A cost-effective future for electricity storage: An examination of LCOS studies on stationary applications

Kla , Jakob Phillip
A icle
A cos -e ec i e u u e o elec ici y s o age: An
examina ion o LCOS s udies on s a iona y applica ions
Junio Managemen Science (JUMS)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Junio Managemen Science e. V.
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Kla , Jakob Phillip (2024) : A cos -e ec i e u u e o elec ici y s o age: An
examina ion o LCOS s udies on s a iona y applica ions, Junio Managemen Science (JUMS), ISSN
2942-1861, Junio Managemen Science e. V., Planegg, Vol. 9, Iss. 4, pp. 2118-2139,
h ps://doi.o g/10.5282/jums/ 9i4pp2118-2139
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/308478
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139
Junio Managemen Science
www.jums.academy
ISSN: 2942-1861
Edi o :
DOMINIK VAN AAKEN
Ad iso y Edi o ial Boa d:
FREDERIK AHLEMANN
JAN-PHILIPP AHRENS
THOMAS BAHLINGER
MARKUS BECKMANN
CHRISTOPH BODE
SULEIKA BORT
ROLF BRÜHL
KATRIN BURMEISTER-LAMP
CATHERINE CLEOPHAS
NILS CRASSELT
BENEDIKT DOWNAR
RALF ELSAS
KERSTIN FEHRE
MATTHIAS FINK
DAVID FLORYSIAK
GUNTHER FRIEDL
MARTIN FRIESL
FRANZ FUERST
WOLFGANG GÜTTEL
NINA KATRIN HANSEN
ANNE KATARINA HEIDER
CHRISTIAN HOFMANN
SVEN HÖRNER
KATJA HUTTER
LUTZ JOHANNING
STEPHAN KAISER
NADINE KAMMERLANDER
ALFRED KIESER
NATALIA KLIEWER
DODO ZU KNYPHAUSEN-AUFSESS
SABINE T. KÖSZEGI
ARJAN KOZICA
CHRISTIAN KOZIOL
MARTIN KREEB
TOBIAS KRETSCHMER
WERNER KUNZ
HANS-ULRICH KÜPPER
MICHAEL MEYER
JÜRGEN MÜHLBACHER
GORDON MÜLLER-SEITZ
J. PETER MURMANN
ANDREAS OSTERMAIER
BURKHARD PEDELL
MARCEL PROKOPCZUK
TANJA RABL
SASCHA RAITHEL
NICOLE RATZINGER-SAKEL
ASTRID REICHEL
KATJA ROST
THOMAS RUSSACK
FLORIAN SAHLING
MARKO SARSTEDT
ANDREAS G. SCHERER
STEFAN SCHMID
UTE SCHMIEL
CHRISTIAN SCHMITZ
MARTIN SCHNEIDER
MARKUS SCHOLZ
LARS SCHWEIZER
DAVID SEIDL
THORSTEN SELLHORN
STEFAN SEURING
VIOLETTA SPLITTER
ANDREAS SUCHANEK
TILL TALAULICAR
ANN TANK
ORESTIS TERZIDIS
ANJA TUSCHKE
MATTHIAS UHL
CHRISTINE VALLASTER
PATRICK VELTE
CHRISTIAN VÖGTLIN
STEPHAN WAGNER
BARBARA E. WEISSENBERGER
ISABELL M. WELPE
HANNES WINNER
THOMAS WRONA
THOMAS ZWICK
Volume 9, Issue 4, Decembe 2024
JUNIOR
MANAGEMENT
SCIENCE
Aline Isabelle Lanz a h,The Daugh e E ec : Does Raising
Daugh e s In luence Fa he s' Gende -Rela ed
A i udes in he Wo kplace?
Sa a Luisa Nussbaum, Women in Leade ship Posi ions and
Fi m Inno a ion: A e The e Di e ences Be ween
Coun ies?
Julian F ied ich Joswowi z, Spi zede , Schmide , Ma salek:
Wha Role Does he Human Fac o Play in Accoun ing
Scandals?
Nicolas on Bodman, The Impac o P ospec us Language on
IPO Unde p icing: A Tex ual Analysis o Eu opean IPOs
Juan Diego Ma inez, Impac o he Eu opean Ca bon Bo de
Adjus men Mechanism (CBAM) on he Ge man
Indus y
Ma eike Polle, Reusable Packaging Sys ems o Res au an s
and Deli e y Se ices: A S udy o Consume
P e e ences and Adop ion Ba ie s o P omo e Public
Accep ance in Ge many
Niklas Thomas S a z, Road o a Bioeconomy in he Eu opean
Union: Mapping D i e s o P ecision Fe men a ion
Adop ion
Elisa Schul e genann Kulkmann, In he Eye o he Beholde :
Examining he Role o Dynamic Capabili ies, Indus y
Dynamics, and In e nal Knowledge Sha ing in
S a egis s' En y Decisions
Saskia Hahn, De elopmen o a P ocess Model o Mission-
D i en Co po a e Reb anding
Jakob Phillip Kla , A Cos -E ec i e Fu u e o Elec ici y
S o age - An Examina ion o LCOS S udies on
S a iona y Applica ions
1859
1901
1917
1934
1964
1994
2024
2050
2082
2118
Published by Junio Managemen Science e.V.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he CC-BY-4.0
(A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional). Open Access unding p o ided by ZBW.
ISSN: 2942-1861
A Cos -E ec i e Fu u e o Elec ici y S o age - An Examina ion o LCOS S udies on
S a iona y Applica ions
Jakob Phillip Kla
Technical Uni e si y o Munich
Abs ac
As he global ene gy ansi ion gains momen um and he demand o elec ical ene gy s o age ises, decision-make s ace he
challenge o selec he mos sui able s o age echnology. This hesis p esen s a comp ehensi e echno-economic analysis o
elec ical ene gy s o age echnologies o s a iona y applica ions, ocusing on he le elized cos o s o age (LCOS) as a key
me ic o e alua ing economic iabili y. Th ough a sys ema ic e iew o se e al LCOS s udies, he mos cos -e ec i e s o age
echnologies we e iden i ied o a ious use cases. While he esul s show signi ican he e ogenei y ac oss s udies, he indings
s ill indica e ha li hium-ion ba e ies and pumped hyd o s o age a e gene ally he mos iable and cos -e ec i e echnolo-
gies. Howe e , unique conside a ions a e obse ed o speci ic applica ions, such as lywheels o p ima y esponse. Fu u e
p ojec ions e eal ha li hium-ion is mos likely o domina e all applica ions excep o seasonal s o age, whe e hyd ogen
ene gy s o age is expec ed o induce he lowes LCOS. The ollowing pages p o ide aluable insigh s o decision-make s, pol-
icymake s, and indus y s akeholde s in selec ing sui able and economically iable s o age solu ions. This hesis highligh s he
signi icance o s o age echnologies in suppo ing he global ene gy ansi ion and emphasizes he impo ance o in es men
and apid deploymen o d i e p og ess and achie e a sus ainable ene gy u u e.
Keywo ds: cos -e ec i eness; ene gy s o age; ene gy ansi ion; le elized cos o s o age (LCOS); s o age echnologies
1. In oduc ion
I is a sunny summe day, and he en i e coun y is pow-
e ed by clean and sus ainable enewable ene gy sou ces
(RES). Suddenly, a s o m hi s. Windmills ha e o be shu
down and clouds co e he sun, educing he amoun o elec-
ici y gene a ed by pho o ol aic (PV) sys ems. A he same
ime, ac o ies keep ope a ing and people con inue o un
hei ai condi ione s and u n on he s o e o cook dinne .
Gi en he luc ua ing cha ac e o enewable ene gy, how
can we p e en blackou s and ensu e a eliable and con in-
uous elec ici y supply? The answe lies in e ec i e ene gy
s o age (Behab u e al., 2020, p. 1). Th ough s o ing excess
I would like o hank M.Sc. Hanna Schol a o he excep ional supe ision
o my hesis. She was highly suppo i e, always a ailable o answe my
ques ions and add ess my conce ns, and p o ided guidance h oughou
he w i ing p ocess. He help made he expe ience much mo e en iching
and less s ess ul.
ene gy du ing pe iods o high gene a ion and unleashing i
when needed, i ep esen s an essen ial link, connec ing e-
newable ene gy gene a ion and consis en powe a ailabili y.
In oday’s con ex , as we ace signi ican global challenges
such as clima e change, we u gen ly need o ansi ion o
clean ene gy sys ems. Elec ical ene gy s o age (EES) is a
cen al pilla o achie ing his. I unlocks he ull po en ial
o RES and enables hei in eg a ion in o he exis ing g id
in as uc u e (He e al., 2021, p. 1). Howe e , his aises
he ques ion o which s o age echnology o choose.
Selec ing he op imal ene gy s o age echnology o a
gi en applica ion is complex due o he di e si y o he ech-
nologies and a ying applica ion equi emen s. To add ess
his challenge, nume ous s udies ha e iden i ied he Le -
elized Cos o S o age (LCOS) as a key me ic o e alua -
ing he economic iabili y o di e en s o age echnologies
(Xu e al., 2022, p. 2). By es ima ing he cos o each uni
o discha ged ene gy, i p omises o inc ease he compa a-
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.5282/jums/ 9i4pp2118-2139
© The Au ho (s) 2024. Published by Junio Managemen Science.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he CC-BY-4.0
(A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional). Open Access unding p o ided by ZBW.
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2119
bili y among echnologies o a gi en applica ion, he eby
acili a ing he selec ion o he mos cos -e ec i e EES op-
ion. Howe e , me hodological disc epancies and a ying
assump ions ac oss hese LCOS s udies ha e led o di e gen
and some imes con lic ing esul s (Schmid e al., 2019a,
pp. 81-82). Consequen ly, eading di e en s udies can lead
o con usion a he han enligh enmen , p e en ing s ake-
holde s om making in o med choices.
To mi iga e his p oblem, his hesis aims o iden i y he
mos cos -e ec i e EES echnologies o a ious applica ions.
Using a sys ema ic e iew, i analyzes and compa es di e en
LCOS s udies o e eal pa e ns and highligh di e ences in
me hodologies and ecommenda ions. This p o ides alu-
able insigh s o decision-make s in de e mining he mos
app op ia e EES echnology o a speci ic applica ion. The
sys ema ic e iew app oach he eby educes he isk o po-
en ial bias and s eng hens he eliabili y o esul s. The
p essing need o add ess clima e change and he ansi ion o
enewable ene gy (In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency
[IRENA],2022) unde sco es he ele ance o his esea ch.
EES echnologies play a cen al ole in success ully in eg a -
ing RES in o he g id and educing ca bon emissions (Aneke
& Wang, 2016, pp. 350-351). This u he inc eases he im-
po ance o choosing he mos app op ia e echnologies. As
clima e change and he esul ing ene gy ansi ion a e global
issues, his hesis aims o p o ide a gene al iew ha can be
applied uni e sally. The e o e, i does no ocus on speci ic
coun ies o egions. This hesis ul ima ely con ibu es o a
mo e esilien and sus ainable u u e by educing con usion
and acili a ing he selec ion o EES echnologies.
The s uc u e o his hesis is o ganized as ollows. Chap-
e 2 lays he heo e ical ounda ion, p o iding essen ial
knowledge o unde s and he subsequen analysis o LCOS
s udies. This chap e p esen s he leading applica ions o
EES (Sec ion 2.1), explains he basic ope a ing p inciples
and cha ac e is ics o es ablished EES echnologies (Sec ion
2.2), and in oduces he concep o LCOS (Sec ion 2.3). The
analy ical pa o his hesis is included in Chap e 3. I
s a s wi h a de ailed desc ip ion o he o e all me hodol-
ogy employed in his hesis, p esen ed in Sec ion 3.1. This
sec ion p o ides a comp ehensi e ou line o he speci ic ap-
p oach used o examine and compa e di e se LCOS s udies,
encompassing da a sou ces, selec ion c i e ia, and analy i-
cal amewo ks. Nex , Sec ion 3.2 co e s he key indings
de i ed om e iewing and compa ing hese LCOS s udies.
These esul s a e p esen ed and isualized o highligh un-
de lying ends and pa e ns. This o ms he basis o he
subsequen discussion in Sec ion 3.3, whe e he esul s a e
c i ically examined, in e p e ed, and con ex ualized o iden-
i y unde lying implica ions and d aw conclusions. Building
on his discussion, his sec ion answe s he cen al esea ch
ques ion o his hesis by iden i ying he mos cos -e ec i e
EES echnologies o each applica ion. Finally, Chap e 4
summa izes he main conclusions d awn om he analysis
and highligh s he essen ial indings and implica ions o
echnology selec ion. In addi ion, an ou look in o he u u e
is p o ided, explo ing po en ial a enues o u he esea ch
and de elopmen in he ield o EES.
2. Theo e ical Founda ion
As desc ibed abo e, his chap e lays he heo e ical oun-
da ion o unde s and he ollowing analysis and compa ison
o LCOS s udies. I u ilizes se e al echnical e ms and con-
cep s, such as powe , discha ge du a ion, o edox eac ions.
While many o hese a e widely known, some may be un a-
milia and a e he e o e de ined in Appendix A.
