How Can Genetically Informative Research Contribute to Life Course Research?

Diewald, Ma in
A icle — Published Ve sion
How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o
Li e Cou se Resea ch?
KZ SS Kölne Zei sch i ü Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Diewald, Ma in (2024) : How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e
o Li e Cou se Resea ch?, KZ SS Kölne Zei sch i ü Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, ISSN
1861-891X, Sp inge Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, Wiesbaden, Vol. 76, Iss. 3, pp. 491-524,
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11577-024-00969-9
Köln Z Soziol (2024) 76:491–524
How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e
o Li e Cou se Resea ch?
Ma in Diewald
Recei ed: 28 July 2023 / Accep ed: 25 July 2024 / Published online: 16 Sep embe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac Gene ically in o ma i e s udies ha e es ablished a new esea ch ield ha
c osscu s disciplina y bounda ies wi hin he social sciences, as well as be ween
social science and biology, wi h p op ie a y aims and esea ch ques ions. This hap-
pens, howe e , a he cos o app op ia e in eg a ion in o he cu en heo e ical and
concep ual s eams in he social sciences, e.g., sociology. Tha such a ui ul in e-
g a ion is possible is demons a ed o he case o li e cou se esea ch. The ocus
in dominan ly, hough no exclusi ely, on sociological concep s o he li e cou se.
This a icle i s in oduces cen al concep s o gene ically in o ma i e esea ch and
li e cou se esea ch and hen discusses possible ways o in eg a e gene ic in o -
ma ion in o he li e cou se esea ch agenda, gi ing a b ie o e iew o he main
me hodological ools a ailable.
Keywo ds Beha io al gene ics · Sociogenomics · Epigenome · Li e cou se ·
Family o o igin
Wie kann gene isch in o ma i e Fo schung zum besse en Ve s ändnis
on Lebensläu en bei agen?
Zusammen assung Gene isch in o ma i e Fo schung ha einen deu lichen Au -
schwung genommen und e ablie sich als eigenes Fo schungs eld zwischen den
e schiedenen sozialwissenscha lichen Disziplinen und de Biologie. Dabei e -
olg sie zunehmend ih e eigenen Ziele und F ages ellungen. Dies geschieh jedoch
au Kos en eine uch ba en In eg a ion in die heo e ischen und konzep uellen
M. Diewald
Facul y o Sociology, Biele eld Uni e si y
Uni e si ä ss aße 25, 33615 Biele eld, Ge many
E-Mail: ma in.diewald@uni-biele eld.de
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492 M. Diewald
En wicklungen inne halb de sozialwissenscha lichen Disziplinen. Dabei ließe sich
leich eine besse e In eg a ion in o handene zen ale Konzep e he s ellen. Dies wi d
am Beispiel de Lebenslau o schung demons ie . De Fokus lieg haup sächlich,
abe nich ausschließlich au soziologischen He angehensweisen. De Bei ag üh
zunächs in zen ale Konzep e sowohl de gene isch in o ma i en Fo schung als auch
de Lebenslau o schung ein. Da au olg eine Diskussion e schiedene Möglich-
kei en, wie gene ische In o ma ion zen ale Konzep e und Fo schungs agen de
Lebenslau o schung be uch en kann. Eine Übe sich übe die me hodologischen
He angehensweisen gene isch in o ma i e Fo schung unde den Bei ag ab.
Schlüsselwö e Lebenslau o schung · Soziogene ik · Ve hal ensgene ik ·
Epigene ik · He kun s amilie
1 In oduc ion
In he pe spec i e o he social sciences, li e cou se esea ch belongs o he esea ch
ields ha a e mos open o in e disciplina y coope a ion, including biology. Ne e -
heless, gene ic con ibu ions o unde s and he li e cou se ha e no ye ound much
in e es . The main pu pose o his a icle is o ill his gap in a speci ic way: o in-
o m abou he possibili ies o gene ically in o ma i e esea ch o deal wi h esea ch
ques ions aised in he social sciences, o emos sociology, in he ield o li e cou se
esea ch.
A e long esis ance, he e a e mo e and mo e gene ically in o ma i e s udies1
being published in social science jou nals. Howe e , his does no ye mean ha
such s udies ha e al eady ound hei p ope place in he social sciences in gene al
and in sociology in pa icula . The e is no doub ha all cha ac e is ics sociology
is in e es ed in a e also in luenced by gene ic con ibu ions,2whe he heal h, skills,
a ainmen s, o wha e e else. Howe e , iden i ying co ela ions be ween genes, o
in e indi idual gene ic a ia ion, on he one side and pheno ypic cha ac e is ics on
he o he side does no ye mean ha his co ela ion is causal. Wha we see in
human cha ac e is ics and beha io s esul s om bo h gene ic a ia ion (“na u e”)
and expe iences made in di e en social con ex s and he espec i e li ing condi ions
(“nu u e”) and canno be educed o only one o hese sou ces o de elopmen . In
o he wo ds, he ou comes ha sociology is in e es ed in a e nei he pu ely social
no pu ely gene ic, and a i s ques ion is o wha deg ee bo h na u e and nu u e
a e ele an . The e is no gene al answe o his ques ion because he ela i e sha es
di e om cha ac e is ic o cha ac e is ic (Polde man e al. 2015) and a y ac oss
popula ions, be i be ween g oups wi hin a socie y o be ween di e en socie ies
1This e m e e s o s udies ha , ei he by win o adop i e s udies o by di ec measu emen o (pa s o )
he genome and/o he epigenome, o bo h, y o iden i y (epi)gene ic in luences on pheno ypic cha ac e -
is ics and beha io s.
2The e o e, I apply he mos cau ious e m, “con ibu ion.” I app op ia e when ci ing hough s and hy-
po heses abou gene ic con ibu ions o beha io s and cha ac e is ics, I use he e m “in luence” bu a oid
he e m “causal” (see end o Sec . 4).
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 493
ac oss ime and space. So a , i is widely accep ed ha gene ically in o ma i e
designs a e a help ul ool o cope wi h unobse ed he e ogenei y and ha i is
impo an o es ima e he deg ee o which pheno ypic co ela ions a e biased by
gene ic con ounding.
Sepa a ing gene ic om en i onmen al in luences can become hugely impo an
o answe ing co e sociological esea ch ques ions, no leas abou mechanisms c e-
a ing social ad an age and social disad an age. Tha conce ns abou gene ic ins ead
o social mechanisms we e al eady aised a long ime ago was ecen ly no ed by
Mills (2022). Fo ins ance, Conley e al. (2015) ound ha he ela ion be ween
pa en al and o sp ing educa ion was up o i e-six hs social inhe i ance, bu one-
six h could be aced back o gene ic ansmission. Social inhe i ance la gely ou -
does gene ic inhe i ance. O he wise, a claimed dominance o gene ic in luences
could ha e been ue, say i e-six hs gene ic inhe i ance and only one-six h social
inhe i ance. Especially in hea ed deba es abou he p os and cons o compensa o y
social policy, i can become impo an o disen angle he deg ees o which social
ad an age and disad an age a e shaped by gene ic a ia ion o a ia ion in en i-
onmen al condi ions. This is no o mo e in he di ec ion o gene ic de e minism.
Ra he , gene ically in o med app oaches can help o es ima e he expec ed e ec i e-
ness o ins i u ions and policies. Fo example, sho - ime aining o cogni i e abili y
p o ed o be ine ec i e in he longe un due o a p onounced ade-ou e ec a e
he end o he in e en ion (P o zko 2015). Gi en he pa amoun ele ance o long-
e m gene–en i onmen in e play o cogni i e de elopmen , his had o be expec ed
om he e y beginning (Dickens and Flynn 2001). Only s eady s imula ion has he
po en ial o sus ained imp o emen o in elligence (see Sec . 3 o mo e elabo a ion
on his poin ).
