The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of Prospective Teachers at Vocational Schools

Giek, Teresa; Eichentopf, Philipp; Seifried, Jürgen; Burda-Zoyke, Andrea Article — Published Version The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of Prospective Teachers at Vocational Schools Vocations and Learning Provided in Cooperation with: Springer Nature Suggested Citation: Giek, Teresa; Eichentopf, Philipp; Seifried, Jürgen; Burda-Zoyke, Andrea (2025) : The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of Prospective Teachers at Vocational Schools, Vocations and Learning, ISSN 1874-7868, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, Vol. 18, Iss. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-025-09378-1 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/330790 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ RESEARCH Vocations and Learning (2025) 18:22 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-025-09378-1 Abstract The ability to evaluate teaching situations effectively is a critical component of vocational school teachers’ professional competencies, particularly in diagnosing students’ learning difficulties and potential in heterogeneous classrooms. Inclusive diagnostics serve as the foundation for adaptive teaching and individualized support, highlighting the importance of fostering these competencies in teacher education. To meet these demands and provide practice-oriented training, video-based teaching and learning formats are gaining increasing importance. In this context, video vignettes have been identified as promising tools for bridging the gap between teacher education and professional practice. In this context, we developed video vignettes to enhance student teachers’ professional vision and inclusive diagnostic competencies. In our exploratory study, we analyzed both (1) the current state and (2) the development of student teachers’ professional vision regarding inclusive diagnostics through their engagement with video vignettes in teacher training. The findings indicate that while prospective vocational school teachers find the description of the scenarios depicted manageable, providing well-reasoned justifications for their decisions presents greater difficulty but shows improvement with continued engagement. Furthermore, measurable changes both in competencies and in selfefficacy related to cognitive, linguistic, and behavioral aspects, are observed over the course of vignette-based interventions. These results highlight the efficacy of video vignettes as a pedagogical instrument in advancing professional vision and inclusive diagnostic skills within the framework of teacher education programs. Keywords Video vignettes · Teacher education · Professional vision · Pedagogical diagnostics · Competence development · Inclusion Received: 18 February 2025 / Accepted: 11 August 2025 © The Author(s) 2025 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of Prospective Teachers at Vocational Schools TeresaGiek1· PhilippEichentopf2· JürgenSeifried1· AndreaBurda-Zoyke2 Extended author information available on the last page of the article 1 3 T. Giek et al. Heterogeneity and Inclusive Education at Vocational Schools Vocational education and training (VET) systems around the world serve a highly diverse student population. This heterogeneity is reflected in various dimensions, including students’ educational backgrounds (Eiríksdóttir & Rosvall, 2019; Pasura, 2015; Smith & Yasukawa, 2017), linguistic and cognitive abilities (Itkonen et al., 2015; Konstantinidou et al., 2023; Smith & Yasukawa, 2017), and demographic factors such as age and gender (Eiríksdóttir & Rosvall, 2019; Pasura, 2015). Cultural and social influences further contribute to the diversity found within VET classrooms (Eiríksdóttir & Rosvall, 2019; Fine-Davis & Faas, 2018; Smith & Yasukawa, 2017). Additionally, VET systems can serve as an important pillar for the inclusion of vulnerable groups, such as students with special educational needs (Scharnhorst & Kammermann, 2020). Although VET teachers often value learner diversity (Smith & Yasukawa, 2017), it can also present significant challenges (Itkonen et al., 2015). Teachers are increasingly required to adopt flexible and responsive teaching strategies to address the diverse needs of their students (Nakar & Bagnall, 2024). These challenges can be particularly complex for novice vocational school teachers (Kärkkäinen & Tarnanen, 2022). Although VET in Germany, particularly the dual vocational training system, has always been characterized by a heterogeneous student population (Vonken et al., 2022), this heterogeneity has increased in recent years (German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2024) and is expected to continue growing (Burda-Zoyke & Joost, 2023). For instance, the proportion of students with limited or no language proficiency in VET has risen, particularly in preparatory training programs, a trend partly attributed to refugee migration (Authoring Group, National Report on Education, 2024; German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2024). Moreover, the German VET system encompasses various school types (Authoring Group, National Report on Education, 2024; Hippach-Schneider et al., 2007). In this context, our study examines prospective teachers at German vocational schools who face specific challenges in heterogeneous classrooms demanding inclusive education. This requires adaptive teaching supported by pedagogical diagnostics to assess students’ strengths and weaknesses and provide tailored support (Lindmeier & Lütje-Klose, 2015; Sherin et al., 2008). While diagnostics are central to teaching professionalism (Klug et al., 2012), teachers often lack skills to effectively manage heterogeneity, support students, and conduct inclusive diagnostics (Biederbeck & Rothland, 2017). Addressing these gaps is essential in teacher training, as highlighted by Buchner et al. (2021), who identify insufficient emphasis on inclusion-related topics, such as individualized learning, as a barrier to fully inclusive education. Promoting diagnostic competencies and teaching skills, especially student support (see Praetorius et al., 2018, 2020), is therefore a critical priority for fostering inclusivity in VET. Therefore, it is important to enable (student) teachers to deal with heterogeneity. It is assumed that factors such as teachers’ self-efficacy and their attitude towards inclusion influence inclusive teaching practice (Wray et al., 2022). In addition to self-efficacy, professional vision—the selective perception and interpretation of classroom events by teachers (Van Es & Sherin, 2002)—is linked 1 3 22 Page 2 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… to higher teaching quality and enhanced student learning outcomes (e.g., Kersting et al., 2012; Roth et al., 2011; Sherin & Van Es, 2009). As professional vision is domainand context-specific (Holodynski & Meschede, 2022; Van Es & Sherin, 2002), teacher training must provide authentic, real-life learning opportunities. Video-based formats, particularly video vignettes, are recognized as effective tools for fostering professional competencies, especially professional vision, in teacher education (Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015). Video vignettes depict selected teaching situations in short video sequences, encouraging (prospective) teachers to reflect on and analyze them. This approach has proven successful in Germany’s VET system, where video vignettes have been used to enhance professional vision, address heterogeneity, and promote diagnostic competencies (e.g., Enenkiel et al., 2022). Against this backdrop, we developed video vignettes specifically designed for vocational school settings, focusing on the domain of business and administration. Our exploratory study aims to foster a specific competence dimension: professional vision related to inclusive diagnostics. This topic has been insufficiently addressed in both research and practice concerning video vignettes, highlighting a pressing practical need and a significant research gap. Although there is growing interest in professional vision, the conditions necessary for successfully developing such skills remain underexplored and are described as a persistent research gap (Holodynski & Meschede, 2022). Based on these considerations, our research questions are as follows: (1) How can the professional vision of prospective vocational school teachers regarding inclusive diagnostics be characterized? (2) Can the use of video vignettes promote prospective teachers’ self-efficacy and professional vision on inclusive diagnostics? Theoretical Background Inclusive Diagnostics and Professional Vision Inclusive education requires adaptive teaching supported by a specific form of pedagogical diagnostics to address the diverse needs and potentials of all learners (Lindmeier & Lütje-Klose, 2015; Sherin et al., 2008). We call this inclusive diagnostics in a broad understanding (Burda-Zoyke et al., 2025). This construct refers on pedagogical diagnostics (Ingenkamp & Lissmann, 2008), inclusive diagnostics (Schäfer & Rittmeyer, 2015, 2021; Simon & Simon, 2014), and didactical diagnostics (Prengel, 2016). (Inclusive) pedagogical diagnostic activities are a core responsibility of teachers (Edelenbos & Kubanek-German, 2004; Vogt & Rogalla, 2009). Broadly defined, pedagogical diagnostics describes a wide range of diagnostic activities through which the prerequisites for learning and teaching processes of individual learners and learners in a group or class are assessed, learning processes are analyzed, and learning outcomes are assessed in order to optimize individual learning by informed pedagogical decisions, such as individualized support (Aufschnaiter et al., 2015; 1 3 Page 3 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. Ingenkamp & Lissmann, 2008; Schrader, 2013). This diagnostic function becomes particularly important in the context of inclusive education, where the focus lies on addressing the diverse needs and potentials of all learners. Within this theoretical framework, we follow a broad understanding of inclusive diagnostics (Burda-Zoyke et al., 2025) as the process of gathering information on students’ needs, potential, and resources to support their learning and development. Unlike narrower approaches focused solely on students with special needs, inclusive diagnostics applies to all learners and can be implemented at individual, group, or class levels. While the focus is on learning processes, prerequisites and outcomes may also be considered. Inclusive diagnostics gather data on students employing both quantitative and qualitative methods, with an emphasis on semior non-formal dialogical approaches co-constructed with students, integrating the individual, their environment, and interactions. In summary, inclusive diagnostics refers to diagnostic practices aimed at systematically assessing students’ individual learning prerequisites, strengths, and potential barriers—particularly within diverse and heterogeneous classrooms. Rather than focusing on the identification of deficits for the purpose of selection or categorization, inclusive diagnostics embraces a resource-oriented and participation-centered approach, thereby informing inclusive teaching strategies and the design of adaptive learning environments. Teachers require advanced professional competencies to manage these complex tasks, as research highlights the significant impact of teacher expertise on students’ learning processes and outcomes (Hattie, 2008; Hill & Chin, 2018; Seidel & Shavelson, 2007). Within VET research, various definitions of professional competencies of vocational teachers exist. A common understanding emphasizes that competencies are developmental and