2.1. Applica ions o Elec ical Ene gy S o age (EES)
One o he c i ical challenges in main aining a unc ional
ene gy g id is ensu ing a balance be ween powe supply and
demand. The ol age and equency o he g id a e e y sen-
si i e o powe imbalances. As a esul , a misma ch be ween
supply and demand can cause de ia ions om hei expec ed
le els, esul ing in powe ou ages. This h ea ens he s abil-
i y and eliabili y o he en i e g id. Wi hou he abili y o
s o e elec ici y, he powe gene a ed would ha e o equal
he powe d awn om he g id. The global ene gy ansi ion
u he exace ba es his challenge, as he gene a ion capac-
i y o RES is o en dependen on uncon ollable ac o s like
wea he condi ions. The e o e, EES is essen ial o enhance
he eliabili y o he g id. I can be used in se e al ways o
o e come his and o he p oblems (Ho , 2022, p. 26). While
EES is employed in di e se con ex s, such as powe ing elec-
ic ehicles (EVs), his hesis ocuses solely on la ge-scale1
s a iona y applica ions, such as equency esponse se ices
o seasonal s o age, as hey play a c ucial ole in achie -
ing he ansi ion o a ca bon- ee g id (Solo eichik, 2011,
p. 504). Mo eo e , o -g id applica ions and hyb id sys ems,
such as ba e ies combined wi h PV, a e beyond he scope o
his hesis.
2.1.1. F equency Con ol
Today, mos o he wo ld’s elec ici y g ids ely on al e -
na ing cu en (AC). As a esul , mos elec ical equipmen
and appliances ope a e only when he ol age is supplied a a
ixed equency o 50 o 60 Hz (Ho , 2022, p. 53). F equency
con ol aims o main ain he g id’s s abili y by keeping i s e-
quency wi hin an accep able ange, usually a na ow co ido
o less han 1 Hz (G eenwood e al., 2017, pp. 115-116).
Con en ional powe g ids a e cha ac e ized by ha ing
many o a ing masses, such as u bines and gene a o o o s,
which spin a synch onized equencies. The kine ic ene gy
s o ed in hese masses (ine ia) can uphold he synch oniza-
ion o all gene a o s o a ew seconds, hus compensa ing
o mino equency dis u bances. Today, he inc easing de-
ca boniza ion o he g id is leading o a g owing sha e o ine -
ialess powe gene a o s, like PV, which educe he g id’s sel -
s abilizing capabili y. This p esen s a challenge ha can be
1In his hesis, “la ge-scale” e e s o applica ions wi h mean powe a ings
o 1 MW o mo e.
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392120
add essed by applying EES echnologies (Ho , 2022, pp. 26-
31; Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age Council [LDES Council],
2021, p. 20). To be sui able o his ine ial suppo appli-
ca ion, EES echnologies mus espond quickly o g id luc-
ua ions (Ho , 2022, pp. 30–31). While ine ial suppo can
s abilize mino dis u bances o e sho pe iods, mo e ex en-
si e dis up ions, such as he collapse o cen al powe plan s,
equi e o he se ices known as equency esponse. EES
echnologies demons a e supe io pe o mance in deli e ing
hese se ices (Ho , 2022, p. 32).
F equency esponse asse s a e classi ied as p ima y, sec-
onda y, and e ia y ese es based on eac ion speed (Ho ,
2022, pp. 31–36). P ima y esponse co e s he i s seconds
o minu es a e a sudden equency and ol age change oc-
cu s in he g id. The s o age echnologies mus espond
wi hin milliseconds, p o iding o s o ing powe un il sec-
onda y esponse akes o e (Ho , 2022, pp. 35–36). Tech-
nologies used in seconda y esponse ake a ew seconds o
s a up. Thei job is o smoo h ou imbalances be ween de-
manded and supplied powe o se e al minu es. In some
coun ies, such as he UK, a new se ice called Enhanced
F equency Response (EFR) has been in oduced, consolida -
ing he unc ions o p ima y and seconda y esponse (G een-
wood e al., 2017, p. 117). Te ia y esponse sha es simi-
la i ies wi h seconda y esponse bu ope a es wi h longe e-
ac ion imes in he o de o minu es. I mus sus ain con-
inuous se ice o ex ended pe iods, eaching up o se e al
hou s (Ho , 2022, p. 35–36). F equency con ainmen e-
se e and equency es o a ion ese e a e o he simila con-
cep s o seconda y and e ia y esponse (Ralon e al., 2017,
p. 46). As he adop ion o RES inc eases, he impo ance o
equency con ol becomes mo e p onounced. The inhe en
a iabili y o ene gy supplied by RES can in oduce imbal-
ances in he g id’s equency, highligh ing he need o e ec-
i e equency con ol mechanisms.
2.1.2. Powe Quali y
Powe quali y is simila o equency con ol se ices.
Howe e , ins ead o ocusing on main aining a s able e-
quency on he g id, he goal he e is o main ain he quali y
o he ol age and cu en wa e o ms. This includes smoo h-
ing ou ol age luc ua ions ( licke ), ha monics, o no ches.
In addi ion, powe quali y also ensu es a s able ampli ude
o he wa e by coun e ac ing dis u bances, such as sudden
ol age dips o swells, as well as o e ol age and unde ol -
age (Tesaˇ
o á, 2011, p. 96, 98). Again, he inc easing use o
luc ua ing RES educes he powe quali y in he g id. EES
can be used o e ec i ely add ess hese dis u bances (Das
e al., 2018, pp. 1213, 1223). Powe quali y se ices equi e
a quick esponse ime om EES echnologies, o en wi h s o -
age du a ions o less han one minu e (Behab u e al., 2020,
p. 3). O e all, esponse ime is he mos c i ical ac o de e -
mining EES echnologies’ echnical sui abili y o sho - e m
s o age se ices such as equency con ol o powe quali y
(Aneke & Wang, 2016, p. 365).
2.1.3. Time Shi ing
As he name sugges s, he basic idea o ime shi ing is o
s o e ene gy and use i in la e pe iods. In his espec , any
use case o EES echnologies could be assigned o his ca e-
go y (Ho , 2022, p. 40). Howe e , speci ic applica ions a e
cen e ed a ound his idea. Ene gy a bi age is a no able ex-
ample. EES echnologies used in his applica ion do no need
o espond apidly. The goal is o pu chase cheaply and s o e
ene gy du ing o -peak imes o sell i la e du ing high-p ice
pe iods, ypically a e a ew hou s o s o age (He e al., 2021,
pp. 8, 13). Thus, ene gy a bi age helps o se he inc eased
isk o p ice ola ili y associa ed wi h he ene gy ansi ion
(Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age Council, 2022, pp. 3–4).
The ene gy p oduced by gene a ion echnologies canno
always ma ch he demand on he g id. This is especially ue
o RES echnologies. RES ene gy supply elies on ex e nal
and uncon ollable ac o s such as wea he condi ions and
ime o day. Fo ins ance, while elec ici y demand ends o
ise in he e ening when e e yone comes home, RES gene -
a ion, such as PV, declines du ing nigh ime. The e o e, EES
plays a c i ical ole in s o ing excess elec ici y du ing pe iods
o su plus and supplying i du ing imes o dec eased ene gy
gene a ion, enabling he balancing o daily luc ua ions in
elec ici y demand. This s a egy is known as ene gy shi ing
(Ho , 2022, pp. 40–42).
2.1.4. Peak Sha ing
One p oblem ha u ili ies and consume s ace is ha he
peak demand o elec ici y is ypically much highe han he
a e age demand. This necessi a es o e sized powe plan s
and in as uc u e, which a e only needed du ing a e peak
imes. (Ho , 2022, p. 42) Peak sha ing add esses his is-
sue by educing demand peaks and edis ibu ing he load
o la e pe iods, na owing he gap be ween maximum and
a e age demand (Vie ns ein & Wi zmann, 2020, p. 4). Us-
ing EES echnologies, u ili ies can de e he need o u he
ansmission and dis ibu ion (T&D) ne wo k expansions,
commonly e e ed o as T&D in es men de e al. Cha ging
hese echnologies du ing o -peak hou s o s o e elec ic-
i y ha can be eleased du ing peak demand educes he
equi ed in as uc u e capaci y, minimizing he need o sig-
ni ican g id in es men s (He e al., 2021, p. 9; Ralon e al.,
2017, pp. 10–11). Ano he way u ili ies y o educe he
need o o e capaci y in powe plan s and in as uc u e is
by cha ging hei cus ome s ex a ees i hei demand o
elec ici y is oo high a any gi en ime. EES echnologies
help cus ome s o mi iga e hei peak powe demand, e-
sul ing in cos sa ings by p e en ing hese demand cha ges
(demand cha ge managemen ) (Ho , 2022, p. 43–45).
2.1.5. Resiliency
ESS echnologies can imp o e a g id’s eac ion o unan ic-
ipa ed e en s ( esiliency) (Ho , 2022, p. 47). The e a e se -
e al speci ic applica ions o achie e his objec i e. P o iding
backup powe is one o hem: Many elec ici y gene a ion
echnologies equi e ex e nal ene gy o s a up. This can
be p oblema ic du ing a blackou , as he gene a o s canno
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2121
es a by d awing powe om he g id. EES echnologies
can o e a solu ion by supplying powe o es a gene a-
o s (black s a ). In addi ion, hey can p o ide eme gency
backup powe o unin e up ible powe supply (UPS) o c i -
ical equipmen and in as uc u e, such as se e s o hospi-
als (Ho , 2022, pp. 47–48, 153).
E en wi hou a o al blackou , e en s always cause dis-
up ions in powe gene a ion. EES echnologies ensu e a
eliable powe supply by balancing he di e ence be ween
demanded and gene a ed elec ici y. The e m powe elia-
bili y summa izes se ices ha achie e his (Schmid e al.,
2019b, Table S1). Nowadays, hey a e e en mo e i al due
o he a iable na u e o RES echnologies. Wind u bines o
PVs hea ily ely on wea he condi ions. In ex eme wea he ,
windmills may ha e o be shu down, and clouds may co e
he sun, p e en ing PV om c ea ing enough elec ici y o
mee he powe demand. EES can mi iga e his p oblem
by p o iding powe o hou s o e en days du ing se e e
wea he condi ions. Gi en he expec ed inc ease in unusual
and ex eme wea he e en s due o clima e change, he im-
po ance o long-du a ion EES as a c i ical enable o powe
eliabili y will con inue o g ow (Long Du a ion Ene gy S o -
age Council, 2022, pp. 22–23).
2.1.6. Seasonal S o age
Seasonal s o age is simila o ime shi ing, bu he s o -
age du a ion can be se e al weeks o mon hs. This app oach
aims o smoo h ou seasonal di e ences in powe gene a-
ion capaci y, such as he a ia ion be ween sola ene gy in
summe and win e . Addi ionally, annual peaks in demand,
such as aca ion pe iods, can be me wi hou o e building
he g id (He e al., 2021, pp. 8-9). Again, he ene gy an-
si ion u he emphasizes he need o seasonal s o age. Fo
ins ance, he educed powe supply om pho o ol aic sys-
ems in win e can be suppo ed by long- e m ene gy s o age,
which can be echa ged du ing pe iods o high powe gene -
a ion in summe . EES echnologies o his applica ion sha e
simila i ies wi h hose employed o ime shi ing se ices.
Howe e , he discha ge du a ions mus be much longe , so a
highe ene gy capaci y is equi ed. Sel -discha ge becomes
c ucial in seasonal s o age as i accumula es o e long s o -
age du a ions and should he e o e be as low as possible (de
Ba os Gallo e al., 2016, p. 815).
In conclusion, his sec ion highligh s he di e se ange
o s a iona y applica ions o EES echnologies, each wi h i s
speci ic echnical equi emen s. Unde s anding he ope a ing
p inciples and esul ing cha ac e is ics o di e en EES ech-
nologies is essen ial o de e mine hei sui abili y o pa ic-
ula applica ions. Thus, he subsequen sec ion will p o ide
an o e iew o he mos signi ican EES echnologies.
2.2. EES Technologies
S o ing elec ici y poses a signi ican challenge since elec-
ical ene gy canno be eadily s o ed bu i s mus be con-
e ed in o ano he o m o ene gy. I can hen be con e ed
back o elec ical ene gy la e in ime (Aneke & Wang, 2016,
p. 355). EES echnologies do jus ha . Gene ally, hey can be
classi ied as mechanical, elec o-chemical, elec ical, chemi-
cal, and he mal s o age echnologies based on he o m o
ene gy he elec ici y ans o ms in o (de Ba os Gallo e al.,
2016, p. 800).
This hesis ocuses on s andalone echnologies ha use
elec ici y as bo h he inpu and ou pu o m o ene gy
(Powe - o-Powe ) (Schill, 2020, p. 2059). In addi ion, his
hesis elies on he a ailabili y o LCOS s udies on he com-
pa ed s o age echnologies. The e o e, he ocus will be on
mo e ma u e echnologies wi h eal la ge-scale applica ions.
The mal s o age echnologies a e p ima ily used in hyb id
sys ems o suppo o he s o age o gene a ion echnologies.