Con empo a y esea ch goes egula ly beyond conside ing he ela i e im-
pac o gene ic e sus social a ia ion alone. I ocuses on he a ious o ms o
gene–en i onmen in e play and he p ocesses ha media e he ela ion be ween he
genome and he social phenomena o e and abo e addi i e con ibu ions. These
mechanisms encompass, on he one hand, gene–en i onmen in e ac ion (G× E)
and, on he o he hand, gene–en i onmen co a ia ion ( GE). A G× E in e ac ion
e lec s ei he changes in en i onmen al con ibu ions occu ing wi h gene ic a i-
a ion o changes in gene ic con ibu ions occu ing wi h changes in en i onmen al
con ex s (Seli a and Ko as 2019; B anigan e al. 2013; Tucke -D ob and Ba es
2016). Fo example, in he i s case we can hink o gene ic p edisposi ions a ec -
ing a pe son’s sensi i i y o en i onmen al ci cums ances, leading o di e ences in
how indi iduals eac o, o ins ance, s ess ul en i onmen al condi ions (Plomin
e al. 2012). In he second case, we can hink o en i onmen al condi ions p o iding
di e en oppo uni ies o he ealiza ion o gene ic po en ial and isk. The o he
o m o gene–en i onmen in e play, GE, means ha en i onmen al in luences a e
no always independen o he cha ac e is ics and beha io s o an indi idual and
ha he la e a e shaped o some deg ee by genes. Consequen ly, in such cases, he
en i onmen is no comple ely exogenous o an indi idual’s genome bu is gene i-
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494 M. Diewald
cally con la ed, and es ima ing he addi i e con ibu ions o genes and en i onmen
may be biased.3
Resea che s in he ield o gene ically in o ma i e esea ch see hemsel es i mly
as social scien is s. Compa ably ew come om sociology. Aside om economis s,
demog aphe s, and poli ical scien is s, psychologis s also o en see hemsel es as
social scien is s (e.g., Tu kheime 2011;Ha den2021), hough hey a e usually no
ained in sociological heo ies abou he li e cou se, social inequali y, o social mo-
bili y. Fo all, he co e ask emains he same: o sepa a e gene ic om en i onmen al
con ibu ions and s udy he in e play be ween he wo in he eme gence o he phe-
no ypes o in e es and hei de elopmen , and o in eg a e hem in o explana o y
models. Such s udy in e es s do no h ea en sociology (o o he social sciences) bu
c ea e a new ield o sociological expe ise o unde s and he mechanisms behind
pheno ypes o highly sociological in e es —such as income, s a us, educa ion, skills,
and demog aphic li e e en s—and he ole o gene ic a ia ion he eby. Gi en he
ise o gene ically in o ma i e esea ch, sociologis s should no miss “ he oppo u-
ni y o a ec he p ecision and di ec ion o his bu geoning ield exac ly when hei
expe ise is needed mos ” (B aud 2018, p. 2). Gene ically in o ma i e esea ch also
needs expe ise in he heo y-d i en pheno ypic modeling o social explana ions in
he ields o social di e en ia ion and social inequali ies, such as models o s a us
a ainmen , amily o ma ion, o he mechanisms o in e gene a ional ansmission
o ad an age and disad an age. This also applies o he deg ee o which pheno ypes
as p edic o s in mul i a ia e analyses a e gene ically con ounded, e.g., skills as p e-
dic o s o educa ional achie emen (e.g., K apohl e al. 2014). To ully unde s and
he pa hways o how an ou come like educa ion is achie ed, he p edic o s also ha e
o be included in pa i ioning gene ic and en i onmen al con ibu ions.
Less clea , howe e , is how gene ically in o ma i e esea ch i s in o sociological
explana ions in a way ha i can be in eg a ed in o he scien i ic agenda and heo e i-
cal body o sociological hinking abou how social mechanisms wo k. This ques ion
is a om i ial. The e is no a adi ional place o he ole o genes in he de el-
opmen o he sociological agenda, no has gene ically in o ma i e esea ch aken
much no ice o sociological hinking (see, o example, Plomin 2019). The pa ic-
ipa ion o sociologis s has been spa se, wi h psychologis s ha ing a much longe
and la ge in ol emen . E en some o hose sociologis s wo king success ully in
he ield a e skep ical abou a ui ul combina ion o social science gene ics wi h
sociological heo ies (Fle che 2023). These sho comings migh us a e a deepe
in e es o sociologis s in his now apidly de eloping ield ha looks a i s qui e
un amilia o hem. In consequence, he e is no enough mo i a ion o he acknowl-
edgmen and in eg a ion o esea ch esul s om gene ically in o ma i e esea ch in
he sociological mains eam.
This pape aims o demons a e how gene ically in o ma i e s udies can add
o and be in eg a ed in o li e cou se esea ch as a complex esea ch agenda in
sociology in o med by se e al heo e ical app oaches. Some o hem a e dominan ly
sociological, o he s a e mo e psychological, and some a e sha ed by bo h disciplines.
3See Ve huls and Ha emi (2013) o di e en di ec ions o how his may come abou and how ele an
dis o ed es ima es migh be.
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 495
The s udy o he li e cou se is no “owned” by sociology alone bu was om he
e y beginning an in e disciplina y endea o in he beha io al sciences. I is no oo
simpli ied o see a psychological app oach o indi idual de elopmen o a psychic
sys em on he one side and a sociological app oach o a social being embedded in
a mul ilaye ed social en i onmen , om amily o s a e ins i u ions, on he o he side.
Fo a long ime, hese wo pe spec i es we e he main d i e s o li e cou se esea ch.
Following an inc easing in e es in heal h issues (Maye 2009;Ho mann2023), he
insigh ha he o ganism also con ibu es o unde s anding o he li e cou se was
la e included in li e cou se heo y (e.g., Kuh e al. 2003). This was no only an
addi i e ex ension bu e e s especially o how he o ganism in e ac s wi h psychic
and social de elopmen s and he e o e helps in he unde s anding o de elopmen on
bo h le els. Consequen ly, an accoun exclusi ely d awing on a pu ely sociological
pe spec i e o he li e cou se is di icul o pu sue. Mo eo e , heo ies in he domain
o li e cou se esea ch a e comp ehensi e, since he li e cou se is a ame o many
subs an i e opics and esea ch ques ions. This allows o a simila ly comp ehensi e
o e iew o di e en aspec s.
Since DNA is ixed and la gely immu able om he e y beginning o he indi-
idual li e cou se, any idea abou how gene ics4could en ich he s udy o he li e
cou se may seem a he limi ed. Howe e , as will be demons a ed in he ollow-
ing, longi udinal designs in beha io al gene ics and molecula gene ics as well as
epigene ics can en ich se e al cen al concep s o li e cou se esea ch. Be o e hese
speci ic con ibu ions o mainly sociological li e cou se esea ch a e demons a ed
(Sec . 3), I i s gi e an o e iew o cen al e ms and de ini ions ele an he e: li e
cou se, genes, and mechanisms o gene–en i onmen in e ac ion and co a ia ion
(Sec . 2). A e hese mainly concep ual elabo a ions, Sec . 4 p o ides a b ie and
no exhaus i e o e iew o he majo challenges and possibili ies o h ee di e -
en me hodological app oaches o s udy he in e play o gene ic and en i onmen al
in luences o e he li e cou se: win-based s udies, molecula gene ics, and epige-
ne ics. Fo molecula gene ics, solely polygenic sco es as he by a mos o en
applied app oach is conside ed. The o e all goal is o demons a e he speci ic ca-
paci ies o hese app oaches o iden i ying gene ic con ibu ions o he li e cou se,
in addi ion o and in e sec ing wi h en i onmen al o ces. The conclusion summa-
izes successes and p oblems in exis ing esea ch and hen mo es o p ospec s o
gene ically in o ma i e esea ch in sociology o he nea u u e.
