Community expectations versus corporate social responsibility practices in Ghana’s oil and gas sector

Mohammed, Asaah Sumaila; Graham, Emmanuel; Fuseini, Moses Naiim; Tomo, Bernard Kwame Article Community expectations versus corporate social responsibility practices in Ghana’s oil and gas sector Cogent Business & Management Provided in Cooperation with: Taylor & Francis Group Suggested Citation: Mohammed, Asaah Sumaila; Graham, Emmanuel; Fuseini, Moses Naiim; Tomo, Bernard Kwame (2024) : Community expectations versus corporate social responsibility practices in Ghana’s oil and gas sector, Cogent Business & Management, ISSN 2331-1975, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, Vol. 11, Iss. 1, pp. 1-19, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2390684 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/326484 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Cogent Business & Management ISSN: 2331-1975 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/oabm20 Community expectations versus corporate social responsibility practices in Ghana’s oil and gas sector Asaah Sumaila Mohammed, Emmanuel Graham, Moses Naiim Fuseini & BernardKwame Tomo To cite this article: Asaah Sumaila Mohammed, Emmanuel Graham, Moses Naiim Fuseini & BernardKwame Tomo (2024) Community expectations versus corporate social responsibility practices in Ghana’s oil and gas sector, Cogent Business & Management, 11:1, 2390684, DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2024.2390684 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2390684 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published online: 16 Aug 2024. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 1136 View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oabm20 Accounting, corporAte governAnce & Business ethics | reseArch Article Cogent Business & ManageMent 2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2390684 Community expectations versus corporate social responsibility practices in Ghana’s oil and gas sector Asaah sumaila Mohammeda, emmanuel grahamb, Moses naiim Fuseinic,d and Bernard Kwame tomoe aDepartment of environmental science, CK tedam university of technology and applied sciences, navrongo, ghana; bDepartment of Politics, York university, toronto, Canada; cDepartment of Public Policy and Management, simon Diedong Dombo university of Business and integrated Development studies, Wa, ghana; dgambia national single Window, Kanifing, gambia; eschool of applied social studies, Robert gordon university, aberdeen, uK ABSTRACT the discovery of oil in ghana initially raised hopes for development in oil and gas communities, driven by transnational companies’ (tncs) corporate social responsibility (csr) initiatives. Although previous research on csr in the oil and gas sector has examined the community’s expectation of csr, it has produced inconclusive results. As such, this study intends to contribute to this ongoing debate. in this quest, a multiple case study design was deployed to guide this study using a sample size of 94 participants who were selected using a purposive sampling technique. the study deployed interviews and observation to collect data while the data were analysed using thematic analysis. this study’s findings showed considerable optimism among communities regarding the transformative potential of csr initiatives, with tncs actively contributing to infrastructure development and livelihood opportunities. however, the results showed that some beneficiaries were discontent with the csr interventions as they did not reflect their felt needs because of their limited participation. the policy recommendation is that there is a need for active stakeholders’ engagement in csr decision-making to ensure that felt needs are met and to promote tncs acceptance. 1. Introduction the discourse surrounding oil and development revolves around the resource curse debate, which posits that resource-rich countries, including those with abundant oil, gas and mineral resources, may not necessarily benefit from these riches (Andrews, 2013; Attah & Amoah, 2023; Bishoge & Mvile, 2020; Duttagupta et al., 2021; Kinnaman, 2023). to address this challenge, Akporiaye (2023) argues that oil and gas companies now pursue corporate social responsibility (csr) to meet community expectations. csr encompasses the ethical and socially responsible strategies corporations employ to conduct their business (galbreath, 2006). While some nations like norway, canada, Finland, Australia and Botswana have effectively managed their citizens’ expectations, others, such as russia, venezuela, ecuador and Brazil, have struggled to do so, contributing to the perception that oil can be a curse rather than a blessing (Kaldor, 2007; Jackson & Beswick, 2014; Yang et al., 2021). this challenge extends to many African countries, including Angola, the former republic of sudan, Zambia, gabon and nigeria, where inadequate management of oil revenues has led to the so-called oil curse phenomenon (Bishoge & Mvile, 2020; obi, 2014; panford, 2017). research indicates that one of the most significant challenges transnational companies (tncs) face in Africa is company-community relations (Ackah & Mohammed, 2020; idemudia & ite, 2006; okpanachi & Andrews, 2012). osei-tutu (2012) has highlighted grievances from local inhabitants, including increased © 2024 the author(s). Published by informa uK Limited, trading as taylor & Francis group CONTACT Moses naiim Fuseini [email protected] Department of Public Policy and Management, simon Diedong Dombo university of Business and integrated Development studies, Wa, ghana. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2390684 this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. the terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent. ARTICLE HISTORY received 17 January 2024 revised 20 June 2024 Accepted 5 August 2024 KEYWORDS oil and gas sector; community expectations; corporate social responsibility; resource curse; infrastructure; ghana SUBJECTS Business, Management and Accounting; industry & industrial studies; environmental economics 2 A. s. MohAMMeD etAl. unemployment, loss of farmlands and restricted access to deep-sea fishing due to the construction of oil rigs and related developments. existing literature has sometimes overlooked the role of socio-cultural contexts in understanding the causes and effects of the resource curse phenomenon, which could be addressed through effective csr initiatives by tncs (ovadia et al., 2020). it is worth noting that ghana’s oil sector has been the subject of extensive research since its discovery in 2007 (Ackah & Mohammed, 2020). however, previous studies (Ablo & overå, 2015; Ackah & Mohammed, 2020; i. Ackah et al., 2020; Ayelazuno, 2014; eduful & hooper, 2015; Mohammed, 2019; obeng-odoom, 2014; okpanachi & Andrews, 2012; ovadia et al., 2020; panford, 2017) have primarily focused on topics such as local content laws, petroleum revenue management, impact assessments, negotiation strategies for benefits, political dynamics and the challenges associated with the oil sector. the prior studies that have specifically focused on community expectations of csr of oil and gas companies have produced contradictory results. Whereas Andrews (2013), oppong (2016), celik et al. (2019), Masum et al. (2020) and Mohammed et al. (2022) reported that csr interventions have a significant positive effect on the communities on the contrary, authors