Aluko, Kehinde Ma ha; Bu gess, John
A icle
Na iga ing wo k o ce ans o ma ion: H m s a egies o
u al and egional Aus alian councils in he 4IR e a
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Aluko, Kehinde Ma ha; Bu gess, John (2025) : Na iga ing wo k o ce
ans o ma ion: H m s a egies o u al and egional Aus alian councils in he 4IR e a,
Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 1-18,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020052
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321196
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Recei ed: 7 Janua y 2025
Re ised: 31 Janua y 2025
Accep ed: 5 Feb ua y 2025
Published: 10 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Aluko, K. M., & Bu gess, J.
(2025). Na iga ing Wo k o ce
T ans o ma ion: HRM S a egies o
Ru al and Regional Aus alian
Councils in he 4IR E a. Adminis a i e
Sciences,15(2), 52. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci15020052
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Na iga ing Wo k o ce T ans o ma ion: HRM S a egies o Ru al
and Regional Aus alian Councils in he 4IR E a
Kehinde Ma ha Aluko and John Bu gess *
Cen e o O ganisa ional Change and Agili y, To ens Uni e si y, Adelaide 5000, Aus alia;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: john.bu gess@ o ens.edu.au
Abs ac : The con ex o he s udy epo ed he e is he Aus alian local go e nmen
sec o , speci ically u al and egional councils ha ope a e in isola ed and emo e a eas
wi h limi ed s a ing and esou ces. Wi hin his sec o , 4IR echnologies a e ans o ming
se ice deli e y, jobs, and skill equi emen s. The pu pose o his s udy is o examine how
public sec o o ganisa ions ope a ing wi hin a egula ed and no - o -p o i con ex and
wi h cons ain s o e HRM choices manage he challenges o he 4IR echnologies on hei
wo k o ce. In o ma ion om he s udy was sou ced om semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h
council manage s and CEOs, independen expe s amilia wi h he sec o , and council
documen s. T iangula ion o he in o ma ion was applied o de elop hemes linked o
wo k o ce managemen , especially inno a i e HRM p og ams ha we e shaped by he
cons ain s ha councils aced in he managemen o hei wo k o ce. The indings indica e
ha egional and u al councils we e able o manage he impac o 4IR echnologies on hei
wo k o ces h ough p og ams ha d ew on in e nal s a de elopmen and in e -council
esou ce sha ing.
Keywo ds: HRM s a egies; inno a i e HRM p ac ices; local go e nmen (LG); wo k o ce
de elopmen ; ou h indus ial e olu ion; u al and egional councils;
digi al ans o ma ion
;
public sec o ; Aus alia
1. In oduc ion
The digi al ans o ma ion d i en by he Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion (4IR), which
includes echnologies such as a i icial in elligence (AI), cloud echnology, he in e ne o
hings, machine lea ning (ML), big da a, enewable ene gy, au onomous anspo , 3D
p in ing, and sa elli e echnology (WEF,2016), is ans o ming inno a ion ac oss public,
p i a e, and non-p o i sec o s globally (Nanke is e al.,2019). The ex en and speed o
he ans o ma ion p ocess has led o specula ion on he u u e o wo k, including he loss
o jobs, he eplacemen o humans by obo s and AI sys ems, and he e osion o skills and
ca ee s (Bu gess e al.,2021).
This ans o ma ion is eshaping indus ies and wo k en i onmen s, p esen ing chal-
lenges and oppo uni ies o o ganisa ions (Pa il & Shekhawa ,2019;Roblek e al.,2016).
In Aus alia, LGs ha e emb aced 4IR echnologies, inco po a ing hem in o ope a ional
ini ia i es and se ice-based digi al p ojec s (AIIA,2020;Aus alian Local Go e nmen
Associa ion [ALGA],2022). All a eas o LG ope a ions, such as oad main enance, a ic
managemen , e use managemen , lib a y sys ems, and cus ome engagemen , ha e been
ans o med by 4IR echnologies (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022).
The adop ion o hese echnologies p esen s challenges, including na iga ing go e nance
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020052
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 2 o 18
complexi ies, aligning echnological ini ia i es wi h o ganisa ional goals, and managing
he wo k o ce o echnological dis up ion including skills and job edundancy, and new
skill demands. Local go e nmen s (LGs) ace shi ing communi y needs and inancial con-
s ain s, and hey a e unde g owing p essu e o inno a e by le e aging 4IR echnologies
o imp o e se ice deli e y and ope a ional e iciency, e ain s a , ec ui s a o ill new
job and skill needs, and o educe cos s (Knowles,2020).
The LG sec o is he e ogenous in e ms o i s inancial capabili ies, labou ma ke
condi ions, and se ice obliga ions; speci ically, he ype and scale o challenges di e
be ween u al/ egional and me opoli an LGs (Adendo e al.,2021;Aus alian Local
Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). Me opoli an councils bene i om inancial
esou ces and la ge wo k o ces, a wide skill base, and access o suppo ing se ices
and expe ise, including aining and educa ion ins i u ions. Ru al and egional councils,
in con as , ope a e wi h limi ed esou ces, in small and isola ed communi ies, ac oss
a la ge geog aphical space, wi h di e en se ice obliga ions, and wi h small s a wi h
a limi ed skill base (Adendo e al.,2021;Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion
[ALGA],2022;Shaikh & Bu gess,2021). Thei wo k en i onmen s, coupled wi h he
need o inno a ion wi hin cons ain s, make hese councils a c i ical a ea o s udy o
unde s anding how small- and medium-sized LG o ganisa ions add ess he wo k o ce
challenges accompanying he applica ion o 4IR echnologies o se ice deli e y. Unlike
la ge me opoli an councils, egional and u al councils ha e a limi ed skill base, ace
ec ui men and e en ion challenges in a igh labou ma ke , ha e la o ganisa ional
s uc u es, and in many ins ances do no ha e a designa ed HRM di ision (Aus alian
Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022).
