u al p oduc ion o a mee s, h ough he "acquisi ion" o
objec s o a , he cul u al p oduc ion o as e o p oduce a sys em o powe
ela ions whe e he dis inc ions o as e a e used o elabo a e and p ese e class
di e ences: "Tas e classi ies, and i classi ies he classi ie . Social subjec s
classi ied by hei classi ica ions, dis inguish hemsel es by he dis inc ions
hey make." (p.6). The p ecise quali ies o an objec o a become mani es
only h ough i s consump ion. The con ex o consump ion is e lec ed bo h in
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he posi ioning o he consume and in he posi ioning o he non-consume s.
A simple example o he same p ocess is he choice o locali y o housing
in a ci y. The ela i e a ac i eness o a ious loca ions is ansla ed in o
p ices which hen clea s he queues o he a ious loca ions. Those willing
and able o pay he mos ge he mos a ac i e loca ions. Those wi h he leas
abili y o pay ge he leas a ac i e loca ions. A housing lo has a posi ion
in he o e all posi ional economy. No one can op ou o his. Simila ly he
la es ashion in o example clo hing (o ca s, o ideas, o ...) di ides he o al
popula ion in o hose adop ing ea ly and hose adop ing la e - o ne e .
I ca ying capaci y is he key concep o clubs, queues o wai ing imes
a e he key o posi ional goods (and bads). A isible queue is also a signal o
o he po en ial consume s ha he e is some hing o alue. Some people will
join a queue jus because o ha . O he s will s a lea ing he queue i hey
see i is ge ing oo long. In he ma ke , howe e , queues a e no isible, hey
a e ansla ed in o p ices. An unexpec ed high p ice is also a signal ha
some hink his is an i em o unexpec ed good alue. Some people will buy
because o he high p ice. O he s will decide no o buy because o he high
p ice. The o wa d bandwagon e ec would co espond o a posi i e u ili y
om paying a high p ice (o being i s in he queue), while he e e s
bandwagon e ec would co espond o a nega i e u ili y om paying a low
p ice (o coming la e in he queue). To some people i is mo e impo an o
be "a an -ga de" han o be economically e icien . To o he people i is
mo e impo an o a oid appea ing cheap.
The na u e o wel a e goods is poli ically de e mined.
One conclusion om he discussion abo e is ha pu e public goods canno be
wel a e goods as we concei e o wel a e goods. The discussion o p i a e s.
public goods in economics has ocused on he na u e o he public good. In mos
cases he na u e o he public good seems o ha e been aken o g an ed: ei he
i was echnologically de e mined (i would be oo expensi e o exclude
consume s) o inhe en in he p oduc i sel (a beau i ul sunse canno be di ided
and people canno be excluded in any sys ema ic way). Bu economics has
no sys ema ically dis inguished be ween pu e public goods, club goods and
posi ional goods. Thus hey ha e ended o see wel a e goods as some kind o
impu e public good.
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The app oach he e is di e en . Wel a e goods may - a he ou se - be o any
ype excep he pu e public good. Usually he e is no hing inhe en in he
wel a e p oduc i sel which de e mines whe he i is a p i a e, a club o a
posi ional good. In mos cases he ques ion o wha ype a wel a e good shall
belong o, is socially and poli ically de ined. I will a ely be a ques ion o
echnology o inhe en quali ies. I may e en be ans o med in o a pu e
public good and hus lea e he g oup o wel a e goods. I p ima y school by
law is p o ided o e e yone, and e e yone can be o ced o a end, and he
schools can accommoda e all pupils ee o cha ge, hen he school sys em is
jus as pu ely public as he mili a y p o ec ion gi en by a nuclea s ike o ce.
Places o e e yone secu e non- i al y in consump ion and he law making
schooling compulso y secu es non-excludabili y. O so i is supposed o be.
The aim o he wel a e s a e was o p o ide a se ies o basic se ices in he o m
o pu e public goods.
Howe e , he inc easing p oblems, wi hin all wel a e s a es, o p o iding bo h
enough o he p omised goods and o achie ing an equi able dis ibu ion o
ha which is p o ided, sugges s ha he e may be some un ecognized
p oblems inhe en in he whole unde aking. Nichols, Smolensky, and Tideman
(1971) ind ha p o iding se e al queues di e ing only in he combina ions
o wai ing ime / use ees equi ed by he consume s, may lead o subs an ial
e iciency gains. Bu hey also obse e: "Ou p oposal may p oduce se ious
equi y p oblems ha canno be o e come." "I equi y means he same
ea men o all pe sons, i may no be possible o imp o e social wel a e by
inc easing he numbe o money- ime pai ings. I , howe e , unequal ea men
o unequals is equi able, which seems much mo e easonable, hen he e a e
unexploi ed possibili ies o imp o ing social wel a e." (p. 322).
Since a wel a e good may be o any ype as discussed abo e, i would seem
easonable o suppose ha he p oblems migh o igina e in un ecognized
di e ences in he consump ion p ocesses and hei eedbacks o he a ious
ypes o p oduc s.
To ge a handle on his we need o elabo a e on possible consequences o he
consump ion p ocess.
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The consume gene a ed ex e nali ies o club wel a e goods a e expe ienced in
eal ime and depend no only on he numbe o consume s bu also on how
close his numbe is o he ca ying capaci y o he club. Once he e ec o
c owding se s in, he o al social cos will inc ease exponen ially wi h he
numbe o consume s Baumol and Oa es (1988, 90).
I would seem ha he e o o ound a new u ban sociology on he concep
o collec i e consump ion migh ind some jus i ica ion in he exis ence o
consume gene a ed unin ended consequences associa ed wi h he consump ion
o he a ious club goods and bads ound in "a ela i ely la ge, dense and
pe manen se lemen o socially he e ogeneous indi iduals.", as Wi h (1938,
8) de ined he ci y. The "club" cha ac e o u ban a eas and he "club" cha ac e
o many o he goods which make u ban a eas a ac i e o people, should be
aken o quali y he asse ion o Saunde s (1986, 288) ha "I is ime, in sho ,
o de elop a non-spa ial u ban sociology which, while ecognizing he
empi ical signi icance o spa ial a angemen s, does no seek o ele a e hese
a angemen s o he s a us o a dis inc heo e ical objec ." (see also O nes
(1986)).
On he p oblem o scale
Social sys ems wo k di e en ly in small communi ies and in la ge ci ies.
The e is a scale measu ed in numbe o people. Likewise go e ning a la ge
e i o y is di e en om go e ning a much smalle e i o y. The e is a scale
in numbe o squa e kilome es. One needs o be sensi i e o he scale o
uni s one s udies (Gibson, Os om, and Ahn 1998). The p oblem o scale
becomes mo e in e es ing when we combine size (a ea and popula ion) wi h
a ious managemen sys ems and he echnology employed in deli e ing
wel a e goods and se ices. Le us conside es ablishing and unning a
hospi al. I will supply se ices o a dis ic whe e popula ion size and a el
ime o each cus ome is a ounda ion. F om expe ience one knows how many
illnesses o a ious kinds, and how many may be hu in acciden s o
a ious kinds. Despi e a ia ion in hese numbe s, he numbe o beds needed
and he numbe o s a can be es ima ed.
The p oblem o scale appea s as one ealizes ha some ills and some
damages equi e specialized knowledge om he s a . And no only specialized
knowledge: o some ypes o damages he s a needs membe s wi h
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specialized skills ha equi e egula p ac ice. How la ge a popula ion will be
needed o supply a hea su geon wi h one pa ien a week?
Supply o p ima y educa ion is easie . Bu also he e one encoun e s di icul
choices. Du ing he las decades he numbe o child en pe amily has
declined. As he numbe o child en pe eache declines he cos s ays he
same. Funding he school becomes a p oblem. Du ing he same ime he
equi emen o he eaching has changed equi ing be e educa ed eache s.
This usually means mo e eache s. Ou side u ban a eas declining supply o
pupils and inc easing demand o he eache s has led o closu e o small
schools and long anspo o pupils. A he co e o his de elopmen lies he
e olu ion o knowledge. Hund ed yea s ago a dis ic wi h one doc o (plus a
nu se and a midwi e) and one eache (plus an assis an o wo) would p o ide
heal h and educa ion o he local popula ion. Today a eam o doc o s (plus
many nu ses), and a s a o eache s will be needed o do he same in he same
dis ic .
Simila p ocesses a e aking place in he co e o he municipal adminis a ion,
basically d i en by na ional legisla ion. The esul is an inc easing and well
educa ed s a . The numbe o p oblems anscending he single municipali y
seems o be g owing. One solu ion is he amalgama ion o municipali ies o
c ea e su icien ly la ge adminis a i e uni s. This encoun e s p oblems o
communi y iden i y. Ano he solu ion is o c ea e special dis ic s dedica ed
o sol ing one p oblem. This encoun e s p oblems o democ a ic accoun abili y.
A di e en scales one encoun e s di e en p oblems.
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NOTE 4
E ling Be ge:
P i a iza ion and he na u e o wel a e goods
In oduc ion
Fo some ime s udies on " he c isis o he wel a e s a e" has been a g ow h
indus y. An ea ly con ibu o was O'Conno (1973), see also OECD (1981),
and Mish a (1984).
The s a egies in ol ed in he a ious a emp s o es uc u ing he wel a e
s a e has also been ex ensi ely s udied (Ringen 1987). One s a egy has been
called p i a iza ion. Whe he his is a s a egy o es uc u ing o o
disman ling he wel a e s a e, is one o he issues discussed. I seems likely i
may be used ei he way. The aim he e is o see i i can be used cons uc i ely
in eshaping he wel a e s a e.
Be o e we can say any hing abou his, i will be necessa y o in es iga e he
di e en o ms o p i a iza ion as well as he na u e o he a ious wel a e
goods p o ided by he wel a e s a e. To do his a gene al ypology o goods
will be used o classi y wel a e goods as ei he public, p i a e, club o
posi ional goods, and he cha ac e o di e en unin ended consequences
(ex e nal e ec s) a ising om he consump ion o he di e en kinds o goods
o make wo poin s:
ha he ype o any wel a e good is poli ically de e mined a he han
echnically, and
ha i one wan s o change he supply o a pu e public good o
some hing mo e like a p i a e good, he e a e wo oads o p i a iza ion:
by way o club good o by way o posi ional good.
While he ex e nal e ec s a e de e mined by p oduc speci ic cha ac e is ics
and consume p e e ences, he consump ion p ocess o he good is o ganized
by poli ical decisions. I a decision make wan o choose a oad o
p i a iza ion, he basic phenomenon he ough o ake in o conside a ion, would
be he kind o unin ended consequences ha a ise om he consump ion o he
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good. I he choice o how o go abou he p i a iza ion does no conside he
possible unin ended consequences o he p ocess i o ganizes, he nega i e
e ec s may be agg a a ed o he posi i e e ec s inhibi ed.
Be o e we discuss his any u he we ha e o p esen a backg ound o he
wel a e s a e and a bi mo e on wha p i a iza ion means.
The wel a e s a e
A la ge numbe o s udies ha e ocused on he wel a e s a e. By " he s a e" o
" he go e nmen " i will in his essay be mean a sys em esponsible ac o
(Be ge 1986), bo h a he local le el and a he s a e le el, es ablished by an
elec o a e ep esen ing and ac ing in lieu o " he people". I has only been
possible o consul a ew which seem mo e ele an han o he s (Le G and
(1982), Le G and and Robinson (1976), Le G and and Robinson (1984), Klein
and O'Higgins (1985), Ringen (1987)).
The wel a e s a e is de ined in ela ion o o he s a es by he ange o wel a e
goods i deli e s and he c i e ia o eligibili y. A s a e is a wel a e s a e i i
ac i ely ailo s he wel a e goods i deli e s and in e enes in he dis ibu ion o
o he goods (cash ans e s and consume p o ec ion legisla ion) in o de o
inc ease he equali y and wel a e among i s ci izens.
The apid g ow h o he numbe and quali y o he wel a e goods as well
as he ac i e in e en ions in he dis ibu ion o o he goods has since he la e
six ies un in o inc easing p oblems p ima ily in e ms o inding ax e enues
o pay o i , bu also in e ms o a mo e ocal opposi ion owa ds he a ious
egula ions laying down es ic ions on he beha iou o ci izens.
Many o he a acks on he wel a e s a e a e ei he di ec ed owa ds he cos
side: he public doesn' ge hei money's wo h, o he supply side: he s a e is
an ine icien p oduce o he desi ed goods. O en he wo a e connec ed and
he conclusion, usually, is p i a iza ion.
Bo h he a gumen s ph ased in e ms o a desi e o e icien p oduc ion and
hose conce ned abou he bene i o he consume lea e ou he dis ibu ional
dimension. Ye , i is he dis ibu ion o wel a e goods, he ci izen cum
consume mos easily eac o. The "unwo hy" ecipien s o social secu i y, he
"unjus " me ing ou o igh s, he inexplicable denial o help; each inciden
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con ibu es o o m an image o he wel a e s a e sha ed by he public. I he
same dis ibu ional consequences ollow om a p i a e sec o p ocess, hey a e
no discussed in he same e ms o equi y and jus ice. I seems ha om
he wel a e s a e a he ew ques ionable decisions a e needed o weigh up o
all he igh ones. I seems ha a suspicion easily a ises among many
" axpaye s" ha he "w ong" g oups bene i mo e han hey should. "The basic
p oblem is ha he poli ical sys em canno i sel gua an ee o p oduce he
alues equi ed o assu e loyal y o i s policies." Taylo -Gooby (1985, 9).