To exempli y he espec i e con ibu ions, I mos ly e e o p ocesses o educa-
ional a ainmen and achie emen , since educa ion plays a la ge ole in gene ically
sensi i e esea ch, wi h many s udies a ailable o bo h win-based and molecula ge-
ne ic me hodology. This ocus also includes he indi idual de elopmen o cogni i e
and o he skills as heo e ically and empi ically impo an con ibu o s o educa ion.
I allows us o demons a e ha pa e ns o longi udinal gene–en i onmen in e -
play di e be ween pheno ypes unde conside a ion, e en wi hin his ield. Gi en
he o e all s ill sca ce longi udinal, li e cou se–o ien ed, gene ically in o med s ud-
ies, i would be oo ambi ious o ex end he o e iew o mo e pheno ypes in o he
4To be su e: When looking a genes in his pape , gene ic in o ma ion always ela es o gene ic in o ma ion
as a popula ion pa ame e and no o he indi idual gene ic makeup and ela ed ques ions.
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496 M. Diewald
li e domains. The e o e, any gene aliza ions o he pa e ns ound he e o o he li e
domains a e no in ended. Also, I es ic my conside a ions o con ibu ions o p i-
ma ily sociological concep s o li e cou se esea ch and do no in end o addi ionally
co e indi idual de elopmen o e a ious li e phases as a whole in gene ically in-
o ma i e s udies. Such an endea o would la gely o e expand he na a i e and
wha is possible in an a icle like his one.
2 Genes and he Li e Cou se: De ini ions and Mechanisms
In his sec ion, some cen al de ini ions and mechanisms a e in oduced. This is
no only o in o m eade s no ye amilia wi h gene ically in o ma i e esea ch o
con empo a y li e cou se esea ch, bu also o a oid po en ial misunde s anding,
as he e is a lack o uni e sally sha ed unde s andings o some de ini ions. To
s a wi h he e m “mechanism”: B oadly speaking, e e ing o mechanisms means
ha “explana ions should e lec he causal p ocesses ac ually esponsible o he
obse a ions” (Heds öm and Ylikoski 2010, p. 64). This implies conside ing also
hose “cogs and wheels” (Heds öm and Ylikoski 2010, p. 54), i hey a e causally
ele an , ha a e ou side sociology’s classical scope.
2.1 Wha Genes Do and Do No Do
The e a e many de ini ions o wha genes a e. Fo ou pu poses, i may be enough
o keep he ollowing in mind: Genes a e uni s o DNA ha con ain undamen al
in o ma ion o he o ganism o de elop cha ac e is ics o an indi idual. Some o
hese genes a e ele an o cha ac e is ics ha di e among indi iduals, e.g., pe -
sonali y, skills, heigh , diseases, and many o he s, depending on how speci ic genes
a e coded. To con ibu e o he de elopmen o speci ic cha ac e is ics, he DNA has
o be ansc ibed o RNA. The RNA ansmi s he in o ma ion o building p o eins,
which a e biologically ac i e and in o m he di e en ypes o cells how o wo k
in a speci ic way, i.e., gene ic unc ions can be swi ched on o o , diminished o
enhanced. These p ocesses a e called gene egula ion.
The DNA is immu able om concep ion on. I does no change o e he li e
cou se aside om a e y limi ed numbe o acciden al mu a ions. Ne e heless,
gene ic a ia ion can di ec ly in luence li e cou se de elopmen s, e.g., he onse o
pube y (Mancini e al. 2022), aging (Melze e al. 2020), and lea ning (Plomin and
Ko as 2005).
Gene egula ion is no immu able o e he li e cou se. Qui e he con a y, expe-
iences o e he li e cou se, including changes in daily li e as well as single e en s,
can a ec gene egula ion and become embodied in he o m o epigene ic ma ke s,
which in u n can ha e endu ing in luences on physiological de elopmen as well
as beha io al pa e ns (Diewald e al. in p ess). Expe iences om concep ion on
may lead o changes in he epigenome (e.g., Cao-Lei e al. 2020). Such changes a e
no i e e sible bu a he s able. I is s ill discussed whe he he epigenome is e en
he i able in humans and can be ansmi ed o e gene a ions (Ghai and Kade 2022).
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 497
Se e al biological mechanisms can lead o such changes in gene egula ion.
Among hem, chemical modi ica ion o he DNA, called DNA me hyla ion, is he
mos impo an one. The so-called epigenome con ains in o ma ion abou cellula
modi ica ions in he unc ioning o he genome wi hou changing he DNA i sel .
These modi ica ions mi o in insic biological p og amming p ocesses as well as
modi ica ions due o he accumula ed e ec s o he en i onmen . Epigene ic ma k-
e s iden i y he loci whe e his happens. The inc easing ocus on gene egula ion
and epigene ics ma ks a shi in he concep ualiza ion o genes as ixed biological
“equipmen ” o a mo e luid unde s anding o gene ic in luences (Tu ne e al. 2020).
I p o ides a di ec link be ween gene ic a ia ion and social expe iences o e he
li e cou se as a biological ou come o gene–en i onmen in e ac ion (see Sec . 2.2).
Gene egula ion makes e iden why DNA is in luen ial bu a om de e minis ic
o shaping he li e cou se.
2.2 Genes in Social Con ex s: Mechanisms o Gene ic In luences
Aside om uni o m, addi i e e ec s o gene ic a ia ion, gene ic con ibu ions a e
mode a ed and media ed by social con ex s in a ious ways. The mechanisms ex-
plaining how his happens can be dis inguished in gene–en i onmen in e ac ion and
gene–en i onmen co ela ion.
2.2.1 Gene–En i onmen In e ac ion
Gene–en i onmen in e ac ion (G× E) has wo a ian s. In one a ian , in luences
om he en i onmen a e mode a ed by gene ic a ia ion. In he o he a ian , he
in luence o gene ic a ia ion is mode a ed by cha ac e is ics o he en i onmen .
O e all, he i s case has ound much less a en ion in esea ch han he second one.
Fo his ype o G× E, he possibili y ha an in luence o he social en i onmen is
mode a ed by gene ic a ia ion, en i onmen al sensi i i y (Pluess 2015) has eme ged
as a concep o how indi iduals eac o good o bad li ing condi ions. O he han
he jux aposi ion o being ei he ulne able o esilien , en i onmen al sensi i i y
means ha some people ha e a gene ally ele a ed openness o en i onmen al in lu-
ences, which means ha hey bo h su e mo e se e ely om bad li ing condi ions
and s ains han o he s, as well as p o i mo e han o he s om good condi ions
and s imula ion.5Gene ically, en i onmen al sensi i i y is p edominan ly based on
genes ha egula e he immune sys em and s ess. Me hyla ion o hese genes plays
a decisi e ole in which di ec ion he sensi i i y is mo e p onounced, in he di ec ion
o ei he esilience o ulne abili y (Daskalakis e al. 2021; Heim and Binde 2012;
Yehuda e al. 2016).
Fo he mo e equen ly in es iga ed second case o he en i onmen mode a ing
he in luence o gene ic a ia ion, Shanahan and Ho e (2005) ha e p oposed ou
ypes: T igge ing, also e e ed o as he dia hesis–s ess model (B oe man 2020),
means ha a pe son has a gene ic ulne abili y ha is exp essed only in speci ic
5This is a pa ially di e en iewpoin o ca ego izing en i onmen al sensi i i y han ha o Mills (2022),
who unde s ands en i onmen al sensi i i y as a a ian o dia hesis–s ess.