In addi ion, he s o ed ene gy is o en eleased in he o m
o he mal ene gy, o example, o hea ing pu poses. While
some Powe - o-Powe s o age solu ions exis , hey a e s ill in
ela i ely ea ly s ages o de elopmen (Ho , 2022, p. 137).
Consequen ly, he mal ene gy s o age is no included in
his hesis. Simila ly, elec ical s o age echnologies a e no
analyzed. Supe capaci o s and supe conduc ing magne ic
ene gy s o age, he wo mos popula echnologies in his
ca ego y, a e s ill a he imma u e (Das e al., 2018, p. 1209;
de Ba os Gallo e al., 2016, p. 816) and ha e limi ed LCOS
s udies a ailable.
2.2.1. Mechanical S o age Technologies
Mechanical s o age is one o he mos popula and com-
mon ways o s o e elec ici y. He e, elec ical ene gy is con-
e ed in o po en ial o kine ic ene gy, which is hen used
o egene a e elec ici y la e in ime (Ho , 2022, p. 55).
Pumped hyd o s o age (PHS), comp essed ai ene gy s o -
age (CAES), and lywheel ene gy s o age (FES) a e he mos
popula and ma u e examples o mechanical s o age. These
h ee echnologies will be u he explained in he ollowing.
PHS is by a he mos widely used s o age echnology,
making up a ound 95% o global EES deploymen s (Ho ,
2022, p. 97). I s o es elec ici y by pumping wa e o an-
o he liquid om one ese oi o ano he highe ese oi .
When elec ici y is needed, he p ocess is e e sed, and he
po en ial ene gy o he wa e d i es u bines o gene a e
powe (Ho , 2022, p. 77). While PHS his o ically mainly
used i e s o c ea e wa e ese oi s, nowadays, he ocus
mo ed o so-called closed-loop PHS ha could also use di -
e en luids and be buil unde g ound, helping o educe ge-
og aphical cons ain s and he o e all cos o his echnology
(He e al., 2021, pp. 2–4). PHS equi es signi ican space
and is only sui able o speci ic geog aphies whe e la ge bod-
ies o wa e o o he luids a di e en heigh s can be c ea ed.
In addi ion, he echnology may cause ad e se en i onmen-
al consequences, such as he loss o na u al habi a s (Ho ,
2022, p. 79). Howe e , his hesis aims o p o ide a uni e sal
o e iew o di e en s o age echnologies and hei sui abil-
i y o indi idual use cases. The e o e, he analysis excludes
geog aphical, en i onmen al, and social ac o s ha could
di e om egion o egion. Ne e heless, decision-make s
should always e lec on hem when de e mining he mos
sui able EES echnology o hei speci ic ci cums ances. PHS

J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392122
is a e sa ile echnology used o sho - o long- e m ene gy
s o age. Ini ially, i mainly shi ed la ge amoun s o ene gy
o la e imes o he day. Howe e , I is also used o sea-
sonal s o age and sho - e m applica ions like esponse se -
ices (Ho , 2022, pp. 88–89).
CAES comp esses ai using elec ici y and s o es i in
anks o unde g ound ese oi s such as sal ca e ns. A
discha ge, i eco e s elec ici y using u bines and gene a-
o s as he ai is expelled. To do his, he ai mus i s be
hea ed and expanded. This can be done ei he by using os-
sil uels such as na u al gas (diaba ic comp essed ai ene gy
s o age (D-CAES)) o by aking was e hea om he com-
p ession p ocess ha is s o ed using he mal ene gy s o age
(adiaba ic comp essed ai ene gy s o age (A-CAES)). The e
is also a hi d echnology (iso he mal comp essed ai en-
e gy s o age (I-CAES)) ha is simila o A-CAES bu keeps
he empe a u e o he ai cons an h oughou he en i e
p ocess (He e al., 2021, p. 4). The basic p inciple o CAES
is simila o ha o PHS, and he wo echnologies sha e
hei sui abili y o a ious applica ions (Das e al., 2018,
p. 1210). Gene ally, mos mechanical s o age echnologies
apa om FES can achie e high powe le els while eaching
discha ge du a ions o mo e han one hou . On he nega i e
side, hese echnologies espond ela i ely slowly and equi e
much space due o hei compa a i ely low ene gy densi ies,
which may make hem less a ac i e o some applica ions
(He e al., 2021, pp. 7–8).
Ins ead o po en ial ene gy, FES s o es elec ici y in he
o m o kine ic ene gy in a o a ing mass ( lywheel). Cha g-
ing and discha ging a e done by a de ice ha is a combina-
ion o a mo o and a gene a o ha accele a es and decele -
a es he wheel. The lywheel spins in a acuum chambe and
is held in place by magne ic bea ings o educe ene gy losses
due o ic ion. Howe e , his also consumes some ene gy
and he e o e akes up some o he a ailable capaci y o a
lywheel (Ho , 2022, p. 59). Depending on he o a ional
speed, FES echnologies a e ca ego ized as low-speed ly-
wheels (<10,000 pm) and high-speed lywheels (>10,000
pm) (Nadeem e al., 2019, p. 4558). Unlike PHS and CAES,
FES is unsui able o long- e m applica ions (Aneke & Wang,
2016, pp. 355–356). Like o he mechanical s o age echnolo-
gies, FES has signi ican ly longe li e imes and highe cycle
li es han o he o ms o ene gy s o age. Con e sely, hey
ha e lowe ene gy densi ies han elec ochemical o chem-
ical s o age echnologies. FES can s ill achie e high powe
densi ies and has some o he highes ound- ip e iciencies
(RTEs) o any mechanical s o age echnology. The as eac-
ion imes ende i sui able o sho - e m use cases such as
equency con ol o powe quali y (He e al., 2021, pp. 7–8).
2.2.2. Elec ochemical S o age Technologies
Elec ochemical s o age is one o he oldes o ms o EES
(Ho , 2022, p. 3). This echnology uses elec ochemical e-
ac ions o con e elec ical ene gy in o chemical ene gy o
ice e sa (He e al., 2021, p. 2). Acco ding o China Ene gy
S o age Alliance (CNESA) (2020), jus ou echnologies ac-
coun o mo e han 99 % o he wo ld’s ins alled elec o-
chemical s o age capaci y (see Figu e 1). All o hem belong
o he g oup o ba e y ene gy s o age (BES) (Zake i & Sy i,
2015, p. 579).
These ou echnologies a e lead-acid (PbA), li hium-ion
(Li-ion), sodium-sul u (NaS), and low ba e ies, while ana-
dium edox low ba e ies (VRFBs) a e he mos common
chemis y o low ba e ies, acco ding o Aneke and Wang
(2016, p. 372). Al hough nume ous o he chemis ies exis ,
mos a ailable LCOS s udies o en ocus on hese ou BES
echnologies. The e o e, PbA, Li-ion, NaS, and VRFB a e he
only elec ochemical s o age echnologies conside ed he e.
PbA ba e ies, in en ed o e 150 yea s ago, a e a well-
es ablished and ma u e echa geable ba e y echnology.
They a e made up o a lead dioxide (PbO2) anode and a
lead (Pb) ca hode ha a e co e ed by an elec oly e con-
sis ing o a sul u ic acid (H2SO4) solu ion. Cha ging and
discha ging ely on e e sible edox eac ions known as he
double sul a e eac ion. PbA can be ca ego ized in o wo
main ypes: en ed ( looded) lead-acid ba e ies (VLA) and
al e- egula ed (sealed) lead-acid ba e ies (VRLA/SLA).
These ba e ies ind applica ions in a ious ields, such as
eme gency backup powe and di e en ypes o g id se ices
(Nadeem e al., 2019, pp. 4564–4565). A majo d awback
o a PbA ba e y is i s apid capaci y deg ada ion. To mi -
iga e his p oblem, i is common p ac ice o discha ge he
ba e y only pa ially. Consequen ly, PbA ba e ies exhibi a
compa ably low dep h o discha ge (DoD). As a esul , a PbA
sys em’s a ed ene gy mus be conside ably highe han he
equi ed ene gy as he ac ual usable capaci y is much lowe
han he heo e ical capaci y o he sys em. Mo eo e , he
apid capaci y deg ada ion also leads o a ela i ely sho
cycle li e o PbA ba e ies (Ho , 2022, pp. 156, 162).
The name Li-ion s ems om he ope a ing p inciple o his
echnology: du ing cha ging o discha ging, Li+ions mig a e
be ween a ca hode, ypically composed o li hium me al ox-
ide, and an anode, mos commonly consis ing o g aphi e.
Like PbA ba e ies, hese wo elec odes a e co e ed by an
elec oly e ha acili a es he mo emen o he Li+ions (He e
al., 2021, p. 5). Li-ion ba e y pe o mance can a y depend-
ing on he choice o ma e ials and cell design, o e ing g ea
lexibili y and sui abili y o a ious applica ions such as e-
quency se ices, ene gy shi ing, and ene gy a bi age. How-
e e , his a iabili y o en in ol es ade-o s be ween di e -
en pe o mance cha ac e is ics. Despi e his, Li-ion ba e -
ies ha e gained signi ican ecogni ion among he gene al
public, p ima ily due o hei popula i y in he EV indus y
(He e al., 2021, p. 5). The high ene gy densi y allows o
compac designs, making hem space-e icien . While Li-ion
only accoun ed o abou 5% o he global s o age capaci y
in 2020, his EES echnology will likely become he ma ke
leade , o e aking PHS soon (Ho , 2022, pp. 175, 181, 198).
NaS ba e ies a e a p ominen example o high- empe a u e
ba e ies. These a e based on liquid ac i e ma e ials ha e-
qui e a empe a u e o abou 300 ◦C o emain in a liquid
s a e (Ralon e al., 2017, pp. 95–96). NaS ba e ies em-
ploy liquid elec odes, wi h he anode consis ing o mol en
sodium and he ca hode comp ising mol en sul u . A solid
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2123
Figu e 1: Dis ibu ion o Global S o age Capaci y (China Ene gy S o age Alliance (CNESA), 2020)
No e. Mol en Sal is a o m o he mal ene gy s o age.
be a alumina ce amic se es as bo h he sepa a o and he
elec oly e be ween he elec odes. Du ing discha ge, he
mol en sodium unde goes oxida ion, esul ing in he o ma-
ion o Na+ions. These ions mig a e h ough he solid be a
alumina and eac wi h he mol en sul u on he opposi e side
o he cell. This p ocess e e ses when he ba e y is cha ged.
Being a high- empe a u e ba e y, NaS equi es unique ma e-
ials and a he mal managemen sys em ha adds o he cos
o he o e all design (Nadeem e al., 2019, pp. 4566–4567).
While NaS ba e ies exhibi lowe RTEs han some o he
ba e ies and ha e a lowe ene gy densi y han Li-ion, hey
possess minimal sel -discha ge and can achie e a ela i ely
long li e ime. NaS ba e ies a e o en used o applica ions
wi h cycles on a daily basis, such as peak sha ing o ene gy
a bi age (Ho , 2022, pp. 201–203).
Redox low ba e ies (RFBs) a e a dis inc ype o ba -
e y wi hin BES echnologies, di e ing om o he BES sys-
ems in hei design and ope a ion. Unlike con en ional
ba e ies wi h a single cell con aining wo elec odes and
an elec oly e, RFBs s o e ene gy in wo liquid elec oly e
solu ions, he ca holy e and anoly e (Ho , 2022, p. 206).
These elec oly es a e s o ed in sepa a e ese oi s. They
a e pumped in o he cell du ing cha ging o discha ging,
whe e edox eac ions occu . RFBs ha e simila ad an ages
o o he ese oi -based s o age echnologies, such as PHS o
CAES. Examples include long li e imes as well as decoupled
ene gy and powe s o age. Consequen ly, hey a e echni-
cally well-sui ed o a ious la ge-scale s a iona y use cases.
Fu he mo e, as BES echnologies, RFBs exhibi highe RTEs
han mechanical s o age echnologies (He e al., 2021, p. 6).
Among RFBs, VRFBs a e he mos p e alen ype. These ba -
e ies employ elec oly es o a ious anadium ions dissol ed
in liquid acid solu ions. One d awback o VRFBs is hei e-
liance on pumps o ci cula e elec oly es be ween ese oi s
and cells. The s a up ime o hese pumps can ake a ew
minu es, esul ing in slowe esponse imes o he ba e y.
The e o e, i he ba e ies need o espond quickly and unex-
pec edly, he pumps mus un con inuously, d awing powe
om he s o age. This cha ac e is ic leads o lowe RTEs
han o o he ba e y ypes (Ho , 2022, pp. 205, 208).
2.2.3. Chemical S o age Technologies
Chemical s o age echnologies s o e elec ical ene gy
in chemical bonds (Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age Coun-
cil [LDES Council],2021, p. ix). These echnologies a e
p ima ily based on al e na i e (non- ossil) uels (He e al.,
2021, p. 6). Among hese, hyd ogen is he mos ma u e
op ion. I can be used independen ly o in combina ion
wi h ca bon sou ces o p oduce me hane, hyd oca bon, o
me hanol. Howe e , hese app oaches a e less de eloped.
