Loppe , Elisa; Zhang, Fang ang; Tims, Ma ia
A icle — Published Ve sion
The b igh and da k side o a oidance c a ing: How wo k
design ma e s
Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psychology
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John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Loppe , Elisa; Zhang, Fang ang; Tims, Ma ia (2025) : The b igh and da k side
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Psychology, ISSN 2044-8325, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 98, Iss. 3,
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1 o 23
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/joop.70056
wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/joop
Recei ed: 23 Janua y 2025
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Accep ed: 5 Sep embe 2025
DOI: 10.1111/joop.70056
RESEARCH ARTICLE
The b igh and da k side o a oidance c a ing: How
wo k design ma e s
Elisa Loppe 1 | Fang ang Zhang2 | Ma ia Tims3
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion
in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psycholog y published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o The B i ish
Psychological Socie y.
1Depa men o Psychology, Humbold -
Uni e si ä Zu Be lin, Be lin, Ge many
2Cen e o T ans o ma i e Wo k Design, Fu u e
o Wo k Ins i u e, Facul y o Business and Law,
Cu in Uni e si y, Wes e n Aus alia, Aus alia
3Depa men o Managemen and O ganisa ion,
School o Business and Economics, V ije
Uni e si ei Ams e dam, Ams e dam, The
Ne he lands
Co espondence
Elisa Loppe , Depa men o Psychology,
Humbold Uni e si ä zu Be lin, Un e den
Linden 6, 10099 Be lin, Ge many.
Email: elisa.loppe @hu-be lin.de
Abs ac
To add ess he g owing challenges in oday's wo kplace,
employees may use a oidance c a ing o educe high job
demands o a oid si ua ions low in job esou ces. Howe e ,
p e ious esea ch links a oidance c a ing posi i ely—
a he han nega i ely— o exhaus ion, po en ially due o
an o e emphasis on a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing,
neglec ing a oidance cogni i e o ms and hei ocus
on job demands and esou ces. This s udy e e s o he
hie a chical job c a ing concep ualiza ion, dis inguishing
be ween beha iou al and cogni i e changes in job demands
and esou ces, o in es iga e he links be ween a oidance
c a ing dimensions and exhaus ion a bo h be ween and
wi hin- pe son le els. We also explo e he mode a ing e ec s
o gene al job au onomy and ime p essu e. Daily dia y da a
(Nbe ween = 78, Nwi hin = 377) e ealed ha a oidance cogni i e
demands c a ing was nega i ely associa ed wi h exhaus ion
a bo h le els, highligh ing ha al e ing pe cep ions o job
demands is mo e e ec i e han a ge ing low job esou ces.
Mo eo e , wo k design ma e s: a he day le el, a oidance
cogni i e demands c a ing was pa icula ly e ec i e in
educing exhaus ion when employees gene ally aced low
job au onomy and high ime p essu e. These indings
emphasize he impo ance o di e en ia ing a oidance
c a ing dimensions and sugges ha a oidance cogni i e
demands c a ing seems pa icula ly use ul in demanding
wo k en i onmen s.
KEYWORDS
a oidance c a ing, be ween- pe son le el, exhaus ion, wi hin- pe son
le el, wo k design
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LOPPER e al.
INTRODUCTION
In oday's changing wo k en i onmen , he g owing emphasis on p oac i e job c a ing by employees
complemen s exis ing op- down wo k design app oaches. Th ough job c a ing (W zesniewski &
Du on, 2001), employees can p oac i ely enhance posi i e job aspec s (app oach c a ing) o educe
nega i e aspec s a wo k (a oidance c a ing) (Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). The inc easing challenges o
oday's wo k, such as inc easing ime p essu e and coo dina ion needs (G an & Pa ke , 2009), can
p omp employees in pa icula o escape om challenging o demanding aspec s a wo k. Such ac ions
a e called a oidance c a ing, whe e employees ake ini ia i e o mo e away om nega i e aspec s o hei
job, such as hose low in job esou ces o high in job demands (e.g., pos poning asks ha po en ially
in ol e clashes wi h o he s a wo k, o s epping away om men ally and emo ionally d aining asks;
Loppe e al., 2024; Zhang & Pa ke , 2019).
A oidance c a ing is heo ized o lead o be e well- being and lowe s ain (Tims e al., 2013) as
employees p oac i ely dec ease hei hinde ing demands (Tims e al., 2012). Howe e , a ecen me a-
analysis o 58 c oss- sec ional samples including 20,347 employees (Holman e al., 2024) ound he
opposi e: hind ance demands c a ing was posi i ely associa ed wi h job s ain, and his ela ionship
was explained by highe pe cep ions o hind ance demands. Addi ionally, s udies sugges ha em-
ployees expe ience di icul y in ac ually educing job demands (Ha ju e al., 2021; Tims e al., 2013)
and ha dealing wi h nega i e aspec s a wo k induces s ess ul eac ions and demands egula o y
ocus (Ellio , 2006). Taken oge he , hese indings may sugges ha —in con as o heo e ical
expec a ions—a oidance c a ing is mo e likely o inc ease exhaus ion and hus could be ha m ul
o employee well- being (Pe ou e al., 2018; an Winge den e al., 2017).
Howe e , be o e emb acing his conclusion, i is impo an o no e ha a leas h ee al e na i e
explana ions may i s need o be explo ed. Fi s , p e ious esea ch has solely ocused on a oidance
beha iou al c a ing, aimed a ac ually educing hinde ing job demands. Conside ing ecen concep ual
de elopmen s o a oidance c a ing (Loppe e al., 2024; Zhang & Pa ke , 2019), which di e en i-
a es be ween beha iou al and cogni i e changes in ei he job demands o job esou ces, we migh be
able o p o ide a mo e nuanced answe o he alue o a oidance c a ing o employee well- being.
Using hese dis inc ions, we heo ize—using he cogni i e ac i a ion heo y o s ess (CATS; U sin
& E iksen, 2004)— ha pa icula ly a oidance cogni i e c a ing, in which employees p oac i ely
pe cei e and e ame hei job demands and/o job esou ces di e en ly (Loppe e al., 2024), may
educe exhaus ion. Cogni i e e aming can enable a posi i e ou come expec ancy o add essing neg-
a i e job aspec s, which is c i ical o a oiding p olonged s ess esponses. Fu he mo e, e aming a
lack o job esou ces migh p omo e posi i e hinking and a ocus on ele an wo k asks such ha
he job seems o be less demanding (Hommelho e al., 2021). Gi en ha job demands o m he co e
P ac i ione poin s
• Employees who sel - ini ia ed men al dis ance om nega i e aspec s a wo k epo lowe
le els o exhaus ion.
• In low- au onomy jobs, daily p oac i e e o s o a oid high job demands a e ela ed o highe
exhaus ion.
• When employees a e aced wi h a demanding wo k en i onmen , cha ac e ized by low
au onomy and high ime p essu e, daily a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing is ela ed o
dec eased exhaus ion.
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THE BRIGHT AND DARK SIDE OF AVOIDANCE CRAFTING
o one's job (wi hou demands he e is no job), and he inhe en di icul y o changing hem (Ha ju
e al., 2021), a oidance cogni i e c a ing may o e a aluable s a egy o cope wi h hese demands and
hus educe exhaus ion.