One eac ion owa d his p oblem is p i a iza ion.
P i a iza ion
P i a iza ion, howe e , is no a well-de ined concep . King (1989, 51) o
example no es ha "Opinion polls h oughou 1989 consis en ly showed ha
mos o e s wan ed mo e money spen on public se ices, no less; hey also
showed, in a ema kable e e sal, ha , aced wi h he p i a iza ion o basic
indus ies like wa e and elec ici y, o e s now wan mo e s a e owne ship o
indus y a he han any mo e p i a iza ion."
The s a emen would imply ha p i a iza ion simply is he opposi e o
na ionaliza ion: p i a iza ion means less s a e owne ship o indus y. While
his in e p e a ion is bo h alid and impo an , aken as he e e yday
ideological use o he concep , i can only be used as backd op o a mo e in
dep h discussion o he ac ual p ocesses and s a egies in ol ed in he
es uc u ing and e o ming o he mode n wel a e s a e.
This is by no means he only possible poin o depa u e o a discussion o
he concep . Senne (1977)'s s udy o "The all o public man" migh sugges i
had some hing o do wi h u ban cul u e and li e-s yles, and some o he
pape s in Gama nikow e al. (1983) migh sugges ha i had some hing o do
wi h gende poli ics. I may be ha in he la ge pic u e he e a e connec ions
be ween he p i a iza ion-p ocess in he wel a e s a e and he cul u al and
poli ical issues hese au ho s discuss, bu his possibili y has o be in es iga ed
elsewhe e.
One impo an dis inc ion is be ween p i a iza ion seen as a cul u al
de elopmen wi h implica ions o he legi ima ion o he wel a e s a e as i has
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been implemen ed by pa icula s a es (Taylo -Gooby 1985) and p i a iza ion
seen as he opposi e o na ionaliza ion wi h implica ions o s a e ac i i y in
he way o p o ision, subsidiza ion o egula ion Le G and and Robinson
(1984, 3).
O en, howe e , he a en ion is ocused a he na owly on he s a e p o ision
o goods. One hen discusses p i a iza ion in e ms o p ope y igh s in he
means o p oduc ion, he o ganiza ion o p oduc ion and he sys em o
inancing he goods (e.g. K is ensen (1984), Judge and Knapp (1985)).
E en so, he issue is a om simple. Wha e e he ocus o a discussion,
public deba es o p i a iza ion usually de elops on se e al le els: poli ically,
whe e p i a ized s ands as a pole agains socialized; economically, whe e
ma ke p ocesses a e seen as p o iding goods mo e e icien ly han
bu eauc acies; and cul u ally, whe e p i a ized o some will be associa ed
wi h he ca ing image and non-p o i wo k o cha i able o ganiza ions in
compa ison wi h he "non-ca ing" image o s a e bu eauc acies, while i o
o he s will be associa ed wi h he g eedy akings o unsc upulous
businessmen. Too o en he he o ic o he deba e is simpli ied making i in o an
ideological deba e ha king back o ea lie imes and he le - igh s uggle o e
he s a us o p i a e p ope y.
While p ope y igh s - in e ms o igh s o con ol income gene a ing asse s -
ce ainly is a cen al issue in he s uggle o d aw he line mo e o less na owly
a ound he ac i i ies o he s a e, a mo e ca e ul s udy o he a ious si ua ions
whe e he concep o p i a iza ion has been in oduced, e eals ha he eali y
is a he complex (Kielland 1986).
Lo en zen (1987) iden i ies six a ie ies o p i a iza ion:
1. P i a iza ion o esponsibili y (ideological/cul u al shi in he iew
o wha legi ima ely is a public conce n),
2. P i a iza ion o cos s (mo ing in he di ec ion o ull consume
paymen o a p e iously ee o subsidized good),
3. Ma ke p i a iza ion (unde supply o publicly p o ided goods opens
oppo uni ies o p i a e supply o he same),
4. Con ac ing ou (pu ing ou o ende speci ic se ices o p oduc s wan ed
o public consump ion),
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5. P i a iza ion o adminis a ion ( ans e o adminis a i e asks om public
o non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions o p i a e pe sons),
6. P i a iza ion o se ices (p i a e supply o new ypes o se ices simila o
some o hose supplied by he go e nmen ).
I one con ines he in e es o he p o ision o goods, one can dis inguish 3
asks which ha e o be conside ed: 1) who pays o he p oduc , 2) who
o ganizes he p oduc ion p ocess, and 3) who owns he means o p oduc ion.
The classi ica ion is he e aken om K is ensen (1984) who e e s i back o
Sa as (1982).
Fo each o hese one may simpli y o one o wo possible ways o loca ing he
esponsibili y o pe o ming he ask: go e nmen o p i a e. This gi es 8
di e en combina ions o esponsibili y, six o which a e a mix o bo h
go e nmen and p i a e. Only wo p ocesses a e "pu e", one all p i a e ( he
"ma ke " solu ion), he o he all go e nmen (public p o ision).
I is ai ly easy o ind examples o all six mixed ypes. Kielland (1986) in
igu e 3 p o ides he ollowing examples:
Table 4.1
Examples o "mixed economies" in he p o ision o wel a e goods
WHO PAYS
FOR
PRODUCTS
WHO ORGANIZES
PRODUCTION
WHO OWNES
MEANS OF
PRODUCTION
EXAMPLE OF MIXED
GOVERNMENT/PRIVATE ACTIVITY
GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT PRIVATE A public oad buil by a p i a e cons uc ion
company
GOVERNMENT PRIVATE GOVERNMENT Physicians in p i a e p ac ice wi h pa ien s in
public hospi als
GOVERNMENT PRIVATE PRIVATE No wegian p i a e schools
PRIVATE GOVERNMENT GOVERNMENT A esea ch o ice payed by a p i a e company
wo king in a uni e si y depa men
PRIVATE GOVERNMENT PRIVATE A public oll oad buil by a p i a e cons uc ion
company
PRIVATE PRIVATE GOVERNMENT Physicians in p i a e p ac ice wi h pa ien s in
public hospi als payed by p i a e heal h
insu ance
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The ques ion o why mixed p ocesses o p o iding wel a e goods p oli e a es
a he han he mo e single-minded o ganiza ion o ac i i ies in an all p i a e
o all go e nmen p ocess, is one in iguing ques ion which ough o be
in es iga ed mo e in dep . One easonable explana ion migh be ha his way
one can u ilize mo e consciously he desi able p ope ies o ma ke
compe i ion wi hou sac i icing he o e all objec i es o equi y and
edis ibu ion in he p o ision o wel a e goods.
Fo he es o he discussion we shall con ine ou in e es o his mos limi ed
in e p e a ion o he p i a iza ion issue: ha agen s o he han he
go e nmen o ganize, inance and/o p oduce se ices whe e his o me ly
was done by he go e nmen , o , al e na i ely, whe e some people hink i
ough o be done by i . In o he wo ds, p i a iza ion will loosely be aken o
mean he opposi e o na ionaliza ion.
The consume needs
While he consume is a cen al cha ac e in economics, i is a a he new
p eoccupa ion in sociology (Saunde s (1986), O nes (1988)). This pic u e is
changing apidly. The consume pe spec i e is eme ging as a majo app oach
in he s udy o he wel a e socie y (Le G and and Robinson (1976), Fos e
(1983), Page (1983), He igs ad (1986), To p (1988))
E en i he consume is a cen al cha ac e in economic heo y, i is no an
unp oblema ic one. Galb ai h (1973, 29) no es: "In he neoclassical sys em
consump ion is a gene ally lawless hing o be maximized by any hones and
socially benign means. I is also a cu iously ouble- ee enjoymen . Though
mus be gi en o he selec ion o goods and se ices. No p oblem a ises in
hei use. None o his is ue, and wha is omi ed om iew deeply shapes
he pa e ns o indi idual, amily and social li e."
Wha he no es as he gene al case is o cou se doubly ue o wel a e goods.
One who has ied o dig in o his ques ion is Tibo Sci o sky in his s udy o
"The Joyless Economy. An inqui y in o human sa is ac ion and consume
dissa is ac ion." Fo wel a e goods such as he oad sys em and he hospi als,
Sci o sky (1976, 108-112)'s dis inc ion be ween p oduc s which elie e pain
and p oduc s which gi e pleasu e is use ul. The demand o p oduc s
which elie e pain, such as hospi al se ices, is easily sa iable.
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"To s a ou wi h he simples case, i a is well-es ablished ac ha
consume s' demand o almos all na owly de ined biological necessi ies is
sa iable, in he sense o ha ing a low income elas ici y o demand and,
p esumably, an uppe limi . F om his one can always in e ha he biological
needs o which hese necessi ies ca e a e also sa iable. The desi e o escape
physical pain s ops; and he pain s ops when he biologically de e mined need
is sa is ied. Ve y simila o he com o s ha elie e physical pain a e hose ha
elie e a igue, elimina e bo he , o sa e ime." (Sci o sky 1976, 112).
The oad sys em is supposed o sa is y he desi e o ge om poin A o poin
B. The be e he oads, he sho e he ime used a elling will be. Roads a e
made mainly o sa e ime on he ip om A o B.
As seen om a basic consume 's iewpoin , oads and hospi als a e e y
simila in ha hey a e no consumed o gi e joy o he consume , bu o
sa is y a compelling need. On ha accoun a leas hey a e di e en om
schools. Child en do no usually see schools as a sou ce o pleasu e, nei he
a e hey designed o elie e pain. One may pe haps iew schooling as an
acquisi ion wi h he po en ial o gi ing pleasu e.
I one dis inguishes be ween wel a e goods elie ing pain and wel a e goods
gi ing pleasu e, i would seem easonable o expec consume s o eac in
di e en ways o in e e ence wi h hei consump ion o hem. The de ini ion
o luxu ies and necessi ies in s anda d consume economics (Dea on and
Muellbaue 1980, 17-19) seems o esemble he dis inc ion be ween goods
gi ing pleasu e and goods gi ing com o . Luxu ies a e goods ha ake an
inc easing sha e o he budge as he income inc eases. Necessi ies a e
goods ha ake a dec easing sha e o he budge as he income inc eases.
In e io goods a e goods ha a e consumed in dec easing quan i ies
absolu ely as incomes inc ease. Sci o sky (1976), howe e , inds ha he
dis inc ion be ween luxu ies and necessi ies, hough o mally de ined
s aigh o wa d by he income elas ici ies o demand, in eali y a e social
cons uc s whe e one pe iod's luxu y becomes he nex pe iod's necessi y. He
inds i mo e in e es ing o concen a e on he consume sa is ac ion.
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P oduc ion, consump ion, and exchange
The heo e ical impo ance o he dis inc ion be ween p oduc ion and
consump ion has been ex ensi ely discussed. Saunde s (1986) concludes ha i
is bo h impo an and necessa y o s udy consump ion in i sel and no only as
an in eg a ed pa o p oduc ion.
The dis inc ion be ween club goods and posi ional goods is also in e es ing
because i coincides wi h one pa icula classi ica ion o he ela ion be ween
p oduc ion and consump ion. This classi ica ion is based on he obse a ion
ha some imes p oduc ion may be sepa a ed om consump ion and some imes
no . The p oduc ion o commodi ies is ob iously sepa a ed om hei
consump ion. Mili a y p o ec ion, on he o he hand, has o be consumed as i
is p oduced. The classi ica ion is u he based on di e en ia ing be ween
acquisi ion and app op ia ion as di e en aspec s o consump ion. Also o
hese wo p ocesses we can see ha hey some imes a e insepa able and
some imes no . The dis inc ion be ween he club good and he public good
depends on he exis ence o an exclusion mechanism. I de ence is aken as
an example o a pu e public good he e is no way o sepa a ing p oduc ion,
acquisi ion and app op ia ion. Fo he club good, on he o he hand, he
consume has o make an ac i e e o o app op ia e he good. I he club
exis s and he consume is a membe , he good can, om he iewpoin o he
consume , be said o be bo h p oduced and acqui ed. Once you ha e a ca , o
a elephone, o a ele ision se , you a e a membe o he club and ha e ee
access o he good. No one can exclude you. Bu s ill you ha e o do some hing
ac i ely o app op ia e he good. You ha e o si in he ca and d i e, o you
ha e o u n on he elly and wa ch he p og am o you ha e o dial he numbe
o ano he elephone owne and alk. The same dis inc ion applies o he
di e ence be ween p i a e goods and posi ional goods. I is easy o see ha he
acquisi ion o g oce ies is no he same as app op ia ing hem, and ha i is
impossible o acqui e a pe sonal se ice, like an ope a ion in a hospi al wi hou
app op ia ing i .