Mo eo e , he e a e addi ional ene gy losses when hyd ogen
is con e ed o o he al e na i e uels, which is why Aneke
and Wang (2016, p. 359) sugges ha hyd ogen may ha e
he highes po en ial. The e o e, his hesis will only ocus
on hyd ogen ene gy s o age (HES). Hyd ogen is ypically
p oduced h ough wa e elec olysis, whe e elec ici y is em-
ployed o spli wa e molecules in o hyd ogen and oxygen.
The hyd ogen can hen be s o ed in anks, usually ei he as a
p essu ized gas o as a c yogenic liquid (Fuel Cell Technolo-
gies O ice, 2017), and con e ed back in o elec ici y la e .
Fuel cells e e se he elec olysis p ocess, which is he mos
common way o achie e his con e sion. Al e na i ely, hy-
d ogen can be bu ned in gas u bines o gene a e elec ici y
(He e al., 2021, pp. 6–7). Due o i s abili y o be s o ed o
ex ended pe iods, HES is pa icula ly well-sui ed o seasonal
s o age o o he long- e m use cases (Nadeem e al., 2019,
p. 4562). Chemical s o age boas s highe ene gy densi ies
compa ed o o he s o age echnologies. Al e na i e uels
such as hyd ogen a e easily mo eable om one loca ion
o ano he , and s o age capaci y can be inc eased indepen-
den ly o powe gene a ion (Gü , 2018, p. 2732). Howe e ,
subs an ial ene gy losses a e in ol ed in con e ing elec ic-
i y o hyd ogen and back o elec ici y. Consequen ly, HES
has an RTE o only 10-40 %, which is lowe han ha o me-
chanical s o age and BES echnologies (o en abou 45-95
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392124
%, depending on he speci ic echnology) (He e al., 2021,
p. 8).
2.3. Le elized Cos o S o age (LCOS)
Wi h he inc easing impo ance o ene gy s o age, he e
has been a ise in s udies analyzing he cos o s o age. Many
o hese s udies compa e he o al in es men equi ed o
di e en s o age echnologies (Schmid e al., 2019a, p. 81).
While his me ic may be ela i ely s aigh o wa d o calcu-
la e, i o e looks essen ial aspec s ha can signi ican ly a ec
he economic sui abili y o a pa icula echnology o a spe-
ci ic use case. Fo ins ance, he o al in es men cos ails o
ully conside ac o s such as he RTE o a echnology, he
ime alue o money, o he expenses associa ed wi h ope a -
ing and main aining he s o age sys em. This becomes pa -
icula ly p oblema ic when in es men cos s dec ease due o
expe ience o economies o scale, making hem a smalle po -
ion o he o al cos (Schmid e al., 2019a, p. 86). The e-
o e, he e is a g owing need o a me ic ha p o ides a
holis ic iew o all ele an cos ypes incu ed by an EES
echnology h oughou i s li espan when used o a speci ic
applica ion. This includes aking in o accoun he unique
cha ac e is ics o each s o age echnology and he echni-
cal equi emen s o a gi en use case. The LCOS is one such
me ic ha aims o encompass a ious ac o s o de e mine
he ac ual cos o a pa icula echnology. The e o e, i has
gained in e na ional ecogni ion as an index o assessing he
cos o ene gy s o age (Xu e al., 2022, p. 2) and has been em-
ployed in bo h academic and indus ial se ings (Beuse e al.,
2020a, p. 2175).
2.3.1. Gene al Concep
LCOS is a me ic ep esen ing an EES echnology’s o al
discoun ed li e ime cos di ided by i s o al discha ged en-
e gy. Essen ially, i p o ides he a e age p ice o eleased
ene gy equi ed o co e all li e ime cos s o he echnology
such ha he esul ing ne p esen alue (NPV) o he in es -
men would be ze o (He e al., 2021, p. 10). LCOS is com-
monly exp essed in dolla s pe MWh o discha ged ene gy,
al hough he cu ency and ene gy uni p e ix may a y om
s udy o s udy. In cases whe e powe ou pu is mo e signi i-
can han o al ene gy eleased, he uni may be exp essed as
dolla s pe MW (Zake i & Sy i, 2015, p. 579). Al hough he e
a e a ia ions in e minology, such as Le elized Cos o En-
e gy S o age (LCOES) (Comello & Reichels ein, 2019, p. 2)
o Le elized Cos o Ene gy (LCOE) (Zake i & Sy i, 2015,
p. 573), hese e ms gene ally e e o he same o e y sim-
ila concep s when applied in he con ex o ene gy s o age.
As men ioned, LCOS accoun s o applica ion-speci ic pa am-
e e s such as annual cycles o DoD. Consequen ly, he es i-
ma ed cos o a pa icula echnology may a y depending on
he use case. The e o e, LCOS can only be used o compa e
he economic sui abili y o di e en EES echnologies o a
speci ic applica ion bu no o compa isons ac oss mul iple
use cases (Schmid e al., 2019a, p. 83).
2.3.2. LCOS Fo mula
The e is no uni e sal o mula o de e mining he LCOS
o EES echnologies. Ins ead, he speci ic calcula ions made
in di e en LCOS s udies end o a y sligh ly. Howe e , he
undamen al s uc u e is consis en ac oss s udies, comp is-
ing h ee main aspec s in almos e e y LCOS o mula. Equa-
ion (1) summa izes hese componen s2.
LCOS =
T
P
=0
CAPEX +OPEX
(1+ )
T
P
=0
E_discha ged
(1+ )
(1)
CAPEX ep esen s he capi al expendi u e (CAPEX) in-
cu ed in pe iod o se ing up an EES echnology. This
includes ac o s such as equipmen , cons uc ion ma e ials,
anspo a ion, geological su eys, en i onmen al impac
s udies, and ins alla ion cos s. Depending on he speci ic
echnology, he composi ion o CAPEX can a y conside -
ably. Fo example, ins alla ion cos s a e signi ican o PHS,
while ba e ies may ha e a la ge po ion o he in es men
cos a ibu ed o a e and expensi e ma e ials (Ho , 2022,
pp. 244–257). The ac ual se o ac o s included in CAPEX
a ies among LCOS s udies. Some assume ha CAPEX is
only he up on cos (Co ez e al., 2021, p. 208). In his
case, equa ion (1) simpli ies o equa ion (2). Howe e , o he
s udies also conside eplacemen cos o end-o -li e cos
as pa o CAPEX ha occu in la e pe iods and he e o e
need o be discoun ed using he discoun a e (Jülch, 2016,
pp. 1596–1597; Schmid e al., 2019a, p. 82; Xu e al., 2022,
p. 7).
LCOS =
CAPEX0+
T
P
=0
OPEX
(1+ )
T
P
=0
E_discha ged
(1+ )
(2)
OPEX includes all ongoing ope a ional expendi u e
(OPEX) equi ed o un an EES sys em in pe iod . I ypically
con ains cos s ela ed o plan ope a ion and main enance
(O&M). While CAPEX is usually a mo e signi ican cos d i e
o he LCOS, OPEX is s ill a i al pa o he calcula ion. This
is especially ue o echnologies wi h s eep lea ning cu es
like BES (Ho , 2022, p. 257–261). Al hough he cos o
cha ging elec ici y could be a subs an ial ac o in OPEX,
i is no conside ed in e e y s udy (Mo adi-Shah babak &
Jadidoleslam, 2023, p. 1700). Finally, E_discha ged ep-
esen s he o al ene gy3discha ged in pe iod . The alue
o E_discha ged a ies depending on he applica ion and
2Equa ions (1) and (2) a e aken om Ho (2022, p. 244) and sligh ly ad-
jus ed o gene alize he LCOS o mulas o he analyzed s udies in Chap e
3.
3As his s udy ocuses on elec ical ene gy s o age, E_discha ged is he
o al elec ici y discha ged in pe iod .
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2125
ac o s such as he numbe o annual cycles o he equi ed
ene gy capaci y o he EES echnology (Schmid e al., 2019a,
p. 96).
The inpu pa ame e s o he LCOS o mula a e in lu-
enced no only by he applica ion unde conside a ion bu
also by he choice o s o age echnology. Technical cha -
ac e is ics such as RTE, DoD, sel -discha ge, annual deg a-
da ion a e, o cycle li e di ec ly a ec he abo emen ioned
componen s (Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age Council [LDES
Council],2021, p. 49). Fo example, a lowe RTE inc eases
he amoun o ene gy ha needs o be cha ged, esul ing
in highe cha ging cos s and, he e o e, highe OPEX (i in-
cluded in he OPEX calcula ion). A he same ime, i e-
duces he a ailable capaci y o an EES echnology and, he e-
o e, may equi e o e sizing he a ed capaci y, d i ing up he
CAPEX. Consequen ly, CAPEX ,OPEX , and E_discha ged
a e again dependen on se e al pa ame e s and desc ibed by
o mulas. Howe e , since mos s udies di e in he choice
o ac o s in hei calcula ions, i is impossible o p o ide
a gene al o mula o hese componen s. A e calcula ing
CAPEX ,OPEX , and E_discha ged o each pe iod du -
ing he p ojec li e T, hey a e discoun ed using he in e es
a e and summed up. Finally, he sum o all discoun ed
CAPEX and OPEX is di ided by he o al discha ged elec-
ici y o compu e he LCOS o an EES echnology o a spe-
ci ic applica ion.
3. Sys ema ic Re iew o LCOS S udies
This hesis analyzes se e al LCOS s udies o answe which
echnology is he mos cos -e ec i e o each s a iona y ap-
plica ion. The goal is o de e mine whe he he s udies’ sug-
ges ions ega ding he cheapes EES echnology o di e en
use cases a e consis en and o iden i y why s udies migh de-
ia e om hese pa e ns. To do his, eliable LCOS s udies
compa ing he EES echnologies desc ibed abo e o he ap-
plica ions unde conside a ion i s had o be iden i ied and
e iewed. This p ocess is desc ibed in he ollowing sec ion.
3.1. Desc ip ion o Me hodology
To educe po en ial bias and o make he iden i ica ion
and analysis o LCOS s udies as objec i e as possible, a sys-
ema ic e iew was pe o med using he P e e ed Repo ing
I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews and Me a-Analyses (PRISMA)
as unde lying guidelines (Page e al., 2021). Due o he na-
u e o his hesis, no all PRISMA ules we e applicable o
necessa y and we e he e o e no conside ed he e.
Fo a s udy o be included in his analysis, i mus : (1)
calcula e he LCOS o indi idual s o age echnologies4, (2)
compa e a leas wo o he echnologies ha a e conside ed
in his hesis, (3) examine a leas one o he applica ions
4The name speci ied in he s udy does no ha e o be LCOS as long as he
gene al p inciple aligns wi h he one desc ibed in Sec ion 2.3.
desc ibed abo e5, (4) ha e a publica ion yea o 2019 o la e ,
(5) be w i en in English o Ge man, and (6) be he mos
ecen e sion. In addi ion, o ensu e high o e all quali y,
he jou nals o he conside ed a icles mus ha e a qua ile
anking based on he Jou nal Impac Fac o o Q2 o be e
o ha e an h-index o mo e han 30.
A e de ining he inclusion c i e ia, po en ially ele an
li e a u e was iden i ied in h ee s eps. Fi s , he academic
da abase Scopus6was used o he li e a u e sea ch. The ad-
an age o his da abase is ha all indexed a icles a e pee -
e iewed, which ensu es a high baseline quali y o he li -
e a u e. A sea ch s ing was de eloped based on he main
aspec s o he esea ch ques ion - EES s o age and EES ech-
nologies, s a iona y applica ions, and LCOS - while including
se e al synonyms and ela ed e ms in English and Ge man.
Two sea ches wi h sligh ly modi ied sea ch s ings we e con-
duc ed on 4 and 5 May 2023. The exac que ies used in Sco-
pus can be ound in Appendix B. The esul s we e il e ed o
exclude e iew a icles and include only eco ds published
a e 2018 and w i en in English o Ge man o ob ain he
mos ele an and ecen a icles. These wo sea ches yielded
a o al o 108 eco ds, no including duplica es. An ini ial
sc eening p ocess excluded 79 o hese eco ds a e apply-
ing he inclusion c i e ia o hei i les and abs ac s. Finally,
he ull ex s o he emaining documen s we e e iewed, e-
sul ing in ele en s udies ha me all c i e ia. Second, a o -
wa d and backwa d sea ch based on he inal s udies om he
i s s ep was conduc ed on 22 May 2023. This was done by
e alua ing hose a icles ha ei he e e enced o we e ci ed
by one o he ele en s udies and we e indexed in Scopus.
The inclusion c i e ion o he accep ed yea s o publica ion
was adjus ed o a lowe limi o 2013 o accoun o he ac
ha e e enced s udies a e necessa ily olde han he s udy
hey a e e e encing. This second s ep o he sea ch s a egy
added ano he i e s udies o he o al pool. Finally, Google7
was used h oughou May 2023 o u he expand he se o
LCOS s udies and include g ay li e a u e, esul ing in wo ad-
di ional epo s. The li e a u e sea ch iden i ied a o al o 18
eligible s udies ( e e o Appendix D o an o e iew o all
included s udies). Figu e 2shows he p ocess and easons
o exclusion.