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498 M. Diewald
social si ua ions. He e he social con ex is de imen al and igge s he occu ence
o gene ic isk. This is su ely he mos equen ly s udied ype o G× E in gene ically
in o ma i e esea ch, which migh be due o diseases and psychological diso de s
being impo an opics (Polde man e al. 2015). The second ype, social compensa-
ion, e e s o he opposi e: The e is a gene ic ulne abili y, bu he social con ex
is help ul and hinde s he exp ession o a gene ic isk. Fo example, genes o ag-
g essi e beha io s can be dimmed o indi iduals g owing up in in ac amilies wi h
wa m ela ionships. No e ha in bo h he i s ype and he second ype, a labeling
o ce ain gene ic p edisposi ions as bad o unwan ed is he s a ing poin . Howe e ,
wha is unwan ed o seen as “bad” is no an objec i e classi ica ion o gene ic p e-
disposi ions bu is subjec o e alua ions in he socie y. The e ec o genes is always
con ingen on he social con ex : An ad an age unde ce ain condi ions may be
a disad an age unde o he s. Fo example, a p edisposi ion o agg ession can lead
o agg essi e beha io s, which hen lead o c iminal beha io s and consequen ly o
p ison.6Bu o highe social classes, some cul i a ed kinds o agg essi e beha io s,
combined wi h polished good manne s, could help he indi idual en e highe social
anks in highly compe i i e ca ee pa hways. A hi d ype is called social con ol.
Fo i , oo, he s a ing poin is a gene ic p edisposi ion o unwan ed beha io s such
as d ug use o ex e nalizing. The mechanism he e is a es ic i e social en i onmen
limi ing indi idual beha io s by supe ision h ough pa en s, neighbo s, men o s,
policing, o s ic socie al no ms. The ou h ype, enhancemen , is also e e ed o
as he bioecological model (B on enb enne and Ceci 1994). In con as o he o he
h ee ypes, he s a ing poin is desi able beha io s o ou comes, e.g., sel -con ol,
cogni i e abili y, o highe educa ion. Enhancemen desc ibes a social con ex ha
accen ua es he e ec o a gene ic p edisposi ion owa d socially alued cha ac e -
is ics o beha io s, which is mos likely eached ia esou ce- ich en i onmen s.
Whe eas en i onmen al sensi i i y goes beyond ulne abili y and esilience as
well-known pheno ypic concep s in li e cou se esea ch, i is ob ious ha all ou
ypes o en i onmen s mode a ing gene ic in luences i s anda d sociological hink-
ing. Howe e , whe eas in gene ically in o ma i e esea ch he dominan ocus is
on s esso s ha igge a gene ic p edisposi ion o unwan ed cha ac e is ics and
beha io s, in sociological hinking abou inequali y he dominan ocus is clea ly on
he posi i e ole o esou ces, as in he enhancemen ype o G× E.
Be e unde s anding o he social mechanisms a play in any o hese ypes, how-
e e , equi es addi ional heo e ical wo k ha engages wi h he link be ween gene ic
a ia ion and en i onmen on a mo e de ailed and speci ic le el. The i s poin is
o de ine a esou ce- ich en i onmen in e ms o di e en esou ces wi h a spe-
ci ic impac on he cha ac e is ics o in e es . Wha is called socioeconomic s a us
is a mix o se e al condi ions ha do no necessa ily ha e he same in luence on he
de elopmen o a speci ic ou come. Consequen ly, ins ead o a composi e measu e
o socioeconomic s a us, i should be es ed which one o he esou ces linked o
socioeconomic s a us leads o an e ec : money in he household, pa en al occu-
pa ional s a us, educa ion, skills, o he absence o s esso s (see Mönkediek e al.
6This is an adage used by Conley (2009) o exempli y he con ex -dependence o social in luences il e ing
gene ic in luences.
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 505
a ec s “people’s in e nal sense ha hey can in luence hei li es” (Hi lin and Kwon
2016, p. 432) and, consequen ly, how hey shape hei expec a ions, aspi a ions, and
plans o he u u e.
3.3 In e dependencies Be ween Li e Domains
In li e cou se esea ch, in e dependencies be ween li e domains a e among he mos
add essed opics. In sociology, his is mos ly done a he indi idual le el o pa -
icipa ion pa e ns in he di e en li e domains o wo k, amily, and some imes
ac i i ies ou side hese wo li e domains. These a e o en ela ed o in luences o he
sup a-indi idual le el in he o m o he social embedding in pa ne ship, amily,
and nonkin ne wo ks (Elde e al. 2003). On he one side, in e na ional compa isons
o he in luence o wel a e ins i u ions, policies, demog aphic s uc u es, and o he
mac o condi ions a e add essed as he sup a-indi idual le el (Aisenb ey and Fasang
2017). On he o he side, “in e nal” disposi ions and men al as well as physical unc-
ioning in luence how pa icipa ion in di e en li e domains is pa e ned (Be na di
e al. 2019). Especially o his in e nal le el, gene ics can help in acing back why
in e dependencies be ween li e domains a he pheno ypic le el o pa icipa ion may
occu . As an example, a much- esea ched opic is he hypo hesis ha an indi idual
needs sa e y and us in educa ional and occupa ional a ainmen o ge in o long-
e m, commi ed ela ionships, especially amily o ma ion, and ha , ice e sa,
amily commi men s call o sa e employmen . This is plausible, bu i could be
ha hese co ela ions o e ime ha e a common sou ce in a gene al p edisposi ion
o sa e y needs o isk a e sion pa ly oo ed in he gene ic makeup o ea ly expe i-
ences in he amily o o igin. In his case, he pheno ypic co ela ion is spu ious and
no causal. In his di ec ion goes he s udy o T op and Mandemake s (2017)on he
ela ionship be ween educa ional a ainmen and e ili y pos ponemen . Though he
choice o a gene ically in o med design o he s udy was mos ly mo i a ed by he
suspicion o gene ic con ounding, he gene ic o e lap be ween he wo pheno ypes
unde in es iga ion was no s ong enough o make he co ela ion spu ious, bu in
his case he unobse ed expe iences in he amily o o igin did.
Tha he same genes can in luence he de elopmen o di e en cha ac e is ics
was demons a ed by Belsky e al. (2016). Wha he au ho s called “success genes”
p edic ed di e en beha io s in di e en li e domains ac oss he li e cou se, om
ea ly acquisi ion o speech and eading skills h ough geog aphic mobili y and ma e
choice and on o inancial planning o e i emen . Simila ly, Demange e al. (2021)
showed ha educa ion- ela ed genes ha e an o e lap wi h longe i y- ela ed genes.
They also p o ide an explana ion ia cogni i e and noncogni i e skills. The gene ic
o e lap be ween longe i y and educa ion is mainly due o genes ele an o skill
de elopmen .
3.4 New Views on Li e Phases
Including he o ganism as pa o li e cou se esea ch di ec s he a en ion o li e
phases in which gene egula ion plays a speci ically la ge ole. Whe eas he DNA
is la gely ixed om concep ion on, gene egula ion is a li elong p ocess. The e a e
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506 M. Diewald
qui e de ailed windows o isk and oppo uni y o speci ic expe iences o become
impo an o gene egula ion. As al eady men ioned, his s a s in u e o, which adds
o sociological li e cou se esea ch in se e al espec s. Fi s , i ex ends he window
o obse a ion om concep ion a he han bi h. A e concep ion, social in luences
become ele an , and due o he openness o he o ganism du ing p egnancy, hey
o en ha e a la ge impac (Heim and Binde 2012), speci ically he las ing e ec s
o ma e nal smoking (Knopik e al. 2012). Second, expe iences du ing his phase
can lea e hei ma k in he epigenome. These biological ma ke s can in o m abou
expe iences du ing he p ena al ime window o which we usually ha e li le in o -
ma ion aside om mo he –child heal h eco ds12 and he mo he ’s memo ies. Due o
his embedding in he o ganism, he DNA me hyla ion signa u e is a he s able and
can ha e an in luence la e on, wi h conside able phases o la ency in be ween (Cao-
Leie al.2014; Gaun e al. 2016). Fo example, i could explain why in a s udy
only pe ina al expe iences o po e y p o ed o be p edic i e o many de imen al
heal h and a ainmen indica o s a ound he age o 35 yea s, whe eas such expe i-
ences la e in adolescence and ea ly adul hood we e no (Duncan e al. 2010). Due
o lack o app op ia e da a, he au ho s could no u he explo e he easons o
his di e ence. In a second a icle abou he same da a, he same au ho s specula ed
abou biological imp in s o p ena al and pe ina al expe iences as an explana ion
(Ziol-Gues e al. 2012).