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The ini ial No wegian esponse o conges ion p oblems has been o build
mo e oads and make he ca mo e expensi e. Bu unds ha e no been
su icien o build enough oads. New acili ies like unnels and b idges a e
now ou inely (pa -) inanced by ees payable by all passing he oll-boo hs
con olling he en ance o he new acili y. A ound Be gen and Oslo a " ing-
wall" o oll-boo hs has been e ec ed pa ly o inance ex ensions o he
highway sys em, bu also pa ly o inance be e mass ansi sys ems. This
will, in addi ion o supply unds o ex ending he oad sys em, also amelio a e
conges ion by inc easing he p i a e cos o con ibu ing o i .
Fo he Oslo " ing-wall" he p oposal was o cha ge o each ip by means o
an elec onic accoun ing sys em. This would make access o he s ee s o Oslo
a p i a e wel a e good o hose li ing ou side Oslo as long as he incomes o
he ees we e below he " eal cos " o he oad sys em. The p o es s ha e
been e y s ong. The opposi ion seems o be pa e ned acco ding o how
much each ac ually uses he oad sys em. A i s one will in oduced a la a e
pe mon h, hal -yea o yea making access o Oslo a club good (a club wi hin
he club). The in en ion is s ill o go o he pe ip cha ge ( hough wi h big
quan i y deduc ions on he pe ip p ice).
3. P ima y schools
Unlike hospi als and oads schools a e no consumed o sa is y an
immedia e compelling need. I is consumed in o de o enjoy a u u e bene i , o
so mos pa en s would a gue in on o hei child en. As long as schooling can
be main ained as a pu e public wel a e good, all is well.
Howe e , because he bene i s one can enjoy in he u u e, depends on he
quali y (o a he he socially pe cei ed quali y) o he educa ion one ge s
oday, pa en s a e conce ned abou he quali y o he educa ion hei child en
ecei e. This conce n is exp essed ei he as a lamen o e he uni o mly
declining quali y o schools, o as in o mal gossip on which municipali y
p o ides he be e schools o which school is be e wi hin he municipali y.
I di e ences in ac de elop among municipali ies and hese become la ge
enough, people s a o ing wi h hei ee , e oding he ax base he municipali y
uses o inance he schools (a hinning e ec ) leading o a u he decline in
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he quali y o he schools in he municipali y loosing inhabi an s which in u n
will lead o c owding e ec s and/o inc eased axes in he municipali y
gaining pupils. This p ocess is e y simila o he one abo e called ad e se
selec ion. I he quali y o an educa ion is seen as depending only on he
municipali y (no i al y o bene i s once you a e a ci izen) educa ion can be
iewed as a club good wi h he municipali y bounda y as he bounda y o he
club. The social cos s o conges ion (c owding/ hinning) wo k in his case
h ough he ax sys em o a ec e e ybody in he municipali ies (clubs) in
he same way as addi ional mo o is s a ec s he cos o a elling.
Howe e , schools a e mo e han he unds alloca ed o hem. They depend on
he quali y o eache s as well as pupils. The e may hus de elop di e en ials
be ween schools. The schools will hen esemble hospi als in he way he
p oduc is p o ided. In his case educa ion becomes a posi ional good. The
social cos s associa ed wi h excess demand o educa ion om he be e
schools will appea as schemes o ea ly en y in o (o leap ogging) queues o
pupils wai ing o en e . Fo p ima y educa ion he e a e s ic limi s o he
ime pa en s a e willing o le a child wai . Bu egis e ing a child a bi h
and le ing i wai un il no mal school s a is no a e y cos ly queue. Such
queues migh be use ul o educa o s i hey can use hem as a gumen s o
expanding hei acili ies.
Howe e , in he "posi ional economy" (Hi sch [1976] 1978) educa ion (wi h
spa ial loca ion) plays a c ucial ole. Because he co e ed posi ions educa ion
can quali y o a e sca ce, he ba gaining s eng h one's own educa ion has,
also depends on how many o he s ha e he same o mo e educa ion. Hence
pa en s a e no only conce ned abou he quali y o hei child en's educa ion in
an absolu e sense. E en mo e hey ca e abou he ela i e anking a ibu ed a
pa icula educa ion. Educa ion om pa icula schools is a membe ship ca d o
a club whe e en y in o pa icula job-posi ions is he club good. I oo many
en e he club he e will be conges ion e ec s. Hence educa o s canno
expand hei acili ies wi hou des oying he p oduc hey deli e .
F om hese conside a ions i ollows ha i di e en ials in pe cei ed quali y
o educa ion a e a ibu ed o schools o municipali ies i may p o e di icul
o keep educa ion a pu e wel a e good. I also ollows ha p i a iza ion and
compe i ion among schools will no lead o an o e all imp o ed quali y o
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educa ion - a leas i educa o s a e o deli e wha hei consume s wan .
I , on he o he hand, he quali y o schools is pe cei ed as uni o m and he
s a us alloca ion o educa ion a ibu ed o indi idual di e ences in abili y o
abso b and u ilize educa ion ( hus ecei ing la ge amoun s o educa ion), he e
should be no pa icula di icul y in keeping he educa ion a pu e public wel a e
good. I unds do no allow one o keep i public, access may be de e mined by
wai ing ime and/o indi idual compe i ion, hus making i in o a posi ional
good
The na u e o educa ion as a wel a e good is hus mixed. The dual na u e
o educa ion eminds one o he dual na u es o social s uc u e: he dialec ic
be ween he bond and he bounda y in es ablishing bo h he sha ed
an agonism in he bounda y be ween us and hem and he sha ed alua ions
ep esen ing he bond be ween ha es and ha e no s. The wish o keep i a
wel a e good is possible o econcile only i one is able o keep he quali y o
he educa ion uni o m h oughou he coun y. This pe cei ed quali y is o
cou se based on he e icacy o he educa ion in gaining access o some
co e ed ype o job opening. I some al e na i e judged be e han he es
should appea , p essu e will s a moun ing o he expansion o he be e
school wi h less esou ces coming o he o dina y schools.
Wi h he moun ing demand o o he wel a e goods like heal h se ices o
oads, he in es men in p ima y schools seems o ha e lagged o a long
ime. Now he a ia ion in quali y among schools is becoming appa en .
Pa en s a e in inc easing numbe s aking hei child en o p i a e schools like
he "S eine "-school despi e he ex a cha ge hey ha e o pay. This bo h e odes
he in e es o and he abili y o do some hing abou o dina y schools. Wha
u u e do schools ha e as a wel a e good?
P i a e schools in No way a e o a la ge ex en (85%) unded by he s a e. E en
i p i a ized educa ion will be a wel a e good, i is no longe he "pu e wel a e
good" which an "all-s a e" p o ision can be called. The p i a iza ion o he
school sys em is owa ds one o he mixed ypes iden i ied abo e (public
unding, p i a e o ganiza ion and p i a e owne ship o he means o
p oduc ion). The pe pupil ees a e mo e o be conside ed membe ship ees. I
would seem ha he p esen g ow h o p i a e schools is aking us in he
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di ec ion o p o iding educa ion h ough a club sys em. The u he
de elopmen om a club sys em would hen depend on which di e ences, i
any, de elops among he clubs. I none seems a be e ba gain han o he s om
he poin o iew o he posi ional economy, he esul may e y well be
inc eased consume sa is ac ion om he abili y o choose. Fo he p ima y
schools his may no be oo di icul o achie e.
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NOTE 5
E ling Be ge
On he egula ion o p o essions7
In oduc ion
P o essional associa ions ha e been an in eg a ed pa o he de elopmen o
he wel a e s a e as well a p oblem o i s managemen (B oady (1985),
F eidson (1987), Ramsøy and Kjøls ød (1985)). A p esen he e seems o be
no widely accep ed heo y o how o egula e he ac i i ies o such ac o s,
pa icula ly no in ela ion o he deli e y sys ems o wel a e se ices.
Johnson (1972) p esen s an in e es ing pe spec i e. His main hesis is ha
p o essionalism is one ype o occupa ional con ol which akes i s o m
om he ype o p oduce -consume ela ions domina ing among he
membe s o he occupa ion. He iden i ies h ee ypes o p oduce -
consume ela ions: 1) he p oduce de ines he needs o he consume and he
way o ca e o hem, 2) he consume de ines his own needs and he manne
in which hey a e o be me , and 3) a hi d pa y media es in he ela ionship
by de ining cen al pa s o he needs and he manne in which i is o be me .
The ins i u ional o ms o p o essionaliza ion co esponding o hese ypes o
p oduce -consume ela ions may be called collegia e p o essionalism,
Pa onage p o essionalism, and Media ed p o essionalism.
A p o ession ha e been de ined as a sys em whe e some pa icula , and
publicly o p o essionally alida ed, educa ion is necessa y o en y in o an
occupa ion. The pe o mance o he p o essional in he occupa ional posi ion
is egula ed o ensu e ha he educa ion is pu o socially esponsible uses
(Pa sons 1968). I has been sugges ed ha a p o ession may be de ined in
ela ion o he deg ee o monopoliza ion o u iliza ion o ce ain esou ces
(knowledge and p ac ices) app op ia e o ce ain social needs (see e.g.
Jackson (1970, 7)). I has also been desc ibed as occupa ions wi h non-
ans e able skills which a e conside ed o be " he p ope y o a speci ic
communi y" (Johnson 1972, 57).
Pe kin (1981) akes a s ep u he by conside ing he ise o p o essionalism
7 This was i s p esen ed a Con e ence o Sociology, Gei ange , May 1990 (Be ge 1991b).
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in he English socie y since 1880 as a kind o ans o ma ion o he concep
o p ope y. He hinks "we need o ake a mo e ope a ional iew o he
p o essions han is cus oma y in ei he hei his o y o hei sociology, which
usually akes hem a hei ace alue and lis s he bene icial ai s which
de ine hem and he use ul unc ions which hey pe o m o socie y in
e ms o expe ise, heo e ical knowledge, in ellec ual aining, he es ing o
compe ence, exclusi e p ac ice, a code o conduc , al uis ic se ice in he
a ai s o o he s, and so on" (p.7). The bene icial ai s o he p o essions
include " he esou ces which he p o ession b ing o he ma ke o socie y,
oge he wi h some o he de ices, such as "s a egies o closu e" by
es ic ion o en y, ce i ica ion, exclusion o cha la ans, e c., by which hey
exploi hose esou ces" (pp.7-8).
Howe e , Pe kin's concep o p ope y seems o be a odds wi h wha he e
is mean by a p ope y igh s sys em. To hink ha he ise o p o essions
imply a ans o ma ion o he concep o p ope y is o misunde s and he
concep comple ely. I Pe kin ins ead had said "b oaden he concep ...", o
"de elopmen o a new ype o p ope y", he would ha e been mo e o he
poin . Ins ead he seems o hink ha he p o essionals may ha e "bo h he
ma e ial sel -in e es and he mo al con ic ion o be he ha binge s o he
new unc ional socie y and he i isec ionis s o capi alism" (p.23), as i he
eme gence o p o essional knowledge as p ope y would be impossible
wi hin capi alism o could no exis alongside o he ypes o p ope y. Bu o
see a p o ession as a pa icula kind o p ope y igh s sys em is no he same
as hinking o he kinds o p ope y igh s less eal o o less impo ance.
In he p esen pape a p ope y igh s pe spec i e will be applied o
p o essions and p o essional associa ions o in es iga e i his may be a
possible basis o iden i ying dilemmas o egula ion which ha e o be aced.
In pa icula he medical p o ession will be discussed.
P ope y igh s in p o essional knowledge
I Hoh eld (1917)'s classi ica ion o p ope y ela ions is applied o he medical
p o ession and he ela ions be ween hose being membe s o he p o ession
and hose no being membe s, we see ha he cus oma y desc ip ion o he
ela ionship (Ge ha d (1989), Le ine and Kozlo (1978)) con ains all he
elemen s o he de ini ion o a p ope y ela ion.
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Table 5.1
The p ope y igh s aspec s o he ela ions in he doc o -pa ien ole
Owne s a e in his able he "doc o s"; he non-owne s a e all o he pe sons. The non-
owne s desi ing some hing o wha he doc o s "own" a e he pa ien s.
OWNERS NON_OWNERS
Use aspec s RIGHTS
all doc o s can diagnose and
p esc ibe ea men o pa ien s
DUTIES
all non-heal hy pe sons shall go o a
doc o
PRIVILEGE
a doc o can decide ha a non-
heal hy pe son is heal hy o ha
he needs he se ices o a second
doc o
NO RIGHTS
o expec any pa icula diagnosis
Exchange
aspec s
POWERS
doc o s can sell hei se ices o a
ee o gi e hem away eely
LIABILITY
en e sick ole*, ake ea men and pay
cos (i any)
IMMUNITIES
hei "powe s" a e p o ec ed by
law agains all non-owne s ying
o exe cise hem
NO POWERS
Liable o p osecu ion o a emp s o
exe cise he powe s o an owne
(quacke y)
* One migh pe haps say ha wha he non-owne buys om he doc o is a pa icula cus om-buil sick- ole. To
say ha i is cus om-buil does no only mean ha he doc o u ilizes he symp oms o illness o be ound, bu
also ha he e may be cul u al ac o s a ec ing he ole.
P oblems in he p ope y igh s o he medical p o ession
The ins i u ional implan a ion o he p ope y igh s o he medical p o ession
con ains some se e e p oblems.