A second al e na i e explana ion is ha he e ec s o a oidance c a ing may depend on he wo k
design con ex in which i occu s (Doden e al., 2024; Zhang e al., 2025). Wo k con ex s shape and/
o cons ain wo k beha iou (G i in e al., 2007), and demanding wo k en i onmen s may equi e
a oidance c a ing. We s udy low au onomy and high ime p essu e as hey ep esen a demanding
wo k si ua ion in which employees likely pe cei e limi ed oppo uni y o in luence hei wo k si ua-
ion (e.g., Bakke e al., 2020; an Winge den & Niks, 2017; Zhang e al., 2025). Au onomy—a key job
esou ce—suppo s p oac i e beha iou s (e.g., Be g e al., 2010; Oldham & Hackman, 2010; To nau
& F ese, 2013; Zhang e al., 2025) and helps bu e agains exhaus ion (Bakke e al., 2005, 2020).
Time p essu e, in con as , ep esen s a majo job demand linked o exhaus ion (Xan hopoulou
e al., 2007) and es ic s oppo uni ies o job c a ing (Knigh e al., 2021). As a esul o wo king
in a demanding en i onmen , i may be di icul o obse e ac ual changes in hinde ing demands
(i.e., a oidance beha iou al c a ing). In con as , a oidance cogni i e c a ing may ep esen an
oppo uni y o dec ease exhaus ion in hese si ua ions as i acili a es a posi i e e aming o he
nega i e wo k aspec s. Thus, in demanding wo k si ua ions, a oidance cogni i e c a ing may again
be bene icial as i may lowe he s ess ac i a ion in oduced by a demanding wo k design (U sin &
E iksen, 2004).
A hi d impo an nuance o make is whe he a oidance c a ing applied a he day le el (i.e., wi hin-
pe son) has di e en consequences o exhaus ion compa ed o gene al le els o a oidance c a ing (i.e.,
be ween- pe son). A he be ween- pe son le el, we main ain ha a oidance beha iou al c a ing may be
associa ed posi i ely wi h exhaus ion due o he complexi y o changing hinde ing wo k aspec s (Tims
e al., 2013). Cu en ly, he e is ela i ely li le esea ch on wi hin- pe son a oidance c a ing and wha
does exis e eals non- signi ican e ec s o a oidance beha iou al c a ing on exhaus ion (Deme ou i
e al., 2015; Ha ju e al., 2021). Howe e , again d awing on CATS (U sin & E iksen, 2004), we can he-
o ize ha a oidance beha iou al c a ing may e lec a sho - e m egula o y beha iou h ough which,
a leas empo ally, exhaus ion is educed. Simila ly, a oidance cogni i e c a ing may acili a e a mo e
posi i e pe cep ion o nega i e wo k aspec s and hus elimina e an ongoing nega i e cogni i e ep e-
sen a ion. In sho , we expec a po en ial b igh side o a oidance beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing
pa icula ly a he wi hin- pe son, day le el.
This s udy aims o conside hese issues and con ibu es o ou unde s anding o a oidance c a ing
in se e al ways. Fi s , we p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e pic u e o a oidance c a ing by empi ically
es ing he ou ecen ly concep ualized dimensions o a oidance c a ing (Loppe e al., 2024): a oid-
ance beha iou al demands/ esou ces c a ing and a oidance cogni i e demands/ esou ces c a ing.
Impo an ly, we examine hei ela ionships wi h exhaus ion o shed ligh on he applicabili y o di -
e en o ms o a oidance c a ing on employee well- being. Second, by examining whe he a oidance
c a ing may educe exhaus ion depends on he wo k con ex , we con ibu e o a mo e nuanced iew o
a oidance c a ing and highligh wo k si ua ions in which a oidance c a ing is mo e likely o eme ge
and be success ul (Lazazza a e al., 2020).
Finally, o be e unde s and he link be ween a oidance c a ing and exhaus ion, we add o he
empo al unde s anding o a oidance c a ing wi h a dia y s udy ha allows one o dis inguish be ween
wi hin- and be ween- pe son e ec s. A he be ween- pe son le el, we expec ha a oidance beha iou al
c a ing may be associa ed posi i ely wi h exhaus ion due o he complexi y o changing hinde ing wo k
aspec s, whe eas a oidance cogni i e c a ing may educe exhaus ion. A he wi hin- pe son le el, we
heo ize a po en ial b igh side o bo h a oidance beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing. By iden i ying
po en ial sho - e m bene i s o a oidance beha iou al c a ing, ou s udy challenges he dominan da k
side and ad ances heo e ical unde s anding ha he ou comes o a oidance c a ing di e depending
on he empo al con ex .
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LOPPER e al.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Job c a ing
Job c a ing e e s o employee- ini ia ed ac ions a wo k o imp o e hei job o hemsel es (B uning
& Campion, 2018). T adi ionally, wo p ominen job c a ing concep ualiza ions ha e exis ed alongside
one ano he . Employees can ei he modi y hei ask, ela ional and cogni i e bounda ies o hei
jobs (W zesniewski & Du on, 2001) o y o balance job esou ces and job demands wi h hei
abili ies and needs (Tims e al., 2012). In he la e app oach, changes e e o an inc ease o dec ease
in job cha ac e is ics. Recen esea ch has in eg a ed he wo concep ualiza ions and highligh ed he
impo ance o dis inguishing be ween app oach and a oidance c a ing as highe - o de ac o s (Loppe
e al., 2024; Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). App oach c a ing e e s o ac ions h ough which employees
aim o gain posi i e aspec s a wo k, whe eas a oidance c a ing includes ac ions o educe o escape
om nega i e aspec s a wo k (Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). A g owing body o esea ch demons a es ha
a oidance c a ing has dis inc e ec s on wo k- ela ed ou comes (e.g., exhaus ion, wo k engagemen )
compa ed o app oach c a ing (see o a me a- analysis Holman e al., 2024). The e o e, i is impo an
o conside app oach and a oidance c a ing as wo independen ac o s (Loppe e al., 2024) ha sha e
a p oac i e, indi idual- le el app oach o job edesign.
This s udy ocuses on a oidance c a ing, mo i a ed by he desi e o escape om nega i e aspec s
a wo k (Ellio , 2006). P e iously, a oidance c a ing was p ima ily unde s ood as educing hinde ing
job demands o wi hd awing om asks and ela ionships a wo k (Hu e al., 2020; Tims e al., 2012).
Howe e , a oidance c a ing goes beyond me ely educing job demands, encompassing ac ions ha
allow employees o cogni i ely dis ance hemsel es om nega i e aspec s o hei wo k (Loppe e al., 2024;
Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). Recen job c a ing li e a u e has enewed i s ocus on cogni i e (a oidance)
c a ing (e.g., Cos an ini, 2022; Hommelho e al., 2021; Melo e al., 2021), as i p o ides an impo -
an s a egy o dealing wi h nega i e job demands o a lack o job esou ces (Zhang & Pa ke , 2019).