situated, meaning they can be learned and must be acquired within context (Antera, 2021). Diagnostic knowledge and skills are integral to teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK, e.g., knowledge about common misconceptions of students) and pedagogical knowledge (PK, e.g., knowledge about developmental psychology and diagnostic methods) (Shulman, 1986). Furthermore, content knowledge (CK) is required to accurately identify and interpret subject-specific learning difficulties, particularly in performance-heterogeneous groups. In addition, inclusion-related beliefs play an important role in inclusive teaching including pedagogical diagnostics (Miesera, 2018). Teacher competence can be viewed as a continuum, ranging from dispositions (cognition, affect, and motivation) to performance, with intermediate steps in between called situation-specific skills or professional vision (Blömeke et al., 2015). These skills are crucial, as they are closely associated with teaching quality and student learning outcomes (e.g., Kersting et al., 2012; Roth et al., 2011; Sherin & Van Es, 2009). Professional vision, in teaching, refers to the selective perception and knowledgebased interpretation of relevant classroom events (Goodwin, 1994; Van Es & Sherin, 2002). It comprises two interrelated components: noticing and reasoning. Noticing involves distinguishing relevant from irrelevant events in complex environments and focusing attention on the former. Reasoning entails categorizing these events using prior knowledge to reach valid conclusions (Seidel & Stürmer, 2014; Sherin et al., 2008; Van Es & Sherin, 2002). Some authors suggest a third component: generat1 3 22 Page 4 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… ing alternative actions. This involves evaluating possible responses and making a well-founded decision on the appropriate course of action (e.g., Santagata & Guarino, 2011). To further specify the processes involved in professional vision, Barth (2017) developed a comprehensive six-stage model that expands upon the commonly identified components (Fig. 1). The first step is (1) the acquisition of professional knowledge. This is followed by (2) recognizing (noticing) and (3) assessing (reasoning), the two steps commonly included in existing models. In addition, Barth places particular emphasis on professional action, expressed through (4) the generation of alternative courses of action, (5) deciding on a course of action, and (6) its implementation. The author confirms her hypotheses that correlations exist among step 1 (Knowledge Acquisition), step 2 (Recognizing), and step 3 (Assessing), proposing that recognition is a prerequisite for assessment and that knowledge acquisition underpins both. Correlations among the remaining steps are not examined. In our study, we adapt this model to the context of inclusive diagnostics in heterogeneous classrooms. This means that prospective teachers are expected to specifically recognize and describe aspects related to heterogeneity and learning barriers that may indicate the need for inclusive diagnostics (Step 2); to assess whether diagnostics is necessary and determine its appropriate focus (Step 3); to generate possible diagnostic measures—including method, object, and objectives (Step 4); and finally, to make a well-reasoned decision about which diagnostic approach to pursue (Step 5). Notably, we conceptualize professional knowledge not as a separate step, but as a cross-cutting dimension influencing all stages (Burda-Zoyke & Joost, 2023). Fig. 1 Steps of Professional Vision and Action (own illustration based on Barth, 2017) 1 3 Page 5 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. A high level of professional vision is associated with improved teaching quality and student learning (e.g., Kersting et al., 2012; Roth et al., 2011; Sherin & Van Es, 2009). This holds true especially for the generation of alternative courses of action (Step 3), which Kersting et al. (2010) hypothesize to be a measure of teachers’ knowledge that can actually be used in real-life teaching situations. So, professional vision can be regarded as a highly relevant skill for teachers and an integral part of teacher training (Seidel & Stürmer, 2014). Nevertheless, professional vision is oftentimes difficult for novices like student teachers and improves over the course of their studies (Keppens et al., 2019). Barth (2017) highlights these learning needs by contrasting expert and novice teachers, showing that prospective teachers display deficits across all facets of professional vision—particularly in generating alternative instructional responses, which requires anticipating different courses of action. Santagata and Guarino (2011) attribute this difficulty to their limited professional knowledge. Nevertheless, the authors emphasize the importance of this skill and present an intervention using various types of videos, including classroom scenes from third parties as well as recordings of the future teachers themselves, after which the participants demonstrated higher-quality noticing and reasoning. Additionally, some participants were able to generate more alternative courses of action. There already have been several successful short-term interventions to foster professional vision using video-based learning arrangements (e.g., Koschel & Weyland, 2020; Van Es & Sherin, 2002). Nevertheless, as Koschel and Weyland (2020) stated, deeper insights are needed into how video vignettes can be effectively used to develop professional vision in addressing heterogeneity within vocational education settings. Use of Video Vignettes in Teacher Education Case-based instruction is a teaching method that engages students in actively reflecting on real or hypothetical problems typical of the discipline. The problems tend to be more vivid and contextual than those in a textbook, yet more manageable than those in reality (Shulman, 1992, as cited in Ertmer & Russell, 1995, p. 24), what makes the method suitable for novices (Syring et al., 2016). It is frequently used in teacher education, also to take account of increasing heterogeneity in the student body, and has many advantages (Darling-Hammond & Hammerness, 2002; Mostert, 2007). For example, case work can strengthen theory-practice linkage, self-efficacy of student teachers and critical reflection on one´s own actions (Darling-Hammond & Hammerness, 2002). It has not been clearly proven whether it is more effective than other approaches, but there are studies speaking in favor of that (e.g., Baier et al., 2021). There are various ways to present a problem-oriented case, e.g. in text form or as a video. Both approaches are used regularly, but video cases have a significant advantage, namely their motivating effect (Syring et al., 2016). They also seem to enable more transfer than text cases (Moreno & Valdez, 2007). Typically, approaches to promote professional vision include video clips of classroom situations. These can be integrated into a wide variety of didactical settings, for example video clubs, meaning practicing teachers meeting frequently to watch and discuss video excerpts from each other’s classrooms (Sherin & Van Es, 2009) or short video sequences, called video 1 3 22 Page 6 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… vignettes, that are discussed with student teachers in university seminars (Krumphals & Feser, 2025). Video vignettes present teaching situations to (prospective) teachers as prompts for reflection (Bloor & Wood, 2006; Hughes & Huby, 2002; Teese et al., 2020). They offer several advantages, including practical relevance, situativity, authenticity, and contextuality, while simplifying real-life complexity by focusing on specific aspects, making them particularly manageable for novices. Despite this reduction in complexity, video vignettes are generally perceived as realistic representations of classroom scenarios. Additionally, they eliminate immediate pressure to act and allow repeated viewing or analysis from different perspectives as needed (Lenske et al., 2022; Lindmeier, 2013; Miller & Zhou, 2014; Pauli & Reusser, 2006; Seidel, 2022). The selection of the type and the specific videos always depends on the intended learning objectives (Adamina, 2022; Blomberg et al., 2013). A distinction is made between various aspects, e.g., whether (1) own or third-party teaching videos are analyzed (e.g., Junker & Holodynski, 2022), (2) the videos show real situations or acted scenes (Piwowar et al., 2018), (3) the videos show best, worst or typical practice (e.g., Blomberg et al., 2013) and (4) which cinematic perspectives and foci are chosen (e.g., Gröschner, 2021). In our study we use staged videos with professional actors, in contrast to real classroom situations. Although this could possibly reduce their authenticity, it has several advantages: researchers as well as teacher trainers have full control over the scripts and therefore can address all the most important and pressing issues while at the same time ruling out distracting factors. Steffensky and Kleinknecht (2016) conclude, based on their analysis of several studies, that videos featuring others tend to allow for a more critical analysis, particularly of problematic situations, including the development of alternative courses of action, which was of great importance in this study. Additionally, the quality of the videos regarding sound and lighting can be higher and full data protection of teachers and students in potentially sensitive situations can be always ensured. For some video vignettes, accompanying materials (e.g. tasks for analysis, in-depth material on the lesson shown, etc.) are provided in addition to the video clip (e.g., Burda-Zoyke & Joost, 2023). There has been extensive proof in literature that professional competencies and specifically professional vision can be measured (Keppens et al., 2019) and fostered using video vignettes in teacher training, including the context of dealing with heterogeneity (Anast Seguin & Ambrosio, 2002; Koschel & Weyland, 2020; Reuker & Künzell, 2021) and regarding diagnostic skills (e.g., Enenkiel et al., 2022). State of Research on Video Vignettes Dealing with Heterogeneity or Inclusion in Teacher Education In recent years, there has been a marked increase in the use of video vignettes in teacher education (Gaudin & Chaliès, 2015; Holodynski et al., 2022). The following section provides a concise overview of a systematic literature review investigating the use of video vignettes in the context of inclusion and/or heterogeneity in school 1 3 Page 7 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. education. A total of 22 relevant studies were identified (see Table 4 in the appendix).1 Most studies addressing the use of video vignettes in the context of teacher education and classroom heterogeneity or inclusion have been conducted in recent years, reflecting the growing integration of video-based formats in higher education. With one exception from Belgium, all studies originate either from the United States (five studies) or Germany (16 studies). This distribution is not surprising, as the high number of German studies can be attributed to several national funding initiatives that actively promoted the use of video vignettes2. All these studies examine student teachers. Most studies concentrate on general education, specifically on primary (Anderson & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2006; Böhme, 2022; Geisen & Zender, 2024; Keppens et al., 2019) or secondary education (Buddeberg et al., 2022 ; Grewe & Möller, 2020; Hörter et al., 2020; Jürgens & Neuber, 2020; Meurel & Hemmer, 2020; Winter & Junker, 2020) or on a mixture of those (Abels et al., 2022; Enenkiel et al., 2022; Franz et al., 2019; Kramer et al., 2017; Kuntze et al., 2024). Few