like Frynas (2005), Dauda (2019), hilson et al. (2019), ovadia et al. (2020) hold a contrary perspective. For instance, eduful and hooper (2015) argue that oil production has led to gentrification in the twin city of sekondi-takoradi, while Ayelazuno (2014) contends that the oil and gas sector poses a resource curse for ghana due to relentless exploitation by global capitalist forces. this study intends to contribute to this ongoing debate. the paper aims to explore csr initiatives and community expectations within the oil-affected communities in the Ahanta West Municipality. specifically, the paper examines the primary expectations of coastal communities affected by oil and gas production, the implementation of csr interventions by tncs and the community’s and tncs’ views on csr interventions within these communities. the paper is designed as follows: after this introduction, the next section presents the theoretical framework centred on csr and community development. the subsequent section outlines the research materials and methods. it then delves into the results and engages in an in-depth discussion. Finally, the last section presents our conclusions and highlights policy implications derived from our research. 2. Literature review 2.1. Theoretical and conceptual perspectives this study is guided by three main theoretical frameworks: corporate citizenship theory, legitimacy theory and Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation theory. on the other hand, the fundamental concepts underpinning this study comprise csr, community development and the resource curse. As elucidated by hayes and Khartit (2022), corporate citizenship theory emphasises a company’s broader responsibilities towards society, encompassing its local community and the global environment. it encompasses social, ethical and economic obligations, emphasising the importance of businesses contributing to societal well-being, environmental preservation and profit generation. this perspective aligns with evolving expectations from investors and regulators, emphasising robust environmental, social and governance practices. historically, corporate citizenship was associated with philanthropy and community engagement, but its definition has expanded to emphasise partnership and mutual benefits between businesses and society (sitnikov, 2013). While the definition of corporate citizenship may vary among individuals and organisations, its central premise is that businesses have a societal responsibility beyond profit generation (ogola & Mària, 2020). With legitimacy theory, it revolves around a social contract between organisations and their communities, highlighting the need for organisations, particularly corporations, to maintain perceived social legitimacy for survival and success. this theory suggests that organisations align their actions with societal norms and expectations to gain and uphold public acceptance. csr initiatives are influenced by the relationship between societal expectations and the company (stratling, 2007). companies seek legitimacy from the community, often achieved through disclosing their social responsibilities (Dewiyanti, 2021; rochayatun & Kholifah, 2021). While legitimacy theory underscores the significance of csr efforts and transparent communication in preserving organisational legitimacy, it has faced criticism for oversimplifying organisational motives and assuming uniform societal expectations (schiopoiu & popa, 2013). cogent Business & MAnAgeMent 3 regarding Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation theory, it categorises citizen engagement into various levels, distinguishing between degrees of participation and associated power. it ranges from passive or pseudo-participation at lower rungs to active or genuine engagement at higher rungs, where citizens actively participate in policymaking. While this ladder has helped assess stakeholder participation, critics argue that it may overlook barriers to meaningful participation and not account for diverse societal perspectives (collins & ison, 2006; laskey & nicholls, 2019). the corporate citizenship theory, legitimacy theory and Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation collectively form a theoretical framework that sheds light on different csr practices among oil and gas companies such as tullow ghana limited, the ten partners and Kosmos energy. corporate citizenship theory suggests that these companies integrate csr into their business strategies as a core aspect of their responsibility to society. in contrast, legitimacy theory proposes that their csr efforts aim primarily to garner public acceptance. Meanwhile, Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation offers insights into the degree of engagement these companies have with the communities affected by their operations, specifically involving them in decisions about csr activities. together, these theories provide a multi-dimensional understanding of how and why oil and gas companies undertake csr initiatives. in addition to these theoretical frameworks, the study revolves around key concepts such as csr, community development and the resource curse. csr involves a company’s responsibility for its impact on society and the environment, extending beyond legal compliance (Blowfield & Frynas, 2005). it is a collaborative approach between society and business, emphasising a company’s role in managing its relationship with broader society (ofori & hinson, 2007). csr is not based on regulatory compliance in ghana and its practices extend beyond compliance. As such, corporate citizenship and csr are synonymous concepts, which can be used interchangeably in ghana. the corporate citizenship theory provides an adequate basis to elucidate csr policies and practices. thus, the significance of csr concept cannot be overstated, as it establishes the foundational understanding of the obligations that companies such as tullow ghana limited, the ten partners and Kosmos energy hold towards the communities within their areas of operation. this understanding is crucial for fostering a responsible and sustainable interaction between these corporations and the local populations affected by their activities. community development aims to enhance the well-being of residents in lowto moderate-income neighbourhoods through asset building (Ferguson & Dickens, 1999). the success of community development efforts is influenced by whether external resources are perceived as a curse (vidal & Keating, 2004). Within the context of community development, the insights gleaned from this concept are instrumental in delineating how the operations of oil and gas companies are perceived by the communities they impact, particularly in terms of enhancing living conditions. this perspective illuminates the direct effects of corporate activities on local development and underscores the importance of aligning corporate strategies with the genuine needs and aspirations of the affected populations. the resource curse describes the challenges resource-rich countries face in harnessing their natural wealth for the benefit of their citizens, leading to slower economic growth and reduced development outcomes (Fernando, 2022). this perspective is particularly relevant to this study’s context. this study leverages the concept of the resource curse to assess how much oil and gas exploration activities are advantaging the communities situated in the exploration zones. 