Resea ch u he shows ha beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing a e dis inc ac o s, each exe ing di e -
en e ec s on ou comes (e.g., pe o mance, meaning ulness, exhaus ion; Bindl e al., 2019; Geldenhuys
e al., 2021; Ikeda e al., 2024; Wesele & Niessen, 2016).
Mo eo e , nega i e job aspec s may e lec ei he a lack o job esou ces o high job demands. Thus,
employees a e mo i a ed o no only educe job demands bu also o add ess si ua ions whe e esou ces a e
lacking (Loppe e al., 2024; Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). Indeed, a low le el o job esou ces does no simul-
aneously imply ha job demands a e high (e.g., Bi on & an Veldho en, 2016). Fo ins ance, a cus ome
se ice ep esen a i e migh ha e a low le el o esou ces (limi ed decision- making au ho i y) bu also low
job demands ( ou ine asks). Conside ing he abo e heo izing, ou di e en a oidance c a ing dimensions
ha e been p oposed (Loppe e al., 2024; Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). Fi s , a oidance beha iou al esou ces c a ing
e e s o educing aspec s a wo k ha a e low in job esou ces (e.g., spending less ime on asks in which
skills canno be used). Second, a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing e e s o a oiding aspec s a wo k ha a e
high in job demands (e.g., less communica ion wi h people a wo k who a e dis ac ing). This dimension
e lec s he job c a ing s a egy dec easing hinde ing job demands as p oposed by Tims e al. (2012). Thi d,
a oidance cogni i e esou ces c a ing includes cogni i e ac ions o men ally e ame and keep away om aspec s a
wo k in which job esou ces a e low (e.g., aking asks no se iously o which no eedback will be ecei ed).
Finally, a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing means o e ame and keep men al dis ance om job aspec s ha a e
high in job demands (e.g., aking men al dis ance om s ess ul asks).
In he ollowing sec ions, we will use he e m a oidance beha iou al c a ing when e e ing o bo h
a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing and a oidance beha iou al esou ces c a ing. Simila ly, we
summa ize bo h cogni i e dimensions as a oidance cogni i e c a ing. Al hough he ou a oidance c a ing
dimensions ha e been shown o exis sepa a ely (Loppe e al., 2024), o ou heo e ical a ionale, we
summa ize he dimensions based on hei o m (i.e., beha iou al s. cogni i e) o explo e how he way
one c a s (beha iou ally o cogni i ely) migh in luence he po en ial b igh side o a oidance c a ing.
Fo comple eness, we di e en ia e be ween he ou dimensions in he analysis.
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THE BRIGHT AND DARK SIDE OF AVOIDANCE CRAFTING
AVOIDANCE CRAFTING AND EXHAUSTION
Be ween- pe son le el
Resea ch has shown ha beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing exe di e en e ec s on wo k- ela ed
ou comes such as pe o mance and meaning ulness (e.g., Bindl e al., 2019; Geldenhuys e al., 2021;
Wesele & Niessen, 2016). D awing on he cogni i e ac i a ion heo y o s ess (CATS; U sin &
E iksen, 2004), we examine how a oidance beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing di e en ly ela e o
exhaus ion, applying he same assump ions o he demands and esou ces dimensions. Fi s , we add ess
he be ween- pe son le el, ollowed by he wi hin- pe son le el. In doing so, we examine whe he he
mechanisms igge ed by a oidance beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing di e be ween gene al employee
endencies (i.e., be ween- pe son) and sho - e m ac ions (wi hin- pe son).
CATS o e s a heo e ical amewo k o unde s anding how s ess esponses a e ini ia ed and
sus ained. A cen al ene o he heo y is he ole o indi idual ou come expec ancies in managing
s esso s, such as high job demands o low esou ces. I an indi idual expec s o manage a s esso
e ec i ely (posi i e ou come expec ancy), he physiological ac i a ion igge ed by he s esso is an-
sien and adap i e (U sin & E iksen, 2004). Fo example, pos poning a s ess ul ask (i.e., a oidance
beha iou al demands c a ing) may gi e employees he sense ha hey can handle i la e , os e ing a
posi i e ou come expec ancy. In con as , nega i e ou come expec a ions a ise om eelings o help-
lessness o hopelessness, e lec ing a pe cei ed lack o con ol o e he si ua ion and i s ou come. As
a esul , he physiological ac i a ion becomes sus ained (U sin & E iksen, 2004), leading o p olonged
s ain and, ul ima ely, exhaus ion. B osscho e al. (2005) u he p opose ha his sus ained ac i a ion
esul s om pe se e a i e cogni ion— ha is, he ongoing cogni i e ep esen a ion o s ess- ela ed
con en — ega ding nega i e job aspec s and hei associa ed nega i e ou come expec ancies.
Ini ially, schola s p oposed ha a oidance c a ing (e.g., dec easing hinde ing job demands) may help
p e en nega i e well- being ou comes, such as exhaus ion (Tims e al., 2015; Tims & Bakke , 2010).
Exhaus ion, a co e symp om o bu nou , e e s o eelings o s ain, a igue and i edness a wo k
due o p olonged exposu e o a demanding wo k si ua ion ha deple es employees' ene gy (Maslach
e al., 2001). Thus, i employees use a oidance beha iou al c a ing o educe high job demands, hei
exhaus ion should dec ease compa ed o hose who do no use a oidance c a ing. This p oposi ion can
be explained by CATS: dec easing hinde ing job demands (o a oidance beha iou al c a ing) would
p o ide employees wi h con ol o e hei job demands and he e o e o e a way o alle ia e hese de-
mands (posi i e ou come expec ancies) and ul ima ely educe hei exhaus ion. Pa adoxically, p e ious
esea ch has shown ha a oidance beha iou al c a ing is associa ed wi h mo e exhaus ion (e.g., Pe ou
e al., 2015). Addi ionally, he a o emen ioned me a- analysis epo ed ha a oidance beha iou al c a -
ing has posi i e e ec s on s ain ia inc eases in job demands (Holman e al., 2024).
The e a e se e al possible explana ions o his posi i e ela ionship be ween a oidance beha iou al de-
mands c a ing and exhaus ion. Add essing nega i e aspec s a wo k can be s ess ul in i sel (Ellio , 2006)
and does no necessa ily lead o an inc ease in posi i e ou comes (Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). I a oidance
beha iou al c a ing ails o add ess he unde lying p oblems, he accumula ion o nega i e aspec s a wo k
may heigh en employees' pe cep ion o high demands a wo k (Boehnlein & Baum, 2022), ul ima ely leading
o ad e se consequences such as exhaus ion (Deme ou i e al., 2001). A he same ime, pe sis en ly a oiding
demanding o esou ce- poo si ua ions can hinde success ul expe iences in managing job demands o a
lack o job esou ces, he eby sus aining a sense o helplessness. Engaging in a oidance beha iou al c a -
ing may also come a he cos o losing impo an esou ces (e.g., ene gy; Bakke & Oe lemans, 2019). The
eeling o losing esou ces may be accompanied by sus ained nega i e ou come expec ancies in he o m
o hopelessness (e.g., being unable o p o ec esou ces when dealing wi h speci ic demands o a lack o e-
sou ces). Thus, when engaging in a oidance beha iou al c a ing, indi iduals may emain in a la en s a e o
un esol ed demands o a lack o esou ces, which, acco ding o CATS, esul s in an ele a ed physiological
ac i a ion ha con ibu es o exhaus ion. Thus, employees who ha e he gene al endency o use a oidance
beha iou al c a ing (compa ed o hose who do no ) may he e o e expe ience highe le els o exhaus ion.