A second di e ence o en o e looked in sociological li e cou se li e a u e con-
ce ns pube y. Though pube y is a opic in sociological li e cou se esea ch, gene i-
cally in o ma i e esea ch, especially in epigene ics, shows how complex and a ied
he iming o gene ically egula ed neu obiological p ocesses associa ed wi h pu-
be y can be. Disc e e pe iods o sensi i i y, imes o heigh ened plas ici y, a e e y
speci ic o di e en b ain unc ions (Heim and Binde 2012), and he espec i e
windows o oppo uni y a e conside ably smalle han he age b acke usually used
o de ine pube y as a li e phase. In o he wo ds, o ake he c oss-le el in e play
o biological ajec o ies se iously equi es a mo e inely g aded di e en ia ion o
windows o oppo uni y han is co e ed by pube y age b acke s.
These wo li e phases a e highligh ed because hei ele ance as he mos sen-
si i e li e phases ha a e mo e open o biological in luences han o he phases is
speci ically neglec ed in sociological heo izing abou he li e cou se.
The e a e many mo e examples o how age di e ences a e linked o gene ic
egula ion and how genes become mo e impo an o lose impo ance o e he li e
cou se. As an example, Habe s ick e al. (2005) ound ha unco ela ed age-speci ic
e ec s a e ele an o change in pheno ypic in e nalizing, A he same ime, he i able
con ibu ions o pheno ypic s abili y we e iden i ied as well. These we e la gely he
same ac oss middle childhood and ea ly adolescence. Howe e , as al eady cla i ied in
he in oduc ion, i would o e s ess he agenda o his pape o epo in mo e de ail
abou changes in gene–en i onmen in e play ac oss ages o a ious cha ac e is ics
o indi idual de elopmen .
12 In Ge many, all p egnan women ge a “Mu e pass,” which o e s clinical examina ions o ensu e a sa e
p egnancy o mo he and child. These ma e ni y eco ds con ain he mos impo an medical indings o
e al de elopmen du ing p egnancy.
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 507
3.5 S abili y and Change o e he Li e Cou se
A c ucial ques ion in sociological li e cou se esea ch is which ac o s cause s abili y
and change o e he li e cou se o , in o he wo ds, wha d i es he ension be ween
pa h dependency and u ning poin s. Pa h dependency goes beyond he ecen pas
and ins ead ocuses on he possible channeling o he li e cou se h ough impo an
ea lie decisions (e.g., educa ional o occupa ional choices) o he mo e o less
a o able condi ions ha we e p esen when making such ansi ions. Fo example,
wa ime o economic c ises p e en in es men s in educa ional and occupa ional
ca ee s, wi h long- e m consequences o la e li e (Maye 2015). Whe eas pa h
dependency e e s o chains o expe iences ha a e likely o o eseeable based
on pas expe iences, u ning poin s signi y adical de ia ions o dis up ions in an
indi idual’s ajec o y. These a e unexpec ed swi ches o a new pa h, whe he due o
pe sonal decisions o ex e nal shocks a a socie al le el (Be na di e al. 2019,p.4).
I is no he place he e o discuss he mul iple a ian s o how pa h dependencies
and u ning poin s can occu in mo e de ail.
Gene ically in o ma i e app oaches can help us o be e unde s and he mecha-
nisms behind pa h dependence and u ning poin s. Gene ally, li e e en s a e he i able
like all o he pheno ypes. As Bemmels e al. (2008) ha e shown, mos he i able a e
li e e en s ha occu h ough one’s own ini ia i e and beha io s, such as educa ional
achie emen . Mos a ibu able o in luences om he en i onmen a e li e e en s
sha ed by amily membe s bu no ini ia ed by he esponden , such as pa en al
di o ce. Unsys ema ic en i onmen al in luences a e he la ges con ibu o o li e
e en s ha a e nei he sha ed by amily membe s no ini ia ed by he esponden .
O e he li e cou se, s abili y in pheno ypic cha ac e is ics, and p esumably also
o pa h dependency as a pa e n, is o en due o s able gene ic in luence o mos
pheno ypes.
The ole o en i onmen al in luences o s ochas ic pe u ba ion inc eases o e he
li e cou se. The deg ee o which hese in luences p o ide plas ici y in de elopmen
o e en igge u ning poin s is an open ques ion and di e s o di e en ypes o
de elopmen . Educa ional achie emen is an example o a de elopmen in which
many ins i u ional a angemen s and e o ms a e launched o in luence he de el-
opmen o school achie emen posi i ely. A s udy in he Uni ed Kingdom assumed
ha ma gins we e limi ed. O e all, school achie emen was highly s able. Indi id-
ual di e ences in school achie emen we e o a high ex en he i able (a ound 70%),
e en when in elligence was con olled o as he mos impo an media o o gene ic
con ibu ions (and was hen s ill 60%; Rim eld e al. 2018).
The ac ha he i abili y gene ally p o ides s abili y while he en i onmen in-
duces change does no p eclude he s abili y o he deg ee o he i abili y i sel .
He i abili y can a y ac oss he li espan due o di e en easons: (1) because ge-
ne ic in luences a e exp essed di e en ly a di e en biological s ages o li e (e.g.,
ea ly childhood, pube al changes, o old age); (2) because di e en con ex s down-
g ade o enhance he deg ee o he i abili y; and (3) because he possibili y o
gene–en i onmen co ela ion ises wi h age; when an inc ease in gene ic con ibu-
ions o pheno ypes wi h age is o en obse ed (Polde man e al. 2015), his ela es
o gene ic con ounding o en i onmen al in luences. In o he wo ds, gene ic in lu-
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508 M. Diewald
ences a e ampli ied by co ela ed en i onmen al in luences. I his con ounding is
no explici ly modeled, bu ins ead modeling comp ises pu ely addi i e e ec s, GE
shows up as an inc ease in gene ic in luences (see Sec . 4).
S udying gene–en i onmen in e ac ion in longi udinal designs can help o de ec
no only whe he s abili y o change cha ac e izes pheno ypic de elopmen bu also
he deg ee o which a gene ic po en ial can be ac ually exploi ed o a gene ic isk
igge ed, and when his happens. An exempla y esea ch ques ion ega ding he
exploi a ion o a gene ic po en ial is how di e en educa ional acks a e no only
selec i e o a di e en gene ic po en ial bu also exploi i di e en ly. Educa ional
ansi ions may (in his ega d) lead o s abili y o change, i no a ec u ning poin s.
An example o igge ing a gene ic isk is he ele ance o s ess ul li e e en s. The e
is abundan li e a u e on which s esso s a e mos impo an o igge a gene ic
isk. These s udies con i m ha e e yday expe iences ma e mo e han s ess ul
li e e en s, expe iences du ing sensi i e phases ma e mo e han du ing o he s,
nonno ma i e expe iences ma e mo e han no ma i e ones, and iola ions h ough
pe cei ed disc imina ion, mo i ica ion, humilia ion, o lack o espec ma e a
leas as much as po e y and low socioeconomic s a us (Diewald 2023; Mullins
e al. 2024; Goosby and Cheadle 2024).
Fo G× E in he o m o changes in he epigenome as a composi e o gene ic
and en i onmen al in luences, me hyla ion le els a e highly s able o e he li e ime
(Gaun e al. 2016). Me hyla ion a ia ion inc eases o e ime, mos likely due o
inc eased en i onmen al o s ochas ic in luences o he same ype as lis ed abo e.
Howe e , his does mean ha changes in he epigenome immedia ely show up in
pheno ypic cha ac e is ics and beha io s. In luences on de elopmen s a he pheno-
ypic le el may s ay la en o e a longe pe iod (Gaun e al. 2016; Heim and Binde
2012). The e o e, he iden i ica ion o pa hways in li e cou ses may be di icul o
iden i y when changes in he epigenome a e in ol ed. In such cases, pa h depen-
dencies a he indi idual le el o pheno ypic li e cou ses may emain undisco e ed
o be w ongly assigned o o he causes ha a e mo e easily isible.