Once he included a icles and epo s we e iden i ied,
in o ma ion ele an o de e mining he cheapes echnolo-
gies and compa ing he s udies was collec ed om hem. A
da a ex ac ion empla e was c ea ed o s anda dize and ob-
jec i y his p ocess. The a iables o which in o ma ion was
e ie ed can be classi ied as cha ac e is ics, inpu pa ame-
e s, and ou come a iables. The au ho s, yea o publica-
ion, me hodology used, and echnologies and applica ions
e alua ed a e examples o s udy cha ac e is ics. Va iables
such as RTE o ene gy and powe a ings a e inpu pa am-
5I is su icien i he esul s o speci ic applica ions o in e es can be
de i ed. The e o e, also s udies ha p o ide LCOS o a ange o inpu
pa ame e s wi hou e e ing o speci ic use cases can be included.
6h ps://www.scopus.com/.
7h ps://www.google.com/.
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392132
Figu e 7: Sha es o Cycle In e als in he Resul s o Each EES Technology
Figu e 8: Mos Cos -E ec i e EES Technologies in he Fu u e
No e. Only Beuse e al. (2020a), Cas o e al. (2022), Hun e e al. (2021), Jülch (2016), Schmid e al. (2019a), and Viswana han e al. (2022) p o ided
u u e p ojec ions.
o his applica ion assuming mo e han 1,000 annual cycles
(Cas o e al., 2022; Zake i & Sy i, 2015).
The e is a clea end owa d BES o powe quali y, wi h
o e 80 % o s udy esul s a o ing his g oup o s o age ech-
nologies. Mo adi-Shah babak and Jadidoleslam (2023) con-
clude ha VRFB is he cheapes BES echnology. Howe e ,
his s udy lacks anspa ency ega ding he inpu pa ame-
e s used, as i only p o ides anges, which e en di e be-
ween he echnologies. This makes i unclea which alues
we e used o he LCOS calcula ion. While he s udy assumes
a powe ange o VRFB o 0.01-3 MW, Li-ion can each a
powe o up o 50 MW (Mo adi-Shah babak & Jadidoleslam,
2023, p. 1704). Addi ionally, he s udy assumes low balance
o sys em (BOS) and ixed O&M cos s o VRFB compa ed
o o he echnologies (Mo adi-Shah babak & Jadidoleslam,
2023, p. 1705). This could lead o lowe o e all powe -based
cos s o VRFB, making i he p e e ed echnology. In addi-
ion, he s udy o e looks some i al cos ac o s, such as ime
and cycle deg ada ion, u he impac ing he eliabili y o he
esul s compa ed o some o he o he s udies. Nikolaidis e
al. (2019) p opose ad anced PbA as he cheapes echnol-
ogy o powe quali y ( ol age egula ion). No o he s udy
conside s his echnology. Ins ead, hey p ima ily e e o
he classic VRLA ba e y. Fu he mo e, his s udy calcula es
LCOS on a powe basis (USD/kW) a he han an ene gy ba-
sis (USD/kWh). As desc ibed in Sec ion 2.3.1, his is a iable
app oach o applica ions whe e he abili y o p o ide powe
is mo e signi ican han he o al discha ged ene gy. This is
a guably he case o powe quali y. The EES echnologies
may no need o discha ge la ge amoun s o ene gy bu mus
eac quickly and p ecisely injec o abso b powe o balance
ou ol age luc ua ions. Wi hou aking PbA in o accoun ,
NaS is he cheapes echnology in Nikolaidis e al. (2019),
which is consis en wi h he indings o Rahman e al. (2021)

J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2133
and Schmid e al. (2019a). O e all, NaS and Li-ion eme ge
as he mos p ominen op ions o powe quali y. While i
is di icul o de e mine he supe io i y o ei he echnology
a his s age, as he e a e de ailed s udies suppo ing bo h
op ions (Beuse e al., 2020a; Schmid e al., 2019a), Li-ion
is expec ed o be he clea winne in he u u e (see Figu e
8) (Beuse e al., 2020b; Cas o e al., 2022; Schmid e al.,
2019a).
BES also appea s o domina e he hi d use case wi h
sho discha ge du a ions, namely UPS. Nikolaidis e al.
(2019) was he only s udy ha speci ically de ined his ap-
plica ion, po en ially leading o biased inpu pa ame e s in
Table 1and in luencing he esul s d awn om o he s udies.
Fu he mo e, he s udy only compa es wo ele an ech-
nologies, PbA and Li-ion, which is why Table 2limi s his
applica ion o hese wo EES echnologies. Gene ally, UPS
can be seen as a cus ome se ice (Fi zge ald e al., 2015,
p. 16) equi ing a low powe a ing, which may be why
mechanical s o age is unsui able he e. Howe e , echnical
cha ac e is ics p o ided by Schmid e al. (2019b, Table S3)
sugges ha VRFB o NaS could also be sui able o UPS, e en
hough Nikolaidis e al. (2019) did no conside hem. In his
con ex , Mo adi-Shah babak and Jadidoleslam (2023) once
mo e sugges VRFB, bu he lack o anspa ency desc ibed
abo e again makes i di icul o compa e hese indings wi h
o he esul s. Nikolaidis e al. (2019) p opose PbA o UPS.
As desc ibed abo e, his s udy uses LCOS on a powe basis,
which is an app op ia e app oach o UPS. He e, he alue
o he applica ion mainly comes om p o iding powe in
he e en o a sys em ailu e ins ead o he o al amoun o
ene gy discha ged. Howe e , Nikolaidis e al. (2019) do no
conside ime o cycle deg ada ion, which could be pa ic-
ula ly bene icial o PbA, which ypically su e s om high
capaci y deg ada ion as desc ibed in Sec ion 2.2.2. D awing
p ecise conclusions o UPS is challenging due o he limi ed
numbe o s udies and he po en ial bias in he de ini ion
o he applica ion. In mos cases, Li-ion appea s o be he
p e e ed echnology, while PbA may also be a iable op ion.
Only Beuse e al. (2020a) and Cas o e al. (2022) p o ide u-
u e p ojec ions applicable o his use case, and bo h s udies
assume ha Li-ion will be he mos cos -e ec i e echnology.
3.3.2. Lowe In e media e Applica ions
Fo medium-du a ion applica ions, Li-ion sha es i s dom-
inance wi h PHS (see Figu e 5). While he la e akes o e
o uppe in e media e du a ions and highe powe a ings,
Li-ion appea s o be he mos app op ia e echnology in el-
a i ely lowe du a ion and powe applica ions. Seconda y
esponse, demand cha ge managemen , eme gency backup,
and powe eliabili y a e examples o hose medium-du a ion
use cases on he lowe end o he powe a ings o discha ge
du a ions.
In he con ex o seconda y esponse, Li-ion is he leas ex-
pensi e echnology in i e o 13 s udies. PHS and CAES sha e
he second place, each appea ing h ee imes (see Table 3).
Aus alian Ene gy Regula o (AER) (2020) is one o he s ud-
ies ha sugges PHS o his applica ion. Howe e , his s udy
has a egional ocus on Aus alia. I inco po a es inancing
and unding cos s (AER, 2020, p. 7) ha a e no conside ed
in mos o he s udies and may a y signi ican ly be ween e-
gions. I also assumes ha each EES echnology can deli e
i s ull a ed capaci y. This does no e lec he eali y whe e
ene gy is los due o ine iciencies o capaci y deg ada ion
o e ime, which is why he a ed capaci y o en needs o be
highe han he ac ual capaci y equi ed (AER, 2020, pp. 29–
30). Simila ly, sel -discha ge is no conside ed. End-o -li e
cos s, including ecycling e o s and po en ial e enue om
sal age alues, a e essen ial ac o s no conside ed in he cal-
cula ions o AER (2020). Di e en ma e ials used in BES
may equi e a ying deg ees o ecycling e o (Ba ke e al.,
2013, p. 248). Fu he mo e, his s udy lacks anspa ency e-
ga ding inpu pa ame e s such as DoD, cycle o calend ic li e,
CAPEX, OPEX, and BOS cos . This lack o anspa ency makes
i challenging o compa e he esul s wi h o he s udies and
o unde s and he easons o di e en ou comes. Mos im-
po an ly, he s udy does no di ec ly compa e LCOS be ween
di e en echnologies bu ins ead displays LCOS on sepa a e
g aphs. The e o e, alues need o be ead om he g aphs,
which is e y imp ecise, especially when alues a e close o-
ge he (AER, 2020, pp. 40–44). Consequen ly, i is impos-
sible o d aw p ecise and meaning ul conclusions om his
s udy.
One possible eason why s udies like AER (2020), Hun e
e al. (2021), Jülch (2016), and Sal ini and Gio annelli
(2022) sugges PHS o CAES ins ead o Li-ion o seconda y
esponse could be hei assump ion o longe discha ge du a-
ions anging om 4-12 hou s, compa ed o he es ima ed a -
e age o one hou (see Table 1) o his applica ion. PHS and
CAES ha e signi ican ly lowe ene gy-based CAPEX han BES
echnologies (96-124 USD/kWh s. 381-583 USD/kWh).
The e o e, as he ene gy capaci y inc eases, PHS and CAES
become ela i ely mo e a ac i e, assuming all o he ac o s
emain cons an . This is he case he e since ene gy capac-
i y is he p oduc o discha ge du a ion and powe a ing.
Con e sely, PHS and CAES ha e high powe -based CAPEX o
983 USD/kW and 957 USD/kW, espec i ely, making hem
po en ially mo e expensi e han BES (331-885 USD/kW) o
lowe discha ge du a ions assuming he same powe a ings.
Ne e heless, Schmid e al. (2019a) and Zake i and Sy i
(2015) p opose PHS and CAES, e en when assuming sho
discha ge du a ions o 1 and 1.25 hou s, espec i ely. One
possible explana ion is ha Schmid e al. (2019b, Table S6)
use a shallow DoD assump ion o Li-ion (57 %) compa ed
o he 80-90 % (Cas o e al., 2022, p. 357; Nikolaidis e
al., 2019, p. 757) used in he o he s udies. A lowe DoD
inc eases he equi ed nominal ene gy capaci y o achie e
he same e ec i e ene gy ou pu , d i ing up he LCOS o a
echnology. Zake i and Sy i (2015, p. 592) assume RTEs o
CAES o 70-90 %, conside ably highe han he ypical ange
in o he s udies, which usually alls be ween 44 % (Beuse e
al., 2020a, p. 2165) and 70 % (Jülch, 2016, p. 1599). LCOS
is highly sensi i e o changes in he RTE (Mugyema e al.,
2023, p. 11), which could explain why his s udy iden i ies
CAES as he cheapes echnology. Mo adi-Shah babak and
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392134
Jadidoleslam (2023) and Nikolaidis e al. (2019) a e wo
mo e ou lie s, sugges ing VRFB and ad anced PbA, espec-
i ely. Howe e , as men ioned ea lie , hese s udies a e less
compa able, and hey also did no conside CAES o PHS o
seconda y esponse.
In summa y, excep o Beuse e al. (2020a), who used
compa a i ely low discha ge du a ions, all s udies ha in-
cluded CAES o PHS in hei compa isons, sugges ed one o
hem as he cheapes echnology. When inc easing he as-
sumed discha ge du a ion o wo hou s, Beuse e al. (2020b)
aligns wi h he o he s udies and ecommends PHS. The e-
o e, PHS, CAES, and Li-ion a e likely compe i i e op ions
o seconda y esponse, wi h PHS and CAES po en ially be-
ing he p e e ed choice o ela i ely longe discha ge du-
a ions. Looking o he u u e, mos s udies ag ee ha Li-
ion will be he dominan echnology, ou pe o ming PHS and
CAES o his applica ion (Beuse e al., 2020b; Cas o e
al., 2022; Hun e e al., 2021; Jülch, 2016; Schmid e al.,
2019a; Viswana han e al., 2022).
The pe spec i e changes when i comes o demand
cha ge managemen . As a behind- he-me e cus ome se -
ice (Fi zge ald e al., 2015, p. 16), mechanical s o age is
unsui able (see Table 2), and BES is he dominan echnol-
ogy. The mos p ominen ep esen a i e o his g oup is,
once again, Li-ion (see Table 3), bu h ee s udies a e ecom-
mending o he echnologies. Cas o e al. (2022) conclude
ha long-du a ion lywheels a e he mos sui able echnol-
ogy o applica ions such as demand cha ge managemen .
Howe e , long-du a ion lywheels a e a ela i ely new and
eme ging echnology (Cas o e al., 2022, p. 355) no con-
side ed in he o he s udies. In addi ion, sel -discha ge is
no aken in o accoun . FES echnologies ha e an a e age
sel -discha ge o nea ly 190 % pe day14, so no conside -
ing his could signi ican ly a ec he esul s. Sal ini and
Gio annelli (2022) iden i y NaS ba e ies as he cheapes
echnology o demand cha ge managemen . This inding
may be in luenced by he assump ion o a highe powe a -
ing (5 MW, i e imes highe han o he s udies) and a longe
discha ge du a ion (six hou s, 50 % highe ). The a e age
ene gy-based CAPEX o NaS used in all s udies analyzed is
he lowes a 346 USD/kWh compa ed o o he BES ech-
nologies (381-583 USD/kWh). The highe powe a ing and
longe discha ge du a ion esul in highe ene gy capaci y
equi emen s, which he e o e ha e a p opo iona ely lowe
impac on he LCOS o NaS, po en ially making i he cheap-
es echnology in his s udy. I is wo h no ing ha Sal ini
and Gio annelli (2022) do no conside essen ial cos ac-
o s like eplacemen cos , end-o -li e cos , cycle and ime
deg ada ion, and sel -discha ge, which may a ec he accu-
acy o he esul ing LCOS es ima es. Finally, Schmid e al.