6 o 23
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LOPPER e al.
In con as , a oidance cogni i e c a ing e e s o employees men ally dis ancing hemsel es om nega i e
job demands and a lack o esou ces a wo k (Loppe e al., 2024). Because a oidance cogni i e c a ing
does no in ol e physically changing he job, CATS sugges s i may help employees educe psychophysi-
ological a ousal by al e ing hei pe cep ions a wo k (Unswo h e al., 2004). Fo example, i could lowe
he h eshold o s esso ecogni ion o diminish nega i e ou come expec ancies ela ed o demands o a
lack o esou ces, he eby deac i a ing sus ained physiological ac i a ion (U sin & E iksen, 2004). When
employees main ain an ac i e cogni i e ep esen a ion o s esso s in a posi i e way (i.e., e aming), an
ongoing physiological ac i a ion could be suspended (B osscho e al., 2005). Mo eo e , cogni i ely e am-
ing demands o a lack o esou ces in an a oidance- o ien ed manne may allow one o sol e he issue and
hus educe psychophysiological a ousal. This, in u n, can es o e he esou ces needed o unc ioning a
wo k (Kan e & Acke man, 1989). A oidance cogni i e c a ing may hus help o a oid o neu alize sus-
aining an ac i e cogni i e ep esen a ion o nega i e aspec s a wo k (Romeo e al., 2020). By in e up ing
hese pe se e a i e cogni ions, a oidance cogni i e c a ing may e ec i ely down egula e sus ained a ousal.
Addi ionally, he delibe a e men al dis ance om nega i e aspec s a wo k could induce a sense o con ol
o e hese demands and make hem manageable (Lich en hale & Fischbach, 2016).
Due o he di e en ou come expec ancies and con ol pe cep ions when dealing wi h nega i e as-
pec s a wo k, we posi dis inc e ec s o he wo a oidance beha iou al c a ing dimensions and he
wo a oidance cogni i e c a ing dimensions on exhaus ion. This leads o he ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1. Indi iduals who engage in high le els o a oidance beha io al c a ing a e
mo e likely o expe ience exhaus ion (H1a), whe eas indi iduals who engage in high le els
o a oidance cogni i e c a ing a e less likely o expe ience exhaus ion (H1b).1
Wi hin- pe son le el
Ou p e ious a gumen s ocused on di e ences be ween employees (i.e., he be ween- pe son le el).
Howe e , because wo k si ua ions can a y ac oss sho pe iods (e.g., day o day), we a e also in e es ed
in wi hin- pe son, day- le el di e ences—speci ically, whe he exhaus ion a ies on days when employees
engage in mo e a oidance c a ing compa ed o days when hey use less o none. We heo ize ha he
po en ial b igh side o a oidance c a ing is bes obse ed a his daily, wi hin- pe son le el. Consis en
wi h ea lie dis inc ions, we di e en ia e be ween a oidance beha iou al and a oidance cogni i e
c a ing and d aw on CATS (U sin & E iksen, 2004) o de elop ou hypo heses.
Recen esea ch sugges s ha a oidance beha iou al c a ing may be a help ul daily s ess managemen
s a egy (Sanz- Ve gel e al., 2024). Daily a oidance beha iou al c a ing e lec s a ansien egula o y be-
ha iou in which employees adjus hei ou come expec ancies ega ding demands o a lack o esou ces. In
o he wo ds, when employees consciously ake ac ions o educe nega i e wo k aspec s on a gi en day—p o-
iding a leas empo a y elie , such as lowe ime p essu e— hey can bene i om educed physiological
ac i a ion on ha day. Mo eo e , because a oidan ac ions can ha e sho - e m adap i e e ec s and educe
s ain (Suls & Fle che , 1985), daily a oidance beha iou al c a ing may se e as a s a egy o manage axing
aspec s a wo k, he eby p e en ing esou ce loss wi hin he same day. Fo example, on days when employ-
ees pu less e o in asks ha a e emo ionally d aining, hey expend less ene gy and ime (i.e., esou ces) on
hese asks. Indeed, a oidance beha iou al c a ing (i.e., dec easing hinde ing demands) ela ed nega i ely o
a igue a he end o he day ia a dec ease in esou ce deple ion (i.e., ego- deple ion; Shi e al., 2021).
Second, simila o he be ween- pe son le el, daily a oidance cogni i e c a ing helps o men ally
de ach onesel om nega i e wo k aspec s. Acco ding o U sin and E iksen (2004), how indi iduals
in e p e and app oach po en ial demands o si ua ions lacking in esou ces plays a c ucial ole in how
hey handle nega i e wo k aspec s. Mo e speci ically, daily de achmen om nega i e aspec s esembles
1Al hough we expec simila esul s o a oidance beha iou al demands/ esou ces c a ing and cogni i e demands/ esou ces c a ing, hey will
be es ed sepa a ely.
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THE BRIGHT AND DARK SIDE OF AVOIDANCE CRAFTING
elimina ing pe se e a i e cogni ion (i.e., umina ion; Kinnunen e al., 2017), he eby educing ongoing
psychophysiological ac i a ion (U sin & E iksen, 2004). Fo ins ance, when employees ake men al
dis ance om s ess ul asks on a pa icula day, hey s op hinking abou hese asks and may eel less
exhaus ed on hese days. Simul aneously, consciously e aming nega i e aspec s a wo k is likely o
enhance pe cei ed con ol o e hem on a daily basis, os e ing a ansien posi i e ou come expec ancy
(U sin & E iksen, 2004). Fu he mo e, on days when employees p oac i ely e ame nega i e aspec s
o hei wo k, hey c ea e a be e wo k en i onmen in which such aspec s a e, a leas empo a ily,
less isible. As a esul , hese aspec s become less p ominen o nega i e in he sho e m and may no
igge exhaus ion (Deme ou i e al., 2001). Based on ou heo izing abou daily a oidance beha iou al
and cogni i e c a ing, we hypo hesize ha
Hypo hesis 2. On days when indi iduals engage in highe a oidance beha io al c a ing
(H2a) and a oidance cogni i e c a ing (H2b), hey expe ience lowe le els o exhaus ion.