This s udy e alua es he HRM s a egies employed by u al and egional LGs in
accommoda ing and ha nessing echnological change. This esea ch examines how u al
and egional councils na iga e he wo k o ce challenges posed by 4IR echnologies, he eby
con ibu ing o he unde s anding o he de elopmen o HRM esponses o he wo k o ce
challenges imposed h ough echnological ans o ma ion. Con ex and ins i u ions in lu-
ence he selec ion and de elopmen o HRM p og ams. In his case, his s udy is cen ed
on he public sec o , whe e o ganisa ional goals and ope a ional p ocesses a e codi ied,
o en egula ed by s a e go e nmen s. HRM choices a e de e mined by council guidelines
de eloped by s a e go e nmen s and elec ed o icials. HRM decisions a e cons ained by
a igh labou ma ke wi h skill sho ages and by an indus ial ag eemen ha limi s he
use o s a edundancies as an HRM esponse o echnological dis up ion (NSW Indus ial
Rela ions Commissions,2023), S a egic HRM p og ams a e d i en by ins i u ional and
con ex ual cons ain s (Cooke,2018). Th ough e alua ing how egional and u al LGs
na iga e he wo k o ce challenges associa ed wi h 4IR echnologies, his s udy iden i ies
HR p og ams ha a e ele an o no - o -p o i o ganisa ions ha ope a e wi h limi ed
esou ces in a igh labou ma ke and wi h o ganisa ional and poli ical cons ain s. The
indings ha e esonance o small and medium no - o -p o i o ganisa ions.
This s udy is d i en by he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
•
Wha a e he key wo k o ce challenges aced by Aus alian u al and egional councils
in he adop ion o 4IR echnologies?
•
Wha HRM s a egies a e u al and egional councils employing o manage he wo k-
o ce impac s o 4IR echnologies?
2. The Aus alian Local Go e nmen (LG) Sec o
The go e nmen in Aus alia is di ided in o h ee ie s: cen al o ede al, egional
o s a e, and local. Each has assigned esponsibili ies and axa ion bases. LGs ha e ac-
cess o limi ed axa ion e enue and a e dependen on g an s om he ede al and s a e
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 3 o 18
go e nmen s o p o ide local se ices (LGA,2023). Local go e nmen s (LGs) a e elec ed,
no - o -p o i en i ies accoun able o hei local communi ies and egula ed by s a e go e n-
men s (LGA,2023;Wo hing on & Dolle y,2001). They p o ide communi y se ices such
as in as uc u e main enance, was e managemen , local planning, communi y heal h and
sa e y, communi y and c ea i e ac i i ies, and social suppo p og ams (Aus alian Local
Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022;T an & Dolle y,2019). Se ice equi emen s and
he capaci y o deli e a ies ac oss councils based on council size, geog aphic loca ion,
and inancial capaci y (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022;Shaikh &
Bu gess,2021;Uppal & Dunphy,2019). Councils di e in size, inancial capabili ies, and
esponsibili ies. Some councils manage a eas less han a ew squa e kilome es, while o he s
co e as egions o e one hund ed housand squa e kilome es (Aus alian Local Go e n-
men Associa ion [ALGA],2022). These geog aphical di e ences impac he ypes and cos s
o se ices o be deli e ed (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022).
Mo e han 6500 elec ed councillo s manage and plan LG ope a ions (Shaikh & Bu gess,
2021). LGs p o ide simila se ices o esiden s, and each LG ope a es wi hin he con-
s ain s o i s inancial capaci y, local se ice needs, and local labou ma ke condi ions
(Uppal & Dunphy,2019). LGs p o ide o e 150 se ices and spend a ound AUD 34 billion
annually (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). LGs a e signi ican
employe s, especially in egional and u al a eas, co e ing 400 occupa ions (Aus alian
Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). In 2023, he sec o employed 208,000 wo k-
e s (ABS,2023). The esponsibili ies o LGs ha e expanded o e ime due o inc easing
communi y demands, in e go e nmen al g an s ied o deli e ing speci ic ac i i ies such
as imp o ing majo a e ial oads, and he need o add ess local c ises such as looding,
i es, and d ough s (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). This has
inc eased he demand o mul iskilled and specialis s a (Essen ial Se ices Commission,
2021;Ya am e al.,2021). The LG sec o aces signi ican challenges, p ima ily due o
inancial cons ain s due o he limi ed axa ion base and unde lying g ow h and shi s
in he dis ibu ion and demog aphic o he popula ion. S a e go e nmen s con ol local
decision-making h ough legisla ion on pe o mance and go e nance and h ough impos-
ing condi ions on in e go e nmen al g an s, which es ic councils’ ope a ional lexibili y
and inancial au onomy (Richa dson,2011;Shaikh & Bu gess,2021).
LGs a e adop ing a ange o 4IR echnologies o enhance ope a ional e iciency and
se ice deli e y. LGs ha e implemen ed sma a ic managemen sys ems, AI-d i en
solu ions, and d ones o in as uc u e inspec ions, imp o ing was e managemen and
ecycling, imp o ing u ban a ic lows, and suppo ing oad main enance (Go Tech
Re iew,2023). Councils a e adop ing da a analy ics, cloud-based pla o ms, GIS, and
collabo a ion ools o s eamline ope a ions, imp o e decision making, and enhance se ice
deli e y (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022;Go Tech Re iew,2023).
Au oma ion and he digi al deli e y o se ices ha e sa ed he sec o an es ima ed 40%
o ime spen on epe i i e asks, wi h po en ial sa ings o AUD 14.9 billion annually
(Deloi e,2015).
Ru al and egional councils ace signi ican ba ie s o adop ing 4IR echnologies,
including limi ed esou ces, wo k o ce sho ages, and digi al in as uc u e challenges such
as in e ne access (ESC,2023;McQues in e al.,2022). Budge cons ain s hinde in es men
in ad anced echnologies, and a ac ing skilled wo ke s is u he complica ed by poo
in e ne connec i i y and geog aphic isola ion (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion
[ALGA],2022;Bwalya,2020;Wa son & Ryan,2020). Resis ance o change by councils,
manage s, and employees and a p e e ence o adi ional se ice deli e y me hods u he
impede echnological adop ion (Ande sson e al.,2022).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 4 o 18
Despi e hese challenges, 4IR echnologies a e expec ed o con inue eshaping se ice
deli e y ac oss all le els o LG. LGs ha e o manage echnological inno a ion h ough
wo k o ce upskilling, e aining, and hi ing specialis s a amilia wi h he new echnolo-
gies (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). The inancial dispa i ies
be ween me opoli an and u al councils, along wi h wo k o ce e en ion challenges, high-
ligh he need o a ge ed and speci ic HR p og ams ha a e amed by local condi ions
ha include inancial capaci y and he s a e o he local labou ma ke (Adendo e al.,
2021;Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022).