One p oblem is he ela ionship be ween he medical p o ession and o he
occupa ional g oups in ol ed in he p oduc ion o he end p oduc .
A second p oblem lies in he in e nal dynamics o a p o ession in ela ion o
he needs o i s cus ome s.
A hi d p oblem is he cos explosion ollowing he di o ce o needs om
paymen and he inc easing capi al equi emen o ea men .
The end p oduc o he medical p o ession, he deli e y o which is he
basis o hei incomes, is a join p oduc wi h se e al occupa ional g oups
which ha e o be paid om he same incomes basis. In so a as he e is a
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oo on he o al expendi u e on he heal h sys em, he emune a ion going o
he a ious occupa ional g oups is a ze o-sum game. The no ms o
dis ibu ional jus ice which suppo ed he wo k o es ablish public heal h
insu ance a e also applicable o he dis ibu ion o wages among he heal h
occupa ions. A p esen he medical p o ession seems o ha e p oblems
jus i ying he exis ing inequali ies. I hey a e no able o mee he challenge
o ai dis ibu ion om hei co-wo ke s in he heal h sys em, hei
au ho i y, and he us on which so much o hei achie emen s a e buil ,
may su e , and hei abili y o pe suade he poli ical o ces o accommoda e
hei in e es s may diminish.
The public in e es in his igh o e emune a ion is, howe e , mo e han
jus a wo y o e he bill. Such dispu es wi hin a sys em always abso b
ene gies which hen is los o he pa ien s. The union s uggles o he heal h
occupa ions en ails cos s (ex e nal diseconomies) o he public in e ms o
less heal h ca e o he money spen .
Also he second p oblem a ea men ioned he in e nal dynamic o a
p o ession, leads o such conclusions. Weale (1985, 156) obse es: "any
p o essional e hos is bound o encou age he de elopmen o ce ain a i udes
and p ac ices which un con a y o he needs o consume s. Le me pick ou
h ee ea u es o a p o essional e hos ha can lead o his esul : p o essionals
will p e e he in e es ing o he mundane; hey will p e e he p es igious o
he o dina y; and hey will p e e he ashionable o he un ashionable."
Ac ually, which pa ien s a e he "mundane, o dina y and un ashionable" is a
leas pa ly a esul o he cul u al and social p ocesses dis ibu ing s a us
bo h among doc o s and among pa ien s. An example migh be he a e o
pa ien s wi h psychological p oblems be o e and a e F eud. The endencies
o a oid he mundane, o dina y and un ashionable oge he wi h he
una oidable specializa ion o he medical se ices, as i has expanded, will
ine i ably lead o a dis o ion in he supply o p oduc s as measu ed agains
demand. The mundane, o dina y and un ashionable pa ien s will ecei e less
a en ion and ul ima ely less se ice han he in e es ing, p es igious, and
ashionable.
One way in which his p oblem has been handled is o concede he igh o
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ea some o he mos mundane, o dina y and un ashionable pa ien s o o he
occupa ional g oups. In so a as he e is a oo on he expendi u es o heal h
se ices, no only will he a ious occupa ional g oups ha e opposing
in e es s, bu also he a ious special ies o he medical p o ession. The igh s
among special ies o inc easing he esou ces de o ed o one's own special y,
will, as o igh s among he occupa ional g oups, ake ime and a en ion
away om he pa ien s, and ul ima ely mean less heal h se ices o money
spen .
The p imacy o he in e es ing, p es igious and ashionable also has
consequences o cos s seen om ano he pe spec i e. Today he in e es ing,
p es igious and ashionable is ied up wi h esea ch and de elopmen o new
medical echnology as well as a s ong demand o his echnology om he
p ac i ione s. The di o ce o needs om paymen a he consume le el and
he di o ce o demand o equipmen om he u iliza ion and co po a e
e iciency o i , leads o a badly dis o ed in es men p og am, less
esou ces o he less "sophis ica ed" pa ien s, a con used pic u e o
ea men possibili ies, and, ul ima ely, less heal h se ices o money spen .
The compa a i e lack o p o essional in e es in he mundane, o dina y and
un ashionable also ha e spa ked eac ions agains he medical p o ession in
he o m o a ious heal h igh s mo emen s demanding be e ca e o
special g oups like he men ally and physically e a ded. The cos escala ion
o a p o essionally managed consump ion a he han consume managed
consump ion in a wo ld o compe ing claims ( om a ious ypes o
medicine as well as a ious ypes o consume in e es s) has abou un i s
cou se. The abili y o he s a e o pay is abou exhaus ed. How will his
a ec he dialec ic be ween doc o and pa ien ? and how will i a ec he
heal h es ablishmen ?
The c i ical ac o o wa ch is he us in he medical p o ession. I people
s a o lose hei us in he se ices o he p o ession, he poli ical
commi men o pay will diminish. The spi al downwa d will ha e s a ed.
This diminishing o he powe o he medical p o ession may be necessa y
be o e any kind o egula ion cu ailing hei p i ileges and powe s a e
possible. Bu i no he egula ing agency is ale , i may easily ge ou o
hand doing i epa able damage o he ine ins umen o wel a e a p ope ly
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egula ed medical p o ession is.
P o essions and p o essionaliza ion
A e e iewing he li e a u e on p o essions S a (1982) ound ha "A
p o ession ... is an occupa ion ha egula es i sel h ough sys ema ic,
equi ed aining and collegial discipline; ha has a base in echnical,
specialized knowledge; and ha has a se ice a he han p o i o ien a ion,
ensh ined in i s code o e hics." (S a 1982, 15). I seems o be a common
p esump ion in Ame ican li e a u e ha a p o ession egula es i sel . While
his is ue o he U.S.A., i is no a uni e sal s a e o a ai s, as also
ecognized by Pa sons (1968). Mos Eu opean s a es egula e p o essions by
public in e en ion h ough law o g an s o cha e s o he p o essional
associa ion. This di e ence may be impo an when i comes o he ques ion o
egula ing he ac i i ies o p o essions.
This seems a ai summa y o cu en de ini ions o p o essions (Pa sons (1968),
Hun ing on (1957), Jackson (1970), To ge sen (1972), Me on, Rosenbla , and
Gie yn (1982), Ab ahamsson (1985), Abbo (1988), Knu sen (1989)).
F eidson (1986, 36) inds " ha he e is no way o esol ing he p oblem o
de ining p o ession ha is no a bi a y". Bu he also no es ha some
pe spec i es on p o essions "a e mo e consequen ial han o he s i only because
hey s em om posi ions o subs an ial poli ical and economic powe ". These
pe spec i es a e "au ho i a i e in he p agma ic sense o se ing he legal,
poli ical, and economic limi s wi hin which e e yday p o essional wo k can go
on easonably secu ely and o guiding he p o ision o he poli ical and
economic esou ces wi hou which he ci cums ances and oppo uni ies o
wo k canno exis " (p. 36, my emphasis).
In he p ope y igh s pe spec i e p ope y is seen as conc e e exis ing,
e ec i e igh s used in he e e yday app op ia ion o eali y. F eidson's
app oach would hus seem app op ia e o he p esen pu poses. Bu o
begin o assess a p o ession as a sys em o p ope y igh s we need o look
close a a p o ession and he p ocess o p o essionaliza ion in e ms o
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and g an hem he igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies necessa y o
dealing wi h he g a e dange ep esen ed by he epidemic diseases.
Once g an ed hese igh s, he medical men se abou capi alizing i , i.e.
ans o ming hem in o p ope y igh s. They closed he p o ession by
equi ing ce i ica ion and ou lawing anyone else wan ing o gi e ad ice on
heal h ma e s. O he wise, o cou se, hey could no gua an y he quali y o
hei se ice. Since any pa icula cus ome , as well as whole communi ies,
was unable o check on he quali y o he se ices, no one could deny his as
a sensible measu e. The majo ool o his was he medical schools.
Ce i ica ion and con ol o educa ion and esea ch a he medical schools
ollowed.
The p o ession also s a ed egula ing he numbe o en an s o he medical
schools o gua d agains o e supply o medical men. I he quali y o he
se ice we e o be upheld, he e should no be mo e doc o s a ound han
ac ually needed. The educa ion was expensi e and i he e we e oo ew
pa ien s he mo al haza d o p esc ibing unnecessa y ea men s would be
g ea o he doc o wi h oo ew pa ien s o ea n a decen li ing. The sca ci y
en which he con ol o numbe s pa ed he way o , was a happy unin ended
consequence - o he medical p o ession a leas . The compe i i e
admi ance equi emen s and he good income possibili ies assu ed a s eady
low o alen ed you h in o he p o ession, again a happy unin ended
consequence o he p o ession.
The ce i ica ion o he medical expe ise and he closu e o he p o ession
may be explained by he p oblems (diseconomies o he popula ion) which
one migh imagine ollowed om no doing i . Bu he u he s eps o
gaining comple e con ol o he ma ke in he o m o sepa a ing abili y o
pay o se ices om se ices ende ed and gaining con ol o he
ans o ma ion o knowledge o inal p oduc canno be unde s ood in
e ms o ex e nal diseconomies alone.
2. Dis ibu ional jus ice and social powe
In o de o con ain epidemics and assu e e e yone a minimum o heal h, he
socie y should insu e i s ci izens so ha he doc o would ge his pay whe he
he pa ien we e able o pay o no . Wi hou a cul u al commi men o
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dis ibu ional jus ice his would ha e been di icul o achie e. In all
coun ies he end has been in he di ec ion o sepa a ing needs o se ices
om abili y o pay o se ices. Bu his sepa a ion o se ice and paymen
has gene a ed some p oblems as ye un esol ed. The mo al haza d o doc o s
o p esc ibe unnecessa y o oo expensi e ea men - which once was a
eason o p o essionaliza ion - has eappea ed since paymen is assu ed in
any case, and he incen i e o he public o ake ca e o hemsel es and no
un o he doc o o any kind o i ling p oblem is a leas no economic.
The s uggle o secu ing con ol o he ans o ma ion o knowledge o inal
p oduc has been ough on se e al on s and is s ill being waged. The i s
impo an igh was o gain con ol o he d ug indus y. This was achie ed by
egula ion gi ing he medical p o ession he igh o app o e and p esc ibe
d ugs. A majo eason o his was again he p oblems ollowing om
cha la ans and decep ions in he d ug indus y. The po en ial consequences
o un egula ed d ug-ma ke ing we e seen as oo damaging o a us ing
popula ion.
The nex and s ill un esol ed igh was o keep con ol o all he
"ancilla y" occupa ions which ha e isen in he heal h sys em. So a he
medical p o ession has been able o s ay on op by he h us o being i s
and u ilizing hei au ho i y. This s uggle is in ima ely linked o he ise o
he hospi al as he majo a ena o he heal h sys em and he adminis a i e
bu eauc acy his equi es. Membe ship in he medical p o ession does no
quali y in any pa icula way o bu eauc a ic adminis a ion; s ill he
membe s o he p o ession ha e been able o pe suade he public ha only
hey can do such a job. A leas ha holds o No way. The si ua ion in he
U.S.A. is di e en (S a 1982).
To keep he con ol o he hospi als is impo an because o he inc easing
impo ance o echnology in expanding he needs o medical se ices, and i
is impo an because o he ole o hospi als in he esea ch and de elopmen o
his echnology.
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Conclusion
I seems ha he cu en implemen a ion o he p ope y igh s o he
medical p o ession gene a es an inc easing numbe o ex e nal
diseconomies, as well as inc easing ansac ion cos s in he o m o
ba gaining be ween and adminis a ion o a ious ac ions o he heal h
p o essions. Ques ions abou he dis ibu ional jus ice o he p o essional
p ac ice bo h is a is he o he occupa ion and is a is he a ious ypes o
illnesses in he popula ion can be aised. When ex e nal diseconomies a ise o
injus ices a e done, because o he way p ope y igh s a e de ined, i is he
du y o a s a e o in e ene and egula e he p ope y igh s in such a way ha
he ex e nal dis-economies a e educed and jus ice is seen o be done.
In such an a emp he ollowing poin s would be ele an :
One mus ecognize he agmen a ion o he knowledge and skill base o
he medical p o ession as well as he impo ance o he new occupa ional
g oups and hei knowledge and skill base, and ask he ques ion o how one
can judge he ela i e me i s o he con ibu ion om any pa icula
occupa ion o he o e all p oduc .
I may be a bi ha d o en isage ha he powe ul medical p o ession will see
he enligh ened sel -in e es in sha ing he a ious bene i s lowing om hei
p ope y. In his hey need help o he s a e and i s powe o egula e. Bu ,
gi en he powe o he medical p o ession, one can equally doub he abili y
o a democ a ic s a e o go a in diminishing he p i ileges and immuni ies
o he doc o s. The bes be o do some hing in his line may be o ge a
p o essional bu eauc acy o unning he hospi als and make he doc o s
employees. In addi ion one has o de ine mo e clea ly he bounda ies o he
in ellec ual and p ac ical p ope y o he a ious occupa ions. In o he wo ds:
make all heal h occupa ions mo e like p o essions, bu also emphasize he
need o a s a o egula e as well as gua an y he igh s, p i ileges, powe s
and immuni ies o he a ious owne s.