HOW WORK DESIGN MATTERS
Al hough a oidance c a ing is indi idually d i en, i occu s wi hin he b oade con ex o wo k
(W zesniewski & Du on, 2001) and is he e o e likely shaped—along wi h i s ou comes—by ha
con ex (Die do & Jensen, 2018; Tims & Pa ke , 2020). We ocus on wo ea u es o he wo k
con ex —au onomy and ime p essu e—as c i ical bounda y condi ions ha shape when and how
a oidance c a ing can be success ully enac ed (e.g., Bakke e al., 2020; Zhang e al., 2025). Au onomy
ep esen s a key job esou ce ha gene ally acili a es p oac i e beha iou s (e.g., Be g e al., 2010;
Oldham & Hackman, 2010; To nau & F ese, 2013; Zhang e al., 2025) and bu e s agains nega i e
ou comes such as exhaus ion (Bakke e al., 2005, 2020). Time p essu e, in con as , ep esen s an
impo an job demand ha has been associa ed wi h exhaus ion (Xan hopoulou e al., 2007) and
limi s oppo uni ies o job c a ing (Knigh e al., 2021). P e ious esea ch ecognizes he impo ance
o hese job cha ac e is ics o mos employees (Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Lee & Ash o h, 1996;
Xan hopoulou e al., 2007). Bo h au onomy and ime p essu e a e measu ed a he be ween- pe son
le el and hus e lec he gene al wo k con ex , which is known o shape and cons ain wo k beha iou
(e.g., G i in e al., 2007). Mo eo e , by examining hese job cha ac e is ics a he be ween- pe son le el,
we a oid he isk ha assessing hem a he same le el as employees' pe cep ions would pa ly cap u e
some c a ing (Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). In he ollowing, we heo ize he same mode a ing e ec s o low
au onomy and high ime p essu e on bo h daily a oidance beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing and hei
wo associa ed demands/ esou ces dimensions.
O e all, we expec he daily nega i e associa ion be ween a oidance c a ing and exhaus ion
o be s onge in a demanding wo k en i onmen . D awing on CATS (U sin & E iksen, 2004),
low au onomy and high ime p essu e may educe employees' gene al sense o con ol, pe cei ed
abili y o in luence wo k si ua ions ( an Winge den & Niks, 2017), and possibly gene a e helpless-
ness (Pa ke e al., 2025); he eby diminishing ou come expec ancies. Unde hese condi ions, daily
a oidance c a ing unleashes i s po en ial in dealing wi h demands. F om a esou ce pe spec i e, a
demanding wo k en i onmen cha ac e ized by ei he a low le el o au onomy o high ime p essu e
inc eases he possibili y o esou ce loss (Hob oll, 1989). When esou ces a e deple ed, secu ing e-
sou ces becomes e en mo e aluable (Hob oll, 1989). Thus, esou ces gained o p ese ed h ough
daily a oidance c a ing may help educe exhaus ion in demanding en i onmen s. Fo example, call
cen e employees o en ace a demanding wo k en i onmen , wi h calls p omp ed and phone ime
moni o ed and es ic ed (e.g., G ebne e al., 2003; Zap e al., 2003). In hese si ua ions, conse ing
esou ces h ough a oidance c a ing (beha iou al: cu ing- o nega i e con e sa ions ea lie ; cog-
ni i e: e aming ha his helps o speak o as many people as possible) may educe he exhaus ion
expe ienced on ha day. Fu he mo e, in highly demanding wo k en i onmen s whe e employees'
ene gy is al eady deple ed, educing job demands o aspec s low in job esou ces (i.e., a oidance
8 o 23
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LOPPER e al.
c a ing) on a gi en day may be pe cei ed as especially impac ul, esul ing in lowe exhaus ion. We
he e o e expec he daily nega i e e ec s o a oidance c a ing on exhaus ion o be s onge when
au onomy is low o ime p essu e is high.
Hypo hesis 3. Au onomy mode a es he daily ela ionship be ween a oidance c a ing
and exhaus ion, such ha he nega i e e ec s o he daily a oidance c a ing dimensions on
daily exhaus ion a e highe when au onomy is low.
Hypo hesis 4. Time p essu e mode a es he daily ela ion be ween a oidance c a ing
and exhaus ion, such ha he nega i e e ec s o he daily a oidance c a ing dimensions on
daily exhaus ion a e highe when ime p essu e is high.
METHOD
P ocedu e and sample
The s udy was conduc ed wi h Ge man employees in 2019, ec ui ed h ough he i s au ho 's
pe sonal con ac s, newsle e s and social media pos s (e.g., LinkedIn). The s udy was ca ied ou in
acco dance wi h he e hical guidelines o he i s au ho 's uni e si y E hics Commi ee. Da a we e
collec ed wi h online su eys using he ool SoSci Su ey (Leine , 2019). Pa icipan s we e in o med
abou he s udy's goal, p ocedu e and da a con iden iali y h ough online ma e ials and we e gua -
an eed anonymi y as well as he igh o wi hd aw and eques da a dele ion a any ime. Consen o
he da a secu i y ag eemen was equi ed o pa icipa ion. A baseline ques ionnai e assessed ai
le els o he a iables, a e which pa icipan s ook pa in a daily dia y s udy o e one wo k week.
Each day, sho online su eys we e sen ia email immedia ely a e wo k hou s. Pa icipan s chose
he wo king week o ensu e i e consecu i e wo king days. In he baseline su ey, pa icipan s also
speci ied hei usual wo k end ime so daily su eys could be sen a he app op ia e ime.
F om he ini ial pa icipan pool (N = 79), one pa icipan was excluded o comple ing only he
baseline ques ionnai e. F om he inal sample (N = 78), we excluded daily assessmen s om pa icipan s
who comple ed a page mo e han wice as as as he median comple ion ime (Leine , 2019) on a day.
Thus, om a po en ial o al o k = 390 (78 pa icipan s × 5 days), we emo ed k = 13 daily assessmen s,
esul ing in k = 377 daily obse a ions o analyses. The sample consis ed o 77% emale pa icipan s
wi h a mean age o 36.9 yea s (SD = 9.4; ange 22–57). The mino i y held a supe iso posi ion (42.9%)
and wo ked in pa - ime jobs (10.3%). They had an a e age job enu e o 14.9 yea s (SD = 10.8) and
wo ked on a e age 38.1 hou s pe week (SD = 6.3, median = 40).
Measu es
Daily assessmen s
A oidance c a ing dimensions we e measu ed wi h he s a e scale o he App oach- A oidance Job
C a ing Scale (AAJCS; Loppe e al., 2024). The s a e scale consis s o eigh i ems, wo o each
a oidance c a ing dimension. The i ems e e ed o he cu en day and we e answe ed on a 5-
poin scale (1 = s ongly disag ee; 5 = s ongly ag ee). Examples a e ‘Today, I spen less ime
wo king on asks ha didn' eally in e es me’ (a oidance beha iou al esou ce c a ing, eliabili y
es ima o Omega Ω2 = .515), ‘Today, I pu asks ha I ound oo demanding o he bo om o he
2Omega is a be e eliabili y es ima o in daily dia y s udies because i makes less es ic i e assump ions (e.g., allows di e en ac o loadings
o i ems on he same la en a iable), can be adap ed o hie a chical da a s uc u es, and allows mo e ealis ic models o i em co ela ions (e.g.,
Geldho e al., 2014; McNeish, 2018).
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15 o 23
THE BRIGHT AND DARK SIDE OF AVOIDANCE CRAFTING
di ec ing a en ion away om nega i e wo k aspec s, employees conse e ini e cogni i e and emo ional
esou ces ha would o he wise be deple ed by ongoing wo y (Kinnunen e al., 2019). Ou indings
highligh ha hese cogni i e p ocesses, pa icula ly in he o m o a oidance cogni i e demands c a -
ing, can unc ion as bene icial egula o y mechanisms o employee well- being.