3. Local Condi ions and Ins i u ions Shaping HRM P og ams
The e a e many s udies on he impac o he 4IR echnologies on jobs, skills, and ca ee s
(WEF,2016;Nanke is e al.,2020) and how o ganisa ions a e esponding o he wo k o ce
challenges and oppo uni ies associa ed wi h he applica ion o 4IR echnologies (Nanke is
e al.,2020). Many o he s udies a e speci ic o a pa icula echnology, coun y (Chang,
2020), o an occupa ion o indus y (Dhakal,2021) and p o ide case s udy illus a ions o
he wo k o ce consequences and managemen p og ams associa ed wi h he in oduc ion
o he new echnologies (Nanke is e al.,2020). Gi en he ange and applica ion o
4IR echnologies ac oss indus ies and occupa ions, i is di icul o gene alise abou he
implica ions o he s udies o jobs, skills, and wo k o ce managemen . Howe e , he
esea ch sugges s ha he 4IR echnologies con ibu e o o ganisa ional objec i es (p o i ,
e iciency, compe i i eness, and sus ainabili y) (WEF,2016) and ha o ganisa ions equi e
p oac i e wo k o ce managemen p og ams o align s a skills, compe encies, and p o iles
o he new echnologies (Schwab,2016). He e, s a egic HRM p og ams a e equi ed o
manage he dis up i e impac o he 4IR echnologies in e ms o edundan skills and jobs,
skill acquisi ion, illing new jobs gene a ed by he echnology, and ealigning s a p o iles
(Bu gess e al.,2021).
In s udying he wo k o ce impac and managemen challenges associa ed wi h he 4IR,
con ex and ins i u ions a e impo an in de e mining ou comes and shaping esponses.
Cooke (2018, p. 6) s a es ha “con ex is impo an in unde s anding he eal wo ld because
i p o ides insigh ul in o ma ion abou he o ganisa ional and en i onmen al se ing, he
clima e o he o ganisa ion o se ing, his o y o condi ions in luencing he si ua ion, and he
b oade cu en conce ns o issues wi hin which a pa icula o ganisa ional phenomenon
being s udied”.
The iden i ica ion o he con ex o HRM s udies is d i en by p io esea ch, esea che
in e es s and biases, and he issues being assessed (Cooke,2018;Goode ham e al.,2018). In
his s udy, he iden i ica ion o he impo an con ex ual condi ions was d i en by su eys
o he sec o (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022) and h ough he
in o ma ion p o ided by esponden s and o ganisa ional documen s. Con ex condi ions in-
co po a e labou and p oduc ma ke condi ions, o ganisa ional objec i es, and s akeholde
in e es s. Ins i u ions, especially he labou ma ke and socio-poli ical ins i u ions, also
shape impac and wo k o ce managemen choices and esul in c oss- i m, c oss-indus y,
and c oss-na ional di e ences in he selec ion o HR p og ams (Goode ham e al.,2018). In
assessing he applica ion and managemen o 4IR echnologies, key ins i u ions include
labou egula ions and collec i e ag eemen s co e ing managing wo k o ce edundancies,
egula ing condi ions o employmen including ope a ing hou s, shi pa e ns, and occu-
pa ional heal h and sa e y (Goode ham e al.,2018). Poli ical condi ions will also impac
applica ion and managemen decisions; o example, localised job losses o he need o
hi e immig an labou o ill new and specialised jobs can cons ain he choices a ound HR
p og ams. Impo an ly, he public sec o con ex means ha o ganisa ional objec i es a e
linked o se ice deli e y and subjec o poli ical o e sigh and legisla ion.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 5 o 18
The in e es in his pape is wi h inno a i e HRM esponses o dis up i e and chal-
lenging 4IR applica ions. Kos e (2018) sugges s h ee al e na i e iews o inno a i e
HRM: HRM p ocesses ha a e new o no el, HRM p ocesses ha d i e inno a ion, and
inno a ion ha d i es HRM p ocesses. In he ollowing analysis, he HRM p ocesses
iden i ied a e no new; hey may d i e inno a ion h ough he acquisi ion o new s a and
new skills, bu hey a e being d i en by he applica ion o new echnologies. The shape
and ex en o he inno a ions a e d i en by he con ex ual cons ain s aced by LGs.
Fo he Aus alian LG sec o , speci ically u al and egional LGs, he e a e impo an
con ex ual and ins i u ional condi ions go e ning 4IR applica ions and managemen . Fi s ,
LGs a e no o p o i ; hey mus , by legisla ion, p o ide a ange o se ices o local
communi ies (Uppal & Dunphy,2019). Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion echnologies can
imp o e se ice deli e y and e iciency, bu he se ices canno be discon inued. They can
be ou sou ced o p o ided h ough public–p i a e pa ne ships, bu hey mus be p o ided.
Second, LGs a e poli ical en i ies wi h elec ed o icials and esponsibili ies o he local
communi y. Local s akeholde in e es is ano he con ex ual condi ion o conside . Thi d,
LGs in Aus alia a e unionised and ha e collec i e ag eemen s ha limi s a edundancies
and p e e ence e aining o e edundancy (ASU,2024;Kochan & Kimball,2019;NSW
Indus ial Rela ions Commissions,2023).
Fou h, ac oss he LG sec o , he e a e igh labou ma ke condi ions and skill sho -
ages (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). This is especially chal-
lenging o he LG sec o , as i has di icul y compe ing agains he p i a e sec o and he
be e - esou ced s a e and ede al go e nmen s o manage ial and key s a (Aus alian
Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). Fu he mo e, an ageing wo k o ce and
imminen e i emen s place u he p essu e on LGs in e ms o he loss o o ganisa ional
and echnical skills (Connell e al.,2015). Labou ma ke condi ions suppo he impo ance
o s a a ac ion and e en ion, especially a a ime o wo k o ce dis up ion gene a ed by
4IR echnologies.