Tha pa e ns o gene–en i onmen in e play o e he li e cou se a e no uni-
o m was demons a ed in a compa ison o cogni i e abili y and pe sonali y. B iley
and Tucke -D ob (2017) ound h ee ma ked di e ences be ween he wo: Fi s ,
he he i abili y o cogni ion inc eases subs an ially wi h child age, while he he i-
abili y o pe sonali y dec eases modes ly wi h age. Second, he inc easing s abili y
o cogni ion wi h age is o e whelmingly media ed by gene ic ac o s, whe eas he
inc easing s abili y o pe sonali y wi h age is en i ely media ed by en i onmen al
ac o s. Thi d, he iming o s abili y du ing li e di e s: S abili y o cogni ion nea s
i s asymp o e by he end o he i s decade o li e, whe eas s abili y o pe sonal-
i y akes h ee decades o nea i s asymp o e. These di e ences can be aced back
o di e en pa e ns o gene–en i onmen in e play. Fo cogni i e abili y, gene ic
in luences inc ease du ing childhood in bo h magni ude and s abili y. As a esul ,
gene ic e ec s inc easingly con ibu e o pheno ypic s abili y in child de elopmen .
The main mechanism behind his de elopmen is gene–en i onmen co ela ion. I
is an upwa d spi al c ea ed by ac i ely seeking s imula ing en i onmen s bene icial
o cogni i e de elopmen . Mo eo e , especially in he educa ional a ainmen p o-
cess, posi i e esponses o pe cei ed cogni i e abili y di e ences may be iden i ied
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 509
and ein o ced by eache s, pa en s, and pee s, hus ampli ying ini ially smalle di -
e ences o la ge ones. This is wha Dickens and Flynn (2001) called a gene ic
mul iplie e ec (see also Nisbe e al. 2012). Howe e , such a mechanism does no
apply, o a leas applies much less, o he de elopmen o pe sonali y. Such ein o c-
ing aining as in cogni i e abili y does no ake place he e. Ra he , wi h inc easing
age he di e si y o en i onmen al expe iences ini ially g ows, bu hen, due o pa h
dependence, ge s less he e ogeneous wi h inc easing age. Taken oge he , genes a e
he c ucial s abilizing o ce o pe sonali y (B iley and Tucke -D ob 2015). Ne e -
heless, pheno ypic s abili y inc eases o e a li e ime, which canno be explained by
gene ic con ibu ions as in he case o cogni i e abili y. Ra he , adap a ion o unique
en i onmen al demands plays his ole.
3.6 Cumula i e Ad an age and Disad an age
The gene–-en i onmen in e play go e ning he de elopmen o cogni i e abili y is
an example o one o he mos p ominen ideas o how social inequali y de elops
o e ime: cumula i e ad an age and disad an age (Danne e 2003). “Disad an age
inc eases exposu e o isk, bu ad an age inc eases exposu e o oppo uni y” (Fe a o
and Pylypi Shippee 2009, p. 335). Upwa d and downwa d spi als o success and
ailu e lead o an accen ua ion o inequali y in he sense ha ea ly limi ed di e ences
in success and ailu e become bigge o e ime.
Tha biological in luences and gene ic a ia ion may con ibu e o gene a ing cu-
mula i e ad an age and disad an age is no new (DiP e e and Ei ich 2006; Fe a o
e al. 2009). As al eady exempli ied o cogni i e abili y, mo e endowed indi iduals
choose mo e s imula ing en i onmen s, which in u n p o ide be e oppo uni ies o
boos cogni i e abili y, no leas because signi ican o he s eac wi h mo e encou -
agemen and mo e nu u ing han o less endowed indi iduals. This hen p o ides
highe le els o de elopmen allowing o a highe jump o he nex le el han o
hose who canno p o i om such expe iences o he same deg ee. Thus, ac i e and
e oca i e gene–en i onmen co ela ion go hand in hand and become ele an again
and again in subsequen decisions abou pa hways o ollow. Wha was demon-
s a ed o cogni i e abili y could be ele an also o cumula i e ad an age and
disad an age in o he ou comes, such as educa ional and occupa ional achie emen
and a ainmen o heal h.
Also, he concep o en i onmen al sensi i i y and ela ed concep s such as di -
e en ial suscep ibili y, an age sensi i i y (Jolicoeu -Ma ineau e al. 2017), and
senso y p ocessing sensi i i y (G e en e al. 2019) migh help in he unde s anding
o cumula i e ad an age and disad an age. These concep s o indi idual eac ion
o en i onmen al condi ions a e based on gene ic and epigene ic a ian s ela ed
o immune egula ion and b ain unc ioning ela ed o s ess egula ion (Heim and
Binde 2012). While mul iple genes ope a e in mul iple en i onmen s o induce isky
s ess, hese same genes also seem o enhance he bene icial e ec s o a posi i e
en i onmen . These di e en ial eac ions o en i onmen al o ces may con ibu e o
unde s anding esilience as well as ulne abili y as cen al concep s o li e cou se
esea ch on he de elopmen o unequal li e chances (Spini and Widme 2023). How-
e e , whe eas esilience and ulne abili y as s able disposi ions may make downwa d
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510 M. Diewald
o upwa d spi als mo e likely, en i onmen al sensi i i y may make u ning poin s
mo e likely, since i accen ua es he consequences o bo h good and bad expe iences.
4 Me hodological App oaches o Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch
In he ollowing, I gi e only a sho o e iew o me hodological app oaches o s udy
gene–en i onmen in e play, wi h a ocus on mechanisms go e ning he li e cou se.
Two me hodologies a e used o s udy gene ic o igin in addi ion o social o igin
as poin o depa u e o li e cou ses and indi idual de elopmen (see Sec . 3.1).
These wo a e based on an unde s anding o genes as (nea ly) ixed and immu able
o e he li e cou se. Gene ic a ia ion is adi ionally s udied by compa ing wins
o adop ees, some imes including he amily membe s wi h whom hey li e. In
his a icle, solely he win-based app oach, including win amily s udies, as he
by a mos equen applica ion compa ed o adop ee s udies is p esen ed. Mo e
ecen ly, molecula gene ic app oaches ha e won g ound, s a ing wi h candida e
genes. Today, he mos applied app oach is he use o polygenic sco es (PGSs),
bu he e a e se e al o he whole genome me hods as well. This a icle e e s o
PGSs only. A hi d app oach, epigene ics, concep ualizes gene ic con ibu ions as
“ luid.” The ocus he e is on gene egula ion o e ime—a “genome wi h a li e
span” (Lappé and Landecke 2015)—ins ead o (nea ly) ixed DNA (see Sec . 2.1).13
I espec i e o wha me hodology is applied, he e a e wo impo an suppo i e
condi ions o he s udy o li e cou ses. Fi s , pheno ypes should be a ailable o
allow o ope a ionalizing he mechanisms o gene–en i onmen in e play p esen ed
in Sec s. 2 and 3. Second, longi udinal da a should be a ailable o ollow s udy
pa icipan s o e ime wi h a su icien numbe o cases o sophis ica ed modeling.
4.1 Va iance Decomposi ion Based on Twin Compa isons
Va iance decomposi ion models u ilize wins o s udy he ex en o which a ia ion
in genes and en i onmen s con ibu es o he a ia ion o a pheno ype—be i pe -
sonali y, skills income, educa ion, o heal h. He e, he a iance o he pheno ype
is a ibu ed o an addi i e gene ic (A), a sha ed en i onmen (C), and a nonsha ed
en i onmen (E) componen , which oge he o al 100% o he o e all a iance.