FIGURE 3 In e ac ion e ec o gene al au onomy on he ela ionship be ween daily a oidance cogni i e demands
c a ing and daily exhaus ion. AVCD, a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing.
FIGURE 4 In e ac ion e ec o gene al ime p essu e on he ela ionship be ween daily a oidance cogni i e demands
c a ing and daily exhaus ion. AVCD, a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing.
16 o 23
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LOPPER e al.
The lack o associa ions be ween a oidance beha iou al c a ing and exhaus ion may call o a e-
e alua ion o he ole o a oidance beha iou al c a ing wi hin he job c a ing li e a u e. Schola s ha e
highligh ed he complexi y o a oidance beha iou al c a ing, no ing ha i s p oac i e o wi hd awal-
o ien ed na u e may depend on he unde lying goals and he ex en o which i is combined wi h ap-
p oach c a ing (e.g., Hu e al., 2020; Tims & Bakke , 2010; Zhang & Pa ke , 2019). Fo example,
employees may educe demands o ha e he capaci y o ake on o he in e es ing asks (i.e., app oach
c a ing); hese employees may no eel exhaus ed as hey use his c a ing s a egy o c ea e a s imula -
ing and esou ce ul en i onmen o hemsel es. Con e sely, employees migh educe demands o sim-
ply dec ease hei wo kload, po en ially leading o exhaus ion as his c a ing can make employees' wo k
less mo i a ing and esou ce ul (Pe ou e al., 2012; Pe ou & Xan hopoulou, 2021). Zhang e al. (2025)
ound ha a oidance c a ing was less de imen al o bene icial o employees' well- being when join ly
used wi h app oach c a ing.
Fu he mo e, because a oidance beha iou al c a ing and exhaus ion we e un ela ed a bo h he
be ween and wi hin- pe son le els, p e iously obse ed nega i e e ec s o a oidance beha iou al c a -
ing on well- being may no consis en ly eme ge. While he a oidance beha iou al c a ing dimensions
may no necessa ily esul in posi i e wo k ou comes (Boehnlein & Baum, 2022; Holman e al., 2024;
Zhang & Pa ke , 2019), hey also do no appea o subs an ially deple e employees' esou ces. Ano he
idea de i ed om he CATS pe spec i e is ha employees may ge used o no ha ing con ol (i.e.,
lea ned helplessness) when using a oidance beha iou al c a ing, which educes physiological ac i a ion
and a oids nega i e e ec s (U sin & E iksen, 2004). Howe e , his implies a longe ime ame which
we canno add ess in ou s udy. Following ou a gumen s, long- e m a oidance beha iou al c a ing is
mo e likely o be posi i ely associa ed wi h exhaus ion h ough an ongoing dealing wi h nega i e job
aspec s and consequen ly a sus ained a ousal (U sin & E iksen, 2004).
A he wi hin- pe son le el, daily a oidance beha iou al c a ing did no se e as a empo-
al egula o y s a egy. Because daily a oidance beha iou al c a ing equi es ene gy (Bakke &
Oe lemans, 2019), i could po en ially nega e any p oposed bene i s. Al e na i ely, he non- signi ican
ela ionship migh be con ingen on unmeasu ed mode a o s, such as pe sonal suppo i e o con-
s aining ac o s (e.g., pe sonali y, pe sonal esou ces; Lazazza a e al., 2020). Fo ins ance, when
pe sonal esou ces a e high (e.g., sel - e icacy, esilience), employees may be be e a dealing wi h
sho - e m luc ua ions in esou ces due o daily a oidance beha iou al c a ing (Wang e al., 2024),
such ha he e o ul daily ac ions may no inc ease exhaus ion. In con as , pe sonali y ai s
migh hinde he p oposed posi i e e ec o a oidance beha iou al c a ing. Fo example, employ-
ees high in neu o icism a e less likely o ake ad an age o a elie ini ia ed h ough daily a oid-
ance beha iou al c a ing, as hey epo mo e pe se e a i e cogni ions (Fouc eaul e al., 2016).
Consequen ly, he p oposed daily nega i e e ec on exhaus ion could be educed. In addi ion, he
e ec may no ha e been obse ed because a oidance beha iou al c a ing may ha e epe cussions
o colleagues (Tims & Pa ke , 2020). Speci ically, a oidance c a ing ac ions may gi e ise o con-
lic s a wo k, which would no necessa ily educe exhaus ion. In sum, a oidance beha iou al c a -
ing does no a enua e employee exhaus ion a ei he he be ween- pe son o wi hin- pe son le el,
po en ially due o a complex in e play o unde lying goals, indi idual di e ences (e.g., pe sonali y o
pe sonal esou ces), con ex ual ac o s (e.g., social consequences) and in es ed ene gy ha does no
yield a co esponding payo .
Beyond he dis inc ion be ween a oidance beha iou al and cogni i e c a ing, ou s udy also
p o ides in e es ing insigh s in o a oidance esou ces c a ing. Nei he dimension o a oidance
esou ce c a ing exhibi ed signi ican ela ionships wi h exhaus ion a ei he he be ween- o
wi hin- pe son le el. A oidance esou ces c a ing ocuses on employees' e o s o beha iou ally o
cogni i ely s ep away om wo k aspec s low on job esou ces. Acco ding o he JD- R heo y, job
demands a e he unique p edic o s o exhaus ion, while job esou ces a e he unique p edic o s o
dis/engagemen (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2017). The e o e, i is possible ha a oidance esou ces
c a ing p ima ily impac s aspec s o employee well- being ela ed o mo i a ion and engagemen ,
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17 o 23
THE BRIGHT AND DARK SIDE OF AVOIDANCE CRAFTING
a he han exhaus ion. Mo eo e , his inding sugges s ha a lack o job esou ces migh no be
equi alen o he pe cep ion o high job demands and may no necessa ily igge psychophysiolog-
ical ac i a ion in employees.
A second con ibu ion o ou s udy is ha a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing is pa icula ly ben-
e icial in demanding wo k en i onmen s cha ac e ized by low au onomy and high ime p essu e. The
mode a ing e ec s o au onomy and ime p essu e on he nega i e ela ionship be ween a oidance cog-
ni i e c a ing and exhaus ion we e in line wi h ou expec a ions (i.e., unde low le els o au onomy and
high le els o ime p essu e he nega i e ela ionship is s onge ). Low au onomy and high ime p es-
su e c ea e an en i onmen o cons ain , limi ing an employee's la i ude o beha iou al modi ica ions
(Tims & Bakke , 2010). In his cons ained con ex , a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing becomes
a uniquely aluable, low- cos s a egy. I does no equi e al e ing he objec i e si ua ion bu ins ead
changes one's pe cep ion o i (W zesniewski & Du on, 2001). By men ally e aming o de aching
om he p essu e o demands, employees can conse e aluable cogni i e and emo ional esou ces,
in e up he cycle o sus ained physiological ac i a ion induced by a highly demanding en i onmen
(U sin & E iksen, 2004) and he eby mi iga e exhaus ion.