Fo u al and egional LGs, he wo k o ce challenges a e u he compounded by
isola ion and emo eness wi h shallow local labou ma ke s and challenges in a ac ing
s a om u ban labou ma ke s (Adendo e al.,2021). The inancial disad an age o
egional/ u al LGs u he compounds he di icul ies in a ac ing manage ial and special-
is skill s a (Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA],2022). Wi h ewe s a
and occupa ions on a e age as compa ed o me opoli an LGs, u al and egional LGs ha e
la e o ganisa ional s uc u es ha limi ca ee mobili y, and his u he exace ba es s a
a ac ion and e en ion (McQues in e al.,2022). Limi ed suppo ing HRD in as uc u e
including educa ional and aining ins i u ions places u he cons ain s on u al and
egional LGs in accessing and de eloping s a (Uppal & Dunphy,2019).
Ope a ing wi hin he abo e con ex ual and ins i u ional condi ions equi es inno a i e
HRM p og ams. The applica ion o 4IR echnologies compounds he challenges associa ed
wi h ela i e isola ion, limi ed inancial capaci y, and a cons aining labou ma ke . This
esea ch se s ou how he wo k o ce challenges a e being add essed, highligh ing wha
is inno a i e in e ms o inding solu ions ha accommoda e he con ex and cons ain s
aced by LGs.
4. Resea ch Me hods
This s udy applied an explo a o y quali a i e design o examine he wo k o ce impac s
o 4IR echnologies on u al and egional LGs. Quali a i e esea ch is app op ia e o
cap u ing di e se pe spec i es (G ay,2020;Flick e al.,2004). I allows o close in e ac ion
wi h pa icipan s and enables esponden -led inqui y, which is use ul in ields wi h limi ed
heo e ical de elopmen (Yasi e al.,2019). An explo a o y app oach was app op ia e o
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 6 o 18
gaining insigh s in o an unde - esea ched sec o (Ayen imi e al.,2018;B yman & Bell,
2011). This app oach is well-sui ed o explo ing he HRM esponses o he challenges
posed by 4IR echnologies.
Semi-s uc u ed in e iews and seconda y da a analysis we e he p ima y da a collec-
ion me hods (B aun & Cla ke,2006;G ay,2020). The esea ch was conduc ed in se e al
s ages. Phase 1 in ol ed e iewing exis ing li e a u e o es ablish an unde s anding o he
esea ch con ex . Phase 2 comp ised semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h 18 pa icipan s in
manage ial and leade ship oles wi hin u al and egional LGs be ween 2023 and 2024.
Phase 3 in ol ed semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h 6 independen expe s who we e amilia
wi h he LG sec o . They p o ided a e e ence poin o cla i ica ion o he in e p e a ion o
he esul s. Phase 4 in ol ed seconda y da a om documen s supplied by he LG pa ici-
pan s. These documen s se ou plans, p og ams, and policies linked o he applica ion o
4IR echnologies and wo k o ce managemen p og ams and policies. Accessing mul iple
sou ces o in o ma ion suppo ed he iangula ion o indings, enhancing esea ch alidi y
in line wi h Yin’s (2018) p inciples o u ilising mul iple e idence sou ces.
Semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e conduc ed in phases 2 and 3 using a balanced s uc-
u e ha p o ided lexibili y. This app oach allowed o an in-dep h explo a ion o complex
opics while ensu ing alignmen wi h he esea ch objec i es (McIn osh & Mo se,2015;
G ay,2020;DeJonckhee e & Vaughn,2019). In e iews p o ided de ailed open-ended
insigh s in o he wo k o ce impac s o 4IR echnologies and he subsequen HRM p ac ices
applied by LGs.
The in e iews, las ing 30 o 45 minu es, we e conduc ed online ia Mic oso Teams
due o he pa icipan s’ geog aphic dispe sion and schedules ha we e no synch onised.
The s uc u ed in e iew p o ocol guided he discussions, in o med by phase 1, he p io
li e a u e e iew, and he esea ch objec i es. Ques ions ocused on wo k o ce challenges
and HRM esponses associa ed wi h he adop ion o 4IR echnologies. Open-ended
p omp s encou aged pa icipan s o p o ide de ailed esponses (B yman & Bell,2011;
Young e al.,2018).
The s udy complied wi h he e hical esea ch guidelines and app o al om he au ho s’
uni e si y e hics commi ee. Con iden iali y o he collec ed in o ma ion was ensu ed by
he secu e s o age o enc yp ed ansc ip s on a passwo d-p o ec ed compu e accessible
only by he esea che s. In e iews we e ansc ibed, and pa icipan s had he oppo uni y
o e iew hei ansc ip s o accu acy. Seconda y da a, including council epo s and
policy, we e analysed h ough NVi o.
This s udy in e iewed a o al o 24 pa icipan s: senio council o ice s wi h espon-
sibili ies o echnological applica ion and/o wo k o ce managemen (n = 18) and LG
expe s wi h ex ensi e expe ience in he sec o (n = 6). The senio council o ice s included
HR manage s, change manage s, gene al manage s, CEOs, and unc ional manage s in IT
and HR, selec ed o hei expe ise in wo k o ce planning and in managing he challenges
o 4IR echnologies (Tongco,2007). The HR and local go e nmen expe s, each wi h o e
en yea s o sec o expe ience, p o ided addi ional insigh s o alida e and expand on he
hemes iden i ied in he phase-2 in e iews (Riahi e al.,2023).
Rec ui men occu ed in h ee s ages. In he ini ial s age, emails and phone calls we e
di ec ed o egional and u al LGs. Access was h ough con ac in o ma ion p o ided
on LG websi es. To ex end he pa icipan pool, in o ma ion was dissemina ed h ough
p o essional ne wo ks, and a snowball sampling echnique was employed, le e aging om
pa icipan e e als (Pa on,2015). Expe pa icipan s we e ec ui ed ia p o essional
associa ions and LG pa icipan s.