These h ee componen s a e all unobse ed la en sou ces o a ia ion, i.e., nei he
genes no social cha ac e is ics a e measu ed bu a e es ima ed om he compa i-
son o dizygo ic (DZ) and monozygo ic (MZ) wins. Twin-based models ypically
assume ha DZ wins sha e on a e age 50% o hei genes, whe eas MZ wins a e
gene ically iden ical. Mo eo e , i is assumed ha MZ and DZ wins sha e he same
en i onmen s o he same deg ee. Consequen ly, any addi ional simila i y be ween
MZ compa ed o DZ wins should be a ibu able o gene ic a ia ion. The con-
ibu ion o he en i onmen is addi ionally subdi ided in o wo componen s. The
13 I would go oo a o discuss in-dep h he unde lying assump ions and a ia ions o he h ee ap-
p oaches. Fo ACE decomposi ion, see Knopik e al. (2017)andDiewalde al.(2015). Fo molecula
gene ic app oaches, see Mills e al. (2020) and Young e al. (2019). Fo epigene ic app oaches, see Li
(2021).
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 511
di e ence be ween a sha ed (C) and nonsha ed en i onmen (E) is ha in he i s
case, en i onmen al in luences make wins e ec i ely mo e simila due o he same
expe iences pe cei ed in he same way, whe eas in he second case, en i onmen s
d i e wins apa conce ning he cha ac e is ic unde s udy. This happens h ough
di e en expe iences and also di e en pe cep ions and e alua ions o he same en-
i onmen s. The C componen is o en aken as p oxy o all li ing condi ions linked
o social o igin, wha e e he conc e e expe iences a e, and hese can also be loca ed
ou side he amily household, e.g., he neighbo hood (F eese and Jao 2017). This
equa ion o C wi h social o igin is mo e app op ia e i he sample con ols o o he
possible sou ces o uni o m expe iences, i.e., e hnic homogenei y in he popula ion
s udied, and a coho –sequen ial design. I is impo an o no e ha he black box
app oach p o ides popula ion pa ame e s, i.e. he es ima es o he a iance compo-
nen s ha may di e conside ably ac oss di e en g oups in a socie y and be ween
socie ies ac oss ime and place (Seli a and Ko as 2019; B anigan e al. 2013). I is
possible nei he o gene alize esul s om one popula ion o o he s no o in e om
popula ion pa ame e s he ole o genes o pa icula indi iduals.
The ac ha hese a iance componen s cons i u e explana o y black boxes seems
a i s glance a d awback compa ed o p ecise measu emen s. Howe e , hey ha e
ad an ages as well. They allow o a ough o e all es ima e o he size o he
con ibu ions ha gene ic as well as social o igin p o ide o p edic ing li e cou ses.14
Especially o educa ional a ainmen , hese gene ic es ima es a e much bigge han
es ima es o pa en al esou ces, pa en ing, o cul u al capi al as he a o i e concep s
in sociology o explaining he long shadow o he amily o o igin (Mönkediek and
Diewald 2022).
Though in ACE decomposi ion models gene ic o igin is o en concep ualized wi h
a ixed DNA in mind, hese models also allow modeling o changes in he con i-
bu ion o genes o pheno ypic de elopmen s o e he li e cou se, as was done in he
s udy o B iley and Tucke -D ob (2017) on he di e en de elopmen s o pe sonali y
and cogni i e abili y, as well as in s udies abou he changing impac o genes and
en i onmen on educa ional achie emen (e.g., Johnson e al. 2009). S udies using
ACE modeling can include GE as well as G× E, and mo eo e in e dependencies
be ween di e en s ands o de elopmen , e.g., when he he i abili y o educa ion
is explained by he he i able con ibu ion o cogni i e and so-called noncogni i e
abili ies such as conscien iousness (K apohl e al. 2014; S a and Riemann 2022).
Also, he in e gene a ional ansmission o educa ional a ainmen can be modeled
14 This app oach has been c i icized o i s unde lying assump ions, he iola ion o which has led o
bias in es ima es (e.g., Bu and Simons 2014). The e is he equal en i onmen assump ion ha DZ and
MZ wins sha e en i onmen al in luences o he same deg ee; ha he e is no asso a i e ma ing o he
pa en s conce ning he cha ac e is ics o in e es ; ha he e is nei he gene–en i onmen in e ac ion no
gene–en i onmen co ela ion and also only addi i e gene ic e ec s; and, inally, ha wins and hei am-
ilies a e in all espec s ep esen a i e o he popula ion as a whole. Mos o hese conce ns, hough no all,
can be checked and esol ed by mo e complex a ian s o he ACE decomposi ion, mos no ably by mod-
eling gene–en i onmen in e ac ion and co a ia ion (Tu kheime and Ha den 2014) and by using a win
amily design including pa en s and siblings (Wol am and Mo is 2002). In sum, mos esea che s in he
ield, as well as hose wi h a p ima ily molecula gene ic backg ound, ag ee ha a win-based app oach
p o ides easonable es ima es o he ole o genes o , in p inciple, all pheno ypes ha exis , i hey a e
only included in such s udies.
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512 M. Diewald
( o a compa ison be ween classical win design and a nuclea win amily design,
see Wol am and Mo is 2022).
Mo eo e , ACE decomposi ion can be used no only in uni a ia e analyses bu also
in bi a ia e analyses o de ec whe he a co ela ion be ween wo pheno ypic a i-
ables is con ounded by sha ed genes o sha ed en i onmen s. Fo example, S iens a
e al. (2021) in es iga ed he associa ion be ween cogni i e abili y and educa ional
a ainmen dependen o social o igin. In a design no con olling o gene ic con-
ounde s o sha ed en i onmen al in luences, pa en s o high socioeconomic s a us
seem o compensa e o he lowe cogni i e abili y o hei child en. Howe e , when
possible con ounding by gene ic a ia ion and he sha ed en i onmen a e included
as la en a iables, his compensa ion e ec is no longe signi ican .
Finally, he bigges s eng h o win-based modeling is he ac ha o da e he e
is no o he possibili y o p o ide a easonable es ima e o he whole genome e ec .
This s eng h is a he cos o no knowing which genes con ibu e which e ec s o
un a el wha he gene ic makeup has o do wi h he de elopmen o pheno ypic cha -
ac e is ics and beha io s. Fo example, a high A o a ainmen is o en in e p e ed in
a way ha a ainmen is no limi ed by social ba ie s p e en ing he exploi a ion o
one’s espec i e gene ic po en ial. Howe e , a high A could also be based on being
le alone wi h gene ic isks o a ainmen , e.g., ch onic in lamma ion o anxie y.
Mo eo e , a majo disad an age o win-based modeling is he limi ed a ailabili y
o la ge samples o wins and hei amilies ep esen a i e o he whole socie y,
combined wi h a ich selec ion o pheno ypic measu emen s. Mos win samples a e
small and selec i e, wi h ew excep ions. This sho age limi s he gene alizabili y o
esul s and he possibili y o making use o mo e complex, especially longi udinal
ACE modeling.