2.2. Community expectations of CSR several prior studies collectively examined various facets of csr and its influence on community development. some of the studies have indicated that csr has a positive effect on community development. oppong (2016), for instance, researched csr in ghana, emphasising the prevalence of csr initiatives in sectors like telecommunications, banking and extractive industries, with a significant role played by foreign-owned firms. these initiatives primarily targeted education, healthcare, environmental conservation, social entrepreneurship and sports development. csr efforts were visible in education, mining communities, sports and coastal regions near offshore oil and gas facilities. Mohammed et al. (2022) also found that csr interventions had positively impacted the living conditions of coastal communities in ghana, generating appreciation from the host communities. celik et al. (2019) conducted a literature review focusing on the contribution of csr initiatives to community development. the review revealed 4 A. s. MohAMMeD etAl. that sampled companies engaged in various csr activities, encompassing education, healthcare and empowerment, positively contributing to community development. effective stakeholder engagement was highlighted as a critical aspect of successful csr implementation. A related study by Ansu-Mensah etal. (2021) investigated the csr processes of an extractive company in ghana. it emphasised the importance of stakeholder involvement in designing and implementing relevant csr programmes. they highlighted the consistent csr efforts of newmont Ahafo Mines in ghana. For Masum et al. (2020), they adopted an integrated literature review approach to explore the effect of csr on community development. they observed a transition from a profit-centric business approach to csr, encompassing economic, environmental and social dimensions. in ghana, Andrews (2013) and Mohammed et al. (2022) conducted research highlighting the high expectations of oil-producing communities in the Western region following the discovery of oil in 2007. these expectations included access to job opportunities, healthcare improvements, clean water, better infrastructure, reliable electricity supply and enhanced educational facilities that appeared not to have been met. the impact of csr on community development was evident in various aspects, including environmental protection. oppong (2016), celik et al. (2019) and Masum et al. (2020) appeared to suggest that csr contributes to community development. however, some other studies illustrate that crs may have little or no positive impact on the community development of oils and gas enclaves. For example, Dauda (2019) investigated community development dynamics related to mining projects in ghana, employing csr practices. the findings indicated that mining companies often failed to communicate their csr strategies effectively to host communities. While they showcased commitments to social and environmental standards, they struggled to grasp the local socio-cultural, economic and political dynamics, limiting the impact of their csr programmes. ovadia etal. (2020) conducted a longitudinal study assessing the impacts of oil and gas production in ghana. their research found that csr projects often did not align with local development priorities, resulting in community dissatisfaction, social issues and land disputes. the high expectations and perceived grievances among communities increased the risk of conflict and hindered overall development. Frynas (2005) revealed divergent perspectives on csr within the oil industry, with some insiders viewing it as a superficial attempt to manage perceptions rather than drive meaningful development. hilson et al. (2019) argued that multinational corporations (Mncs) in the oil and gas sector had made limited contributions to community development in nigeria, and the enclave nature of mining operations in sub-saharan Africa hindered the effectiveness of bottom-up csr initiatives. idemudia and ite (2006) identified factors contributing to the shortcomings of csr in the niger Delta, including a failure to consider community perceptions, an imbalance between affirmative and negative duties, and an unsupportive environment. the review of existing literature reveals a dynamic debate regarding the effectiveness of csr in fostering community development, especially in the context of multinational oil and gas corporations. While some communities acknowledge and appreciate these corporations’ csr activities, others adopt a sceptical stance towards the benefits and motivations of such initiatives. this study seeks to delve into this debate, enriching the discourse with empirical evidence and a deeper analysis of csr’s impact on community development. 3. Materials and methods 3.1. Study area Ahanta West Municipality, situated at the southernmost point of ghana, has its capital in Agona nkwanta, also known as Agona Ahanta. several boundaries geographically define this district: it is bordered on the east by the sekondi – takoradi Metropolitan Assembly, on the West by the nzema east Municipal Assembly and to the north by the Mpohor Wassa east District and tarkwa - nsuaem Municipal Assemblies. to the south, it extends to the gulf of guinea, embracing the coastline (ghana statistical service (gss), 2021). covering a land area of 591 square kilometres, the district was home to a total population of 153,140 people as of 2021, with females forming the majority at 77,921 individuals (gss, 2021). the demographics reveal that a significant proportion of the population, 82,278 residents, reside in rural areas. the district is notably characterised by its predominantly youthful population, signifying a potential high demand for future social amenities and infrastructure development. the primary economic activities in this region revolve around two key sectors: sea fishing and crop farming. the youth cogent Business & MAnAgeMent 5 predominantly engage in these activities, which serve as their primary source of employment. on the other hand, women play a crucial role in processing the harvested fish and preparing it for local consumption and external markets. Furthermore, the area attracts several traders who journey to these communities to purchase fish in substantial quantities, sourcing it from various parts of ghana. the study conducted its research across 12 communities within the district, encompassing lower and upper Dixcove, cape three points, Busua, princes town, Butre, Achowa, Katakor, Funko, Asemkow, new Amanful, pumpkin, egyambra and Akwidaa. the selection of these communities was strategic, primarily due to their heavy involvement in fishing activities and the potential impact of oil discovery and production on their livelihoods. For reference, Figure 1 on the map depicts the locations of these communities within the Ahanta West Municipality. 