studies focus on (Baecher & Connor, 2010) or include (Enenkiel et al., 2022; Franz et al., 2019; Kramer et al., 2017; Kuntze et al., 2024) special needs education. Some studies do not specify exactly what type of school the videos are from or what school the student teachers are training for (Anast Seguin & Ambrosio, 2002; Greenfield et al., 2016; Holdbrooks Townsel, 2016; Langer et al., 2022). However, very few studies focus on (Koschel & Weyland, 2020) or at least include (Kramer et al., 2017) the context of VET, it appears to be underrepresented. Regarding the video vignettes used, most studies rely on videos featuring third persons. Two studies additionally (Abels et al., 2022) or exclusively (Baecher & Connor, 2010) work with student teachers’ own videos. Most studies employ videos of real teaching situations. One study uses staged videos (Anast Seguin & Ambrosio, 2002), another one combines both forms (Anderson & Lignugaris/Kraft, 2006). Other exceptions are a study with cartoon vignettes (Kuntze et al., 2024) and one with interview situations as content of the vignettes (Greenfield et al., 2016). Not all authors state explicitly what exactly is shown in their videos or how they were produced. Similarly, there is often no information about the accompanying materials used. 1 For the literature search, we used EBSCO and Google Scholar with the search terms “teacher education” OR “teacher” AND “inclusion” OR “diversity” OR “heterogeneity” AND “video vignettes” OR “video”. The search terms were used in German and English. Additionally, the database of the German Initiative “Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung” particularly in the category “Heterogenität/Inklusion” (heterogeneity/ inclusion) and, the bibliographies of the studies found were checked for further suitable literature. Papers with no empirical data were excluded. 2 Eight of the identified projects are part of the German initiative “Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung” six of which stem from the project Dealing with Diversity. (“Quality Initiative for Teacher Education” [QLB] is a large-scale funding program launched by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research in 2014. Its aim is to improve the quality and coherence of teacher education across universities in Germany. The initiative supports projects that strengthen the integration of subject-specific, pedagogical, and practical components of teacher training—often with a strong focus on inclusive education, heterogeneity, and digitalization.) In addition, two studies were conducted within the InkBi 1 funding program, also supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, while two further projects are part of coReflect@ math, an Erasmus + initiative funded by the European Union. 1 3 22 Page 8 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… content knowledge, and clearly defined rubrics (León et al., 2023; Panadero et al., 2016). These findings are also relevant to preservice teachers. Many prospective teachers tend to either overestimate or underestimate their professional knowledge and competencies. Several studies indicate a general tendency among preservice teachers to overrate their knowledge—particularly their pedagogical knowledge (PK)—when compared to objective performance measures (Akyuz, 2018). However, other studies paint a more heterogeneous picture, reporting both overestimation and underestimation among individuals (Ernst et al., 2023). This discrepancy in self-assessment may be influenced by factors such as leniency bias, modesty bias, or the inherent challenges associated with accurate self-evaluation (Baecher et al., 2013). Moreover, self-assessments often reflect a central tendency bias, whereby individuals rate their abilities near the scale’s midpoint, regardless of their actual performance distribution. This bias tends to result in low-performing students significantly overestimating their competencies, whereas high-performing students do so to a lesser extent (Max et al., 2022). Ward et al. (2002) point out the lack of a universally recognized definition of self-assessment or its accuracy. Moreover, the authors label correlations between self-assessments and objective test scores as insufficient and potentially inadequate for evaluating the accuracy of self-assessment (Ernst et al., 2023; Ward et al., 2002). Methodological limitations in determining self-assessment accuracy raise the question of whether learners are genuinely insufficient at self-evaluation or whether the tools used to measure their accuracy are themselves inadequate (Ward et al., 2002). To describe student teachers’ professional vision regarding inclusive diagnostics (RQ 1) we refer to work results for the task described in Sect. 3.2 from n = 45 preservice teachers (age: M = 24.65, SD = 2.26; 28 female, 15 male, 2 not specified; 28 Master, 15 Bachelor, 2 not specified) all working with the same vignette. All solutions were scored to determine their quality. Each step of the task was assessed individually, receiving zero to three points. Coding guidelines were drawn up for this purpose, specifying which requirements had to be met for which score (see Table 3, for further information see Table 5 in the appendix). Both the correctness and completeness of the responses were considered. A score of zero was assigned if the response did not meet expectations at all—e.g., the task was not completed, or the answer was largely incorrect. One point was awarded for rudimentary explanations that largely failed to meet the predefined criteria. Responses that largely fulfilled the expectations, albeit with some shortcomings, received two points. A score of three points was given for answers that (almost) fully met the expectations, demonstrating comprehensive and correct reasoning. Specific indicators were set for each vignette to define what exactly a solution had to contain for certain points. All solutions were coded by two previously comprehensively trained raters. If they did not agree on a score, the mean value was used for further calculations. As the alternatives can be ranked, weighted Cohen´s Kappa was used for intercoder reliability. Agreement for all vignettes and steps of the task was at least substantial, the majority was almost perfect (0.77 < κ < 1.00 [see Landis & Koch, 1977]). For the evaluation of the effects of working with the video vignettes (RQ 2) we primarily refer to self-assessments of student teachers. They self-assessed their competencies in each of the three dimensions of heterogeneity (cognition, language, and 1 3 Page 15 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. behavior) separately, using closed-ended questionnaires with 4-point Likert scales, each comprising 14 items. The scales were based on the model of professional vision and action by Barth (2017) as well as our model of inclusive diagnostics (authors, 2025), e.g., “I am able to recognize aspects in the classroom that may indicate cognition-related impairments in students’ learning processes.”. Assessments were conducted prior to engaging with the vignettes (pre-test) and again after working with a vignette addressing the respective dimension (post-test). Due to the short time span of only a few weeks between the pre-test and post-test, no major changes were to be expected. We obtained complete data sets for 52 participants in the domain of cognition, 41 in the domain of language, and 45 in the domain of behavior. The variation in sample sizes is due to the fact that only student teachers who completed both the pre-test and post-test for the respective dimension of heterogeneity were included in the analysis. The questionnaires were completed in paper form, subsequently digitized, and analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 28). Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to assess the internal consistency of the scales. Reliability was satisfactory for both the pre-test (0.79 < α < 0.88) and the post-test (0.84 < α < 0.91) across all heterogeneity dimensions. To examine changes in student teachers’ self-efficacy over time, t-test for paired samples were conducted to compare preand post-test self-report scores. To gain more in-depth insight into changes in student teachers’ competence development (RQ2), a subsample of 10 participants from substudy 4 (age: M = 24.80, SD = 3.46; 7 female, 3 male; all master’s students) engaged with three additional video vignettes at both the beginning and the end of the seminar. Their task responses were collected and externally rated (see Table 3) to track developmental changes and compare them with the participants’ self-assessments. Score Meaning (steps: Description/Assessment/Generation of courses of action/Decision) 0 No Description/Assessment/Generation of courses of action/Decision: The answer does not contain any relevant elements or these are not reproduced correctly. 1 Rudimentary Description/Assessment/Generation of courses of action/Decision: The answer contains a few relevant elements, most of which are reproduced correctly. 2 Description/Assessment/Generation of courses of action/Decision with some reservations: The answer contains several relevant elements, most of which are reproduced correctly. 3 Comprehensive Description/Assessment/Generation of courses of action/Decision: The answer includes (almost) all relevant elements, which are reproduced correctly almost without exception. Table 3 Scoring rubrics 1 3 22 Page 16 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… Findings RQ 1: Prospective VET Teachers’ Professional Vision Regarding Inclusive Diagnostics To learn more about prospective VET teachers’ professional vision on inclusive diagnostics we analyzed the quality of the written task responses of n = 45 participants. Each participant worked on the task described in Sect. Task structure. Each step in the task was scored on a 0–3 point scale. For every step, there were student teachers who achieved the full score as well as those who received no points at all. The overall mean score across all steps was 1.30, which is slightly below the midpoint of the scale. Participants performed best on the Describing step (M = 1.67; SD = 1.08). The steps Assessing (M = 1.23; SD = 0.91) and Generating Alternatives (M = 1.33; SD = 0.98) yielded mid-range results. The lowest scores were observed in the Decision Making step (M = 0.98; SD = 0.91), suggesting this was the most challenging component. This is supported by the fact that nearly twice as many participants received zero points in Decision Making compared to the other steps. Step 1: Describing: Specifically, several criteria needed to be fulfilled in step 1. The description was considered complete only when both the general setting and the student (Niclas) and small group of students central to the scene were mentioned. These descriptions were required to be accurate and mostly objective, ideally incorporating appropriate technical terminology. When examining the descriptions of the situations, it becomes evident that only a few contained errors. Most points were deducted due to a lack of detail or the absence of aspects essential to the situation. Furthermore, the avoidance of evaluative judgments was difficult for some prospective teachers. For example, while one participant met these expectations by writing about a student in the video: “Niclas taps his pen and plays with his fingers. Not all the blanks on his worksheet are filled in yet”, another participant was describing the same behavior by stating “lack of concentration, limited prior knowledge” without specifying any observable indicators, which does not fulfill the task requirements. Step 2: Assessing: When assessing, most student teachers view inclusive diagnostics as beneficial in the given situation. Out of 45 student