4.2 Molecula Gene ics and Epigene ics
The e a o molecula gene ic app oaches s a ed wi h he so-called candida e gene
app oach. Compa ed o he win-based me hodology, i was a ac i e o ha e a ge-
ne ic a ian ha could be used as any o he a iable in mul i a ia e analyses, which
makes hings much easie o social scien is s gi en he me hodological backg ound
hey a e mos ly ained o . Mo eo e , ins ead o a black box, we now ha e speci ic
alleles ha a e hypo hesized o ha e conside able e ec s on biological p ocesses
ele an o an indi idual cha ac e is ic unde conside a ion. This allows a heo y-
guided in es iga ion o gene ic e ec s. As appealing as candida e genes a e, mos
s udies ailed o eplica e and seemed o be alse posi i es (Dick e al. 2015). Mo e-
o e , he g owing numbe o genome-wide associa ion s udies showed how small
he p opo ion o a iance is ha is explained by single genes. As a consequence,
in e es swi ched om hypo hesis-guided es ing o single alleles o exploi ing he
whole genome o an explo a o y, hypo hesis- ee sea ching o he gene ic sou ces
o a pheno ype o in e es ha does no ollow simple Mendelian monogenic in-
he i ance bu is polygenic, i.e., many genes con ibu e o i s de elopmen . In he
ollowing, I concen a e on polygenic sco es (PGSs) only because hey a e by a
p esen ly he mos equen molecula gene ic app oach applied in empi ical social
esea ch. They a e calcula ed as he weigh ed sum o gene ic a ian s, whe e he
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How Can Gene ically In o ma i e Resea ch Con ibu e o Li e Cou se Resea ch? 513
weigh s a e p opo ional o he s eng h o he associa ion be ween a gene ic a ian
and he ou come unde conside a ion. As a ule, he e ec s o single a ian s a e
iny. The unde lying mechanisms by which hese e ec s con ibu e o he pheno ype
o in e es a e only pa ly known. Though molecula gene ic esea ch is inc easingly
iden i ying he oles o single genes o pheno ypes, he inclusion o single genes
in o a sco e is pu ely co ela ional, which means ha e en i some o he genes
included a e known o hei speci ic unc ioning, he PGS is no .
Polygenic sco es s ill su e conside ably om “missing he i abili y.” This e m
deno es he gap be ween he i abili y om win-based a iance decomposi ion and
he i abili y es ima es om geno yped da a. Up o now and in he nea u u e, only
a smalle pa o he whole genome con ibu ion can be iden i ied by he la e
me hod. The e o e, wo king wi h PGSs ins ead o ACE decomposi ion is only an
impe ec mo e away om a black box app oach, one ha in addi ion is a ail-
able only o a limi ed, hough apidly g owing, numbe o PGSs.15 By a , he
mos p edic i e PGS is ha o educa ional a ainmen . In i s la es e sion (Ok-
bay e al. 2022), 3952 signi ican single-nucleo ide polymo phisms (SNPs) we e
iden i ied, which oge he explain 12–16% o he a iance o educa ional a ain-
men —compa ed o abou 40% o he A componen (Sil en oinen e al. 2020). Fo
mos PGSs, he explained a iance is much lowe , especially o mo e speci ic cha -
ac e is ics o subdimensions o b oade concep s ( o an o e iew, see Becke e al.
2021). I is unclea o wha deg ee he missing he i abili y sys ema ically dis o s
he esul s because i is no andom which SNPs a e cap u ed and which ones a e
no . A second p oblem is en i onmen al con ounding. Bu (2023) poin s o se e al
easons why gene ic in luences a e ha d o dis inguish om en i onmen al in lu-
ences, especially in su eys based on un ela ed indi iduals, and how his may come
abou .16 As Bu (2023) in e s con incingly, his may lead o obscu ing s uc u al
disad an ages and cul u al in luences as en i onmen al ac o s wi h high ele ance
in sociological hinking.
Ne e heless, wo king wi h a PGS by simply using i as a a iable in mul i a ia e
analyses has many p ac ical ad an ages.17 Wick ama e al. (2021) p o ide an exam-
ple o how he PGS o educa ion, in e ac ing wi h ea ly socioeconomic ad e si y,
in luences educa ional and economic a ainmen by li e cou se p ocesses. In luences
o genes and en i onmen con ibu e o pe sis ing disad an age no only addi i ely
bu also by c ea ing chains o ailu e h ough ci cles o cumula i e disad an age,
wi h con ibu ions o pa ly di e en expe iences ac oss li e s ages.
15 h ps://www.pgsca alog.o g/
16 Polygenic sco es a e o en in e p e ed as indexing indi idual gene ic isk o a ai , bu hey can also
cap u e he en i onmen al isk o he amily (Kong e al. 2018). The e o e, as a ule, wi hin- amily gene ic
e ec s a e smalle han be ween- amily e ec s. Genome-wide associa ion s udies o un ela ed indi idu-
als ep esen a combina ion o inhe i ed gene ic a ia ion (di ec e ec s, which a e wha hey in end o
measu e), as well as indi ec gene ic e ec s based on popula ion s a i ica ion (sys ema ic ances y di -
e ences), asso a i e ma ing, and gene ic nu u e om ela i es (meaning ha in luences om amily
membe s a ound us, and o a much lesse deg ee also om nonkin signi ican o he s, a e gene ically con-
ounded).
17 Mo eo e , i is in o ma ion ha can be collec ed la e in li e and he e o e be o use in long- unning
panel s udies ha a e ep esen a i e o he whole popula ion, e en long a e hei s a .
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514 M. Diewald
Me hodologically, PGSs p o ide addi ional possibili ies o cope wi h gene–en -
i onmen in e ac ion and co a ia ion. I is possible o calcula e ac i e gene–en i on-
men co ela ion, which canno be calcula ed in a win design. Howe e , because
gene ic a ia ion and en i onmen al a ia ion a e con ounded o un ela ed indi id-
uals as a ule, molecula gene ic s udies usually o e es ima e he ole o genes i
measu ed o un ela ed indi iduals; wi hin- amily es ima es a e only abou hal o
he es ima es o un ela ed indi iduals (Young 2019). The eason is ha a wi hin-
amily design emo es he o al in luence o indi ec gene ic e ec s om amily
membe s, asso a i e ma ing, and popula ion s a i ica ion, all o hem nu u ing
GE.
Like win-based designs, PGSs cap u e a e age gene ic e ec s wi hin a pa icula
en i onmen , and hei e ec s canno be simply ans e ed o popula ions o he han
hose om which he genome-wide associa ion s udy disco e y sample was d awn.
As in win-based me hodology, molecula gene ic a ia ion does no ell anscen-
den , e e - alid u hs abou na u e bu p o ides popula ion-speci ic pa ame e s. Bu
o he han win-based me hodology, molecula gene ics allows o c ea ing sup a-
indi idual, agg ega e measu es o popula ions— o he whole socie y, o selec ed
egions and neighbo hoods, and o g oups such as immig an s (Abdellaoui e al.
2019).
Bo h ACE decomposi ion and molecula gene ics do no allow he s udy o bio-
logical de elopmen s pa allel o social and men al de elopmen . The idea o possibly
in e sec ing p ocesses comp ising no only he social and men al de elopmen bu
also he o ganism is ealized in looking a changes in he epigenome (see Sec s. 2.1
and 3.1).
Wo king wi h epigene ic da a is simila o wo king wi h molecula gene ic da a.
Me hyla ion may ha e a causal ole consis en wi h an in ini esimal model in which
many me hyla ion si es each ha e a small in luence, amoun ing o a la ge o e all con-
ibu ion ha can be cap u ed by agg ega e sco es, such as se e al epigene ic clocks
p edic ing he pace o biological aging as he su ely mos applied example (Ho a h
and Raj 2018). I allows p edic ion o li e expec ancy be e han ch onological age.
The e a e o he applica ions as well, such as an in lamma ion- ela ed sco e (S e en-
son e al. 2020) and combina ions o gene ic and epigene ic in o ma ion (Shah e al.
2015). Fo s udying he li e cou se, combining gene ic and epigene ic in o ma ion
is especially use ul o heo e ical cons uc s ha include bo h ideas abou a ixed
componen oo ed in DNA a ia ion and epigene ic a ia ion dependen on he ac-
cumula ion o li e expe iences. This is, o example, he case wi h en i onmen al
sensi i i y, which can be exp essed mo e in o he di ec ion o ulne abili y o mo e
in o he di ec ion o esilience due o di e ging li e expe iences wi hin, and p obably
also ac oss, gene a ions (see Sec . 2.2).
4.3 Combining Twin (Family) Designs wi h Molecula Gene ic and Epigene ic Da a
The e is no one app oach ha co e s e e y hing bes . Ra he , a compa ison o
esul s ac oss di e en app oaches and especially a combina ion o genome- and
epigenome-based me hods wi h ( win) amily designs a e bes p ac ice, since hese
allow o combining he s eng hs and compensa ing o he weaknesses o he
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