Table 1lis s he pa icipa ing LG esponden s, hei espec i e posi ions, and he codes
hey we e assigned. The esponden s’ names we e coded o p o ec hei iden i y.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 7 o 18
Table 1. S age 1 esea ch pa icipan lis .
Pa icipan Code Posi ion S a e Council
Classi ica ion
Yea s o
Expe ience
Pa icipan A People and Cul u e O ice Vic o ia Regional 17
Pa icipan B Execu i e Manage Digi al
T ans o ma ion New Sou h Wales Regional 11
Pa icipan C Manage , Human Resou ces New Sou h Wales Regional 1
Pa icipan D People and Cul u e Coo dina o New Sou h Wales Regional 16
Pa icipan E Depu y Gene al Manage Tasmania Regional 7
Pa icipan F Manage , People and S a egy New Sou h Wales Ru al 8
Pa icipan G Chie Execu i e O ice Sou h Aus alia Ru al 15
Pa icipan H Manage , People and Cul u e Vic o ia Regional 18
Pa icipan I Talen Acquisi ion Ad iso Vic o ia Regional 20
Pa icipan J O ganisa ion Design Lead Vic o ia Regional 9
Pa icipan K S a egic Wo k o ce Planning Lead Vic o ia Regional 10
Pa icipan L Manage Cus ome , In o ma ion and
Technology Se ices Sou h Aus alia Regional 19
Pa icipan M People, Policy, and Planning Manage New Sou h Wales Regional 14
Pa icipan N People and Cul u e Manage New Sou h Wales Regional 13
Pa icipan O HR Business Pa ne Sou h Aus alia Regional 12
Pa icipan P Execu i e Manage Tasmania Regional 20
Pa icipan Q Manage , Cus ome Se ices Tasmania Regional 15
Table 2lis s he expe s in e iewed, wi h applied codes o main ain con iden iali y.
Table 2. Expe pa icipan lis .
Pa icipan Code Occupa ion Indus y Expe ience Le el
Expe A HR Execu i e Human Resou ces Twen y- i e yea s
Expe B Wo k o ce De elopmen
Consul an Local Go e nmen Twen y yea s
Expe C Head o S a egy Local Go e nmen Thi y yea s
Expe D Associa e P o esso ,
E hical AI and Wo k Human Resou ces Thi y yea s
Expe E Indus ial O ice
(Sou he n) Local Go e nmen Ten yea s
Expe F P incipal P ojec O ice Local Go e nmen Fou een yea s
A o al o 35 council documen s (see Table 3) we e analysed, p o ided by in e iew
pa icipan s, and u he documen s we e e ie ed h ough sea ches o LG websi es and
media eleases. This app oach s eng hened he esea ch by o e ing a b oade unde s and-
ing o he HRM s a egies being implemen ed in u al and egional councils. The documen
analysis helped alida e he in e iew indings and p o ided u he con ex on how LGs
a e add essing HRM challenges gene a ed by he applica ion o new echnologies.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 8 o 18
Table 3. Seconda y da a sou ces.
Documen Code Documen Type Council Code Council Classi ica ion S a e
Documen 1 Communi y S a egy Council A Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 2 Wo k o ce Managemen Plan Council A Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 3 Digi al T ans o ma ion
Ope a ional S a egy Council F Regional Tasmania
Documen 4 Wo k o ce Managemen S a egy Council K Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 5 Sma Ci y F amewo k Council H Regional Vic o ia
Documen 6 Council Case S udy Repo Council Q Regional Vic o ia
Documen 7 Magazine Council P Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 8 Sma Shi e S a egy Council P Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 9 Council Resou ce S a egy Council P Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 10 Indus ial Rela ions Policy N/A N/A N/A
Documen 11 Local Go e nmen S a e Awa d N/A N/A New Sou h Wales
Documen 12 Wo k o ce Managemen Plan Council K Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 13 Wo k o ce P o ile Repo Council M Ru al New Sou h Wales
Documen 14 Resou cing S a egy Council L Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 15 Wo k o ce Planning S a egy Council P Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 16 Wo k o ce Resou cing S a egy Council N Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 17 Annual Repo Council G Ru al New Sou h Wales
Documen 18 En e p ise Ag eemen Council O Regional Vic o ia
Documen 19 Wo k o ce Managemen Plan Council G Ru al New Sou h Wales
Documen 20 Wo k o ce Plan Council Q Regional Vic o ia
Documen 21 Council Repo Council O Regional Vic o ia
Documen 22 S a egic Resou ce Plan Council O Regional Vic o ia
Documen 23 In o ma ion Technology S a egy Council O Regional Vic o ia
Documen 24 S a egic Plan Council J Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 25 En e p ise Ag eemen Council Q Regional Vic o ia
Documen 26 Annual Plan and Budge Council J Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 27 Annual Repo Council I Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 28 Posi ion Desc ip ion Council Q Regional Vic o ia
Documen 29 Resou cing S a egy Council I Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 30 Annual Plan and Budge Council H Regional Vic o ia
Documen 31 Annual Plan and Budge Council Q Regional Vic o ia
Documen 32 Annual Plan and Budge Council A Regional New Sou h Wales
Documen 33 Annual Plan and Budge Council J Regional Sou h Aus alia
Documen 34 ICT, Cybe Secu i y and Digi al
Go e nmen S a egy, 2022 N/A N/A Sou h Aus alia
Documen 35 Vic o ian Go e nmen Digi al
S a egy, 2021–2026 N/A N/A Vic o ia
A hema ic analysis (B aun & Cla ke,2006;G ay,2020) was used o iden i y and
in e p e pa e ns in he da a. The analysis was closely aligned wi h his s udy’s esea ch
objec i es. B aun and Cla ke’s (2006) six-s ep amewo k guided he p ocess: (1) amilia isa-
ion wi h he da a, (2) code gene a ion, (3) heme iden i ica ion, (4) heme e iew, (5) heme
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 15 o 18
es uc u ing e en whe e o ganisa ions a e small, ha e limi ed esou ces, and a e no
d i en by p o i ou comes.