Fu he mo e, ou indings e eal a c i ical con ex ual dis inc ion in how wo k design mode a es
he e ec s o a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing on daily exhaus ion. Speci ically, a oidance be-
ha iou al demands c a ing was associa ed wi h highe exhaus ion unde low au onomy, whe eas his
ela ionship was non- signi ican unde high ime p essu e. These di e ging pa e ns sugges wo he-
o e ically dis inc mechanisms: one likely oo ed in s uc u al cons ain s, he o he in empo al con-
s ain s. In low- au onomy con ex s, employees encoun e igid s uc u al ba ie s ha cons ain hei
abili y o implemen meaning ul changes in hei wo k (Tims & Bakke , 2010). Unde such condi ions,
a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing (e.g., pos poning emo ionally axing asks) is likely o be ine -
ec i e, as employees lack he disc e ion o ealloca e o modi y wo k esponsibili ies. This cycle o in-
e ec i e ac ion and pe sis en s ain may deple e esou ces and may con ibu e o inc eased exhaus ion.
Such a pa e n e lec s an e o – ailu e mechanism ha aligns wi h he cogni i e ac i a ion heo y o
s ess (U sin & E iksen, 2004), whe ein sus ained physiological ac i a ion a ises om epea ed nega i e
ou come expec ancies and lack o pe cei ed con ol.
In con as , high ime p essu e ep esen s a empo al a he han a s uc u al cons ain . Unde such
condi ions, a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing may p o ide empo a y elie by delaying o educ-
ing exposu e o s ess ul asks. Howe e , his elie is o se by escala ing conce ns abou impending
deadlines and un inished wo k. These compe ing p ocesses—sho - e m educ ion in wo kload e sus
heigh ened an icipa o y s ess—a e likely o neu alize one ano he , esul ing in no signi ican ne e -
ec on exhaus ion. Thus, unde high ime p essu e, a oidance beha iou al demands c a ing appea s
o be an ine ec i e a he han ha m ul s a egy. In sum, he dis inc in e ac i e e ec s o a oidance
beha iou al c a ing and a oidance cogni i e c a ing wi h au onomy highligh he ad an ages o a oid-
ance cogni i e c a ing, especially in challenging wo k en i onmen s whe e beha iou al c a ing is lim-
i ed and may no be e ec i e. This inding ex ends job c a ing heo y by emphasizing he impo ance
o conside ing he wo k con ex and cogni i e c a ing.
A hi d con ibu ion is ha by employing a daily dia y s udy, ou esea ch add esses calls o mo e
dynamic in es iga ions o job c a ing (Sanz- Ve gel e al., 2024). Con a y o he p e ailing iew o
a oidance c a ing as p edominan ly maladap i e, ou indings e eal a b igh side o (daily) a oid-
ance c a ing—pa icula ly he cogni i e o m—which can se e as an adap i e, si ua ion- esponsi e
s a egy and ep esen a daily well- being- p o ec ing s a egy o employees (Deme ou i e al., 2015).
In eg a ing CATS (U sin & E iksen, 2004) in o he job c a ing li e a u e enabled us o ha e a mo e nu-
anced iew such ha a oidance ac ions migh e lec sho - e m s a egic, ene gy- p ese ing cogni i e
esponses o daily demands and may coexis wi h posi i e ou come expec ancies. O e all, ou indings
unde sco e ha he e ec s o a oidance c a ing may a y depending on he empo al ame—high-
ligh ing he impo ance o dis inguishing be ween day- o- day a iabili y and s able indi idual enden-
cies when e alua ing i s impac on exhaus ion.
18 o 23
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LOPPER e al.
Limi a ions and sugges ions o u u e esea ch
Ou s udy o e s aluable insigh s, bu some limi a ions a e wo h conside ing. Fi s , while he dia y
s udy design e ec i ely cap u ed he day- o- day dynamics o a oidance c a ing and exhaus ion, i canno
de ini i ely es ablish causali y be ween hese a iables. In his s udy, we ocused on he ela ionship
be ween a oidance c a ing and exhaus ion and de eloped ou hypo heses based on heo ies. Howe e ,
ou s udy design does no ule ou e e se e ec s; ha is, exhaus ed employees a e mo e likely o
use a oidance beha iou al c a ing. To add ess his, we ha e conduc ed addi ional analyses in which
exhaus ion p edic ed a oidance c a ing 1 day la e (see Appendix S3: Table C2). Al hough none o
hese e e se ime- lagged e ec s was signi ican , u u e esea ch could adop wi hin- day sho i udinal
o expe imen al designs, p o iding s onge e idence o he causal pa hways and empo al sequence
be ween a oidance c a ing, wo k design elemen s, and a ious indica o s o employee well- being.
A second limi a ion is ha we did no di ec ly examine he psychological mechanisms ha may me-
dia e he ela ionship be ween a oidance c a ing and exhaus ion. While we heo ized ha a oidance
cogni i e demands c a ing could educe exhaus ion by adjus ing ou come expec ancies and educing
he psychophysiological ac i a ion, he speci ic p ocesses ha acili a e his change emain unexplo ed.
Fu u e esea ch could in es iga e hese, and pe haps o he , po en ial mechanisms by which a oidance
c a ing in luences exhaus ion such as cogni i e app aisal, psychophysiological ac i a ion and pe cep-
ions o con ol o p o ide a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he pa hways in ol ed. Addi ionally,
u u e esea ch could adop a b oade pe spec i e when explo ing he ou comes o a oidance c a ing
dimensions, pa icula ly hose o a oidance esou ces c a ing and could also conside long- e m e ec s.
Expanding he scope o include a wide ange o wo k- ela ed ou comes, such as wo k engagemen ,
could o e a mo e holis ic iew o a oidance c a ing's impac on employee well- being, po en ially e-
ealing u he ad an ages o disad an ages o a oidance c a ing.
Thi d, a u he limi a ion conce ns he speci ic ope a ionaliza ion o a oidance cogni i e c a ing
in ou daily dia y design. While ou heo e ical amewo k posi ions a oidance cogni i e c a ing as a
mul i ace ed cons uc including bo h cogni i e eapp aisal and men al dis ancing, he speci ic s a e-
le el i ems used in his s udy (e.g., ‘Today, I ook men al dis ance om s ess ul asks’) p ima ily cap u e
he men al dis ancing ace . Consequen ly, he bene icial e ec s we epo should be in e p e ed wi h
his p ecision: hey a e he e ec s o daily men al dis ancing. This highligh s a c ucial a enue o u u e
esea ch. S udies should es daily measu es ha speci ically ap in o he cogni i e eapp aisal ace o
a oidance c a ing. Doing so would allow o a di ec compa ison o he daily e ec s, dynamics and
po en ial di e en ial ou comes o hese wo cogni i e s a egies, p o iding a mo e comple e pic u e o
how employees cogni i ely c a hei wo k o p o ec hei well- being.