The cos p oblem o mode n heal h sys ems can be aced o he di o ce o
paymen om se ices ende ed. Howe e , he conside a ions leading o
his di o ce a e s ill alid. The posi i e ex e nali ies om a p omp handling
o illness a e la ge and he alue o equali y in heal h ca e and oppo uni y
o a heal hy li e so s ong ha i is unlikely a e u n o he old sys em o
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paymen will come easily. The ques ion o inding an al e na i e way o
con olling he balance be ween bene i o se ices and pay o se ices mus
be in es iga ed. This wo k has been going on o some ime in a emp s o
design "pe o mance measu emen s" (Na ional Consume Council, Cha e ed
Ins i u e o Public Finance and Accoun ancy, and Public Finance Founda ion
1987).
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NOTE 6
E ling Be ge
On he assessmen o p ope y igh s sys ems
In oduc ion
A p ope y igh s sys em can, sho and imp ecise, be de ined as an
ins i u ion de e mining who shall ge which bene i s om which esou ces.
Acco ding o Godelie ([1984] 1986) " he concep o p ope y may be applied
o any angible o in angible eali y", and ules o p ope y igh s will "always
assume he o m o no ma i e ules, p esc ibing ce ain o ms o conduc and
p osc ibing o he s unde pain o ep ession and sanc ions" ( p. 76). Bu he also
wa ns ha "P ope y only eally exis s when i is ende ed e ec i e in and
h ough a p ocess o conc e e app op ia ion." (p. 81).
P ope y igh s in he means o p oduc ion a e usually ecognized as one o he
majo ins i u ions o a socie y. In Ma xian social science he ela ions o
p oduc ion (i.e. he dis ibu ion o p ope y igh s) is seen as one o he
majo ins i u ion o socie y de ining among o he hings he class di isions
o socie y (Els e 1985). Howe e , p ope y igh s as such seem o ha e been
aken as a he unp oblema ic. Abo e on page 29 we ha e included a quo e
om Giddens (1981, 113) whe e he akes no e o Ma x's missing analysis o
p ope y. On his poin Giddens' c i ique o his o ical ma e ialism migh ha e
p o i ed om a mo e ho ough unde s anding o he concep o p ope y.
An h opological and his o ical esea ch has demons a ed ha p ope y igh s
sys ems a e no immu able s uc u es. They change and ans o m in
esponse o mo e p essu es han he o ces o p oduc ion. Some imes i may
be app op ia e o speak o a de ac o de elopmen o p ope y igh s e en
hough he pa icula igh s as ye a e un ecognized by he law as p ope y
igh s. This migh be he case o some de elopmen s in o ganized labou -
capi al ela ions, social secu i y (compa e e.g. Reich (1964)), o he igh s,
p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o he membe s o he mo e success ul
p o essions (see e.g. Pe kin (1981)).
The aim o he pe spec i e on p ope y igh s o be p esen he e is o assess
he u ili y o any pa icula p ope y igh s sys em in a comp ehensi e
socie al pe spec i e. I is based on he p ope y igh s pa adigm as de eloped
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in economics. This is hen ex ended by conside a ions based on dis ibu ional
jus ice and powe . I seems o he p esen w i e likely ha a p ope y igh s
pe spec i e on ins i u ional change in he wel a e s a e may u nish aluable
guidelines o he choice o egula ions and e o m o ins i u ions. Be o e
we go on o p esen hese pe spec i es on p ope y igh s, a ew commen s
on he ques ion o wha a p ope y igh is, seems in o de .
A p ope y igh is a ela ion
A igh , as seen om he poin o iew o he igh -holde , is an
expec a ion abou he beha iou o o he ac o s a ec ed by he exe cise o
he igh . Coleman (1990b, 45-64)'s discussion o igh s o ac is e y
ins uc i e o unde s anding a igh .
A p ope y igh , hen, is an expec a ion abou he beha iou o all non-
owne s. I is di e en om o he igh s (non-p ope y igh s) in ha he
expec a ion is legi ima e and ela es o he app op ia ion o eali y. I is
accep ed as legi ima e by he non-owne s as well as he owne s. A igh
ecognized as a p ope y igh ha e in de eloped democ a ic socie ies been
gi en special s a us, p o ec ing he holde o he igh bo h om non-holde s
and om he s a e. I a legal sys em ecognizes a igh as a p ope y igh ,
special p ocedu es a e used and he holde o he igh is gi en special
emedies o help en o cing he igh agains con ende s.
The p ocess o how a igh comes o be ega ded as a p ope y igh is no
well unde s ood, bu i would seem o be connec ed o a p ocess o
legi ima ion o au ho i y in ela ion o he de elopmen o a concep ion o
jus ice. In o he wo ds i is ied o he de elopmen o legi ima e and jus
use o powe .
The na u e o p ope y igh s as hese a e ecognized in legal sys ems ha e
been spelled ou in de ail by Hoh eld (1913, 1917). A p ope y igh does
no in i sel so much conce n he "some hing" gi ing bene i as i conce ns
he "who". A p ope y igh can be said o de ine a ela ion be ween an owne
and all non-owne s in ega d o "some hing".
Rela ions among people a e dual in na u e since hey can be expe ienced
om wo pe spec i es. By he na u e o he p oblem, o egula e he s eams
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o bene i s om human ac i i ies, a p ope y ela ion has o be an
asymme ical ela ion. This was no ed by Hoh eld who ound ha he
p ope y igh s ecognized by law had a dual asymme ical na u e. He
classi ied he a ious legally ecognized p ope y ela ions o all in o ou
pai s:
Table 6.1
Aspec s o a p ope y ela ion
IF OWNERS HAVE NON-OWNERS
HAVE
Use aspec s 1. claim- igh s du ies
2.
p
i ileges no igh s
Exchange aspec s 3.
p
owe s liabili ies
4. immuni ies no powe s
Sou ce: Hoh eld (1913, 1917)
The expec a ions o he owne s abou he beha iou o he non-owne s,
appea s o he non-owne s as du ies owa ds he owne . The p i ileges o he
owne conce n which beha iou he owne is allowed wi hou ha ing o
conside he eac ions o he non-owne s. Co espondingly he non-owne s
ha e no igh s (i.e. expec a ions abou he beha iou o he owne ) which can
in e e e wi h he beha iou o he owne .
The powe s o he owne a e he abili ies o olun a ily c ea e new legal
ela ions wi h a non-owne . These powe s a e cu ailed in he law o
con ac and include o cou se e e y hing om he sho ime en ing o a
consume du able o ou igh sale o o gi ing away an en i e es a e. I an
owne wan s o exe cises his powe o c ea e a new legal ela ion wi h a
non-owne , he non-owne s suscep ibili y o ha ing his legal posi ion
al e ed is called liabili y (Munze 1990, 18). On he o he hand, an owne has
immuni ies agains a emp s om non-owne s o c ea e new legal ela ions o
in e e e wi h es ablished ela ions. The non-owne s ha e no powe s o c ea e
new legal ela ions.
To his mus be added ha he ocus o he p ope y ela ion in any case is
some pa icula bene i om some sou ce. The expec ed and allowed
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beha iou s conce n his "some hing". The same does he possible new legal
ela ions.
I is impo an o no e ha o a ela ion o be a p ope y ela ion, i mus be
en o ceable. The igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o he owne s a e
one way o ano he p o ec ed. Those iola ing hem do so a a eal isk o
su e ing sanc ions.
Types o owne s
Fo a pa icula s eam o "bene i s" om a "some hing", ou ypes o
owne ship ha e been iden i ied (adap ed om B omley (1989a, 205)):
1. P i a e o indi idual owne ship
One pa icula indi idual is es ed wi h he igh s, p i ileges, powe s and
immuni ies pe aining o he possible "bene i s" om a "some hing". These
igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o he owne ha e co esponding
du ies, no igh s, liabili ies and no powe s o all o he s wi h ega d o he
"bene i s" o his "some hing".
2. S a e owne ship
One pa icula agency empowe ed o ac on behal o he s a e is es ed wi h
he same igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies as i i we e a p i a e
owne . Bu being a "sys em esponsible ac o " a s a e will ha e o jus i y
i s p ope y by pa icula ules applied in addi ion o he o dina y ules o
jus i y and legi imize i s p ope y. One pa icula impo an modi ica ion
in ol es ules o access: who can be excluded om enjoying a leas some
bene i om he s a e p ope y. In concep s in oduced ea lie one migh
compa e s a e p ope y o impu e p i a e goods o posi ional goods.
3. Common owne ship
One pa icula g oup o indi iduals a e co-owne s. The igh s, p i ileges,
powe s and immuni ies pe aining o he bene i s om ha which is owned
in common belong o he g oup collec i ely. Those no membe o he
g oup is excluded om he bene i , hose who a e membe s o he g oup
canno be excluded. Again one may compa e his o he concep o an impu e
public good o a club good.
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4. No owne ship
Nobody is es ed wi h he igh s, p i ileges, powe s and immuni ies o an
owne . This means ha any bene i s o he "some hing" is open o
app op ia ion o anyone willing and able o do so.
The dis inc ion be ween no owne ship and common owne ship is impo an .
The logic o he u iliza ion o a "common p ope y esou ce" (Go don 1954)
applies in eali y o he esou ce wi h no owne ship, he open access esou ce.
Fo a ue common p ope y esou ce he logic will apply only unde
pa icula ly speci ied ci cums ances. Needless o say, he open access
esou ce is anishing specie. Egge sson (1990, 36) uses he label "communal
p ope y" o wha he e is called common p ope y and "common p ope y"
o wha he e is called no p ope y. I should be added ha also B omley
(1989a), Ba dhan (1989), and Egge sson (1990) a e con ibu o s o his
adi ion. While B omley and Egge sson mainly p esen hei own app oach
o ins i u ional economics, Ba dhan dis inguishes h ee app oaches o he ole
o ins i u ions in economic de elopmen : 1) he Ma xian app oach, 2) he
CDAWN app oach (a e Coase, Demse z, Alechian, Williamson and No h)
ocusing on he ole o ansac ion cos s, and 3) he impe ec in o ma ion
app oach, e e ing o Acke lo (1970) and S igli z (1985).
Economic heo y o p ope y igh s in ins i u ional change
The wo ks o pa icula ly Coase (1937, 1960), Demse z (1967), Alchian
(1965), Alchian and Demse z (1973), Williamson (1975, 1981), Posne (1972),
and No h (No h and Thomas 1973, 1977) ha e been associa ed wi h he
eme gence o a p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional de elopmen
(B omley (1989a, 12)), Ba dhan (1989, 3-17), Egge sson (1990, 33)).
P ope y igh s conce ns he p ac ices, ules and belie s which de e mine who
will ge which bene i s om which esou ces. P ope y igh s "help man
o m hose expec a ions which he can easonably hold in his dealings wi h
o he s" (Demse z 1967, 347). This means ha p ope y igh s a e a cen al
pa o human in e ac ion. E en in si ua ions whe e he ac ual on-going
in e ac ions ha e no hing o do wi h he dis ibu ion o bene i s, one can see
ha he p e ailing p ope y igh s a ec he amewo k o in e ac ion a leas
by de ining and in using he space- ime se ing o he in e ac ion wi h
pa icula meanings.
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This iew o p ope y igh s means ha hey a e a cen al pa o all social
ins i u ions and ha ins i u ional change means changes in p ope y igh s.
Eisens ad (1968) de ines social ins i u ions as " egula i e p inciples which
o ganize mos o he ac i i ies o indi iduals in a socie y in o de ini i e
o ganiza ional pa e ns om he poin o iew o some o he pe ennial, basic
p oblems o any socie y o o de ed social li e" (p.410). B omley, hinking o
economic ins i u ions, inds ha hey may be de ined as he sum o
"consensual a angemen s o ag eed upon pa e ns o beha io ha comp ise
con en ions", and he " ules and en i lemen s ha de ine - wi h bo h cla i y and
ob ious sanc ion - indi idual and g oup choice se s." (B omley 1989a, 77-78).
B omley a i es a he ins i u ional s uc u e o socie y as he undamen al
a iable o s udy in o de o unde s and he dynamic o he economic sys em.
The s udy o social ins i u ions seems o be he mee ing g ound o sociologis s
and economis s (Swedbe g 1987). Bu compa ed o e.g. Scho e (1981) and
Williamson (1975), B omley has come much close o he sociological
conce ns wi h dis ibu ions and social jus ice as undamen al aspec s o social
ins i u ions.
Acco ding o Lewis (1986, 58): "A egula i y R in he beha io o a popula ion
P when hey a e agen s in a ecu en si ua ion S is a con en ion i and only
i i is ue ha , and i is common knowledge in P ha , in any ins ance o
S among membe s o P: (1) e e yone con o ms o R; (2) e e yone expec s
e e yone else o con o m o R; (3) e e yone p e e s o con o m o R on
condi ion ha o he s do, since S is a coo dina ion p oblem and uni o m
con o mi y o R is a coo dina ion equilib ium in S."
In economics e alua ions o ins i u ional change has ocused on p ope y igh s
by wo app oaches:
1) The ansac ion cos pe spec i e on p ope y igh s poin s ou ha p ope y
igh s a e no cos less o de ine, ag ee upon, enac , and en o ce, and
2) The ex e nali ies pe spec i e on p ope y igh s poin s ou ha social
change, e.g. echnological change o changes in a ailabili y o esou ces,
will ini ia e ac i i ies en ailing changes in p ope y igh s.