Ano he signi ican inding is he emphasis on edeploymen and eskilling a he
han edundancy, d i en by indus ial ag eemen s go e ning wo k o ce managemen
unde s uc u al changes. While his app oach limi s HRM choices, i o e s ad an ages in
p ese ing o ganisa ional knowledge and add essing ec ui men challenges.
9. Implica ions
No all he abo e HR p og ams a e applied ac oss he LGs included in he s udy, bu
hey a e illus a i e o he op ions a ailable o u al and egional LGs in add essing he
wo k o ce challenges a ising om he applica ion o 4IR echnologies. This explo a o y
s udy sugges s ha u al and egional LGs ha e de eloped a sui e o HRM p og ams
o add ess he wo k o ce managemen challenges a ising om he in oduc ion o 4IR
echnologies. These indings a e sugges i e o small o ganisa ions and NGOs wi h limi ed
inancial capaci y and a limi ed abili y o compe e o and ec ui specialis s a in he
con ex o a igh labou ma ke .
In e ms o heo e ical implica ions, his s udy highligh s he impo ance o con ex u-
alizing HRM and unde s anding he ins i u ions ha shape he choices and applica ion o
HRM p og ams (Cooke,2018;Goode ham e al.,2018). This s udy examines small no - o -
p o i o ganisa ions wi h esou ce and skill cons ain s. This ex ends he li e a u e beyond
la ge and o -p o i o ganisa ions. The e is no one-size- i s-all se o HRM p og ams o
dealing wi h he wo k o ce challenges associa ed wi h he applica ion o new echnologies;
he ecogni ion o con ex ual condi ions and cons ain s shapes he HRM p og ams, as hey
did in he Aus alian LG sec o .
The s udy in o ms HR manage s by equipping hem wi h e idence-based s a egies
o p epa e hei wo k o ce o he u u e. Finally, while ocused on u al and egional
local go e nmen s, he indings ex end o la ge me opoli an local go e nmen s and o he
no - o -p o i sec o s acing simila cons ain s, p o iding a b oade unde s anding o how
such o ganisa ions can na iga e wo k o ce challenges in he 4IR e a.
This s udy also highligh s he p essing need o inno a i e HRM s a egies in igh
labou ma ke s as a esponse o echnological dis up ion. I p o ides aluable insigh s in o
how councils a e adap ing h ough low-cos , inno a i e app oaches, such as upskilling
ini ia i es and s a egic wo k o ce planning, o add ess challenges like an ageing wo k o ce
and o ganisa ional knowledge loss h ough s a e i emen .
10. Limi a ions
The s udy was limi ed o a selec ion o LGs ac oss ou Aus alian s a es. As such,
he indings a e explo a o y and no ep esen a i e. A mo e comple e pic u e o he
sec o would equi e a la ge sample and he inclusion o me opoli an LGs o p o ide a
compa a o o he HRM p ac ices o egional and u al LGs. This s udy was conduc ed a
one poin in ime, and he na u e o he esea ch equi es an analysis o he implemen a ion
and impac s o 4IR echnologies o e a pe iod. The key in o man s we e senio manage s
wi hin he LG sec o , and hei biases a e owa ds he accep ance o he applied HRM
p og ams ha in pa hey we e esponsible o . Inpu om employees is equi ed o assess
he impac o he echnologies and suppo ing HRM p og ams on job sa is ac ion, job
quali y, commi men , and o ganisa ional a achmen .
11. Fu he Resea ch
The e is scope o ex end he s udy ac oss he LG sec o o inco po a e addi ional s a es
and me opoli an LGs. S akeholde pa icipa ion could be ex ended o include employees
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 16 o 18
and elec ed council o icials. A longi udinal analysis ha acks speci ic echnological
changes and hei impac on he wo k o ce would be ins uc i e. A c oss-go e nmen and
in e na ional compa a i e analysis would p o ide insigh s in o he impac o ins i u ional
and con ex ual condi ions on he applica ion o HRM p og ams.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, K.M.A. and J.B.; Me hodology, K.M.A. and J.B.; Fo mal
Analysis, K.M.A.; In es iga ion, K.M.A.; W i ing d a , K.M.A. and J.B.; W i ing e iew, K.M.A. and
J.B.; Supe ision, J.B. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was e iewed and ecei ed clea ance om he
To ens Uni e si y Human E hics Commi ee (#0213, No embe 2023).
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : In e iew ansc ip s a e no a ailable as a esul o p i acy and
con iden iali y commi men s p o ided o he pa icipan s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Re e ences
ABS. (2023). Labou o ce, Aus alia; Aus alian Bu eau o S a is ics. A ailable online: h ps://www.abs.go .au/s a is ics/labou /
employmen -and-unemploymen /labou - o ce-aus alia/la es - elease (accessed on 15 May 2021).
Adendo , G., Dick, T., Xe i, M., & B une o, Y. (2021). Does he alk ma ch he walk o Aus alian local go e nmen employees: The
link be ween leade ship and employee well-being. Aus alian Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion,80(4), 769–789. [C ossRe ]
AIIA. (2020). Building Aus alia’s digi al u u e in a pos -COVID wo ld. Aus alian In o ma ion Indus y Associa ion.
Ande sson, C., Hallin, A., & I o y, C. (2022). Unpacking he digi alisa ion o public se ices: Con igu ing wo k du ing au oma ion in
local go e nmen . Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly,39(1), 101662. [C ossRe ]
ASU. (2024). Aus alian se ices union; ASU. A ailable online: h p://www.asu.asn.au/localgo / (accessed on 20 June 2023).
Aus alian Local Go e nmen Associa ion [ALGA]. (2022). Local go e nmen wo k o ce and u u e skills epo —Aus alia; Aus alian Local
Go e nmen Associa ion.
Ayen imi, D. T., Bu gess, J., & Daya am, K. (2018). Does he his o ical and ins i u ional e-cons uc ion o Ghana suppo he ans e o
HRM p ac ices? Jou nal o Managemen His o y,24(4), 414–434. [C ossRe ]
Boza h, A., & S i le , W. M. (2019). S eng hening wo k o ce de elopmen in u al a eas: 2019 ede al ese e sys em. Fede al Resea e
Bank o A lan a. A ailable online: h ps://www.in es inwo k.o g/-/media/P ojec /A lan a/IAW/Files/ epo s/s eng hening
-wo k o ce-de elopmen - u al-a eas.pd (accessed on 23 May 2024).