Fou h, eliabili y es ima o s (i.e., Omega) o he a oidance c a ing dimensions a he day le el we e
lowe compa ed o he eliabili y o exhaus ion. Al hough s a is ical powe in de ec ing e ec sizes could
be cons ained, eliabili y es ima o s (e.g., Omega) a he wi hin- pe son le el can be lowe han he com-
monly used .70 when using wo- i em scales (Yang e al., 2022)—as was he case o measu ing he a oid-
ance c a ing dimensions. Fu he mo e, simila eliabili y es ima o s ha e been epo ed in o he job
c a ing s udies conduc ed a he day le el (e.g., Tims e al., 2014). The e a e se e al easons o hese
indings. Fi s , no all a oidance c a ing ac ions could be expe ienced e e y day (Tims e al., 2014) and
addi ionally, si ua ional cues in luence he daily use o a oidance ac ions. Bo h could inc ease he esidual
a iance on he one hand and educe he co a iance be ween i ems on he o he hand, he eby a ec ing
eliabili y es ima o s (e.g., Geldho e al., 2014). Second, each a oidance c a ing dimension was assessed
using only wo i ems, compa ed o i e i ems in he ai - le el measu emen .
Fi h, he ela i ely small and homogeneous sample size, including p edominan ly emale Ge mans,
limi s he gene alizabili y o he indings ac oss di e en cul u al no ms and wo kplace p ac ices. Fo
ins ance, in cul u es ha emphasize indi idual au onomy, such as Ge many, a oidance ac ions may be
seen as a sel - p o ec ion s a egy (Sanz- Ve gel e al., 2024) ha suppo s employees' well- being. In con as ,
in mo e collec i is ic cul u es, hose ac ions may be in e p e ed as wi hd awal beha iou , diminishing
wo k- ela ed well- being. As esea ch showed ha job c a ing's e ec s a e a ec ed by cul u al p ac ices
|
19 o 23
THE BRIGHT AND DARK SIDE OF AVOIDANCE CRAFTING
(Boehnlein & Baum, 2022) o gende di e ences (Lyu & Fan, 2022), u u e s udies could en ich ou
unde s anding by employing a mo e di e se demog aphic p o ile, including a balanced ep esen a ion o
gende s, a ious indus ies and cul u al backg ounds. This would allow o a deepe examina ion o he
uni e sali y o he a oidance c a ing concep and i s applicabili y ac oss di e en wo k con ex s.
Finally, ecen esea ch highligh s a bene icial ole o a oidance beha iou al c a ing in combina-
ion wi h app oach c a ing (e.g., Pe ou & Xan hopoulou, 2021; Zhang e al., 2025). Despi e o p e-
cisely because o he independence be ween app oach and a oidance, employees a e able o use bo h
c a ing di ec ions simul aneously (Loppe e al., 2024). Fu u e esea ch should explo e con igu a-
ions and sequencing o a oidance and app oach c a ing in ela ion o well- being indica o s. Tha
is, combining longi udinal and expe ience sampling designs could help disen angle whe he speci ic
c a ing combina ions p omo e sho - e m elie , long- e m well- being o bo h. Unde s anding he
dynamic in e play would o e aluable insigh s in o how a ious c a ing combina ions impac
wo k- ela ed well- being.
P ac ical implica ions
Ou indings o e aluable insigh s o o ganiza ions and manage s aiming o p o ec employee well-
being, especially in demanding wo k en i onmen s. Fi s , ou esul s emphasize he ole o a oidance-
o ien ed cogni i e c a ing in educing exhaus ion, pa icula ly when employees ace high ime p essu e
and limi ed au onomy. In such con ex s, oppo uni ies o beha iou al job c a ing may be es ic ed,
making i impo an o manage s o suppo employees in de eloping cogni i e s a egies. Encou aging
employees o e ame demanding asks as challenges a he han h ea s du ing s ess ul imes, o o
edi ec a en ion owa ds mo e con ollable aspec s o hei wo k, can help hem conse e psychological
esou ces and main ain well- being.
Second, o ganiza ions can o e job c a ing in e en ions ha equip employees wi h knowledge
and skills o adjus one's wo k. Exis ing in e en ions o en ocus on beha iou al changes, such as al-
e ing asks o ela ionships (e.g., an Winge den e al., 2017), bu cogni i e app oaches ha e been less
sys ema ically add essed (Op ea e al., 2019). Manage s could implemen wo kshops o coaching ha
p o ide employees wi h ools o men ally e aming s ess ul demands o de aching om o e whelm-
ing aspec s o hei job. These in e en ions no only equip employees o cope mo e e ec i ely wi h
cu en demands o low- esou ce si ua ions bu also build long- e m skills o managing unce ain y
and p essu e a wo k.
Finally, while cogni i e c a ing can ac as a aluable s a egy, i should no be iewed as a sub-
s i u e o o ganiza ional esponsibili y in managing job demands. Pe sis en and excessi e (hinde -
ing) job demands can unde mine well- being ega dless o indi idual egula o y s a egies (Bakke
e al., 2023). The e o e, manage s should ensu e ha demands a e kep a an app op ia e le el and
balanced wi h su icien job esou ces (Bakke e al., 2005), such as au onomy, social suppo and
eco e y oppo uni ies. By combining o ganiza ional e o s o op imize job design wi h in e en-
ions ha s eng hen employees' cogni i e c a ing capabili ies, o ganiza ions can os e a mo e
esilien and sus ainable wo k o ce.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, ou s udy includes a b oade pe spec i e on a oidance c a ing and shows ha pa icu-
la ly a oidance cogni i e demands c a ing can ha e a p o ec i e ole o employees wo king in demand-
ing en i onmen s. By explo ing he mode a ing e ec s o au onomy and ime p essu e, we con ibu e
o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o he con ex ual condi ions unde which a oidance c a ing can be
mos e ec i e a he day le el. These indings unde sco e he impo ance o cogni i e job c a ing di-
mensions and op- down wo k design in p omo ing employee well- being.
20 o 23
|
LOPPER e al.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Elisa Loppe : Concep ualiza ion; me hodology; so wa e; da a cu a ion; o mal analysis; isualiza-
ion; p ojec adminis a ion; w i ing – o iginal d a ; w i ing – e iew and edi ing; in es iga ion; ali-
da ion. Fang ang Zhang: Concep ualiza ion; w i ing – o iginal d a ; w i ing – e iew and edi ing;
alida ion. Ma ia Tims: Concep ualiza ion; w i ing – o iginal d a ; w i ing – e iew and edi ing;
alida ion.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no con lic o in e es .
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable upon eques om he co esponding
au ho .
ETHICS APPROVAL STATEMENT
Da a we e collec ed in line wi h he guidelines o he i s au ho 's uni e si y E hics Commi ee.
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE
In o med consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s in he s udy.
ORCID
Elisa Loppe h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-7676-7799
Fang ang Zhang h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5511-7001
Ma ia Tims h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-9588-4333
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Addi ional suppo ing in o ma ion can be ound online in he Suppo ing In o ma ion sec ion a he
end o his a icle.
Appendix S1.
Appendix S2.
Appendix S3.
How o ci e his a icle: Loppe , E., Zhang, F., & Tims, M. (2025). The b igh and da k side o
a oidance c a ing: How wo k design ma e s. Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psychology,
98, e70056. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/joop.70056