(2019a) p opose VRFB as he cheapes echnology o de-
mand cha ge managemen . The s udy assumes 500 annual
cycles, which is a he uppe end o he ange o his appli-
14 A e age calcula ed om he alues p o ided by all s udies ha consid-
e ed FES: Mugyema e al. (2023), Nikolaidis e al. (2019), Schmid e al.
(2019a), and Zake i and Sy i (2015).
ca ion (see Table 1). One ad an age o VRFB is i s long cycle
li e compa ed o o he BES echnologies, las ing abou wice
as many cycles as Li-ion, PbA, o NaS in his s udy (Schmid
e al., 2019b, Table S3). This ex ended cycle li e may be
why VRFB is p e e ed in his analysis. Apa om ha , his
s udy demons a es high o e all quali y, conside ing a wide
ange o cos ac o s and aking in o accoun he unce ain y
o hei inpu pa ame e s.
While i is di icul o d aw de ini i e conclusions, Li-ion
may ha e a sligh ad an age o e o he BES echnologies o
demand cha ge managemen , esul ing in he lowes LCOS
in 50 % o he s udies. Ne e heless, NaS and VRFB could
also be iable op ions, o en anked in he op h ee echnolo-
gies. I is essen ial o acknowledge ha he es ima es o inpu
pa ame e s used o his applica ion (see Table 1) a e again
only de i ed om he alues o a single s udy (Schmid e al.,
2019b), inc easing he isk o biased conclusions. In he u-
u e, 75 % o he s udies p edic ha Li-ion will ou pe o m
all o he echnologies o his use case (Beuse e al., 2020b;
Cas o e al., 2022; Schmid e al., 2019a; Viswana han e al.,
2022).
As o demand cha ge managemen , mechanical s o age
is unsui able o eme gency backup and powe eliabili y (see
Table 2), which may explain he dominance o BES solu ions.
The wo mos equen ly p oposed echnologies o hese use
cases a e Li-ion and PbA, each sugges ed by 40 % o he s ud-
ies. Sal ini and Gio annelli (2022) s and ou as he only ou -
lie , again iden i ying NaS as he cheapes echnology. The
easons o his esul a e equi alen o hose desc ibed ea -
lie o demand cha ge managemen , as he same inpu pa-
ame e s we e used o bo h applica ions. Fo he s udies a-
o ing PbA (Nikolaidis e al., 2019; Schmid e al., 2019a), a
much lowe cycle equency was assumed han o he o he
s udies (excep o Beuse e al. (2020a)). PbA is less sui -
able o highe numbe s o cycles due o cycle deg ada ion
(Ho , 2022, p. 156). On he o he hand, PbA is a ela i ely
inexpensi e echnology compa ed o Li-ion15. A lowe e-
quencies, cycle li e and deg ada ion a e less c i ical, making
in es men cos one o he main d i e s o he LCOS. Fu -
he mo e, s udies a o ing PbA o e Li-ion assume compa a-
i ely highe RTEs o PbA (84-90 % (Nikolaidis e al., 2019,
p. 757; Schmid e al., 2019b, Table S4) s. 72-79 % (Beuse
e al., 2020a, p. 2165; Co ez e al., 2021, p. 209). Fo com-
pa ison, he ange speci ied by IRENA alls somewhe e in he
middle a 80-82 % (Ralon e al., 2017, p. 125), so bo h as-
sump ions appea simila ly accu a e. The e a e high-quali y
s udies ha conside a wide ange o cos ac o s on ei he
side (Beuse e al., 2020a; Schmid e al., 2019a).
In summa y, while he e may be a a ie y o sui able ech-
nologies o eme gency backup and powe eliabili y applica-
ions, Li-ion and PbA appea o be pa icula ly ad an ageous.
Again, all s udies ag ee ha Li-ion will be he dominan ech-
nology in he u u e (Beuse e al., 2020b; Schmid e al.,
2019a), likely due o i s s onge cos educ ion (Schmid e
15 381 USD/kWh and 583 USD/kW o PbA compa ed o 552 USD/kWh
and 773 USD/kW o Li-ion.
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2135
al., 2019b, Table S8) and highe pe o mance imp o emen s
(Ralon e al., 2017, p. 125). I is wo h no ing ha bo h
s udies poin ing o PbA (Nikolaidis e al., 2019; Schmid e
al., 2019a) we e published ou yea s ago, while Schmid e
al. (2019a, p. 87) e en expec ed Li-ion o o e ake PbA by
2020. The e o e, Li-ion may al eady be he single mos cos -
e ec i e EES echnology o hese wo use cases.
3.3.3. Uppe In e media e and Long-Du a ion Applica ions
A e analyzing he lowe in e media e applica ions, he
emaining use cases in his o e all ca ego y a e examined.
These a e e ia y esponse, T&D in es men de e al, ime
shi ing, and black s a . The goal is o ge a be e unde -
s anding o whe he PHS may, in ac , be he mos app op i-
a e echnology o hem.
Fo e ia y esponse, 57 % o all s udies conside ing his
applica ion concluded ha PHS is he leas expensi e ech-
nology. CAES and HES come in second place, wi h one s udy
each (14 %) sugges ing hem (see Table 3). Only one o he
se en s udies ecommends BES echnologies o his use case.
In ha s udy (AER, 2020), al hough i conside ed PHS, Li-ion
and VRFB appea o be he cheapes op ions. As desc ibed in
Sec ion 3.3.2, his s udy’s esul s a e un eliable o his anal-
ysis due o egional ocus, neglec o essen ial cos ac o s,
lack o anspa ency, and omission o exac LCOS alues o
compa isons be ween di e en EES echnologies.
Viswana han e al. (2022, p. 130) conclude ha CAES
is he cheapes echnology, while PHS anks only ou h ou
o six, ollowing Li-ion and VRFB. Like AER (2020), his e-
sea ch ocuses on a speci ic egion (USA). I akes in o ac-
coun axes and inancing cos s, which again makes i less
compa able o o he s udies and de ia es om he aim o
his hesis o p o ide a gene al and egionally independen
iew o he sui abili y o EES echnologies. The LCOS o
CAES (0.15-0.18 USD/kWh), Li-ion (0.14-0.20 USD/kWh),
PHS (0.17-0.24 USD/kWh) and VRFB (0.17-0.23 USD/kWh)
(Paci ic No hwes Na ional Labo a o y (PNNL), 2023)16 a e
ai ly close. A he same ime, i is unclea how much im-
pac axes and inancing cos s ha e on he o al LCOS, so
he echnology ankings migh be di e en i hey we e no
conside ed. Excep o AER (2020) and Viswana han e al.
(2022), all o he s udies ha did no p opose PHS o e ia y
esponse did no conside i a all. Again, his does no au o-
ma ically imply ha PHS would be he cheapes echnology
i included in hese s udies. Ne e heless, i ein o ces he
o e all imp ession ha PHS is he dominan echnology o
e ia y esponse and has a sligh ad an age o e o he op-
ions, such as CAES o Li-ion. In e ms o he u u e, Li-ion
is he clea winne , as i is p oposed by all bu one s udy ha
p o ides a u u e p ojec ion o his use case (Beuse e al.,
2020b; Jülch, 2016; Schmid e al., 2019a; Viswana han e
al., 2022).
16 An o e iew o he up- o-da e LCOS alues om Viswana han e al.
(2022) is gi en in Paci ic No hwes Na ional Labo a o y (PNNL) (2023),
which is why he la e was used he e.
Fo T&D in es men de e al, simila o e ia y esponse,
AER (2020) sugges s Li-ion and VRFB as he cheapes op ion,
bu as men ioned be o e, hese esul s could be mo e eliable
and p ecise. All o he s udies ei he ecommend PHS o did
no conside his echnology. Mechanical s o age seems o
domina e o his applica ion, wi h CAES being he cheapes
echnology when PHS is no included in he analysis. T&D
in es men de e al sha es i s u u e p ojec ions wi h e ia y
esponse.
The dominance o PHS is e en mo e appa en o ime
shi ing, whe e i is he cheapes echnology in all nine s ud-
ies ha conside ed i in hei compa ison. Including almos
all s udies (15 ou o 18 (see Table 3)) in e alua ing his ap-
plica ion educes he bias in he esul s. The e o e, PHS has a
high p obabili y o ha ing a cos ad an age in his pa icula
use case. Simila ly, Li-ion is likely o be he p e e ed choice
in he u u e, wi h ou ou o i e s udies p edic ing ha i
will ha e he lowes LCOS (Beuse e al., 2020a; Hun e e al.,
2021; Jülch, 2016; Schmid e al., 2019a; Viswana han e al.,
2022).
Rega ding black s a applica ions, only ou s udies’ e-
sul s could be used o e alua e he echno-economic sui abil-
i y o EES echnologies o his use case (see Table 3). Ad-
di ionally, only Nikolaidis e al. (2019) and Schmid e al.
(2019b) could be aken o de ining he inpu pa ame e s
used in he emaining wo s udies, u he limi ing he e-
liabili y o he conclusions. PHS eme ges as he winne in
all s udies whe e i was conside ed, unde sco ing he o e -
all dominance o his echnology o applica ions wi h uppe
in e media e discha ge du a ions o powe ou pu s. Only
wo s udies p o ide u u e p ojec ions (Cas o e al., 2022;
Schmid e al., 2019a), bu hey do no de ia e om he con-
sensus ha Li-ion is he cheapes EES echnology in mos u-
u e scena ios. This sup emacy can be a ibu ed o he sig-
ni ican in es men s expec ed in Li-ion echnologies, pa ic-
ula ly in he EV indus y, as discussed ea lie . These in es -
men s enable economies o scale and accele a e lea ning e -
ec s (Beuse e al., 2020a, pp. 2166–2167), esul ing in mo e
signi ican cos educ ions compa ed o he o he echnolo-
gies (Schmid e al., 2019b, Table S8).
Seasonal s o age is he only applica ion whe e no s udy
ecommends BES. Ins ead, CAES and PHS a e he only wo
echnologies ha appea a he op o he lis . This is no
su p ising om an economic poin o iew, as he ene gy ca-
paci y equi emen s o seasonal s o age o 240 MW o up
o 4 GW17 can be signi ican ly highe compa ed o o he use
cases. As desc ibed in Sec ion 3.3.2, PHS and CAES ha e
a cos ad an age o e BES ega ding ene gy-based CAPEX.
This compe i i e ad an age g ows wi h he ene gy equi e-
men s o an applica ion and is, he e o e, highes o sea-
sonal s o age. F om a echnical pe spec i e, excep o VRFB,
BES echnologies a e no conside ed applicable o his use
case (see Table 2), which u he explains hei absence in he
17 When mul iplying he lowe and uppe bounds o powe and discha ge
du a ions, espec i ely (see Table 1).
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392136
ecommenda ions. Jülch (2016) is he only s udy ha sug-
ges s PHS o seasonal s o age. One no able di e ence he e is
he assump ion o a longe li e ime o PHS compa ed o he
o he h ee s udies (80 yea s (Jülch, 2016, p. 1597) s. 30-55
yea s (Hun e e al., 2021, p. 2093; Schmid e al., 2019b, Ta-
ble S4)). Howe e , all o hese alues a e wi hin he bounds
speci ied by IRENA (Ralon e al., 2017, p. 124), making i
challenging o de e mine which s udy made mo e ealis ic as-
sump ions, especially conside ing hei o e all simila i y. In
summa y, CAES and PHS domina e he cu en s a e o sea-
sonal s o age, while HES is he clea winne o he u u e,
being he only echnology p oposed o his use case (Beuse
e al., 2020a; Hun e e al., 2021; Jülch, 2016; Schmid e
al., 2019a).