3.2. Research design employing a qualitative research method for this study was informed by its suitability for addressing the ‘how’ and/or ‘why’ questions in research, as Yin (2018) emphasised. in the context of this study, which aimed to investigate community expectations arising from oil production, the qualitative approach was deemed appropriate for comprehending how these communities perceive csr resulting from oil production. Qualitative research methods excel at uncovering a phenomenon’s meaning through the participants’ perspectives and experiences (thomas, 2006). A case study design was adopted to structure this inquiry. case studies are empirical investigations that delve into a specific, real-life incident within its natural setting, mainly when the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context are intricate and multiple sources of evidence are necessary (Yin, 2014, 2018). case studies typically rely on qualitative data collection methods to provide an in-depth understanding of the topics under scrutiny (sarantakos, 2005). in this instance, a multiple-case study design was chosen, which involves examining more than one case simultaneously where researchers contrast individual cases (heale & twycross, 2018). employing a multiple-case study design facilitates a nuanced comprehension of each case’s collective and individual characteristics. it enables researchers to delve deeper by comparing and contrasting the similarities and differences across cases within a specific group or phenomenon (heale & twycross, 2018). hunziker and Blankenagel (2024) highlight the principal benefit of employing a multiple-case study methodology as its capacity for conducting cross-case comparisons. this approach expands the scope of the investigation beyond a singular instance, enabling an analysis that uncovers both the shared and distinct elements across different cases (hunziker & Blankenagel, 2024). the cases selected for this study comprised tullow Figure 1. Map of ahanta West Municipality. Source: ahanta West Municipality assembly (2022). 6 A. s. MohAMMeD etAl. ghana limited, the ten partners and Kosmos energy. these entities were chosen due to their prominence as leading tncs operating within the specific enclave of interest in the oil and gas sector. 3.3. Sample size and sampling procedure the study population encompassed two primary groups: residents residing in ghana’s oil and gas enclave and prominent oil and gas companies operating within the region, specifically tullow ghana limited, the ten partners and Kosmos energy. the study included 94 participants, with the sample size determined through a considered judgement process. in qualitative research, the sample size should be sufficiently large to reveal a nuanced and detailed understanding of the studied phenomenon (sandelowski, 1995). nevertheless, it must remain small enough to permit in-depth, focused, case-by-case analysis. this balance is guided by the concept of saturation—when additional data no longer offers new insights—and practical limitations, according to vasileiou et al. (2018). in each of the 13 communities examined, which were Dixcove, cape three points, Busua, princes town, Butre, Achowa, Katakor, Funko, Asemkow, new Amanful, pumpkin, egyambra and Akwidaa, a minimum of seven key informants were interviewed (table 1). these key informants were selected based on their profound knowledge of the csr activities carried out by the tncs operating in their respective localities. Furthermore, one key informant was chosen from the three major companies involved—tullow ghana limited, ten partners and Kosmos energy (table 1). these selections were also based on purposive sampling, considering their extensive knowledge of their respective organisations’ csr endeavours (Kumar, 2019). 3.4. Data collection instruments, data collection and ethical issues Data collection in this study employed a multifaceted approach involving interviews and observations to ensure comprehensive and nuanced insights into the research objectives. For the interview component, two distinct interview guides were designed. this approach offers considerable flexibility, allowing for modifying questions during the process and collecting more detailed and extensive information (Kothari, Table 1. sample distribution of key informants. Location of participant Key informant sample Community Level Dixcove Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Cape three Points Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, imam (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Busua Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Princes town Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Butre Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, imam (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 achowa Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Katakor Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Funko Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 asemkow Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 new amanful Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 Pumpkin Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 egyambra Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 akwidaa Leader of fisher folks, leader of farmer associations, community youth leader, women’s leader, pastor (religious leader), chief, and assembly member 7 institutional level Kosmos energy Community Liason officer 1 tullow ghana Limited Corporate affairs officer 1 ten Partners Corporate affairs officer 1 total 94 cogent Business & MAnAgeMent 7 2014). one was tailored for the residents of the 13 study communities, while the other was aimed at representatives from the tncs operating in the oil and gas sectors. interviews were conducted with diverse community leaders, including leaders of fisher folks, farmer associations, youth leaders, women leaders, religious leaders, local chiefs, local assembly members, traders in the fishing value chain and artisans. the questions delved into various aspects, such as the community’s primary expectations from oil production, the impact of oil production on livelihoods and emerging contentions with the tncs. participants were also encouraged to provide specific details about the tncs’ interventions, including their selection, implementation, current status and concerns. the interviews with key informants from the tncs sought to reveal their perspectives on project selection and implementation methods and the challenges they faced while working with the communities in their operational areas. each interview lasted approximately 40 minutes. the interviews were recorded after verbal permission was sought and granted. the data collection process spanned two weeks in July 2023. Additionally, an observation guide was utilised to document the physical interventions initiated by the tncs as part of their csr initiatives. in cases where visual documentation was necessary, a camera was used to capture images of selected interventions. the observation method was utilised based on Kumar’s (2019) recommendation that it is particularly suited for situations where questioning alone may not yield comprehensive or sufficient information. As its methodology, this research incorporated instrument triangulation, including interviews and observation guide. triangulation, as described by carter et al. (2014), is a strategy in qualitative research that enhances validity by corroborating information gathered from various sources. the participants for the key informant interviews were selected and recruited after obtaining their verbal informed consent, ensuring they were fully aware of the study’s objectives and their voluntary involvement in the research process. in addition, ethical clearance was obtained from the simon Diedong Dombo university of Business and integrated Development studies research ethics review Board to ensure ethical conduct throughout the research process. this rigorous review process