B aun, V., & Cla ke, V. (2006). Using hema ic analysis in psychology. Ouali a i e Resea ch n Psychology,3(2), 77–101. [C ossRe ]
B yman, A., & Bell, E. (2011). Business Resea ch Me hods (3 d ed.). Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Bu gess, J., Connell, J., Nanke is, A., & Mon ague, A. (2021). In oduc ion. In A. Nanke is, J. Connell, A. Mon ague, & J. Bu gess
(Eds.), The 4 h indus ial e olu on: Wha does i mean o Aus alian indus y (pp. 1–20). Sp inge .
Bwalya, K. J. (2020). Robo ic P ocess Au oma ion as a P ecu so o e-Go e nmen in he Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion. In W. Doo samy,
S. P. Babu, & T. Ma wala (Eds.), The dis up i e ou h indus ial e olu ion: Technology, socie y, and beyond (pp. 1–20). Sp inge .
Chang, S. (2020). Taiwan. In A. Nanke is, J. Connell, & J. Bu gess (Eds.), Mee ing he wo k o ce challenges o he ou h indus ial e olu ion
(pp. 71–83). Rou ledge.
Connell, J., Nanke is, A., & Bu gess, J. (2015). The challenges o an ageing wo k o ce: An in oduc ion o he wo k o ce managemen
issues. Labou & Indus y (B isbane & Queensland),25(4), 257–264. [C ossRe ]
Cooke, F. (2018). Concep s, con ex s, and mindse s: Pu ing human esou ce managemen esea ch in pe spec i es. Human Resou ce
Managemen Jou nal,28(1), 1–13. [C ossRe ]
DeJonckhee e, M., & Vaughn, L. M. (2019). Semis uc u ed in e iewing in p ima y ca e esea ch: A balance o ela ionship and igou .
Family Medicine and Communi y Heal h,7(2), e000057. [C ossRe ]
Deloi e. (2015). Digi al go e nmen ans o ma ion; Deloi e Access Economics.
Dhakal, S. (2021). Accimmoda ion and Food Se ices. In A. Nanke is, J. Connell, A. Mon ague, & J. Bu gess (Eds.), The 4 h indus ial
e olu on: Wha does i mean o Aus alian indus y (pp. 73–92). Sp inge .
ESC. (2023) Janua y 4. Vic o ian local council a e cap se a 3.5 pe cen o 2023–2024; Essen ial Se ices Commission. A ailable online:
h ps://www.esc. ic.go .au/media-cen e/ ic o ian-local-council- a e-cap-se -35-cen -2023-24 (accessed on 23 Feb ua y 2024).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 17 o 18
Essen ial Se ices Commission. (2021). The ou comes o a e capping; Essen ial Se ices Commission. A ailable online: h ps://
www.esc. ic.go .au/si es/de aul / iles/documen s/lg-ou comes2021- heou comeso a ecapping-20210520.pd (accessed on 23
Feb ua y 2024).
Flick, U., Ka do , E., & S einke, I. (2004). A companion o quali a i e esea ch. SAGE Publica ions.
Goode ham, P., May ho e , W., & B ews e , C. (2018). A amewo k o compa a i e ins i u ional esea ch on HRM. The In e na ional
Jou nal o Human Resou ce Managemen ,30(1), 5–30. [C ossRe ]
Go Tech Re iew. (2023) Augus 8. Jump in councils eady o in es in echnology; Go Tech Re iew. A ailable online: h ps://
www.go ech e iew.com.au/con en /go -digi al/news/jump-in-councils- eady- o-in es -in- echnology-727229356 (accessed
on 23 Feb ua y 2024).
G ay, D. E. (2020). Doing esea ch in he business wo ld (2nd ed.). SAGE Publica ions.
Ke g oach, S. (2017). “Indus y 4.0: New challenges and oppo uni ies o he labou ma ke ,” o esigh and STI go e nance. Na ional
Resea ch Uni e si y Highe School o Economics,11(4), 6–8.
Knowles, C. (2020, Sep embe 9). Aus alian councils ace unp eceden ed echnology ansi ions in a bid o be e se e communi ies. IT B ie ,
Aus alia. A ailable online: h ps://i b ie .com.au/s o y/aus alian-councils- ace-unp eceden ed- echnology- ansi ions-in-a
-bid- o-be e -se e-communi ies (accessed on 23 June 2023).
Kochan, T. A., & Kimball, W. T. (2019). Unions, wo ke oice, and managemen p ac ices: Implica ions o a high-p oduc i i y,
high-wage economy. RSF: Russell Sage Founda ion Jou nal o he Social Sciences,5(5), 88–108. [C ossRe ]
Kos e , F. (2018). Inno a i e HRM. A e iew o he li e a u e. Jou nal o Technology Managemen & Inno a ion,14(2), 97. [C ossRe ]
LGA. (2023). Local go e nmen in SA; Local Go e nmen Associa ion o Sou h Aus alia. A ailable online: h ps://www.lga.sa.go .au/
abou (accessed on 23 June 2023).
Li, L. (2022). Reskilling and upskilling he u u e- eady wo k o ce o Indus y 4.0 and beyond. In o ma ion Sys ems F on ie s,26(5),
1697–1712. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
McIn osh, M. J., & Mo se, J. M. (2015). Si ua ing and cons uc ing di e si y in semi-s uc u ed in e iews. Global Quali a i e Nu sing
Resea ch,2. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
McQues in, D., Noguchi, M., & D ew, J. (2022). The associa ion be ween budge inaccu acy and echnical e iciency in Aus alian local
go e nmen . Public Money & Managemen ,42(4), 251–261. [C ossRe ]
Mohamed, M. (2018). Challenges and bene i s o Indus y 4.0: An o e iew. In e na ional Jou nal o Supply and Ope a ions Managemen ,
5(3), 256–265. [C ossRe ]
Nanke is, A., Connell, J., Bu gess, J., & Mon ague, A. (2020). Mee ing he wo k o ce challenges o he ou h indus ial e olu ion. In
A. Nanke is, J. Connell, & J. Bu gess (Eds.), Mee ing he wo k o ce challenges o he ou h indus ial e olu ion (pp. 3–19). Rou ledge.