3.3.4. Mos Cos -E ec i e EES Technologies
By e alua ing he ou comes o each use case and consid-
e ing he a ay o s udies, i is possible o answe he unda-
men al ques ion o his hesis: Which echnology is mos cos -
e ec i e o each applica ion? In cases like demand cha ge
managemen , UPS, eme gency backup, and powe eliabil-
i y, which a e ypically behind- he-me e cus ome se ices,
Li-ion eme ges as he mos sui able and cos -e ec i e op-
ion o e all. Howe e , o he BES echnologies like PbA, NaS,
and VRFB show p omise and may be he p e e ed choice
o speci ic indi idual use cases. Mechanical s o age is no
well sui ed o hese applica ions. This also applies o powe
quali y18, whe e Li-ion and NaS ha e been iden i ied as he
mos cos -e ec i e op ions. PHS demons a es dominance
in he mid- ange applica ions o seconda y esponse, e -
ia y esponse, T&D in es men de e al, ime shi ing, and
black s a , wi h CAES o en a compe i i e al e na i e. Fo
p ima y esponse, FES echnologies exhibi a cycle li e ad-
an age, po en ially making hem he cheapes op ion o e -
all, despi e a ied inclusion ac oss s udies. Howe e , Li-ion
is expec ed o ca ch up in he u u e. BES is no ecom-
mended o seasonal s o age, whe e CAES and PHS a e he
op choices. Looking ahead, Li-ion is p ojec ed o inc ease
i s dominance, becoming he mos sui able echnology in all
use cases excep o seasonal s o age, whe e HES is p edic ed
o be he mos cos -e ec i e op ion. This is p ima ily due o
Li-ion’s expec ed cos educ ions and pe o mance imp o e-
men s d i en by ex ensi e in es men s. In conclusion, he
op imal ene gy s o age echnology a ies ac oss use cases,
wi h PHS and Li-ion eme ging as he mos p ominen and
e sa ile op ions - one o hese echnologies being among
he cheapes in almos all applica ions. Table 4p o ides an
o e iew o he mos app op ia e echnologies o each ap-
plica ion and pe iod.
While he abo e pa ag aph answe s he ques ion o which
echnology is mos cos -e ec i e o which use case, i is es-
sen ial o no e ha hese conclusions la gely depend on he
applica ion de ini ions used o ex ac da a om he LCOS
s udies (see Table 1). These de ini ions a e based on a sam-
ple o s udies and may no e lec he ue na u e o hese
18 Excep o FES, which is a sui able echnology o powe quali y.
applica ions. This is pa icula ly he case o demand cha ge
managemen and UPS, whe e only one sou ce was useable
o es ima e he inpu pa ame e s. To allow o b oade ap-
plicabili y o he indings and o educe hei dependence on
speci ic use case de ini ions, Figu e 9p o ides a mo e gene al
o e iew o he esul s ha also e lec s he inpu pa ame e s
assumed o each applica ion. This also makes i possible o
e i y he obse a ions and assump ions made in Sec ion 3.2.
Figu e 9shows ha FES and Li-ion domina e sho -
du a ion, high- equency applica ions wi h discha ge du-
a ions o less han one hou . While FES is only iable o
se e al housand cycles pe yea , Li-ion and o he BES ech-
nologies a e sui able o equencies as low as 50 cycles
o mo e han 1,000 annual cycles. This is consis en wi h
he obse a ions in Figu e 5and Appendix F.2. Discha ge
du a ions o abou one hou o m a ansi ion zone whe e
bo h BES as well as PHS and CAES a e sui able echnologies.
F om hen on, he wo mechanical s o age echnologies a e
he bes op ion o almos all applica ions. Only o smalle
use cases, wi h powe a ings below 10 MW, can BES main-
ain i s posi ion as he cheapes EES echnology. This di e s
om he ini ial assump ions made in Sec ion 3.2 based on
Appendix E.2. Finally, mos echnologies a e indeed sui able
o a wide ange o annual cycles. In addi ion o he wide
equency ange o BES, mechanical s o age wi hou FES can
be economically iable in applica ions anging om 600 o
less han en yea ly cycles. This also con i ms he gene al
end ha BES is mo e sui able o medium o high equen-
cies, while mechanical s o age akes o e o medium o low
equencies, which aligns wi h he indings o Figu e 7and
Appendix F.2.
While hese gene al conclusions inc ease he usabili y o
decision-make s by being less dependen on he de ini ion
o speci ic use cases, one should no e ha he LCOS is no
law o na u e, and he esul s ely on a se ies o s udies ha
build hei es ima es on assump ions and simpli ica ions o
he eal wo ld. These indings can se e as guidelines, bu
he high unce ain y associa ed wi h es ima ing LCOS mus
be kep in mind. In addi ion, he cos is only one side o he
economic iabili y coin. An EES echnology mus also c ea e
alue by gene a ing e enues o educing o he expenses o
jus i y an in es men . Some echnologies could simul ane-
ously be used o mul iple applica ions, c ea ing alue om
di e en sou ces (Ralon e al., 2017, p. 13). This could gi e
hem a compa a i e ad an age, e en hough hey may be
mo e expensi e han o he echnologies ha a e only use-
able o one applica ion a a ime. A goal o u u e esea ch
could be o de elop a mo e holis ic me ic ha conside s bo h
cos s and economic alue.
4. Conclusion
The objec i e o his hesis was o p o ide aluable assis-
ance o decision-make s, policymake s, and o he s akehold-
e s in selec ing EES echnologies o speci ic applica ions.
Va ious LCOS s udies we e analyzed and compa ed using a
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2137
Table 4: Mos Cos -E ec i e EES Technologies o Each Applica ion and Pe iod
Applica ion Pe iod
P esen S a e Fu u e
P ima y Response FES Li-ion/FES
Powe Quali y Li-ion/NaS Li-ion
UPS Li-ion/PbA Li-ion
Seconda y Response PHS/CAES/Li-ion Li-ion
Demand Cha ge Managemen Li-ion/NaS/VRFB Li-ion
Eme gency Backup & Powe Reliabili y Li-ion/PbA Li-ion
Te ia y Response PHS Li-ion
T&D In es men De e al PHS Li-ion
Time Shi ing PHS Li-ion
Black S a PHS Li-ion
Seasonal S o age PHS/CAES HES
Figu e 9: Mos Cos -E ec i e EES Technologies in Dependence on Inpu Pa ame e s
No e. Bubble sizes ep esen powe a ings; Bubble colo ep esen s EES echnology: Yellow =FES, ed =BES, o ange =mechanical s o age (wi hou
FES)/BES, blue =mechanical s o age (wi hou FES); Bubble names: PR =p ima y esponse, SR =seconda y esponse, TR = e ia y esponse, PQ =
powe quali y, TS = ime shi ing, DCM =demand cha ge managemen , T&D =T&D in es men de e al, EB&PR =eme gency backup & powe eliabili y,
BS =black s a , SS =seasonal s o age.
sys ema ic li e a u e e iew o de e mine which EES echnol-
ogy is he mos cos -e ec i e o each s a iona y applica ion.
The indings o his analysis sugges ha Li-ion o PHS
a e iable echnologies o mos applica ions, demons a ing
hei e sa ili y and economic compe i i eness. The only ex-
cep ion is p ima y esponse, whe e FES has a compa a i e
ad an age o his use case. Looking o he u u e, seasonal
s o age is he only applica ion whe e Li-ion is no expec ed
o be he cheapes echnology. Ins ead, all s udies ag ee ha
HES will domina e his use case in he upcoming yea s. These
conclusions a e ied o speci ically de ined applica ions. To
p o ide a uni e sal pic u e and o inc ease he usabili y and
alue o he esul s, hey we e also analyzed in e ms o hei
inpu pa ame e s o d aw conclusions independen o appli-
ca ion de ini ions. The analysis shows ha BES, especially
Li-ion, is he op imal choice o applica ions wi h discha ge
du a ions o less han one hou , wi h he addi ion o FES o
high- equency cycling scena ios. On he o he hand, CAES
and, especially PHS, ake p ecedence o applica ions wi h
du a ions beyond one hou and powe a ings exceeding 10
MW. A he same ime, BES emains iable o low-powe use
cases.
While his hesis has e ealed pa e ns and simila i ies
among he analyzed LCOS s udies, i is i al o acknowl-

J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-21392138
edge he he e ogenei y o me hodologies ha makes di ec
compa isons challenging. Di e ences in assump ions, es i-
ma ions, and he limi ed a ailabili y o s udies -pa icula ly
o black s a , UPS, and seasonal s o age - in oduce unce -
ain ies and limi a ions o he p ecision and con idence o he
conclusions d awn. This makes i c ucial o de elop no ms
and guidelines ha s anda dize he calcula ion o LCOS and
p omo e compa abili y ac oss s udies in he u u e. In addi-
ion, u u e esea ch e o s should explo e he de elopmen
o mo e holis ic me ics ha conside cos s, alue s eams,
and en i onmen al and social impac s. Eme ging echnolo-
gies should be included in he e alua ion o ensu e a com-
p ehensi e and up- o-da e assessmen o he EES landscape.
A mo e quan i a i e app oach o his sys ema ic li e a u e e-
iew could inc ease he eliabili y o exis ing conclusions and
p o ide u he insigh s by using a la ge sample size o de-
e mine co ela ions be ween p e e ed EES echnologies and
speci ic inpu pa ame e s.
F om a scien i ic pe spec i e, his hesis con ibu es o
he exis ing body o knowledge by p o iding a comp ehen-
si e analysis and compa ison o mul iple LCOS s udies. I
highligh s he conside able he e ogenei y among hese s ud-
ies and p o ides a clea e unde s anding o he unde lying
pa e ns and simila i ies. F om a p ac ical s andpoin , by
iden i ying he mos cos -e ec i e EES echnologies o di -
e en s a iona y applica ions, his hesis p o ides decision-
make s, policymake s, and indus y s akeholde s wi h alu-
able in o ma ion o make in o med choices in hei s o age
echnology selec ion. These insigh s will no only help o e-
duce cos s bu also inc ease he e iciency o s o age echnol-
ogy deploymen . Fu he mo e, in he con ex o he global
ene gy ansi ion, whe e eliable and e icien s o age ech-
nologies a e c i ical o in eg a ing in e mi en enewable
ene gy sou ces, his esea ch o e s p ac ical guidance o
s akeholde s o na iga e he complexi ies o ene gy sys em
ans o ma ion.
Deploying EES echnologies pa es he way o u u e
cos educ ions and pe o mance enhancemen s by enabling
economies o scale. Due o he cen al ole o EES in achie -
ing he global ene gy ansi ion, we canno wai o mo e
ce ain imes bu mus in es in hese echnologies now. This
way, we will be aking a a - eaching s ep owa d a g eene
and mo e sus ainable u u e
Re e ences
AER. (2020). LCOE and LCOS Modelling App oach, Limi a ions and Re-
sul s: Wholesale Elec ici y Ma ke Pe o mance Repo 2020. Re-
ie ed Ma ch 15, 2023, om h ps://www.ae .go .au/sys em/
iles /WEMPR % 202020 % 20 - %20Wholesale % 20elec ici y %
20ma ke % 20pe o mance % 20 epo % 202020 % E2 % 80 %
94LCOE%20%26%20LCOS%20modelling%20app oach%2C%
20limi a ions%20and%20 esul s_0.pd
Aneke, M., & Wang, M. (2016). Ene gy S o age Technologies and Real Li e
Applica ions – A S a e o he A Re iew. Applied Ene gy,179,
350–377. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.apene gy.2016.06.097
Ba ke, B., Schmid , T. S., G osspie sch, D., & Ho mann, V. H. (2013). A
Re iew and P obabilis ic Model o Li ecycle Cos s o S a iona y
Ba e ies in Mul iple Applica ions. Renewable and Sus ainable En-
e gy Re iews,25, 240–250. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. se .2013.
04.023
Baumann, M. J., Pe e s, J. F., Weil, M., & G unwald, A. (2017). CO2 Foo p in
and Li e-cycle Cos s o Elec ochemical Ene gy S o age o S a-
iona y G id Applica ions. Ene gy Technology,5(7), 1071–1083.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/en e.201600622
BC Hyd o. (2023). Ha monics & Powe Quali y: Wha A e Ha monics?
Re ie ed July 7, 2023, om h ps : / / www. bchyd o . com /
powe sma /business/ echnologies-equipmen /ha monics.h ml
Behab u, H. A., Messagie, M., Coosemans, T., Be eciba , M., Anlay Fan e, K.,
Kebede, A. A., & Van Mie lo, J. (2020). A Re iew o Ene gy S o -
age Technologies’ Applica ion Po en ials in Renewable Ene gy
Sou ces G id In eg a ion. Sus ainabili y,12(24), A icle 10511.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su122410511
Beuse, M., Bja ne, S., & Schmid , T. S. (2020a). P ojec ing he Compe i-
ion Be ween Ene gy-s o age Technologies in he Elec ici y Sec-
o . Joule,4(10), 2162–2184. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.joule.