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be ween ules o u iliza ion and deg ee o sus ainabili y. The second is he
p ecise ole he s a e ough o ha e in ega d o he ules de ining he
esou ce u iliza ion as well as how i ough o pe o m his ole.
The ole o he s a e in de elopmen is a om clea . A g owing scep icism
o he cu en p ac ices has been oiced e.g. by he execu i e di ec o o
he Uni ed Na ions Cen e o Human Se lemen s a The in e na ional
mee ing on "Ci ies, he mainsp ing o de elopmen in de eloping coun ies.":
"Clea ly changes in policy di ec ion a e called o , and some o hem may
in ol e adical depa u es om exis ing p ac ice. Such a change in di ec ion
mus ha e as i s poin o depa u e ha he solu ion does no lie in he
di ec ion o g ea e public spending o mo e di ec go e nmen in ol emen .
Ra he go e nmen should concen a e on suppo i e and acili a ing ac ions." 9
Despi e he di e ences o he libe al and Ma xis in e p e a ion o he ole
o he s a e in de elopmen (compa e o example Nozick (1974) o Miliband
(1969)), hey bo h ag ee on i s decisi e impo ance. The s a e seems o ha e
a bo h omnip esen and sel -e iden posi ion in de elopmen . I is supposed
o alloca e economic esou ces, ma shal mili a y p o ec ion, supply
manpowe aining, and os e na ional p ide o achie e he conce ed e o
needed o imp o e he li e o i s ci izens. Howe e , he p ope
concep ualiza ion o he s a e will no be an issue he e, nei he will
de elopmen heo y as such be discussed. E en so, one conclusion o he
p esen pape seems o be ha he s a e will do well o conside how he
a ious socie al p ocesses wo k: ha he means o de elopmen may be jus
as impo an , some imes mo e impo an , as he goal. This is, howe e ,
in ended in a mo e speci ic and p ecise manne han he common p esump ion
o democ acy, wes e n s yle, as he bes oad o de elopmen . Ap e (1987), in
a c i ique o adi ional de elopmen heo y, a gues ha de elopmen , in he
end, mus en ail democ acy. Bu he also shows how p oblema ic democ acy
can be in he p ocess o de elopmen .
9 To he bes o my knowledge he e should he e be he ollowing e e ence:
"Ramachand an, A co . 1989. "Add ess by he execu i e di ec o o he Uni ed Na ions Cen e o Human
Se lemen s (Habi a ) o he in e na ional mee ing on "Ci ies, he mainsp ing o de elopmen in de eloping
na ions?", Ci ies, he mainsp ing o de elopmen in de eloping na ions, 1989. In 1990 I clea ly had access o he
add ess by A co Ramachand an. Bu a his momen , in No embe 2023, I am unable o ind i anywhe e on he
web.
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In pa icula his pape will a gue ha one impo an means o de elopmen is
egula ion and con ol o he a ious p ocesses o he socie y aimed a
dec easing ansac ion cos s, maximizing ex e nal economies, and minimizing
ex e nal diseconomies. Consciously shaping he socie al p ocesses acco ding
o such p inciples is a ask only a s a e can do.
I migh also be possible o in e p e his o ical de elopmen as an
"unconscious" shaping o he s a es acco ding o hese p inciples. The shaping
is hen he esul o compe i i e p ocesses o sys ems o s a es (like he
Eu opean in he ime since he Roman Empi e). In his sys em o s a es, he
compe i i e edge will go o hose s a es which mo e o less acciden ally
change in di ec ions sugges ed he e. Thus a sys em o s a es can, h ough
small unplanned inno a ions in one o a ew s a es and adap ions and
imi a ions o he mo e success ul ones among he es o he s a es, mo e
apidly ( ela i e o monoli hic empi es) owa ds p ospe i y and eedom o
he many a he han he ew.
I seems o be a easonable guess ha a s a e pu suing such goals as a
dec easing ansac ion cos s, maximizing ex e nal economies, and
minimizing ex e nal diseconomies will inc ease he socie al su plus so ha
no only a e bo h ci izen and s a e be be e o wi h such egula ions and
con ols han wi hou hem, bu he ci izen will also be be e o wi h his
kind o ac i i y han wi h he o dina y di ec alloca i e and o ganizing
ac i i ies o en pu sued by s a es o u he de elopmen . And when he
ci izen is be e o , he is able o pay mo e axes. In sho : p ocess con ol
gene a es s a e powe . One should also conside he "caging e ec "
discussed by Mann (1986). The de elopmen o s a e and ci iliza ion had a
"caging e ec ". E en in he ea ly empi es mos people ound i did no pay o
o e wi h hei ee and lea e he ju isdic ion o he s a e despi e ep essi e
p ac ices and hea y axes.
A guide o such conscious maximiza ion o s a e powe can be ound in wha
ha e been called a p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional de elopmen
(B omley 1989a). Much o he ansac ions o a socie y can be iewed as
in ol ing nego ia ions abou , explica ions o , ans e s o , and en o cemen s
o p ope y igh s. The ules o such ac i i ies as well as he es ic ions on
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how p ope y igh s can be de ined and dis ibu ed a e a signi ican pa o he
mo i a ions and ac ions o e e y ci izen and shape he agg ega e ou come
o hei ac ions mo e powe ully han any kind o di ec egula ion o hei
ac i i ies.
In he p esen pape a p ope y igh s pe spec i e on ins i u ional de elopmen
will be used o discuss some o he p oblems in ol ed in he managemen o
land use and o commen on he ole o equi y and dis ibu ional jus ice in
sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion.
P ope y igh s and esou ce u iliza ion: A s ylized example
As a baseline o he discussion we shall p esen a s ylized illus a ion o
how a ia ions in p ope y igh s ins i u ions may a ec esou ce u iliza ion.
The example is s ylized because i assumes ha popula ion p essu e and
his o y (o cul u al p ac ices) do no a ec he decisions on land use. I is
also assumed ha no ou side o ces a e in e es ed in he ou comes o he
decisions o he pa icipa ing ac o s excep o s op wa and homicide.
The agedy o he commons
Suppose a clea ly delimi ed ac o land is owned in common by wo ibes
o adi ional pas o alis s. The e is no one who can o ce ei he o hem o limi
hei numbe o ca le. F om old on, euds and diseases ha e kep he numbe
o ca le (as well as people) abou cons an . Fo he sake o a gumen , say ha
o bo h o he ibes he he ds ha e been luc ua ing abou 5000.
Bu imes a e changing. A dis an s a e adminis a ion (pe haps colonial) has
p ohibi ed he old euds. De elopmen aid has e adica ed diseases among
bo h people and ca le. Now he adi ional compe i ion abou which is o
become he mo e powe ul ibe can un old. Bu no e ha ins ead o
compe i ion o weal h and powe symbolized by a la ge he d, a his o ically
mo e c edible cause o he same de elopmen may be a ibu ed o popula ion
g ow h. Then, howe e , he p ocess will ake mo e han one gene a ion o be
comple ed. The ibes s a o add ca le o hei he ds. The de elopmen
expe looks on he p ocess in despai and ells he ibes hey ha e o educe
he numbe o ca le, o he wise he ca le will s a e and hey will bo h be
poo e . Now, he chie is no s upid. He can see he me i o educing he
numbe o ca le. He unde s ands ha by adding an animal o his he d he can
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eap he whole bene i o ha animal while he cos in e ms o diminished
g azing is sha ed by he o he ibe. Bu he also sees ha i he educes his
he d, he compe i o can ge away wi h a la ge he d and his ellow
ibesmen can accu a ely accuse him o ha ing gi en away he g azing
igh ully hei s. And e en wo se, i he educes his he d and he compe i o
does no , he e ec i ely concedes ic o y o he o he . T ue, he will ha e mo e
ca le han i he con inues o con ibu e o he o e exploi a ion. Bu he o he
chie will ha e many imes mo e. Wha shall he do? Tu n "chicken" and
concede ic o y o a oid he ca as ophe h ea ening bo h o go on adding
ca le o his own he d hoping he o he will u n "chicken"?
Mos people in such si ua ions will choose o go on adding ca le o hei
he ds, ei he hoping he o ecas s o ecological ca as ophe a e exagge a ed
o hoping i will ake a long ime. Howe e , soone o la e he agedy
will be mani es . Ca le s a e. Men s a e. In he absence o es ain s
(wa , disease, cul u al p ac ices), " eedom in a commons b ings uin o all"
(Ha din 1968, 1244).
Table 7.1
The agedy o he commons.
Payo ma ix in a game o "chicken"
Ca le ibe B
Mo e ca le Same numbe o ca le
Ca le ibe A
Mo e ca le 2 4
2 7
Same numbe o
ca le
7 5
4 5
The sensible hing o do is, o cou se, o do some hing else en i ely. The
wo ibes should come oge he o nego ia e an adminis a ion o he ac
o land which can de e mine how many ca le each ibe can ha e and
wi h powe enough o en o ce he ag eemen . The common p ope y
managemen sys ems ound in a ious cul u es do exac ly his. They manage
he common land wi h a iew o keeping up i s p oduc i i y. Bu he
managemen ins i u ions a e ne e he esul o nego ia ions. They ha e
e ol ed as pa o a cul u e. The sus ainable solu ion may, howe e , be
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based on bo h wa and illness. The end o wa and he in oduc ion o mode n
medicine may he e o e easily esul in a popula ion p essu e which alone
ende s he adi ional u iliza ion unsus ainable.
The apid social changes in he cu en wo ld and he la ge nega i e
consequences o unsus ainable u iliza ion o esou ces, means ha one can no
longe us he de elopmen o sus ainable ins i u ions o he his o ical
p ocess. Nei he a e mos people willing o accep he s a a ion and
su e ing o people subjec o he adi ional his o ical p ocesses egula ing
esou ce u iliza ion. Ins ead o he slow ial and e o p ocess o his o y, we
ha e o hink h ough he p oblem o consciously design hose ins i u ions
which now will gi e a sus ainable u iliza ion o he esou ces.
The i s p oblem o ace in his endea ou is o unde s and he o ces shaping
he adi ional managemen ins i u ions. A i s s ep is o no e ha
nego ia ions, adminis a ion and en o cemen o con ac s a e no cos less
ac i i ies ega dless o how a con ac was es ablished in he i s place.
T ansac ion cos s
Cos s connec ed wi h he nego ia ing o an ag eemen and he policing o i s
execu ion a e called ansac ion cos s. In pa icula he moni o ing and
policing cos s may be high in long- e m ag eemen s on esou ce managemen .
I is a poin o y o minimize hese.
Fo he pas o alis s he poin o a new ins i u ion mus be o induce hem o
s op adding ca le o hei he ds. This can be done by di ec egula ion o he
numbe . This, howe e , equi es compa able con ol da a: coun s o he
he ds a egula in e als. I , o example, he he ds mingle, hey ha e o be
sepa a ed i s . The cos o secu ing da a o di ec egula ion may be
conside able.
Bu he e is also an indi ec app oach o he p oblem o egula ion based
on he causal mechanism making egula ion necessa y in he i s place.
One basic eason o con inued g ow h o he he ds in he si ua ion
desc ibed is ha he who adds o his he d can eap he bene i o he added
ca le while he does no ha e o pay he ull p ice in e ms o he
esou ces used. The p ice is sha ed by he o he ibe. The un egula ed
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inc emen in use o he land en ails cos s also o hose no consen ing o he
use decision. This is he gis o wha is mean by ex e nali ies.
Ex e nal (dis)economies
An o en ci ed de ini ion o ex e nali ies says ha : "An ex e nali y is p esen
whene e some indi idual's (say A's) u ili y o p oduc ion ela ionships
include eal ( ha is, nonmone a y) a iables, whose alues a e chosen by
o he s (pe sons, co po a ions, go e nmen s) wi hou pa icula a en ion o
he e ec s on A's wel a e." (Baumol and Oa es 1988, 17).
The chie who decides o add ca le o his he d a ec s nega i ely he g azing
possibili ies o he o he ibe as well as his own. The ac ion ep esen s an
ex e nal diseconomy o he o he ibe. I one compa es ex e nali ies and
ansac ion cos s hey may om one pe spec i e seem equi alen . The o al
social cos o hose su e ing pollu ing ac i i ies may be bo h less and mo e
han he o al social cos o en o cing a ban on his pa icula ac i i y. F om
a pu ely economic e iciency poin o iew one migh pe haps conclude ha
i he o al social cos o hose su e ing he ac i i y is less han he cos o
emo ing he ac i i y, hen he ac i i y should be allowed o go on. This
conclusion is w ong e en i one dis ega ds he p oblems o measu emen . The
big di e ence be ween nega i e ex e nali ies and ansac ion cos s is he
possibili y o dis ibu ing he ansac ion cos s equi ably
An al e na i e o di ec egula ion o he numbe o ca le is o concen a e on
"in e nalizing" he ex e nali y. I he e is any way o secu ing ha he cos o
adding ca le o he he d will a ec only he ibe which adds he ca le, one
migh hope ha hey, in enligh ened sel -in e es , would choose o limi he
numbe o ca le. Then one would sa e he cos s o he bu eauc acy
in ol ed in di ec egula ion.