teachers, only one opted against diagnostics, while eleven student teachers did not make a clear decision by stating whether they would regard pedagogical diagnostics as beneficial in the given situation. Most points were deducted for missing or unsuitable justifications. Step 3: Generating Courses of Action: A closer analysis of the Generation of courses of action developed by the participants reveals that on average, each student teacher generated two alternative actions, though the standard deviation (SD = 1.61) indicates considerable variation. There are also notable differences between individual settings. Diagnostic dialogues with students were the most frequently mentioned action step (29 mentions, e.g. “One could generally have conversations, for example with the student with low self-confidence, maybe have a conversation together with a school psychologist to find out the reasons for his 1 3 Page 17 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. learning difficulties”), consistently appearing across all settings. Furthermore, there was a significant overlap in the frequency of individual options mentioned across the various seminars. The primary challenge for most student teachers does not lie in naming different courses of action but rather in sufficiently describing them—specifically, the method, goal, and subject of the diagnostic action—and adapting them to the situation. Step 4: Deciding: In the final step, Deciding, ten student teachers chose a single diagnostic step, while 17 student teachers selected an action strategy comprising multiple diagnostic steps. One excerpt from a coherent sequence of actions is: “...basically first observe what and how the students work. Maybe there are a few problems in the work (group or individual level). If you see they have problems [...] I would confront them orally with the goal to find out what the reason is. That way you could maybe quickly remove existing learning barriers. Afterwards, written results could be looked at if a closer diagnosis is needed…”). Both approaches were suitable for completing the task and earning full points. However, 18 student teachers did not opt for a diagnostic action, indicating that the task was either incomplete or that non-diagnostic action steps were selected. Often, the chosen actions were purely support of the students, lacking diagnostic elements, such as repeating specific content (e.g., “Go through the example task again. Let a student explain the task. That means, let students explain the task. Go through the example calculation at the beginning. Give more support to the students during the working phase”). Whether considering individual action steps or comprehensive action strategies, which may or may not include multiple steps, personal conversations with students emerged as the most frequently chosen diagnostic action (16 out of 45 cases). Observing students´ behavior was also commonly mentioned (12 mentions), followed by discussions with other teachers (9 mentions) and using tests to assess students' prior knowledge (also 9 mentions). Six student teachers opted to collect the worksheets completed by students in the scene to gain further insights. We additionally calculated Pearson correlations between the different steps of the task (see Table 6). All steps showed moderate to strong positive associations (Cohen, 1992), which is consistent with the understanding of professional vision as one competence, despite being composed of distinguishable steps. However, the strength of the correlations does not support a clear division between step 1 (noticing) and steps 2, 3, and 4 (reasoning). Likewise, there is no evidence of particularly strong associations between steps 1 and 3 (which emphasize hands-on or action-oriented components) and between steps 2 and 4 (which focus more on decision-making, justification, and reflection). It can be concluded regarding research question 1 that the student teachers achieve higher scores in Describing than in the other three steps. This fits well with the literature that novice teachers find noticing easier than reasoning. The individual steps show high intercorrelations, supporting the interpretation of professional vision as an integrated competence. 1 3 22 Page 18 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… RQ 2: Development of Prospective VET Teachers’ Self-efficacy and Professional Vision Regarding Inclusive Diagnostics To evaluate the change in student teachers’ perceived abilities regarding dealing with challenging teaching situations in heterogenous classes, we analyzed the results of the participants’ self-report data on self-efficacy (41 to 52 assessments for each of the three heterogeneity dimensions addressed, see Fig. 3). Paired-sample t-tests revealed a significant increase in student teachers’ self-efficacy from preto post-test across all dimensions of heterogeneity. Self-efficacy regarding cognition (t(51) = −5.310, p <.001, n = 52, d = −0.74), language (t(40) = −4.984, p <.001, n = 41, d = −0.78) and behavior (t(44) = −4.184, p <.001, n = 45, d = −0.62)4. To gain deeper insights into the effects of working with video vignettes, a subgroup of participants (n = 10) additionally engaged with three further video vignettes—one for each dimension of heterogeneity—at two separate points in time. This enables an assessment of whether student teachers show development both in their self-perceived competencies and in the objectively rated quality of their task performance. At t0 the student teachers achieved moderate scores (for scores per step of the task and measurement point see Fig. 4). At t1, higher average values were achieved in all steps, which does not imply that the score of every single person has improved. The highest average score at t0 is achieved in Describing, followed by Generating alternative courses of action. At t1, Describing still has the highest average but Generating actions the lowest. This is because the increases in all vignettes are lowest in Generating actions (0.15 points on average). In contrast, the highest gains were 4 A Shapiro-Wilk-test shows that all variables are normally distributed except from cognition at t0 (W = 0.929, p =.037) and behavior at t1 (W = 0.914, p =.014). That is why non-parametric Wilcoxon-tests were calculated for comparison, which also showed significant effects for cognition (z = 4.40, p <.001) and behavior (z = 3.51, p <.001). 2.49 2.77 2.61 2.95 2.54 2.84 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 1t0t Cognition Language Behavior Fig. 3 Development of self-efficacy in three heterogeneity dimensions (self-report) 1 3 Page 19 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. achieved in Assessing (0.98 points on average). As the results of the rating are mostly not normally distributed according to a Shapiro-Wilk test, non-parametric Wilcoxon tests are carried out. These show that the student teachers´ scores increased significantly from t0 to t1 for Describing (z = 1.96, p =.050), Assessing (z = 2.67, p =.008) and Fig. 4 Development of student teachers’ professional vision (quality rating, mean across all three vignettes) 1 3 22 Page 20 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… Deciding (z = 2.40, p =.016) but not for the Generation of alternative courses of action (z = 0.56, p =.570). All student teacher’s scores for Describing are already above the arithmetic mean of the scale from 0 to 3 on which they are rated at t0. Nevertheless, with one exception, the quality of all student teacher’s responses improves from t0 to t1, the answers become more detailed and the focus on relevant factors is increasing. Response quality when Assessing the situation at t0 is widespread. Nevertheless, already at t0 most respondents assess inclusive diagnostics to be advantageous, in some cases no clear decision was made. At t1, all respondents clearly decided in favor of inclusive diagnostics. The response quality stays constant from t0 to t1 in one case and otherwise improves, in some cases strongly so, mostly because of better justifications for the student teachers´ decisions. The response quality when Generating alternative courses of action is widely scattered at both t0 and t1. More alternative courses of action were named at t1 compared to t0. At t1, the student teachers generated new alternative courses of action for each situation, particularly in multi-professional collaboration, e.g., with school psychology and the training company (“…She [the teacher] could also talk to colleagues to see if Stefan [student in the vignette] exhibits similar behavior there. A school psychologist could also be consulted…“). At t0, they were very focused on the narrow context of teaching, whereas at t0 their view broadened. It is striking that almost half of the student teachers achieved a lower score at t1 than at t0. Specifically, however, only in four cases were the same number or fewer alternative courses of action identified. In most cases, the number of diagnostic courses of action was increased, but partly these were insufficiently described. At the second measurement point, student teachers often answered in bullet points and did not sufficiently describe the focus, method and objectives of the diagnostics or resorted to general lists of diagnostic methods instead of relating them to the specific situation. It is possible that diagnostic methods from the work with the other vignettes were transferred, but these could not be adapted to the situation at hand. Mostly, the student teachers’ responses with previously rather low quality improve, while those with the highest quality at the beginning deteriorate. Regarding Decision making we encounter the strongest dispersion at t0. Differences in the decision made between the two points in time are marginal. The quality of the justifications given increases significantly at t1 with one exception (deterioration at a very low level overall, possibly task not correctly understood as no decision for a diagnostic alternative). The justifications contain more references to both theory and the situation itself. Working with more video vignettes therefore seems to mainly promote the quality of the student teachers´ reasoning compared to their noticing. Overall, the standard deviation is particularly high at t0 ranging from 0.49 to 1.23. At t1, the standard deviation decreases significantly for all steps. The minimum points achieved increase across all three vignettes for Describing, Assessing and Generating Actions. Working with the vignettes in the seminar not only seems to have improved the average solution quality, but above all has a balancing effect, so that the student teachers are at a more similar level than at the beginning. 