2020.07.017
Beuse, M., Bja ne, S., & Schmid , T. S. (2020b). Supplemen al In o ma ion:
P ojec ing he Compe i ion Be ween Ene gy-s o age Technologies
in he Elec ici y Sec o . Re ie ed July 7, 2023, om h ps://
www.cell.com/cms/10.1016/j.joule.2020.07.017/a achmen /
a 868374-91b6-4770-a 52-c882064a00c9/mmc1.pd
Bowen, T., Che nyakho skiy, I., & Denholm, P. (2019). G id-scale Ba e y
S o age: F equen ly Asked Ques ions. Re ie ed July 7, 2023,
om h ps://www.n el.go /docs/ y19os i/74426.pd
Cas o, M. T., Espa cia, E. A. J., & Ocon, J. D. (2022). A Compa a i e Fu u e
Le elized Cos o S o age o S a ic Elec ochemical and Mechani-
cal Ene gy S o age Technologies in 1-MW Ene gy and Powe Ap-
plica ions. Chemical Enginee ing T ansac ions,94, 355–360. h ps:
//doi.o g/10.3303/CET2294059
China Ene gy S o age Alliance (CNESA). (2020). CNESA Global Ene gy
S o age Ma ke Analysis—2020.Q3 (Summa y). Re ie ed July
7, 2023, om h p://en.cnesa.o g/la es -news/2020/11/17/
cnesa-global-ene gy-s o age-ma ke -analysis2020q3-summa y
Cla k, E. (2023). Wha is Balance o Sys em? Re ie ed July 7, 2023, om
h ps://ene gy heo y.com/wha -is-balance-o -sys em/
Comello, S., & Reichels ein, S. (2019). The Eme gence o Cos E ec i e Ba -
e y S o age. Na u e Communica ions,10, A icle 2038. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1038/s41467-019-09988-z
Co ez, A., Nguyen, N., & Jones, R. K. (2021). T ends and Oppo uni ies
in Elec ochemical S o age. Con e ence Reco d o he IEEE Pho-
o ol aic Specialis s Con e ence, 2021 IEEE 48 h Pho o ol aic Spe-
cialis s Con e ence (PVSC), 206–210. h ps://doi.o g/10.1109/
PVSC43889.2021.9518881
Das, C. K., Bass, O., Ko hapalli, G., Mahmoud, T. S., & Habibi, D. (2018).
O e iew o Ene gy S o age Sys ems in Dis ibu ion Ne wo ks:
Placemen , Sizing, Ope a ion, and Powe Quali y. Renewable and
Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews,91, 1205–1230. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1016/j. se .2018.03.068
de Ba os Gallo, A. B., Sim oes-Mo ei a, J. R., de Medei os Cos a, H. K.,
San os, M., & dos San os, E. M. (2016). Ene gy S o age in he
Ene gy T ansi ion Con ex : A Technology Re iew. Renewable and
Sus ainable Ene gy Re iews,65, 800–822. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1016/j. se .2016.07.028
Edge, J. S., O’Kane, S., P osse , R., Ki kaldy, N. D., Pa el, A. N., Hales, A.,
Ghosh, A., Ai, W., Chen, J., Yang, J., Li, S., Pang, M.-C., B a o
Diaz, L., Tomaszewska, A., Ma zook, M. W., Radhak ishnan, K. N.,
Wang, H., Pa el, Y., Wu, B., & O e , G. J. (2021). Li hium Ion
Ba e y Deg ada ion: Wha You Need o Know. Physical Chemis y
Chemical Physics,23(14), 8200–8221. h ps://doi.o g/10.1039/
d1cp00359c
Fi zge ald, G., Mandel, J., Mo is, J., & Toua i, H. (2015). The Economics o
Ba e y Ene gy S o age: How Mul i-Use, Cus ome -Si ed Ba e ies
Deli e he Mos Se ices and Value o Cus ome s and he G id
[Rocky Moun ain Ins i u e (RMI)].h ps:// mi.o g/wp-con en /
uploads/2017/03/RMI-TheEconomicsO Ba e yEne gyS o age-
FullRepo -FINAL.pd
J. P. Kla /Junio Managemen Science 9(4) (2024) 2118-2139 2139
Fuel Cell Technologies O ice. (2017). Hyd ogen S o age [U.S. Depa men
o Ene gy].h ps://www.ene gy.go /ee e/ uelcells/a icles/
hyd ogen-s o age- ac -shee
G eenwood, D. M., Lim, K. Y., Pa sios, C., Lyons, P. F., Lim, Y. S., & Taylo , P. C.
(2017). F equency Response Se ices Designed o Ene gy S o -
age. Applied Ene gy,203, 115–127. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.
apene gy.2017.06.046
Gü , T. M. (2018). Re iew o Elec ical Ene gy S o age Technologies, Ma e-
ials and Sys ems: Challenges and P ospec s o La ge-Scale G id
S o age. Ene gy & En i onmen al Science,11(10), 2696–2767.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1039/C8EE01419A
He, W., King, M., Luo, X., Doone , M., Li, D., & Wang, J. (2021). Technolo-
gies and Economics o Elec ic Ene gy S o ages in Powe Sys ems:
Re iew and Pe spec i e. Ad ances in Applied Ene gy,4, A icle
100060. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.adapen.2021.100060
Ho , C. M. (2022). Ene gy S o age Technologies and Applica ions (1s ). A ech
House.
Humane Slaugh e Associa ion (HSA). (2023). Wa e o m & F equency:
Wa e o m. Re ie ed July 7, 2023, om h ps://www.hsa.o g.
uk/ope a ing-an-elec ical-wa e ba h/wa e o m-- equency
Hun e , C. A., Pene , M. M., Reznicek, E. P., Eichman, J., Rus agi, N., & Bald-
win, S. F. (2021). Techno-Economic Analysis o Long-Du a ion En-
e gy S o age and Flexible Powe Gene a ion Technologies o Sup-
po High-Va iable Renewable Ene gy G ids. Joule,5(8), 2077–
2101. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.joule.2021.06.018
In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency [IRENA]. (2022). Ene gy T ansi ion
Holds Key o Tackle Global Ene gy and Clima e C isis [P ess e-
lease].h ps://www.i ena.o g/news/p ess eleases/2022/Ma /
Ene gy- T ansi ion- Holds- Key- o- Tackle- Global- Ene gy- and-
Clima e-C isis
Jülch, V. (2016). Compa ison o Elec ici y S o age Op ions Using Le elized
Cos o S o age (LCOS) Me hod. Applied Ene gy,183, 1594–1606.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.apene gy.2016.08.165
Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age Council. (2022). A Pa h Towa ds Full G id
Deca boniza ion wi h 24/7 Clean Powe Pu chase Ag eemen s.
h p://www.ldescouncil.com/asse s/pd /2205_ldes- epo _
247-ppas.pd
Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age Council [LDES Council]. (2021). Ne -Ze o
Powe : Long Du a ion Ene gy S o age o a Renewable G id.
h p://www.ldescouncil.com/asse s/pd /LDES- b ochu e- F3-
HighRes.pd
Main ech Enginee ing & Supplies P e L d. (2019). O e ol age & Unde ol -
age: All You Need o Know [P ess elease].h ps://www.mes.
com.sg/2019/09/19/o e ol age-unde ol age-all-you-need-
o-know/
Mo adi-Shah babak, Z., & Jadidoleslam, M. (2023). A New Index o
Techno-Economical Compa ison o S o age Technologies Consid-
e ing E ec o Sel -Discha ge. IET Renewable Powe Gene a ion,
17(7), 1699–1712. h ps://doi.o g/10.1049/ pg2.12704
Mugyema, M., Bo ha, C. D., Kampe , M. J., Wang, R.-J., & Sebi osi, A. B.
(2023). Le elised Cos o S o age Compa ison o Ene gy S o age
Sys ems o Use in P ima y Response Applica ion. Jou nal o En-
e gy S o age,59, A icle 106573. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.es .
2022.106573
Nadeem, F., Hussain, S. M. S., Tiwa i, P. K., Goswami, A. K., & Us un, T. S.
(2019). Compa a i e Re iew o Ene gy S o age Sys ems, Thei
Roles, and Impac s on Fu u e Powe Sys ems. IEEE Access,7,
4555–4585. h ps://doi.o g/10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2888497
Na ional Cance Ins i u e (NCI). (2023). NCI Dic iona y o Cance Te ms: Re-
dox. h ps://www.cance .go /publica ions/dic iona ies/cance -
e ms/de / edox
Nikolaidis, P., Cha zis, S., & Poullikkas, A. (2019). Li e Cycle Cos Analysis
o Elec ici y S o age Facili ies in Flexible Powe Sys ems. In e -
na ional Jou nal o Sus ainable Ene gy,38(8), 752–772. h ps:
//doi.o g/10.1080/14786451.2019.1579815
O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD). (2023).
Exchange Ra es. h ps://da a.oecd.o g/con e sion/exchange-
a es.h m
Paci ic No hwes Na ional Labo a o y (PNNL). (2023). Ene gy S o age Cos
and Pe o mance Da abase: LCOS Es ima es. h ps://www.pnnl.
go /lcos-es ima es
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuy , P. M., Bou on, I., Ho mann, T. C.,
Mul ow, C. D., Shamsee , L., Te zla , J. M., Akl, E. A., B ennan,
S. E., Chou, R., Glan ille, J., G imshaw, J. M., H óbja sson, A.,
Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Lode , E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S.,
& Mohe , D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 S a emen : An Upda ed
Guideline o Repo ing Sys ema ic Re iews. BMJ,372, A icle
n71. h ps://doi.o g/10.1136/bmj.n71
Rahman, M. M., Oni, A. O., Gemechu, E. G., & Kuma , A. (2021). The De el-
opmen o Techno-Economic Models o he Assessmen o U ili y-
Scale Elec o-Chemical Ba e y S o age Sys ems. Applied Ene gy,
283, A icle 116343. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.apene gy.2020.
116343
Ralon, P., Taylo , M., Ilas, A., Diaz-Bone, H., & Kai ies, K.-P. (2017). Elec-
ici y S o age and Renewables: Cos s and Ma ke s o 2030 ( ech.
ep.). In e na ional Renewable Ene gy Agency (IRENA). h ps:
//www.i ena.o g/publica ions/2017/oc /elec ici y- s o age-
and- enewables-cos s-and-ma ke s
Ramos-Ma ín, J., Con e as-Pe nal e , M. ’., & Mo eno-Küs ne , B. (2023).
Classi ica ion o Suicidal Beha io Calls in Eme gency Medical
Se ices: A Sys ema ic Re iew. In e na ional Jou nal o Eme gency
Medicine,16, A icle 27. h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s12245-023-
00504-1
Sal ini, C., & Gio annelli, A. (2022). Techno-economic Compa ison o
U ili y-Scale Comp essed Ai and Elec o-chemical S o age Sys-
ems. Ene gies,15(18), A icle 6644. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
en15186644
Schill, W.-P. (2020). Elec ici y S o age and he Renewable Ene gy T ansi ion.
Joule,4(10), 2059–2064. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.joule.2020.
07.022
Schmid , O., Melchio , S., Hawkes, A., & S a ell, I. (2019a). P ojec ing he
Fu u e Le elized Cos o Elec ici y S o age Technologies. Joule,
3(1), 81–100. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.joule.2018.12.008
Schmid , O., Melchio , S., Hawkes, A., & S a ell, I. (2019b). Supplemen al
In o ma ion: P ojec ing he Fu u e Le elized Cos o Elec ici y
S o age Technologies. h ps://www.cell.com/cms/10.1016/
j.joule.2018.12.008/a achmen /5e 4aeb- 7dce- 4e02- ae 9-
c eac7c742e0/mmc1.pd
Solo eichik, G. L. (2011). Ba e y Technologies o La ge-Scale S a iona y
Ene gy S o age. Annual Re iew o Chemical and Biomolecula En-
ginee ing,2, 503–527. h ps : / / doi . o g /10 . 1146 /annu e -
chembioeng-061010-114116
Tesaˇ
o á, M. (2011). Powe Quali y and Quali y o Supply. In ensi e P o-
g amme "Renewable Ene gy Sou ces", 95–101. h ps://co e.ac.uk/
download/pd /295581021.pd
Topalo i´
c, Z., Haas, R., Ajano i´
c, A., & Hiesl, A. (2022). Economics o Elec ic
Ene gy S o age: The Case o Wes e n Balkans. Ene gy,238, A icle
121669. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ene gy.2021.121669
Uni ed S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency (EPA). (2019). Eme gency
planning and communi y igh - o-know ac (EPCRA): Wha is
conside ed c yogenic condi ions?
Vie ns ein, L., & Wi zmann, R. (2020). Umse zba kei und Auswi kun-
gen on Peak Sha ing ü S omkunden in de Niede - und
Mi elspannungsebene. 16. Symposium Ene gieinno a ion (EnIn-
no 2020).h ps : / / www. ug az . a / ileadmin /use _ upload /
ug azEx e nal/4778 047-2e50-4e9e-b72d-e5a 373 95a4/ iles/
l /Session_E2/525_LF_Vie ns ein.pd
Viswana han, V., Mongi d, K., F anks, R., Xiaolin, L., Sp enkle, V., & Bax-
e , R. (2022). 2022 g id ene gy s o age echnology cos and
pe o mance assessmen ( ech. ep.). U.S. Depa men o En-
e gy. h ps : / / www. ene gy. go /si es /de aul / iles /2022 -
09 /2022 % 20G id % 20Ene gy % 20S o age % 20Technology %
20Cos %20and%20Pe o mance%20Assessmen .pd
Xu, Y., Pei, J., Cui, L., Liu, P. L., & Ma, T. (2022). The le elized cos o s o age
o elec ochemical ene gy s o age echnologies in China. F on ie s
in Ene gy Resea ch,10, 873800. h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ en g.
2022.873800
Zake i, B., & Sy i, S. (2015). Elec ical ene gy s o age sys ems: A compa a-
i e li e cycle cos analysis. Renewable and Sus ainable Ene gy Re-
iews,42, 569–596. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. se .2014.10.011