Fo he case discussed abo e, in oduc ion o bounda ies would be one such
solu ion. I bo h land and wa e and any o he aluable esou ce in he a ea
can be equi ably di ided by a bounda y, a ence main ained by he wo ibes
would seem o p o ide he solu ion wi h he lowes ansac ion cos s o he
p oblem o gi ing incen i es o an ecologically sus ainable esou ce
managemen .
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Complica ions: he ee ide and he game o holdou
Two ibes in a clea ly delimi ed a ea is o cou se he simples possible
si ua ion one can imagine. In any eal li e si ua ions he e will be mo e ac o s
in ol ed and he a ea will no be e y p ecisely delimi ed.
I an a ea is uly common p ope y (as commonly unde s ood) o hose who
use i , any kind o ins i u ional change will equi e unanimous suppo o he
in ol ed ac o s. In his si ua ion one o en will ind some ac o mo e o less
openly playing he game o holdou . The mo e p o i able he ins i u ional
change is seen o be, he mo e likely i is ha someone will ind i o hei
ad an age o play di icul o secu e an ad an age o hemsel es. The one
holding ou on he ag eemen o execu e he change will, by being di icul ,
o en be able o secu e o himsel a la ge han ai sha e o he p o i o
he change, o , a leas , by pos poning he en u e, pu i in jeopa dy o no
being execu ed.
I one o he ad an ages g an ed o he holdou is o be exemp ed pa ly o
wholly om he cos s in ol ed in he ins i u ional change, he holdou is
also a ee ide . F ee- iding can, howe e , also occu in si ua ions wi hou
ins i u ional change. I some ac o is able o a oid paying o con ibu ing o
he ac i i ies necessa y o keep up an ins i u ional s uc u e, he ac o is called
a ee ide and he con ibu ions o all o he s wan ing o main ain he
ins i u ion mus be inc eased.
Taxes and he p isone 's dilemma
Conside , o example, a illage which has been keeping he g azing land as
common p ope y, wi h di ec egula ion o he numbe o ca le o each
membe o he socie y and a police o ce o moni o he compliance o he
egula ion. Fo a ious easons many o he illage s ha e allen on ha d
imes and he illage council o es o exemp hem om paying hei axes.
The axes o he es inc ease, o cou se. Howe e , i is ha d o do much
abou po e y by exemp ing he poo om axes. Somehow imes do no
imp o e. The image o eali y in he council deciding on he issue is now
ha ax exemp ions a e necessa y also o he en ep eneu s o u he he
indus ial de elopmen o he illage. E en mo e people a e exemp ed om
axes and he ew who s ill pay, begin o calcula e wha hey gain by
coope a ing. A some poin in his p ocess hose who pay axes a e aced
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wi h he p isone 's dilemma: shall I con inue o pay axes o shall I de ec o
eap as many bene i s as possible while he sys em las s.
Those who coope a e by paying he ansac ion cos s o he ins i u ional
egula ions may soon ind ha he cos o p o iding o he ee ide s
exceed he gain o he egula ions. I hey u n egois s hey may s ill ake
ou some p o i be o e he sys em collapses and lea es e e yone poo e .
They may e en ind ha hey now ha e less le han hey will ha e i
e e yone u ns egois s. The agedy o he commons e u ns. And wi h a
engeance, he p isone 's dilemma lea es conside ably less possibili y o a
happy ending han he game o chicken. One should pe haps call his esul
he agedy o a aul y s a e. No qui e as ca ching a ph ase as he agedy o
he commons, bu i poin s o he impo an p oblem o dis ibu ional jus ice.
F om he desc ip ion o he managemen o he common p ope y o he
illage he e is bu a sho s ep o conside he mode n democ a ic wel a e
s a e wi h i s in e es g oup poli ics. In some ins ances i migh be
illumina ing o desc ibe he s a e and i s ax base as an open access esou ce.
The implica ions a e ob ious. The agedy lies in he ac ha hey all will
ha e only a ac ion o wha hey would i all we e coope a ing o pay he
ansac ion cos s.
Table 7.2
The agedy o he commons
Payo ma ix in a game whe e ee iding has u ned he game o
"chicken" in o he game o "p isone "
Type B indi idual
Egois s Coope a o s
Type A
indi idual
Egois s 2 1
2 7
Coope a o s 7 3
1 3
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Discussion
The p eceding b ie and s ylized example sugges s wo impo an conclusions:
The in oduc ion o p ope ly de ined p ope y igh s ela i e o a
sui able social en i onmen can encou age ecologically sus ainable
esou ce managemen .
I is necessa y o conside ca e ully he dis ibu ion o he cos s o
main aining he ins i u ional sys em de ining and main aining he
p ope y igh s.
In ela ion o he i s poin i mus be o pa icula in e es o in es iga e he
ci cums ances which ende p i a e p ope y igh s a sui able ins umen o
secu ing sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion. The e is no eason o belie e ha
ecologically sus ainable esou ce managemen ollows au oma ically om he
in oduc ion o p i a e p ope y igh s.
Se e al ypes o social en i onmen s migh be imagined sui able o p i a e
p ope y igh s o encou age sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion. Howe e , a
p io i, i would seem easonable ha hey all should show he ollowing
cha ac e is ics: 1) he owne s o esou ces a e secu e in hei possession, and
2) he in e es s o he owne s o esou ces a e long- e m.
Fo he owne s o ake a long- e m in e es in he managemen o hei
p ope y, a i s equi emen is secu i y o he p ope y. Secu i y o p ope y is
always a ques ion o belie in a gua an ee gi en by a s a e (o i s equi alen ).
The us in his gua an ee is liable o how he s a e pe o ms i s asks. In
pa icula i would seem a good es o wa ch he secu i y o p ope y is-
à- is he s a e in si ua ions o con lic ing in e es s. Bu secu i y o p ope y is
no enough o secu e sus ainable u iliza ion. The emp a ion o sho e m
gains will always be a ound.
One way o induce a long- e m iew o he u iliza ion migh be o con ince
people ha i hey exploi he esou ces o a maximum sho e m gain,
hey ha e o su e some kind o nega i e consequence. A necessa y
equi emen o he s a e would seem o include ei he non-in e e ence i some
owne comes o su e nega i e consequences o bad esou ce managemen
o di ec ly adminis e a measu ed quan i y o nega i e consequences i sel .
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His o ically non-in e e ence seems o ha e been he no m. A policy o
non-in e e ence would seem mo e easible i he land (and in gene al he
p ope y) is di ided among many a he han among ew owne s. Wi h
many holde s o p ope y he consequences o bad managemen will on
a e age be less pe decision make and he lea ning po en ial, in e ms o wha
is good managemen , la ge . Usually he penal y o no aking he long- e m
iew has been s a a ion and/o loss o p ope y. S a a ion does no seem o
be a sui able penal y in con empo a y socie y. Wha is a sui able penal y is a
di icul ques ion. Bu i p i a e p ope y igh s, as his o ically de eloped,
shall encou age sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion, he p omise o sho e m
(and some imes la ge) gains has o be balanced by a sui able h ea .
I socie y is unwilling o con empla e consequences like s a a ion and
po e y, i he s a e on humani a ian g ounds inds ha i mus bail ou hose
coming o su e he consequences o unsus ainable esou ce managemen , o
i he p ope y igh s sys em allows he owne s o ans o m he ex ac ed
esou ces in o p o i s, ega dless o whe he hey a e ex ac ed sus ainably o
no , and in es hem in o he p o i able ac i i ies, hen he ecological a gumen
o he p i a e p ope y igh s disappea and di ec in e en ion mus be
p e e ed e en i he ansac ion cos s hen a e conside ably highe .
The analy ical ideal ype o p i a e p ope y wi hou go e nmen egula ion
excep gua an ies o bounda ies and secu i y o ans e s o p ope y igh s
can be con as ed wi h he ideal ype o s a e p ope y wi h di ec egula ion
o all esou ce u iliza ion. Socie ies wi h ideal ypical p i a e p ope y o
ideal ypical s a e p ope y a e no known o exis his o ically. By s a e i is
he e mean he sys em esponsible ac o all a ional esou ce u ilize s would
choose o es ablish. Fo sho pe iods o ime some socie ies ha e app oached
a si ua ion which may be analysed by he ideal ypical concep s. Usually he
p ope y igh s sys em o a socie y will be a mix u e o he wo ideal ypes.
Bu o cou se, in a mode n wel a e s a e he al e na i e o p i a e p ope y
igh s is no s a e p ope y. The deba e conce ns he p ope di ision o igh s
in o igh s he s a e has o own and igh s which p i a e ac o s ha e o own.
Ve y much o ideological and poli ical ac i i ies a e di ec ed a he
dema ca ion and adjus men o he bounda y be ween p i a e and s a e
in e es s. The esul o he s uggle a e mani es ed in laws and egula ions
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may analy ically dis inguish ou impo an aspec s o esou ces. In addi ion
esou ces a e special in ha hey a e ei he enewable o deple able. The
ollowing discussion is much inspi ed by Os om and Os om (1977).
Table 7.4
Types o esou ces
Consume s a e
The esou ce is Excludable Non-excludable
Di isible 1. p i a e 2. posi ional
Indi isible 3. public 4. club
1. P i a e esou ces.
Money is he pe ec , ideal ypical, p i a e esou ce. The e a e no p oblems o
ei he di isibili y o excludabili y. The possesso can ans e any pa o
such a esou ce o o he ac o s o ans o m i o a wide a ie y o bene i s,
and has absolu ely no p oblems excluding anybody om access o i . Mos o
wha a e called na u al esou ces, om land and wa e o bulk commodi ies
like g ain o c ude oil also all in o his ca ego y.
Fo some esou ces, howe e , i is impossible o illegal o exclude anyone
om aking possession o a pa . This may happen because he echnology
o exclude does no exis o because abundance makes i oo expensi e o
exclude hose who wan a pa o because equi y conside a ions lead o he
conclusion ha e e ybody has a igh o access o he esou ce. These
esou ces can be called posi ional i he consump ion o such esou ces by
one ac o may a ec he bene i s a ailable o o he consume s. Wa e will
o example i his desc ip ion in se e al con ex s. Downs eam om he i s
use bo h he amoun and quali y o he wa e in a s eam will be a ec ed.
2. Posi ional esou ces.
Whene e non-excludabili y o a di isible esou ce exis s, he numbe o
consume s and he quan i y consumed may a ec he quali y and quan i y
a ailable o hose no cu en ly consuming he esou ce. The esul , usually,
is ei he some kind o queue o gain access (implying some kind o
a ioning ule o de ing he queue) i he e a e bounds on he quan i y
a ailable a any pa icula ime, o , i he e a e oo many consume s, he
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esul is a de e io a ing quali y o he esou ce, like he g azing land discussed
abo e. The de e io a ing quali y may a ise ei he because he use o he
esou ce includes lea ing some was e behind (e.g. wa e pollu ion) o
because he a e o enewal o he esou ce is a ec ed by he a e o
consump ion (biological esou ces).
3. Public esou ces.
I consume s a e non-excludable and he basic esou ce is indi isible, he e
will be no ac o in a posi ion o exclude o he s om aking possession o he
esou ce. Sunligh , us in he legal sys em o he a ea, he language o a
cul u e as a means o communica ion, e c.: he esou ce is he e o he use
by anyone wan ing o. Nobody can deny i o anyone, no can i be
acqui ed pa ly.
Howe e , some imes hose wan ing o make use o a heo e ically non-
excludable and indi isible esou ce, like a public squa e, can expe ience
c owding phenomena. I oo many o oo ew use s o a esou ce a ec he
u ili y o he esou ce o o he ma ginal use s, he esou ce may be called a
club esou ce. The esou ce, e en hough indi isible, is no eally non-
excludable.
4. Club esou ces.
Knowledge and echnology a e ypical examples o esou ces whe e
possesso s can exclude o he s om access and whe e he esou ce i sel is
indi isible. A pa o a echnology o a bi o knowledge may be some hing o
possess o e en ba gain wi h, bu no much o a esou ce in i sel . I is a
esou ce only i all o i is app op ia ed. Howe e , he u ili y o he esou ce
depends hea ily on how many o he s possess he same esou ce. I oo many
possess i , i s alue dec eases. I oo ew possess i , i s po en ial alue may
ne e be ealized. The u ili y o he esou ce is a ec ed by c owding
phenomena ( oo many o oo ew use s).
Types o esou ces and ypes o owne ship
I is in e es ing o no e ha he a ious ypes o esou ces hus iden i ied
ha e a ce ain co espondence o he ypes o owne ship discussed abo e. In
pa icula i would seem ha a pu e club esou ce migh be sui able o
common owne ship like o example he s ock o knowledge and know-how
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sus aining a p o ession. A pu e public esou ce would need no owne ship
and a pu e posi ional esou ce, i ha could be ound, would, pe haps, equi e
s a e owne ship.