Nanke is, A., Connell, J., Came on, R., Mon ague, A., & P iksha , V. (2019). ‘A e we he e ye ?’ Aus alian HR p o essionals and he
Fou h Indus ial Re olu ion. Asia Paci ic Jou nal o Human Resou ces 59, 3–19. [C ossRe ]
Nokele, K., & Makganya, K. (2023). Embedding he ou h indus ial e olu ion (4IR) in Sou h A ican municipali ies: Challenges and
p ospec s. In e na ional Jou nal o Social Sciences and Humani ies In en ion,10(5), 7890–7894. [C ossRe ]
NSW Indus ial Rela ions Commissions. (2023). 2023–2026 NSW local go e nmen s a e awa d upda es. Uni ed Se ices Union. A ailable
online: h ps://usu.o g.au/wp-con en /uploads/2023/07/Local-Go e nmen -S a e-Awa d-2023.pd (accessed on 21 July 2024).
Paagman, A., Ta e, M., Fu muelle , E., & de Bloom, J. (2015). An in eg a i e li e a u e e iew and empi ical alida ion o mo i es
o in oducing sha ed se ices in go e nmen o ganiza ions. In e na ional Jou nal o In o ma ion Managemen ,35(1), 110–123.
[C ossRe ]
Pa il, T. G., & Shekhawa , S. S. (2019). Indus y 4.0 implica ions on ag icul u e sec o : An o e iew. In e na ional Jou nal o Managemen ,
Technology and Enginee ing,IX(I), 1512–1524.
Pa on, M. Q. (2015). Quali a i e Resea ch and E alua ion Me hods (4 h ed.). SAGE Publica ions.
P iseca u, P. (2016). Challenges o he ou h indus ial e olu ion. Knowledge Ho izons,8(1), 57.
Riahi, Y., Saikouk, T., & Bad aoui, I. (2023). Resea ched opics, pa e ns, ba ie s and enable s o a i icial in elligence implemen a ion
in supply chain: A La en -Di ichle -alloca ion-based opic-modelling and expe alida ion. P oduc ion Planning & Con ol,34,
1–28. [C ossRe ]
Richa dson, J. J. (2011). Dillon’s ule is om ma s, home ule is om enus: Local go e nmen au onomy and he ules o s a u o y
cons uc ion. Publius,41(4), 662–685. [C ossRe ]
Roblek, V., Meško, M., & K apež, A. (2016). A complex iew o Indus y 4.0. Sage Open,6, 1–11. [C ossRe ]
Sabel, C. A., & Sasson, A. (2023). Di e en people, di e en pa hways: Human capi al edeploymen in mul i-business i ms. S a egic
Managemen Jou nal,44(13), 3185–3216. [C ossRe ]
Schwab, K. (2016). The ou h indus ial e olo ion: Wha i means and how o espond o i . Wo ld Economic Fo um (WEF).
Shaikh, W., & Bu gess, J. (2021). Local Go e nmen . In A. Nanke is, J. Connell, A. Mon ague, & J. Bu gess (Eds.), The ou h indus ial
e olu ion: Wha does i mean o Aus alian indus y? (1s ed., pp. 147–160) Sp inge .
S iganesh, R. K., & Ramjee, P. (2018). Impac o 5G echnologies on Indus y 4.0. Wi eless Pe sonal Communica ion,100(1), 145–159.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 52 18 o 18
Tasmanian Policy Exchange. (2022). Op ions o sha ing se ices in asmanian local go e nmen . In Fu u e o local go e nmen e iew
backg ound esea ch pape no. 4. Tasmanian Policy Exchange.
Tongco, M. D. (2007). Pu posi e sampling as a ool o in o man selec ion. E hnobo any Resea ch & Applica ions,5, 147–158.
T an, C., & Dolle y, B. (2019). Adminis a i e in ensi y and local esiden sa is ac ion in Vic o ian local go e nmen . Public Adminis a ion,
101(1), 318–334. [C ossRe ]
Uppal, S., & Dunphy, K. (2019). Ou come- ocussed planning in aus alian local go e nmen : How council plans and cul u al
de elopmen plans measu e up. Aus alian Jou nal o Public Admis a ion,78(3), 414–431. [C ossRe ]
Vic o ian Go e nmen . (2014). Sha ed se ices in local go e nmen ; Vic o ian Go e nmen .
Wa son, R., & Ryan, P. J. (2020). Big da a analy ics in aus alian local go e nmen . Sma Ci ies,3(3), 657–675. [C ossRe ]
WEF. (2016). The u u e o jobs: Employmen , skills, and wo k o ce s a egy o he ou h indus ial e olu ion. Wo ld Economic Fo um.
Wo hing on, A., & Dolle y, B. (2001). Di e si y in Aus alian local go e nmen : The case agains he imposi ion o uni o m na ional
s anda ds. In e na ional Re iew o Public Adminis a ion,6(1), 49–58. [C ossRe ]
Ya am, S. R., Dolle y, B., & T an, C.-D. T. (2021). The impac o a e capping on local go e nmen expendi u e. Policy and Poli ics,49(3),
391–411. [C ossRe ]
Yasi , R., Amma , R., Muhammad, A. W., Sana, S. S., & Ansa , W. (2019). Case s udy me hod: A s ep-by-s ep guide o business
esea che s. In e na ional Jou nal o Quali a i e Me hods,18, 1–13.
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case s udy esea ch and applica ions: Design and me hods (6 h ed., Vol. 6). SAGE.
Young, J. C., Rose, D. C., Mumby, H. S., Beni ez-Capis os, F., De ick, C. J., Finch, T., Ga cia, C., Home, C., Ma waha, E., Mo gans, C.,
Pa kinson, S., Shah, J., Wilson, K. A., & Mukhe jee, N. (2018). A me hodological guide o using and epo ing on in e iews in
conse a ion science esea ch. Me hods in Ecology and E olu ion,9(1), 10–19. [C ossRe ]
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