1 3 Page 21 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. Conclusions Summary and Discussion In our study, we first examined student teachers’ professional vision, and their selfefficacy related to inclusive diagnostics. Second, we investigated the extent to which these variables can be fostered using video vignettes. As a prerequisite, we found that student teachers largely perceive the video vignettes and accompanying materials to be realistic and beneficial for learning about inclusive diagnostics, with only minor differences in perception across different vignettes. Experts also endorsed the vignettes, finding them realistic, authentic, and useful for developing diagnostic skills through critical discussion. This aligns well with the goal of producing the vignettes, as they were designed not to show a model solution but to contain many starting points for controversial discussions. RQ 1 (Prospective VET teachers’ professional vision regarding inclusive diagnostics): The study examined student teachers’ professional vision across four steps (Describing, Assessing, Generating alternatives, and Deciding) with mixed results. Student teachers performed best in Describing and struggled most with Decisionmaking. The results align with existing research, confirming that noticing is easier for student teachers than reasoning. It was to be expected that novices would find it most difficult to generate alternative courses of action (Barth, 2017). Unexpectedly, we found student teachers challenged more by justifying their decisions rather than generating alternative courses of action. Nevertheless, the differences were not significant, and fostering reflection on alternative courses of action remains highly relevant, as it is a precondition for making adequate decisions and seems to be associated with student learning (Kersting et al., 2010). RQ 2 (Promotion of prospective teachers’ self-efficacy and professional vision regarding inclusive diagnostics): We also analyzed the impact of working with video vignettes on student teachers’ self-efficacy and competence in handling heterogeneous classes. Overall, self-efficacy significantly improved over time (from preto post-test) across all dimensions, with medium effects. Prospective teachers tend to report high levels of self-efficacy regarding various teaching tasks, accompanied by an upward trend over the course of learning opportunities in teacher training (Hardy et al., 2015; Reaves et al., 2023). This is confirmed in our findings with respect to self-efficacy concerning inclusive diagnostic tasks. While student teachers showed significant gains in Describing, Assessing, and Decision-making tasks, improvements in Generating alternative courses of action were minimal. Despite an increase in the number of alternatives generated at the second measurement point (which is in line with the results of Santagata & Guarino, 2011), many responses at t1 lacked detail and adaptation to the situation at hand. The seminar sessions appeared to enhance student teachers´ reasoning quality, leading to more detailed justifications and a more balanced performance among student teachers over time. Nevertheless, some pro1 3 22 Page 22 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… spective teachers also exhibited a decline in performance. The reasons for this are not entirely clear. One possible explanation is that working with video vignettes may not be beneficial for all prospective teachers. Krumphals and Feser (2025), in their intervention using video vignettes, describe various learning trajectories, including negative ones. Alternatively, it is possible that the task was misunderstood or completed with less motivation at t1. It would be interesting to explore the differences between the initial (t0) and subsequent (t1) and their learning processes in between together with the participants. Limitations A key limitation of this study lies in its sampling: only a small number of student teachers from two German universities participated. Although participation in the study was voluntary, participation in the seminars in which it took place was compulsory. Not all student teachers were present at all points of data collection, which could have biased the sample further if the absences were not completely at random. Additionally, the absence of a control group has a limiting effect. Therefore, any increase in self-efficacy or competence cannot be causally attributed solely to the treatment, i.e., working with the vignettes. All student teachers participated in other courses during the semesters in question. Although none of those directly addressed the topic, competence increases due to other learning opportunities in teacher training cannot be ruled out. Furthermore, Koschel and Weyland (2020) conclude that didactic embedding and the methodical approach seem to be pivotal when working with vignettes. Our environment was not strictly standardized. Since the vignettes were used at different universities in different semesters by different instructors, there may have been differences in the didactic embedding that could limit the comparability of the findings. There were differences in the results across the various settings. However, the exact reasons for these differences could not be systematically or conclusively determined within the scope of this exploratory study. Notably, the outcomes for the self-learning condition were situated in the mid-range, suggesting that neither the task solutions nor the self-assessments alone provide clear evidence that this approach is more or less effective. Qualitative feedback, however, suggests that participants perceive the social component of the seminars as enriching. These differences, combined with the small sample size, also limit the generalizability of the findings, as the vignettes could potentially have different effects in another environment with different didactic choices. Also, we assessed self-efficacy regarding the heterogeneity dimensions of cognition, language, and behavior, only through self-assessment and assuming them to be different constructs. Since self-efficacy regarding all heterogeneity dimensions developed similarly, an investigation into whether this may be one construct is necessary. Another limitation lies in our data collection methods. Firstly, we used rat1 3 Page 23 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. ings of task solutions, which were evaluated based on predefined coding guidelines. However, it is uncertain how comprehensively these coding guidelines were able to capture the nuances of each individual case, and to what extent the four included levels sufficiently differentiated the quality of all task solutions. Secondly, we relied on self-assessment data. Learners frequently do not assess their abilities and competencies accurately (Boud & Falchikov, 1989; León et al., 2023; Panadero et al., 2016). Consequently, we must assume that the prospective teachers in our sample also either overestimate or underestimate their abilities, which constitutes a significant limitation of the study. Implications for Teacher Education and Research Increasing heterogeneity in VET creates a need for action at multiple levels: On a policy level, for instance discussions around improved data collection and sharing across institutions have been ongoing (e.g., Goldhaber et al., 2022). At the school level, structures for collegial and multi-professional collaboration are needed (e.g., Sonntag, 2022). On the individual level, VET teachers are increasingly required to recognize and address heterogeneous learner needs in their daily practice for which systematic preparation is necessary (Kärkkäinen & Tarnanen, 2022; Nakar & Bagnall, 2024). This includes more opportunities to practice skills essential for inclusion, particularly in inclusive diagnostics, within teacher education. Universities could more consistently integrate inclusion-focused training into their mandatory curricula. Additionally, specialization opportunities could be offered during teacher education, allowing student teachers to build in-depth competencies for working effectively with heterogeneous learner groups. Against this backdrop, the present study focuses on the development of professional competencies in prospective VET teachers, with a particular emphasis on the role of teacher education programs in fostering inclusive teaching skills. Video vignettes offer a valuable learning opportunity in this context, especially for fostering professional vision as a central component of inclusive pedagogical diagnostics. They allow student teachers to practice and reflect without the immediate pressure to act in a real classroom. Moreover, the use of video vignettes has shown promising results, not only in the present study but also in previous research (e.g., Anast Seguin & Ambrosio, 2002; Enenkiel et al., 2022 Koschel & Weyland, 2020). Therefore, their use should be made permanent in university teacher training. To further improve learning opportunities, it’s important to consider that scores vary depending on the setting, indicating its significance. Furthermore, the value student teachers place on discussion and social interaction in seminars highlights the benefits of this format over self-learning. This may be linked to the inherently social nature of professional vision and noticing student behavior, which is shaped by societal norms and assumptions about what constitutes typical or deviant behavior. In the context of inclusion, such perceptions are particu1 3 22 Page 24 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… Score Meaning Example solutions for each step 3Comprehensive Description/ Assessment/ Generation of courses of action/Decision: The description/… includes (almost) all relevant elements, which are reproduced correctly almost without exception. Setting: teaching situation, dual vocational training, wholesale and foreigntrade clerks, content: commercial invoice. Explanation by the teacher, then individual work (20 min), yet conversations between students, other students write on their worksheets Clara & Yusra: Clara addresses Yusra, uncertainty about payment terms, specifically the differences between discount and cash discount; mention of the training company where “everything is easier”; independent lookup by Yusra in the textbook; no initiative from Clara in this regard (“you always know where everything is”); teacher overhears and encourages looking it up in the textbook, offers no further assistance Niclas: Signs of restlessness in Niclas: plays/clicks with pen; bounces leg; looks at the ceiling or around the room; runs a hand through his hair; has, however, filled out almost everything on the worksheet. Teacher encourages further work; he says he “won’t get the last numbers anyway” It is advantageous to diagnose in an inclusive manner. The students have different levels of prior knowledge in relation to the exercise on the worksheet. Clara and Yusra ask each other something about a term/approach to the task and help each other, whereas Niclas in the video doesn’t know what to do and therefore decides not to continue with the task. He has no selfconfidence and the reasons why he does not seek help should be found. Clara and Yusra try to solve the problem with the book, but one of them relies on her classmate instead of taking action herself. It is important to identify what is harming their learning process. • It could be worthwhile to determine the current level of learning or the prior knowledge of the students in order to see where deficits can be identified • Talk to the Niclas after class to find out reasons for lack of self-confidence • Look at the student’s task solution, collect worksheets from the whole class (at class level) to check how far Niclas has understood the material and determine where there are deficits • Find out where the gaps in knowledge are. It would be good for the teacher to know whether it is due to the motivation or the individual prior knowledge of the students. • Conduct personal one-to-one discussions to find out exactly what the problem is. Find out whether the work assignment was not understood or whether the topic is generally unclear. • Observe individual students over a longer period of time in order to analyze their behavior During the work phase, I would first observe what and how the students are working. If you see that students are having problems with their work, I would try to find out in a conversation what the problem is. This could quickly remove any existing learning obstacles. Written results could then be looked at if a more detailed diagnosis is necessary. By evaluating the results, I could, for example, identify calculation errors and thus gain a more detailed understanding of the students’ mistakes and therefore prior knowledge. Table 5 (continued) 1 3 Page 31 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. Acknowledgments The publication of this article was funded by the University of Mannheim. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection was performed by T.G. and P.E., data analysis was performed by T.G. The first draft of the manuscript was written by T.G. and J.S. and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available yet due to ongoing analysis related to qualification work. After the completion of the project, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, the data will be transferred to a suitable repository and made available. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical Approval The ethics board of the University of Mannheim approved the study (EK Mannheim 47/2023). All participants declared informed consent before participating in the study. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit h t t p : / / c r e a t i v e c o m m o n s . o r g / l i c e n s e s / b y / 4 . 0 / . References Abels, S., Barth, M., Brauns, S., Egger, D., Richter, S., & Sellin, K. (2022). Lehre und Forschung im Projekt naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht inklusiv gestalten (Nawi-In) [Teaching and research in the project Designing inclusive science lessons (Nawi-In)]. In D. Lutz, J. Becker, F. Buchhaupt, D. Katzenbach, A. Strecker, & M. Urban (Eds.), Qualifizierung für Inklusion: Sekundarstufe (pp. 25–38). Waxmann. Adamina, M. (2022). Professionalisierung von Lehrpersonen durch videobasierte fachdidaktische Fallarbeit [Professionalization of teachers through video-based subject-specific case work]. In D. Edelmann & E. Wannack (Eds.) , Verständnisse und Konzepte zum kompetenzorientierten Fachunterricht: Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede. Beiträge für die Praxis – Band 10 (pp. 29–43) PH Bern. https://doi.org/10.57694/156 nStep 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 1 45 - Step 2 45 0.618** - Step 3 45 0.492** 0.496** - Step 4 45 0.508** 0.329* 0.555** - Table 6 Correlations between steps of task (RQ1) **p <.01; *p <.05 1 3 22 Page 32 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… Akyuz, D. (2018). Measuring technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) through performance assessment. Computers & Education, 125, 212–225. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . c o m p e d u . 2 0 1 8 . 0 6 . 0 1 2 Anast Seguin, C., & Ambrosio, A. L. (2002). Multicultural vignettes for teacher preparation. Multicultural Perspectives,4(4), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327892MCP0404_3 Anderson, D. H., & Kraft, L. (2006). Video-case instruction for teachers of students with problem behaviors in general and special education classrooms. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21(2), 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/016264340602100203 Antera, S. (2021). Professional competence of vocational teachers: A conceptual review. Vocations And Learning, 14(3), 459–479. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-021-09271-7 Aufschnaiter, C. V., Cappell, J., Dübbelde, G., Ennemoser, M., Mayer, J., Stiensmeier-Pelster, J., & Wolgast, A. (2015). Diagnostische Kompetenz. Theoretische Überlegungen zu einem zentralen Konstrukt derLehrerbildung [Diagnostic competence. Theoretical considerations on a central construct inteacher training]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 61(5), 738–758. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:15424 Authoring Group, National Report on Education (Eds.) . (2024). Bildung in Deutschland 2024. Ein indikatorengestützter Bericht mit einer Analyse zu beruflicher Bildung [Education in Germany 2024. An indicator-based report with an analysis of VET]. wbv Publikation. Baecher, L., & Connor, D. (2010). What do you see?’ using video analysis of classroom practice in a preparation program for teachers of students with learning disabilities. Insights on Learning Disabilities,7(2), 5–18. Baecher, L., Kung, S. C., Jewkes, A. M., & Rosalia, C. (2013). The role of video for self-evaluation in early field experiences. Teaching and Teacher Education, 36, 189–197. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . t a t e . 2 0 1 3 . 0 8 . 0 0 1 Baier, F., Maurer, C., Dignath, C., & Kunter, M. (2021). Fostering pre-service teachers’ theoretical knowledge application: Studying with and without text-based cases. Instructional Science,49, 855–876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-021-09560-7 Barth, V. L. (2017). Professionelle Wahrnehmung von Störungen im Unterricht [Professional vision of disruptions in the classroom]. Springer VS. Biederbeck, I., & Rothland, M. (2017). Professionalisierung des Umgangs mit Heterogenität [Professionalization of dealing with heterogeneity]. In T. Bohl, J. Budde, & M. Rieger-Ladich (Eds.), Umgang Mit Heterogenität in Schule und Unterricht. Grundlagentheoretische Beiträge, empirische Befunde und didaktische Reflexionen (pp. 223–235). Klinkhardt. Blomberg, G., Renkl, A., Gamoran Sherin, M., Borko, H., & Seidel, T. (2013). Five research-based heuristics for using video in pre-service teacher education. Journal for Educational Research Online, 5(1), 90–114. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:8021 Blömeke, S., Gustafsson, J. E., & Shavelson, R. J. (2015). Beyond dichotomies. Zeitschrift für Psychologie,223(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000194 Bloor, M., & Wood, F. (2006). Keywords in qualitative methods: A vocabulary of research concepts. Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209403 Böhme, N. (2022). DIAMOS – Steigerung der diagnostischen Kompetenzen von Lehramtsstudierenden [DIAMOS – Improving the diagnostic skills of teacher students]. Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik, 112, 26–26. Boud, D., & Falchikov, N. (1989). Quantitative studies of student self-assessment in higher education: A critical analysis of findings. Higher Education, 18(5), 529–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00138746 Brands, S., Endedijk, M. D., Kollöffel, B., & Savelsbergh, E. R. (2025). Exploring professional vision of vet students and tutors: Noticing, evaluating and reasoning about practice. Vocations and Learning, 18, 20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-025-09375-4 Buchner, T., Shevlin, M., Donovan, M., Gercke, M., Goll, H., Šiška, J., Janyšková, K., Smogorzewska, J., Szumski, G., Vlachou, A., Demo, H., Feyerer, E., & Corby, D. (2021). Same progress for all? Inclusive education, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and students with intellectual disability in European countries. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities,18(1), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12368 Buddeberg, M., Hornberg, S., & Zimmermann, J. S. (2022). Förderung sozialer Teilhabe von Schüler*innen im inklusiven Unterricht als Lerngegenstand im Lehramtsstudium [Promoting the social participation of students in inclusive education as a subject in teacher training programs]. In A. Schröter, M. Kortmann, S. Schulze, K. Kempfer, S. Anderson, G. Sevdiren, J. Bartz, & C. Kreutchen (Eds.), Inklusion in der Lehramtsausbildung–Lerngegenstände, Interaktionen und Prozesse (pp. 101–114). Waxmann. 1 3 Page 33 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. Burda-Zoyke, A., & Joost, J. (2023). Professionalisierung von Lehrkräften zum Umgang mit Heterogenität und Inklusion. Einsatz von Begleitmaterialien und Lernaufgaben zu Videovignetten [Professionalization of teachers in dealing with heterogeneity and inclusion. Use of accompanying materials and learning tasks for video vignettes]. In M. Greinert, T. Kleickmann, & I. Parchmann (Eds.), Lehramt mit Perspektive. Ansätze, Methoden und Forschungsergebnisse einer zukunftsorientierten Lehrkräftebildung (pp. 159-172). Waxmann. Burda-Zoyke, A., Eichentopf, Giek, T., & Seifried, J. (2025). Entwicklung videovignettenbasierter Materialien für die Lehrkräftebildung an beruflichen Schulen im Projekt DIA-LIBS [Development of video vignette-based materials for teacher training at vocational schools in the DIA-LIBS project]. In K. Beck et al. (Eds.), Förderbezogene Diagnostik in der inklusiven Bildung (pp. 119-138). Waxmann. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 3 7 / 0 0 3 3 - 2 9 0 9 . 1 1 2 . 1 . 1 5 5 Darling-Hammond, L., & Hammerness, K. (2002). Toward a pedagogy of cases in teacher education. Teaching Education, 13(2), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047621022000007549 Edelenbos, P., & Kubanek-German, A. (2004). Teacher assessment: The concept of ‘diagnostic competence’. Language Testing, 21(3), 259–283. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265532204lt284oa Eiríksdóttir, E., & Rosvall, P. Å. (2019). Vet teachers’ interpretations of individualisation and teaching of skills and social order in two Nordic countries. European Educational Research Journal, 18(3), 355–375. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474904119830022 Enenkiel, P., Bartel, M. E., Walz, M., & Roth, J. (2022). Diagnostische Fähigkeiten mit der videobasierten Lernumgebung ViviAn Fördern [Promoting diagnostic skills with the ViviAn video-based learning environment]. Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik, 43(1), 67–99. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 3 1 3 8 - 0 2 2 - 0 0 2 0 4 - y Ernst, H. M., Wittwer, J., & Voss, T. (2023). Do they know what they know? Accuracy in teacher candidates’ self-assessments and its influencing factors. British Educational Research Journal, 49(4), 649–673. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3860 Ernst, H. M., Wittwer, J., & Voss, T. (2025). When accuracy does not make a difference—The relationship between future teachers’ self-assessment accuracy, quality of learning material and subsequent topical interest. Unterrichtswissenschaft. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42010-025-00233-9 Ertmer, P. A., & Russell, J. D. (1995). Using case studies to enhance instructional design education. Educational Technology, 35(4), 23–31. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44428285 Fine-Davis, M., & Faas, D. (2018). Equality and diversity in vocational education: A cross-cultural comparison of trainers’ and trainees’ attitudes in six European countries. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 50, 1. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 0 3 0 5 7 9 2 5 . 2 0 1 8 . 1 5 2 3 6 7 6 Franz, E. K., Heyl, V., Wacker, A., & Dörfler, T. (2019a). Konstruktvalidierung eines Tests zurErfassung von adaptiver Handlungskompetenz in heterogenen Gruppen [Construct validation ofa test for the assessment of adaptive action competence in heterogeneous groups]. Journal for Educational Research Online, 11(2), 116–146. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:18029 Gaudin, C., & Chaliès, S. (2015). Video viewing in teacher education and professional development: A literature review. Educational Research Review, 16, 41–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.06.001 Geisen, M., & Zender, J. (2024). Kooperative Praktiken durch hybride Lehrund Lernsettings im Lehramtsstudium anregen: Ein Blick in die universitäre Lehrpraxis [Stimulating cooperative practices through hybrid teaching and learning settings in teacher training programs: A look at university teaching practice]. HLZ – Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 7(1), 130–146. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 1 5 7 6 / h l z - 6 4 9 2 German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (2024). Berufsbildungsbericht 2024 [Vocational education and training report 2024]. Goldhaber, D., Koedel, C., Özek, U., & Parsons, E. (2022). Using longitudinal student mobility to identify at-risk students. AERA Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584211071090 Goodwin, C. (1994). Professional vision. American Anthropologist, 96(3), 606–633. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 5 2 5 / a a . 1 9 9 4 . 9 6 . 3 . 0 2 a 0 0 1 0 0 Greenfield, R. A., Mackey, M., & Nelson, G. (2016). Preservice teachers’ perceptions of students with learning disabilities: Using mixed methods to examine effectiveness of special education coursework. The Qualitative Report, 21(2), 330–351. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2016.2147 1 3 22 Page 34 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… Grewe, O., & Möller, K. (2020). Die professionelle Unterrichtswahrnehmung von sprachsensiblen Maßnahmen im Sachunterricht der Grundschule fördern – ein videound praxisbasiertes Seminar im Master of Education [Promoting professional classroom awareness of language-sensitive measures in elementary school subject lessons – a video and practice-based seminar in the master of education program]. HLZ – Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 3(1), 323–359. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 4 1 1 9 / h l z - 2 5 4 7 Gröschner, A. (2021). Lernen aus unterrichtsvideos? Bildungswissenschaftliche Grundlagen und empirische Befunde der Lehrerbildung. Religionspädagogische Beiträge, 44(1), 25–36. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 2 0 3 7 7 / r p b - 1 0 8 Hardy, G., Spendlove, D., & Shortt, D. (2015). Changing expectations, same perspective: Pre-service teachers’ judgments of professional efficacy. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40(40). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2015v40n2.10 Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 Meta-Analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. Hill, H. C., & Chin, M. (2018). Connections between teachers’ knowledge of students, instruction, and achievement outcomes. American Educational Research Journal, 55(5), 1076–1112. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 3 1 0 2 / 0 0 0 2 8 3 1 2 1 8 7 6 9 6 1 4 Hippach-Schneider, U., Krause, M., & Woll, C. (2007). Vocational education and training in Germany (Vol. 138). Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. CEDEFOP Panorama Series. Holdbrooks Townsel, K. H. (2016). Exploring diversity and professionalism with preservice teachers using film clips as prompts. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin: International Journal for Professional Educators, 82(3), 55–62. Holodynski, M., & Meschede, N. (2022). Videobasierte Lehre und Forschung in der Lehrkräftebildung – Quo vadis? [Video-based teaching and research in teacher training – Quo vadis?]. In R. Junker, V. Zucker, M. Oellers, T. Rauterberg, S. Konjer, N. Meschede, & M. Holodynski (Eds.), Lehren und Forschen mit Videos in der Lehrkräftebildung (pp. 197–217). Waxmann. Holodynski, M., Meschede, N., Junker, R., & Zucker, V. (2022). Lehren und Forschen mit Videos in der Lehrkräftebildung – eine Einführung [Teaching and researching with videos in teacher training – an introduction]. In R. Junker, V. Zucker, M. Oellers, T. Rauterberg, S. Konjer, N. Meschede, & M. Holodynski (Hrsg.) Lehren und Forschen mit Videos in der Lehrkräftebildung (pp. 7–15). Waxmann. Hörter, P., Gippert, C., Holodynski, M., & Stein, M. (2020). Klassenführung und Fachdidaktik im (Anfangs-) Unterricht Mathematik erfolgreich integrieren – Konzeption einer videobasierten Lehrveranstaltung zur Förderung der professionellen Unterrichtswahrnehmung [Successfully integrating classroom management and subject didactics in (beginning) mathematics lessons – Design of a video-based course to promote professional vision in teaching]. HLZ –Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 3(1), 256–282. https://doi.org/10.4119/hlz-2551 Hughes, R., & Huby, M. (2002). The application of vignettes in social and nursing research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 37(4), 382–386. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 4 6 / j . 1 3 6 5 - 2 6 4 8 . 2 0 0 2 . 0 2 1 0 0 . x Ingenkamp, K., & Lissmann, U. (2008). Lehrbuch der Pädagogischen Diagnostik (6th ed.) [Textbook of pedagogical diagnostics]. Beltz. Itkonen, T., Talib, M. T., & Dervin, F. (2015). Not all of us Finns communicate the same way either’: Teachers’ perceptions of interculturality in upper secondary vocational education and training. Journal of Vocational Education & Training,67(3), 397–414. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 1 3 6 3 6 8 2 0 . 2 0 1 5 . 1 0 6 2 9 9 8 Junker, R., & Holodynski, M. (2022). Selbstvideographie im Vorbereitungsdienst: Eine Implementationsstudiezur Förderung der klassenführungsbezogenen Unterrichtswahrnehmung vonLehramtsanwärter* innen [Self-videography in the preparatory service: An implementationstudy to promote the classroom management-related professional vision in teaching of teacher trainees]. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 50(4), 717–742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42010-022-00149-8 Jürgens, M., & Neuber, N. (2020). Gleichberechtigte Teilhabe im Sportunterricht – eine videobasierte Lehrveranstaltung zu heterogenen Schülervoraussetzungen [Equal participation in physical education - a video-based course on heterogeneous student backgrounds]. HLZ – Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 3(1), 382–405. https://doi.org/10.4119/hlz-2546 Kärkkäinen, K., & Tarnanen, M. (2022). Teachers’ and adult migrant students’ perspectives on integration and belonging in the context of Finnish vocational education and training. In L. Moreno Herrera, M. Teräs, P. Gougoulakis, & J. Kontio (Eds.), Emergent issues in research on vocational education & training. Vol. 7: Migration and inclusion in work life: the role of VET (pp. 373–403). Atlas Akademi. 1 3 Page 35 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. Keppens, K., Consuegra, E., Goossens, M., De Maeyer, S., & Vanderlinde, R. (2019). Measuring preservice teachers’ professional vision of inclusive classrooms: A video-based comparative judgement instrument. Teaching and Teacher Education,78, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.10.007 Kersting, N. B., Givvin, K. B., Sotelo, F. L., & Stigler, J. W. (2010). Teachers’ analyses of classroom video predict student learning of mathematics: Further explorations of a novel measure of teacher knowledge. Journal of Teacher Education, 61(1–2), 172–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487109347875 Kersting, N. B., Givvin, K. B., Thompson, B. J., Santagata, R., & Stigler, J. W. (2012). Measuring usable knowledge: Teachers’ analyses of mathematics classroom videos predict teaching quality and student learning. American Educational Research Journal, 49(3), 568–589. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 3 1 0 2 / 0 0 0 2 8 3 1 2 1 2 4 3 7 8 5 3 Klug, J., Bruder, S., Keller, S., & Schmitz, B. (2012). Hängen diagnostische Kompetenz und Beratungskompetenz von Lehrkräften zusammen? [Are teachers' diagnostic skills and counseling skills related?]. Psychologische Rundschau, 63(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1026/0033-3042/a000104 Konstantinidou, L., Madlener-Charpentier, K., Opacic, A., Gautschi, C., & Hoefele, J. (2023). Literacy in vocational education and training: Scenario-based reading and writing education. Reading and Writing, 36(4), 1025–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10373-4 Koschel, W., & Weyland, U. (2020). Seminarkonzept zur videogestützten Lehre im beruflichen Lehramtsstudium unter dem Analysefokus „Umgang mit Heterogenität [Seminar concept for videosupported teaching in the vocational teacher training program under the analysis focus Dealing with heterogeneity]. HLZ – Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 3(1), 283–301. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 4 1 1 9 / h l z - 2 5 5 6 Kramer, C., König, J., Kaiser, G., Ligtvoet, R., & Blömeke, S. (2017). Der Einsatz von Unterrichtsvideos in der universitären Ausbildung: Zur Wirksamkeit videound transkriptgestützter Seminare zur Klassenführung auf pädagogisches Wissen und situationsspezifische Fähigkeiten angehender Lehrkräfte [The use of teaching videos in university education: On the effectiveness of videoand transcriptbased classroom management seminars on prospective teachers’ pedagogical knowledge and situational specific skills]. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 20(1), 137–164. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 1 6 1 8 - 0 1 7 - 0 7 3 2 - 8 Krumphals, I., & Feser, M. S. (2025). Fostering pre-service physics teachers’ diagnostic skills and readiness through video vignettes and micro-teaching sessions: An exploratory single-case study. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2950(1), 012042. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 8 / 1 7 4 2 - 6 5 9 6 / 2 9 5 0 / 1 / 0 1 2 0 4 2 Kuntze, S., Schall, K., & Krummenauer, J. (2024). Case-based work with classroom cartoon vignettes as a way to explore pre-service mathematics teachers’ multi-criterion noticing. 10th International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd’24). https://doi.org/10.4995/head24.2024.17108 Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159–174. https://doi.org/10.2307/2529310 Langer, W., Bruns, J., & Erhorn, J. (2022). Entwicklung und Validierung eines videobasierten Testinstruments zur Erfassung des Noticing mit dem Fokus auf Anerkennungsprozesse im inklusiven Sportunterricht [Development and validation of a video-based test instrument for the assessment of noticing with a focus on recognition processes in inclusive physical education]. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research, 52(3), 386–397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12662-022-00807-0 Lenske, G., Bönte, J., van Bebber, R., & Leutner, D. (2022). Das CLIPSS-Videoportal (CLassroom management In Primary and Secondary Schools). Inszenierte Videovignetten zur Förderung professioneller Kompetenzen. In R. Junker, V. Zucker, M. Oellers, T. Rauterberg, S. Konjer, N. Meschede, & M. Holodynski (Eds.), Lehren und Forschen mit Videos in der Lehrkräftebildung (pp. 57–73). Waxmann. León, S. P., Panadero, E., & García-Martínez, I. (2023). How accurate are our students? A meta-analytic systematic review on self-assessment scoring accuracy. Educational Psychology Review. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 0 6 4 8 - 0 2 3 - 0 9 8 1 9 - 0 Lindmeier, A. (2013). VideoVignettenbasierte standardisierte Erhebung von Lehrerkognitionen [Video vignette-based standardized survey of teacher cognition]. In U. Riegel, & K. Macha (Eds.), Videobasierte Kompetenzforschung in den Fachdidaktiken (Vol. 4, pp. 45–62). Waxmann. Lindmeier, C., & Lütje-Klose, B. (2015). Inklusion Als Querschnittsaufgabe in der erziehungswissenschaft [Inclusion as a cross-sectional task in educational science]. Erziehungswissenschaft, 26(51), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:11565 Max, A., Lukas, S., & Weitzel, H. (2022). The relationship between self-assessment and performance in learning TPACK: Are self‐assessments a good way to support preservice teachers’ learning? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(4), 1160–1172. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12674 1 3 22 Page 36 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… McKenney, S., & Reeves, T. C. (2019). Conducting educational design research (2nd ed.). Routledge. Meschede, N., Fiebranz, A., Möller, K., & Steffensky, M. (2017). Teachers’ professional vision, pedagogical content knowledge and beliefs: On its relation and differences between pre-service and in-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education,66, 158–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.010 Meurel, M., & Hemmer, M. (2020). Lernunterstützungen im Geographieunterricht videobasiert analysieren: Konzeption, Durchführung und Evaluation einer geographiedidaktischen Lehrveranstaltung [Analyzing video-based learning support in geography lessons: Design, Implementation and evaluation of a geography didactic course]. HLZ – Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 3(1), 302–322. https://doi.org/10.4119/hlz-2555 Miesera, S. (2018). Inklusion an beruflichen Schulen–Einstellungen und Selbstwirksamkeitserwartungen von angehenden Lehrkräften im internationalen Vergleich [Inclusion in vocational schools—Attitudes and self-efficacy expectations of prospective teachers in an international comparison]. TU München. Miller, K., & Zhou, X. (2014). Learning from classroom video: What makes it compelling and what makes it hard. In R. Goldman-Segal, & R. Pea (Eds.), Video research in the learning sciences (pp. 321–334). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Moreno, R., & Valdez, A. (2007). Immediate and delayed effects of using a classroom case exemplar in teacher education: The role of presentation format. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.194 Mostert, M. P. (2007). Challenges of case-based teaching. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(4), 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100632 Nakar, S., & Bagnall, R. G. (2024). Reasonable adjustment for inclusive development: A cautionary case study of Australian VET teachers’ experience. International Journal of Comparative Education and Development, 26(3), 171–188. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCED-05-2023-0042 Panadero, E., Brown, G. T. L., & Strijbos, J. W. (2016). The future of student self-assessment: A review of known unknowns and potential directions. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 803–830. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 0 6 4 8 - 0 1 5 - 9 3 5 0 - 2 Pasura, R. (2015). International students in the private VET sector in Melbourne, Australia: Rethinking their characteristics and aspirations outside the deficit model. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 67(2), 203–218. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 1 3 6 3 6 8 2 0 . 2 0 1 5 . 1 0 2 2 5 8 0 Pauli, C., & Reusser, K. (2006). Von international vergleichenden Video Surveys zurvideobasierten Unterrichtsforschung und -entwicklung [From international comparative videosurveys to video-based teaching research and development]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik,52(6), 774–797. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 2 5 6 5 6 / 0 1 : 4 4 8 8 Piwowar, V., Barth, V. L., Ophardt, D., & Thiel, F. (2018). Evidence-based scripted videos on handling student misbehavior: The development and evaluation of video cases for teacher education. Professional Development in Education, 44(3), 369–384. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 1 9 4 1 5 2 5 7 . 2 0 1 7 . 1 3 1 6 2 9 9 Pouta, M., Lehtinen, E., & Palonen, T. (2021). Student teachers’ and experienced teachers’ professional vision of students’ understanding of the rational number concept. Educational Psychology Review, 33(1), 109–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09536-y Praetorius, A. K., Grünkorn, J., & Klieme, E. (2020). Towards developing a theory of generic teaching quality: Origin, current status, and necessary next steps regarding the three basic dimensions model. Zeitschrift Für Pädagogik, 66(1), 15–36. https://doi.org/10.3262/ZPB2001015 Praetorius, A. K., Klieme, E., Herbert, B., & Pinger, P. (2018). Generic dimensions of teaching quality: The German framework of three basic dimensions. ZDM - Mathematics Education, 50(3), 407–426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-018-0918-4 Prengel, A. (2016). Didaktische Diagnostik als Element alltäglicher Lehrerarbeit – „formatives Assessment" im inklusiven Unterricht [Didactic diagnostics as part of everyday teaching – "formative assessment" in inclusive education]. In B. Amrhein (Ed.), Diagnostik im Kontext Inklusiver Bildung. Theorien, Ambivalenzen, Akteure, Konzepte (pp. 49–63). Julius Klinkhardt. Reaves, M., Coleman, B., Jagger, C., Bunch, J. C., & Israel, G. D. (2023). Examining preservice teachers’ perceived performance while student teaching: A longitudinal study. Advancements in Agricultural Development, 4(2), 91–102. https://doi.org/10.37433/aad.v4i2.313 Reuker, S., & Künzell, S. (2021). Learning diagnostic skills for adaptive teaching – A theoretical foundation. Cogent Education, 8(1), 1887432. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 2 3 3 1 1 8 6 X . 2 0 2 1 . 1 8 8 7 4 3 2 Roth, K. J., Garnier, H. E., Chen, C., Lemmens, M., Schwille, K., & Wickler, N. I. (2011). Videobased lesson analysis: Effective science PD for teacher and student learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(2), 117–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20408 1 3 Page 37 of 39 22 T. Giek et al. Santagata, R., & Guarino, J. (2011). Using video to teach future teachers to learn from teaching. ZDM Mathematics Education, 43(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-010-0292-3 Schäfer, H., & Rittmeyer, C. (2015). Inklusive Diagnostik [Inclusive diagnostics]. Pädagogik, 2, 38–41. Schäfer, H., & Rittmeyer, C. (2021). Inklusive Diagnostik [Inclusive diagnostics]. In H. Schäfer, & C. Rittmeyer (Eds.), Handbuch inklusive Diagnostik (2nd ed., pp. 106–137). Beltz. Scharnhorst, U., & Kammermann, M. (2020). Who is included in VET, who not? Education + Training, 62(6), 645–658. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-11-2019-0248 Schrader, F. W. (2013). Diagnostische Kompetenzvon Lehrpersonen [Diagnostic competence of teachers]. BzL-Beiträge Zur Lehrerinnen-und Lehrerbildung, 31(2), 154–165. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 2 5 6 5 6 / 0 1 : 1 3 8 4 3 Seidel, T. (2022). Professionelle Unterrichtswahrnehmung als Teil von Expertise im Lehrberuf [Professional vision in teaching as part of expertise in the teaching profession]. In R. Junker, V. Zucker, M. Oellers, T. Rauterberg, S. Konjer, N. Meschede, & M. Holodynski (Eds.), Lehren und Forschen mit Videos in der Lehrkräftebildung (pp. 17–35). Waxmann. Seidel, T., & Shavelson, R. J. (2007). Teaching effectiveness research in the past decade: The role of theory and research design in disentangling meta-analysis results. Review of Educational Research, 77(4), 454–499. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307310317 Seidel, T., & Stürmer, K. (2014). Modeling and measuring the structure of professional vision in preservice teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 51(4), 739–771. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 3 1 0 2 / 0 0 0 2 8 3 1 2 1 4 5 3 1 3 2 1 Sherin, M., & Van Es, E. A. (2009). Effects of video club participation on teachers’ professional vision. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(1), 20–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487108328155 Sherin, M., Russ, R., Sherin, B., & Colestock, A. (2008). Professional vision in action: An exploratory study. Issues in Teacher Education, 17(2), 27–46. Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X015002004 Simon, J., & Simon, T. (2014). Inklusive Diagnostik – Wesenszüge und Abgrenzung von traditionellen „Grundkonzepten diagnostischer Praxis. Eine Diskussionsgrundlage [Inclusive diagnostics – Characteristics and distinction from traditional core concepts of diagnostic practice. A discussion basis]. Zeitschrift für Inklusion, 4. Smith, E., & Yasukawa, K. (2017). What makes a good VET teacher? Views of Australian VET teachers and students. International Journal of Training Research, 15(1), 23–40. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 1 4 4 8 0 2 2 0 . 2 0 1 7 . 1 3 5 5 3 0 1 Sonntag, M. (2022). Multi-professional Cooperation in the Austrian school system and its implications for inclusive education. Forum Oświatowe, 34(1), 69–80. https://doi.org/10.34862/fo.2022.5 Steffensky, M., & Kleinknecht, M. (2016). Wirkungen videobasierter Lernumgebungen auf die professionelle Kompetenz und das Handeln (angehender) Lehrpersonen. [Effects of video-based learning environments on the professional competence and actions of (prospective) teachers]. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 44(4), 305–321. Stein, R., & Stein, A. (2020). Unterricht bei Verhaltensstörungen [Teaching students with behavioral disorders] (3rd ed.). utb. https://doi.org/10.36198/9783838553733 Steinert, C., & Jurkowski, S. (2023). Preparing student teachers for inclusive classes: The effects of coteaching in higher education on students’ knowledge and attitudes about inclusion. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 28(14), 3392–3407. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 8 0 / 1 3 6 0 3 1 1 6 . 2 0 2 3 . 2 2 7 4 1 1 3 Syring, M., Bohl, T., Kleinknecht, M., Kuntze, S., Rehm, M., & Schneider, J. (2016). Fallarbeit als Angebot – fallbasiertesLernen als Nutzung: Empirische Ergebnisse zur kognitiven Belastung, Motivation und Emotionenbei der Arbeit mit Unterrichtsfällen [Case work as an offer – case-based learning as utilization:Empirical results on cognitive load, motivation and emotions when working with teaching cases]. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 62(1), 86–108. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:16707 Teese, R. B., Koenig, K. M., & Jackson, D. P. (2020). Interactive video vignettes for teaching science. In J. J. Mintzes, & M. Walter (Eds.), Active learning in college science. The case for Evidence-Based practice (pp. 669–682). Springer. Van Es, E. A., & Sherin, M. G. (2002). Learning to notice: Scaffolding new teachers’ interpretations of classroom interactions. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 10(4), 571–596. Vogt, F., & Rogalla, M. (2009). Developing adaptive teaching competency through coaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(8), 1051–1060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.04.002 1 3 22 Page 38 of 39 The Potential of Video Vignettes to Promote Diagnostic Skills of… Vonken, M., Reissland, J., Schaar, P., & Thonagel, T. (2022). Inklusive Berufsbildung die Rolle der Lebenswelt für inklusives Lernen [Inclusive vocational education and training the role of the living environment for inclusive learning]. In J. Becker, F. Buchhaupt, D. Katzenbach, D. Lutz, A. Strecker, & M. Urban (Eds.), Qualifizierung für Inklusion. Berufsschule, Hochschule, Erwachsenenbildung (pp. 43–57). Waxmann. Ward, M., Gruppen, L., & Regehr, G. (2002). Measuring self-assessment: Current state of the art. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice,7(1), 63–80. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 2 3 / a : 1 0 1 4 5 8 5 5 2 2 0 8 4 Winter, K., & Junker, R. (2020). Videobasiertes Lehrmodul im Fach Deutsch: Heterogenitätssensible Förderung des Textverstehens [Video-based teaching module in german: Heterogeneity-sensitive promotion of text comprehension]. HLZ – Herausforderung Lehrer*innenbildung, 3(1), 360–381. https://doi.org/10.4119/hlz-2559 Wray, E., Sharma, U., & Subban, P. (2022). Factors influencing teacher self-efficacy for inclusive education: A systematic literature review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 117 , Article 103800. h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . t a t e . 2 0 2 2 . 1 0 3 8 0 0 Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Authors and Affiliations TeresaGiek1· PhilippEichentopf2· JürgenSeifried1· AndreaBurda-Zoyke2 Teresa Giek [email protected] Philipp Eichentopf [email protected] Jürgen Seifried [email protected] Andrea Burda-Zoyke [email protected] 1 University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany 2 Kiel University, Kiel, Germany 1 3 Page 39 of 39 22