Mos eal esou ces will con ain aspec s o mo e han one o he ypes
iden i ied. The dis inc ions a e, howe e , impo an o he design o p ope y
igh s in ha ules o ans e mus depend on he possibili y and cos o
excluding some non-owne om he esou ce ( he ansac ion cos s and
possibili ies o gene a ing ex e nali ies om en o cing a con ac o
ans e o igh s). And i mus ake in o conside a ion o wha deg ee he
esou ce (o mo e p ecisely he alue o he esou ce) is di isible. I he alue
is indi isible i is mos p obably inalienable as well (like knowledge o skill
once acqui ed). Con e sely conside a ions o en i lemen s and equi y may
lead o conside a ions o inalienable igh s. The ules de ining and
p o ec ing such igh s hen has o con o m o he ules go e ning club
esou ces and public esou ces.
P ope y igh s and sus ainable de elopmen
I we apply he insigh s in o p ope y igh s gained so a o he p oblems
o sus ainable esou ce de elopmen , he ansac ion cos s and ex e nali y
conside a ions may lead o some kind o egula ed p i a e p ope y igh s
sys em as he solu ion. Taking u he in o accoun he p oblems o secu ing
jus ice and equi y, one sees ha sol ing p oblems o ansac ion cos s and
ex e nali ies will ha dly con ibu e o sus ainable de elopmen unless all
ele an ac o s o he socie y ha e an ini ial endowmen o p ope y igh s
gi ing hem a minimum capabili y o long- e m planning o hei li es.
Sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion equi es long- e m commi men on all decision
making le els.
In eal li e he dis ibu ion o powe and de ac o p ope y igh s a e o en
e y skewed. In pa icula he e a e in many socie ies a subs an ial and
o en g owing popula ion wi hou p ope y excep o hei own labou
powe .
I a p ope y igh s sys em is designed p esupposing ha all ac o s ha e an
ini ial minimum endowmen o esou ces in addi ion o hei own labou
powe (e.g. educa ion o land), he implemen a ion o his sys em in a
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popula ion whe e some pa o i do no ha e he necessa y ini ial endowmen ,
will no do much o sol e he p oblem o sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion.
E en i one we e able o dis ega d he humani a ian conside a ions and wan ed
o w i e o he "su plus popula ion", i would be likely ha ansac ion cos s
like he policing cos s, i.e. he cos s o p o ec ing he igh s o he owne s
agains he non-owne s, would be p ohibi i ely high.
Wi hou he will o dis ibu e he ini ial endowmen o p ope y igh s, he
in oduc ion o a p ope y igh s sys em designed o ci cum en he
i a ionali ies inhe en in cu en u iliza ion p ocesses will do no good.
I a socie y is able o endow each ci izen wi h a minimum ini ial bundle o
esou ces, hen he s a e should, a a minimum, make an e o o secu e he
ai ness and alidi y o he ansac ions which he ci izens en e in o, a he
han wo y abou any pa icula ou come o he ac ions. This is in any case
impo an bo h o i s au ho i y and o he legi ima ion o he sys em, bu i
may also be a pa o he mo i a ion o a sus ainable de elopmen . To u he
encou age a long- e m iew on he use o esou ces, he s a e also should
make an e o o gua an ee he long- e m alidi y o a p ope y ela ion. I
loss o p ope y is an e e yday and equen expe ience, no a ional ac o
will ake a long- e m iew on in es men and use o esou ces.
Unsus ainable u iliza ion o a esou ce should be penalized wi h a minimum
o cos s. O e exploi a ion will, in he minimal s a e, ca y i s own penal y.
Pollu ion does as well. Bu , in addi ion, pollu ion usually a ec s neighbou s.
Gi ing he neighbou s legal emedies no only o s op pollu ing ac i i ies,
bu o app op ia e he possible gain he pollu e has had om he ac i i y
migh p o e e ec i e. Bu in a wel a e s a e he penal ies o o e exploi a ion
and pollu ion su icien in a minimal s a e a e no accep able.
The p oblem o app op ia e penal ies emains. Bu e en ag eeing on
app op ia e penal ies is no enough. To en o ce hem one has o be able o
dis inguish c iminal beha iou om simply igno ance and bad luck. Wha do
seem o eme ge as a conclusion is ha bo h equi y in ini ial dis ibu ions and a
s a e esembling ema kable he democ a ic ule-o -law s a e a e necessa y
p e equisi es o achie ing sus ainable esou ce u iliza ion.
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APPENDIX
SOME DATA ON THE CONSUMPTION OF WELFARE GOODS
ACCORDING TO CLASS11
Use o he anspo a ion sys em and he medical se ices
The a gumen s abo e ha e been abou oad sys ems and hospi als. The da a
a ailable e e o a elling by any means, and o access o physicians o
den is s.
1. Access o medical se ices
Bo h he equi emen ha he heal h sys em shall p o ide medical ea men
o all, and he queuing sys em o a ioning, indica e ha use o he sys em
ough o be s ic ly acco ding o need. This means ha i we con ol o need
in e ms o illness we should ind no di e ences in he consump ion o
medical se ices acco ding o income. This is exac ly wha Els ad (1991)
inds in he No wegian Heal h su ey o 1985 ( able 1). He e Els ad inds
di e ences in need acco ding o social class. The lowe classes a e mo e ill
and hus mo e in need o heal h se ices. Uncon olled o deg ee o illness,
he lowe classes consume mo e o he heal h se ices han he uppe
classes. This is also ound by Townsend and Da idson (1992 [1982]) and
Whi ehead e al. (1988). Bu hey a gue he di e ences in illness a e so la ge
ha i one we e o con ol o need and ake in o he accoun longe
consul a ions and he possibili y o be e quali y o he se ices ende ed
uppe class people, he highe classes will come ou as hose bes se ed by
he heal h sys em. This means ha a leas access o he medical se ices
unc ions exac ly as hey a e supposed o do.
Den al se ices in No way a e in ou e ms p i a e goods. A e he age o 18,
people ha e o pay he den is o ake ca e o hei ee h. Bo h he na u e o
he good and he needs o he consume a e compa able o hose o he
p ima y heal h se ices. E en he a gumen s o making i in o a public
good could be duplica ed. I is, howe e , o ganized as a p i a e good. When
Els ad looks a di e en ial use o den al se ices acco ding o social class, he
inds ha class di e ences a e signi ican and e en la ge ( able A.1).
11 The obse a ions p esen ed he e we e collec ed du ing he w i ing o Be ge (1991a).
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Table A.1
P opo ion ha ing seen a physician and a den is du ing he las
yea acco ding o occupa ional ac i i y, sex and social class*
Den is Physician
Occupa ionally ac i e
Women low s a us 78 81
high s a us 82** 84
Men low s a us 68 74
high s a us 81*** 73
Occupa ionally passi e
Women low s a us 48 84
high s a us 69*** 78
Men low s a us 31 80
high s a us 45*** 86
*The dis inc ion be ween high and low s a us is based on occupa ion o hose wi h an
occupa ion and on household income o hose wi hou an occupa ion (Els ad 1991).
** Di e ences a e signi ican a he 5% le el.
*** Di e ences a e signi ican a he 1% le el.
Sou ce: Els ad (1991) , Table 3.
Access o he anspo a ion sys em
The anspo a ion sys em comp ises a lo mo e han he oads and he daily
a elling includes much mo e han commu ing o wo k. Nei he is he need
concep as easily ag eed upon as o he medical se ices. Also he use o he
anspo a ion sys em equi es a esou ce inpu om he use unlike he
medical sys em (bu like he den al se ices). E en i a elling o he mos
pa is an ac i i y minimized a he han maximized, he a gumen s o no
di e ences acco ding o social class in he leng h o daily a el o ime used
o a elling do no ollow. Bu accep ing he a gumen ha daily a elling
is a necessi y and a cos o be minimized a he han maximized, i would
seem easonable ha uppe class pe sons would y ha de o keep he ime
used a elling low han o keep dis ances a elled sho . This would e lec
esou ce di e en ials among a elle s. I he e a e need-di e en ials among
occupa ional g oups in addi ion o he esou ce di e en ials, he e will be
ade-o s be ween ime used o a elling and cos o highe speed.
Da a om he a elling beha iou su ey o 1985 (S angeby 1987) shows
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bo h he highe esou ce inpu and he p obable con ounding e ec o need
di e ences.
Table A.2
Dis ance (in km) a elled and ime (in min) used a elling each day
acco ding o socio-economic s a us.
mean
dis ance
pe ip
a elled
mean
numbe o
ips pe
day
mean
ime used
pe ip
a elled
dis ance
a elled
pe day
a elling
ime
pe day
Unskilled labou
12.6
3.3
21.8
41.6
71.9
Skilled labou 9.4 3.5 20.2 32.9 70.7
Lowe whi e colla 8.4 3.3 18.3 27.7 60.4
Middle whi e colla 12.3 3.6 23.5 44.3 84.6
Highe whi e colla 16.1 3.7 24.9 59.6 92.1
Fa me s/ ishe men 13.1 2.7 25.9 35.4 69.9
O he sel -employed 14.7 3.6 21.4 52.9 77.0
S uden s 8.3 4.1 19.9 34.0 81.6
Pensione s 8.2 2.0 20.9 16.4 41.8
Wo k a home 8.0 2.5 19.9 20.0 49.3
O he s 14.8 2.9 27.1 42.9 78.6
All pe sons 10.8 3.2 22.0 34.6 70.4
Sou ce: S angeby (1987), igu e 10, 11, and 12.
Table A.2 shows ha hose in highe whi e colla occupa ions a el he
longes dis ances and use he mos ime a elling each day. Pensione s and
s uden s a el he sho es dis ances and use he leas ime, bu no much
less han hose in lowe whi e colla occupa ions who again a e below skilled
and unskilled labou .
T a elling di e en ials measu ed in km a e howe e la ge han hose
measu ed in minu es. This comes ou clea ly in able A.3 whe e a e age speed
o daily a elling as well as ela i e di e en ials o speed, dis ance and
ime has been compu ed. Speed may be used as an indica o o he cos
o a elling. Those pu ing he mos esou ces ( ime and he cos o speed)
in o a elling o buy dis ance a e he highe whi e colla occupa ions.
The sel -employed o he han a me s/ ishe men buy he highes speed, bu
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use only abou he same ime a elling as he a e age pe son. Excep o he
highe whi e colla occupa ions and he sel -employed o he han a me s and
ishe men he di e en ials in a elling speed a e small compa ed o
di e en ials in dis ance and ime. This may p esumably be a ibu ed o he
subsidies which makes a elling a he a e age speed a ailable and ai ly
cheap o all. I dis ance is aken as a need measu e, he e seems o be
some ade-o s be ween ime and speed.
Table A.3
T a elling speed and ela i e inequali y in speed, dis ance and ime a elled
acco ding o socio-economic g oups
Speed km
p
e hou
ela i e
s
p
ee
d
ela i e
dis ance
inequali ies
in ime
Unskille
d
labou
34.7 118 120 102
Skille
d
labou
27.9 95 95 100
Lowe
whi e colla
27.5 93 80 86
Middle whi e colla
31.4 106 128 120
Hi
g
he whi e colla
38.8 132 172 131
Fa me s/ ishe men 30.4 103 102 99
O he
sel -em
p
lo
y
e
d
41.2 140 152 109
S uden s 25.0 85 98 116
Pensione s 23.5 80 47 59
Wo k a home 24.3 82 58 70
O he s 32.7 111 124 112
All pe sons 29.5 100 100 100
Sou ce: Table A.2 abo e.
I we make he same calcula ions o ime and dis ance used a elling o
income g oups as o occupa ional g oups, we ge much he same pic u e
( ables A.4 and A.5). Pa icula ly o he ou middle income g oups, he
linea inc ease in he use o bo h ime and esou ces o buying speed is
imp essi e. The de iance o he lowes as well as he highes income g oup
may be in e p e ed in se e al ways, bu he un eliabili y o bo h pa icula ly
low and high incomes a e well known.
Reading no es on p ope y igh s an
d
ins i u ions
__________________________________________________________________________________
129
Table A.4
Dis ance (in km) a elled and ime (in min) used a elling each
day acco ding o income g oups
mean
numbe
o ips
pe day
mean
leng h o
ips
mean ime
used pe
ip
a elled
dis ance
a elled
pe day
a elling ime
pe day
Income:
less han 40 000 2.5 9.8 24.1 24.5 60.3
40 - 79 000 2.3 6.7 21.8 15.4 49.5
80 - 159 000 3.0 9.5 21.2 28.5 63.6
160 - 239 000 3.5 10.5 20.2 36.8 70.7
240 - 319 000 3.6 14.2 23.4 51.1 83.5
320 and mo e 4.0 11.8 20.5 47.2 82.0
All pe sons 3.2 10.8 22.0 34.6 70.4
Sou ce: S angeby (1987), igu e 13, 14, and 15.
Table A.5
T a elling speed and ela i e inequali ies o speed, dis ance and
ime a elled acco ding o income g oups
Speed Rela i e inequali ies in
Income: km pe hou speed dis ance ime
less han 40 000 24.4 83 71 86
40 - 79 000 18.7 63 45 70
80 - 159 000 26.9 91 82 90
160 - 239 000 31.2 106 106 100
240 - 319 000 36.7 124 148 119
320 and mo e 34.5 117 136 116
All pe sons 29.5 100 100 100
Sou ce: Table A.4 abo e.
130
Reading no es on p ope y igh s an
d
ins i u ions
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