established a solid ethical foundation for the research. subsequently, informed consent letters were provided to all research participants, affirming the commitment to protecting their anonymity, maintaining the confidentiality of their responses, and mitigating potential harm. 3.5. Data analysis Data processing and analysis in this study adhered to a standard qualitative approach. initially, the interviews underwent transcription, followed by a manual thematic analysis. this inductive approach, integral to the thematic analysis methodology, involves systematically identifying, analysing and reporting discernible patterns, referred to as themes, present within the data (Braun & clarke, 2006). through discovering, refining and categorising codes, themes naturally emerged, providing a comprehensive framework for interpreting the data (Yukhymenko et al., 2014). the intricate phases and processes constituting the data analysis journey are summarised in table 2 to encapsulate the analytical process. the result of this thorough analysis was the presentation of findings through textual representation, encapsulating the rich narratives derived from the collected data. Data collection involved diverse stakeholders to encourage participant triangulation. Furthermore, member checks were conducted with some key participants to ensure the validity of the results. regarding reflexivity, it was Table 2. Phases of thematic analysis. Phase Description of the process 1. Familiarising yourself with your data transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading the data, noting down initial ideas. 2. generating initial codes Coding interesting data features in a systematic fashion across the entire data set, collating data relevant to each code. 3. searching for themes Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. 4. Reviewing themes Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts (Level 1) and the entire data set (Level 2), generating a thematic ‘map’ of the analysis. 5. Defining and naming themes ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme and the overall story the analysis tells, generating clear definitions and names for each theme. 6. Producing the report the final opportunity for analysis. selection of vivid, compelling extract examples, the final analysis of selected extracts, relating to the analysis of the research question and literature, producing a scholarly analysis report. Source: adopted from Braun & Clarke, [2006, p. 87]. 14 A. s. MohAMMeD etAl. energy in Agona). Another key informant noted ‘sometimes we consult our partners in the Jubilee Field to discuss the appropriate interventions for the communities, and when we agree on something beneficial to the communities, we go ahead and provide’ (interview with tullow corporate Affairs officer at takoradi). these quotations suggest that, to some extent, the tncs engage the communities. As such, tncs maintain that accusations against them are unwarranted and stress their dedication to fostering positive relationships with beneficiaries by involving them extensively in project decision-making and execution. A key informant from Kosmos energy reported, ‘as a company, we have made conscious efforts to engage community leaders in determining suitable projects for their areas, but they, at times, do not show up when invited for such occasions’. the quote suggests that while tncs endeavour to engage with communities in their operations, there are instances where community participation falls short, often because community members do not make themselves available for the engagement process. this situation points to a gap in effective communication and involvement between tncs and the communities they aim to serve. regarding the employment of residents, tncs reiterated their concerns about the limited qualifications of many job applicants from the communities. tullow ghana, in particular, cited instances where they hired locals for less skilled positions like security and driving, only to encounter issues such as theft and absenteeism among some local employees. tncs emphasised that they have invested substantially in local skill development and scholarship opportunities. however, they expressed disappointment with the outcomes, noting that many local beneficiaries of these programmes often abandon them without providing compelling reasons. 5. Discussion the results suggest that most participants have high expectations from the oil companies. the findings underscore the considerable expectations held by the participants concerning the contributions of tncs to community development. these expectations encompassed various facets of community well-being, including education, healthcare, agriculture, water and sanitation, transportation, employment, business opportunities, economic growth and community capacity building. While some participants expressed optimism about potential employment opportunities in the oil companies, their predominant concern revolved around the potential disruption of their primary livelihood sources, particularly farming and fishing. the high reliance on these sectors was justified, as a substantial portion of ghana’s population is engaged in agriculture, constituting a significant portion of the country’s gDp (Kaleem & guohua, 2015). the finding supports previous research by Andrews (2013) and Mohammed etal. (2022), highlighting the communities’ expectations for improved healthcare, clean drinking water, enhanced infrastructure, reliable electricity and better educational facilities due to tncs in the oil enclave. should these expectations not be fulfilled, an expectation gap may arise, potentially leading to feelings of resentment and conflict. For oil and gas companies to be embraced by the public, they need to implement csr efforts that align with community expectations, a concept supported by legitimacy theory (rochayatun & Kholifah, 2021). regarding csr interventions, the study revealed that school buildings, toilet facilities and boreholes were the dominant and functional projects initiated by the tncs in the communities. Mohammed et al. (2022) made similar findings, indicating that csr initiatives had positively impacted the living conditions of coastal communities in ghana, earning appreciation from these host communities. these interventions aimed to enhance community development and improve residents’ quality of life, aligning with the principles of the corporate citizenship theory. this theory posits that companies have responsibilities that extend to society, including their local communities (hayes & Khartit, 2022). the provision of these projects reflects the social contract concept, emphasising the importance of managing stakeholders’ perceptions to maintain organisational legitimacy (schiopoiu & popa, 2013). the evidence from the results underscores the idea that failing to fulfil these obligations can jeopardise a company’s existence (rochayatun & Kholifah, 2021). since the tncs are actively providing infrastructure in their operational areas, this indicates that ghana is, to some extent, mitigating the effects of the resource curse. this proactive approach by tncs suggests that the country’s natural resource wealth is being leveraged to support community development and infrastructure improvements, rather than solely benefiting a narrow cogent Business & MAnAgeMent 15 elite or contributing to economic stagnation. the engagement in infrastructure development by these corporations demonstrates a commitment to using resource revenues to foster broader social and economic benefits, helping to avoid the pitfalls commonly associated with the resource curse. however, the study also identified concerns among some participants regarding the tncs’ unilateral decision-making in selecting csr interventions without considering the communities’ priority needs. this echoes similar findings by Dauda (2019) in the mining sector, highlighting a lack of effective communication between mining companies and host communities. similarly, ovadia et al. (2020) noted that csr projects in ghana’s oil and gas sector often did not align with local development priorities, resulting in community dissatisfaction and disputes. to address these challenges, effective csr implementation requires the active engagement of traditional leaders, community members, local authorities and other stakeholders through participatory approaches. the findings substantiate Arnstein’s (1969) ladder of citizen participation theory, emphasising the importance of meaningful citizen involvement in decision-making processes. Building strong relationships with communities necessitates robust company-community communication to prioritise community expectations and development needs. the tncs challenged the beneficiaries’ claims about their lack of or limited involvement as they highlighted their efforts to involve residents in intervention decision-making. 6. Implications for theory and policy Drawing from the insights gathered, this study delineates theoretical and managerial policy implications. this study extends the boundaries of corporate citizenship theory by providing empirical evidence that highlights the importance of aligning csr initiatives with community expectations. While corporate citizenship traditionally focuses on the broader social responsibilities of companies, this study underscores the critical role of local context and specific community needs in defining these responsibilities. the findings illustrate that corporate citizenship is not a one-size-fits-all concept. the specific needs and expectations of communities, such as those in ghana’s oil and gas sectors, must be integrated into csr strategies. this nuanced approach can lead to more meaningful and appreciated community development interventions, thereby reinforcing the theory’s practical applications. the study supports the legitimacy theory by showing that companies must meet community expectations to maintain their social licence to operate. the significant expectations regarding education, healthcare and infrastructure demonstrate that communities use these criteria to assess the legitimacy of tncs. the research emphasises that legitimacy is dynamic and contingent on the ongoing fulfilment of community expectations. it suggests that legitimacy is not merely about fulfilling basic obligations but about actively engaging with communities to understand and meet their evolving needs. this interactive process helps maintain and enhance corporate legitimacy over time. By highlighting the importance of participatory approaches in csr decision-making, the study expands the ladder of citizen participation theory. it emphasises the need for tncs to move beyond tokenistic engagement to more meaningful and inclusive participation, as proposed by Arnstein’s ladder. the findings suggest that effective csr requires active and genuine community involvement in decision-making processes. this deepens the understanding of the highest rungs of Arnstein’s ladder, advocating for partnership and delegated power as essential elements in csr strategies to ensure that interventions are aligned with community priorities and foster long-term positive relationships. Managerially, it advises tncs to proactively communicate with stakeholders about conducting needs assessments for csr initiatives. reminders should be issued as an engagement approach, ensuring comprehensive stakeholder representation at meetings. tncs are recommended to facilitate rather than dictate discussions on csr intervention choices, emphasising a collaborative approach to identifying and addressing community needs. 7. Conclusion this study aimed to investigate community expectations regarding ghana’s oil and gas production and csr initiatives. overall, the findings indicated that residents of the Ahanta West Municipality held high hopes that oil discovery and production would address their developmental needs. Additionally, some 16 A. s. MohAMMeD etAl. tncs operating in ghana’s oil sector had initiated csr projects such as school construction, sanitation facilities and boreholes, which were operational. these initiatives suggested a degree of commitment by the tncs to fulfil their csr obligations to the communities within their operational areas to promote community development. however, it was noted that some participants felt that the tncs did not adequately consult with the communities before implementing these interventions, resulting in unmet expectations. conversely, another segment of participants expressed satisfaction with the implemented interventions and the overall csr efforts of the tncs, a perspective supported by the tncs themselves. the study’s findings present a complex picture that does not fully side with either perspective in the debate around csr. While one group views csr efforts as fulfilling their requirements, another group disagrees, suggesting that csr initiatives do not meet their expectations. this indicates a diverse range of experiences and perceptions regarding the impact of csr activities. While tensions between the communities and the tncs were observed, they did not escalate into violent conflicts typically associated with the resource curse syndrome in other countries. it suggests that ghana may not currently be experiencing the full-fledged resource curse phenomenon. 8. Limitation and future research the limitation of this study was the difficulty obtaining information from oil and gas companies despite efforts to establish communication. For instance, attempts to access data on company profits concerning their investments in social development projects proved unsuccessful. therefore, future research should explore the correlation between tnc profits and their csr initiatives. Authors’ contributions conception and design, AsM, eg, MnF; analysis and interpretation of the data, AsM, eg, MnF; drafting of the paper AsM, eg, MnF, BKt; revising it critically for intellectual content, AsM, eg, MnF, BKt; the final approval of the version to be published, AsM, MnF; and all authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. Disclosure statement no potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Funding no funding was received. About the authors Asaah Sumaila Mohammed is a development practitioner, consultant, researcher and senior lecturer at the cK tedam university of technology and Applied science. he holds a BA, Mphil and phD in Development studies. he has several years of experience managing multi-donor projects with international and local ngos in ghana. Asaah has several publications and has attended several international conferences. his research interests include natural resource and environmental governance, local governance and economic development (leD). Aaah has received several research awards, including the gloWA research project from the university of Bonn, the canadian education exchange programme (cetA), nuFFic, DfiD and DAAD. Emmanuel Graham is a Business intelligence consultant, a natural resource governance consultant and a phD candidate at the York university Department of politics in toronto, ontario, canada. he was a graduate Assistant at the political science Department at the university of Windsor in canada. he was the extractive governance policy Advisor consultant at the Africa centre for energy policy (Acep). he holds a Bachelor of Arts (B.A) and Master of philosophy (Mphil) in political science from the university of ghana, where he was a teaching and research Assistant from 2010 to 2011 (as national service personnel) and 2013 to 2014 (graduate Assistant). in terms of research interest, graham focuses on the extractive sector’s political economy and energy politics in ghana and West Africa. his research has been on the role of civil society in escaping the resource curse in ghana, as well as oil exploration and production in sub-saharan Africa. he is also interested in electoral politics, political vigilantism, and democratic consolidation in ghana and West Africa. he has some publications in international peer-reviewed journals such as cogent Business & MAnAgeMent 17 extractive industry and society, Africa review, insight on Africa, and Journal of African elections. he can be reached at [email protected] or kofigr[email protected] Moses Naiim Fuseini has a phD in Development studies. he is a senior lecturer in the Department of public policy and Management at the simon Diedong Dombo university of Business and integrated Development studies. his research interests include poverty, social protection, social policy, and livelihoods. Bernard Kwame Tomo is a distinguished corporate social responsibility (csr) specialist and educator with a rich background in development studies, holding bachelor’s and master’s degrees from prestigious institutions in ghana and the uK. With years of experience managing community projects in ghana, tomo deeply understands local development challenges and solutions. he currently dedicates his time to teaching and imparting knowledge to the next generation of leaders. tomo is also a prolific writer, having authored numerous community development and csr papers, contributing valuable insights into sustainable practices and ethical business strategies. ORCID Moses naiim Fuseini http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0830-5752 Data availability statement Data is available on request from the authors. References Ablo, A. D., & overå, r. (2015). networks, trust and capital mobilisation: challenges of embedded local entrepreneurial strategies in ghana’s oil and gas industry. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 53(3), 391–413. https://doi. org/10.1017/s0022278X15000385 Ackah, c. g., & Mohammed, A. s. (2020). local content law and practice. in J. page & F. tarp (eds.), Mining for Change (pp. 1–24). oxford university press. Ackah, i., Bobio, c., graham, e., & oppong, c. K. (2020). Balancing debt with sustainability? Fiscal policy and the future of petroleum revenue management in ghana. Energy Research & Social Science, 67, 101516. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101516 Ahanta West Municipality Assembly. (2022). Medium-term development plan. [unpublished manuscript]. Akporiaye, A. (2023). evaluating the effectiveness of oil companies’ corporate social responsibility (csr). The Extractive Industries and Society, 13, 101221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2023.101221 Andrews, n. (2013). community expectations from ghana’s new oil find: conceptualising corporate social responsibility as a grassroots-oriented process. Africa Today, 60(1), 55–75. https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.60.1.55 Ansu-Mensah, p., Marfo, e. o., Awuah, l. s., & Amoako, K. o. (2021). corporate social responsibility and stakeholder engagement in ghana’s mining sector: A case study of newmont Ahafo mines. International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility, 6(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40991-020-00054-2 Arnstein, s. r. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. JAIP, 35(4), 216–224. Attah, A., & Amoah, p. (2023). the extractive industry and expectations of resource benefits: does csr promote community well-being? Corporate Governance. The International Journal of Business in Society, 23(6), 1437–1453. Ayelazuno, J. (2014). oil wealth and the well-being of the subaltern classes in sub-saharan Africa: A critical analysis of the resource curse in ghana. Resources Policy, 40, 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2013.06.009 Bishoge, o. K., & Mvile, B. n. (2020). the “resource curse” from the oil and natural gas sector: how can tanzania avoid it in reality? Mineral Economics, 33(3), 389–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13563-020-00235-2 Blowfield, M., & Frynas, J. g. (2005). editorial setting new agendas: critical perspectives on corporate social responsibility in the developing world. International Affairs, 81(3), 499–513. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2005.00465.x Braun, v., & clarke, v. (2006). using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa carter, n., Bryant-lukosius, D., Dicenso, A., Blythe, J., & neville, A. J. (2014). the use of triangulation in qualitative research. Oncology Nursing Forum, 41(5), 545–547. https://doi.org/10.1188/14.onF.545-547 celik, A., Abdul-Kareem, A., & Yilmaz, h. u. (2019). the impact of corporate social responsibility on community development: evidence from ghana. Global Journal of Business, Economics and Management: Current Issues, 9(3), 122–133. collins, K., & ison, r. l. (2006, June 4–7). Dare we jump off Arnstein’s ladder? social learning as a new policy paradigm [paper presentation]. proceedings pAth (participatory Approaches in science &technology) conference, edinburgh. 18 A. s. MohAMMeD etAl. Dauda, s. (2019). Reconceptualising corporate social responsibility (CSR) at African mines: The case of Ghana [Doctor of philosophy thesis]. university of surrey. Dewiyanti, s. e. (2021). Legitimacy theory and its relationship to CSR. https://accounting.binus.ac.id/2021/11/15/ legitimacy-theory-and-its-relationship-to-csr/ Duttagupta, A., islam, M., hosseinabad, e. r., & Zaman, M. A. u. (2021). corporate social responsibility and sustainability: a perspective from the oil and gas industry. Journal of Nature. Science & Technology, 2, 22–29. eduful, A., & hooper, M. (2015). urban impacts of resource booms: the emergence of oil-led gentrification in sekondi-takoradi, ghana. in Urban forum (vol. 26, pp. 283–302). springer. Ferguson, r.F., & Dickens, W.t. (eds.) (1999). Introduction, in urban problems and community development. Brookings institution press. Fernando, J. (2022). Resource curse: Definition, overview and examples. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/ resource-curse.asp Frynas, J. g. (2005). the false developmental promise of corporate social responsibility: evidence from multinational oil companies. International Affairs, 81(3), 581–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2005.00470.x galbreath, J. (2006). corporate social responsibility strategy: strategic options, global considerations. Corporate Governance: The International Journal of Business in Society, 6(2), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1108/14720700610655178 ghana statistical service (gss). (2021). Ghana’s 2021 population and housing census: general report, vol. 3A. ghana statistical service. hayes, A., & Khartit, K. c. (2022). Orporate citizenship: What it means, 5 stages, and examples. https://www.investopedia. com/terms/c/corporatecitizenship.asp heale, r., & twycross, A. (2018). What is a case study? Evidence-Based Nursing, 21(1), 7–8. https://doi.org/10.1136/ eb-2017-102845 hilson, A., hilson, g., & Dauda, s. (2019). corporate social responsibility at African mines: linking the past to the present. Journal of Environmental Management, 241, 340–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.121 hunziker, s., & Blankenagel, M. (2024). Multiple case research design. in Research design in business and management: A practical guide for students and researchers (pp. 171–186). springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. idemudia, u., & ite, u. e. (2006). corporate–community relations in nigeria’s oil industry: challenges and imperatives. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 13(4), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.101 Jackson, p., & Beswick, D. (2014). Conflict, security and development: An introduction. routledge. Kaldor, M. (2007). Oil and conflict: the case of Nagorno Karabakh, oil wars, oil wars. pluto press. Kaleem, i., & guohua, W. (2015). Attacking the resource curse: Are ghanaians huge expectations on the oil and gas production real? In Information and Knowledge Management, 5(3), 168–174. Kinnaman, t. c. (2023). A new perspective on the natural resource curse. World, 4(4), 670–683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ world4040042 Kothari, c. r. (2014). research methodology: Methods and techniques. new Age international (p) limited, publishers. Kumar, r. (2019). Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners (5th ed.). sage. laskey, A. B., & nicholls, W. (2019). Jumping off the ladder: participation and insurgency in Detroit’s urban planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 85(3), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2019.1618729 Masum, A., hanan, h., Awang, h., Aziz, A., & Ahmad, M. h. (2020). corporate social responsibility and its effect on community development: An overview. Journal of Accounting Science, 22(1), 35–40. Mohammed, A. s. (2019). local actors’ interest and negotiation strategies for benefits in ghana’s oil and gas sector. Ghana Journal of Development Studies, 16(3), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.4314/gjds.v16i3.2 Mohammed, A. s., Ackah, i., tuokuu, F. X., & Abane, s. (2022). Assessing the corporate social responsibility interventions in the ghanaian oil and gas industry: perspectives from local actors. The Extractive Industries and Society, 12, 101145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2022.101145 Mohammed, A. s., graham, e., & Dary, s. K. (2022). rising expectations and dying hopes: local perceptions of oil and gas extraction in ghana. Energy Research & Social Science, 88, 102529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102529 obeng-odoom, F. (2014). urban property taxation, revenue generation and redistribution in a frontier oil city. Cities, 36, 58–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2013.10.003 obi, c. (2014). oil and conflict in nigeria’s niger Delta region: Between the barrel and the trigger. The Extractive Industries and Society, 1(2), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2014.03.001 ofori, D. F., & hinson, r. e. (2007). corporate social responsibility (csr) perspectives of leading firms in ghana. Corporate Governance: The International Journal of Business in Society, 7(2), 178–193. https://doi. org/10.1108/14720700710739813 ogola, F. o., & Mària, J. F. (2020). Mechanisms for development in corporate citizenship: a multi-level review. International Journal of Corporate Social Responsibility, 5(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40991-020-00051-5 okpanachi, e., & Andrews, n. (2012). preventing the oil “resource curse” in ghana: lessons from nigeria. World Futures, 68(6), 430–450. https://doi.org/10.1080/02604027.2012.693854 oppong, s. (2016). corporate social responsibility in the ghanaian context. in s. o. idowu & r. rené schmidpeter (eds.), Key initiatives in corporate social responsibility (global dimension of CSR in corporate entities) (pp. 419–442). springer. cogent Business & MAnAgeMent 19 osei-tutu, J. A. (2012). Managing expectations and tensions in ghana’s oil-rich western region (policy Brief no. 55). governance of Africa’s resources programme. ovadia, J. s., Ayelazuno, J. A., & van Alstine, J. (2020). ghana’s petroleum industry: expectations, frustrations and anger in coastal communities. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 58(3), 397–424. https://doi.org/10.1017/ s0022278X20000245 panford, K. (2017). Africa’s natural resources and underdevelopment. palgrave Macmillan us. rochayatun, s., & Kholifah, F. (2021, April). corporate social responsibility: grasping legitimacy, reaching sustainability. in International Conference on Engineering, Technology and Social Science (ICONETOS 2020) (pp. 175–183). Atlantis press. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210421.025 sandelowski, M. (1995). sample size in qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health, 18(2), 179–183. https://doi. org/10.1002/nur.4770180211 sarantakos, s. (2005). Social research. (3rd ed.). palgrave Macmillan. schiopoiu, B. A., popa, i. (2013). legitimacy theory. in s. o. idowu, n. capaldi, l. Zu, & A. D. gupta (eds.), Encyclopedia of corporate social responsibility. springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_471 sitnikov, c. s. (2013). corporate citizenship. in s. o. idowu, n. capaldi, l. Zu, & A. D. gupta (eds.) Encyclopedia of corporate social responsibility. springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28036-8_125 stratling, r. (2007). the legitimacy of corporate social responsibility. Corporate Ownership and Control, 4(4), 80–88. https://doi.org/10.22495/cocv4i4p6 thomas, D. r. (2006). A general inductive approach for analysing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748 vasileiou, K., Barnett, J., thorpe, s., & Young, t. (2018). characterising and justifying sample size sufficiency in interview-based studies: systematic analysis of qualitative health research over a 15-year period. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 18(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12874-018-0594-7 vidal, A. c., & Keating, W. D. (2004). community Development: current issues and emerging challenges. Journal of Urban Affairs, 26(2), 125–137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0735-2166.2004.00191.x Yang, J., rizvi, s. K. A., tan, Z., umar, M., & Koondhar, M. A. (2021). the competing role of natural gas and oil as fossil fuel and the non-linear dynamics of resource curse in russia. Resources Policy, 72, 102100. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102100 Yin, r. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). stage. Yin, r. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design methods (6th ed.). sage publications. Yukhymenko, M. A., Brown, s. W., lawless, K. A., Brodowinska, K., & Mullin, g. (2014). thematic analysis of teacher instructional practices and student responses in middle school classrooms with problem-based learning environment. Thematic Analysis of Teacher Instructional Objectives, 1(3), 93–109.