Ndoye, Mamadou Laye; A chade, Touwédé Bénédic e
A icle
Women's pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke and child en's
educa ional p og ess in Senegal
Economies
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MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ndoye, Mamadou Laye; A chade, Touwédé Bénédic e (2025) : Women's
pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke and child en's educa ional p og ess in Senegal, Economies, ISSN
2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 13, Iss. 5, pp. 1-18,
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Published: 13 May 2025
Ci a ion: Ndoye, M. L., & A chade, T.
B. (2025). Women’s Pa icipa ion in he
Labo Ma ke and Child en’s
Educa ional P og ess in Senegal.
Economies,13(5), 132. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/economies13050132
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A icle
Women’s Pa icipa ion in he Labo Ma ke and Child en’s
Educa ional P og ess in Senegal
Mamadou Laye Ndoye 1,* and Touwédé Bénédic e A chade 2
1
Labo a oi e d’Economie Publique (LEP), Facul y o Economics and Managemen (FASEG), Cheikh An a Diop
Uni e si y (UCAD), Daka 10700, Senegal
2Facul y o Economics and Managemen (FASEG), Uni e si y o Abomey Cala i (UAC),
Abomey-Cala i 01 BP 526, Benin; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This esea ch aimed o be e unde s and he impac o a mo he ’s wo k on gi ls’
and boys’ school p og ession a he end o p ima y school in Senegal. The obse ed co e-
la ions be ween a child’s educa ional success and he mo he ’s labo ma ke in ol emen
may no indica e causa ion bu could ins ead esul om o he sha ed ac o s in luencing
bo h a iables (an endogenei y issue). To add ess his issue, we es ima ed a bi a ia e model
wi h wo equa ions, one explaining he mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke and he
o he explaining he child’s educa ional su i al, applied o da a om he In eg a ed Re-
gional Su ey on Employmen and he In o mal Sec o (ERI-ESI-2018). We disco e ed ha
ce ain indi idual cha ac e is ics, such as age, educa ion le el, and ma i al s a us, as well
as amily cha ac e is ics, including household size and pa en s’ social backg ound, play
signi ican oles in main aining women’s labo ma ke ac i i y. Fu he mo e, we concluded
ha mo he s’ pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke has a posi i e and signi ican e ec (a 10%)
on boys’ success in p ima y school exi exams, while he impac on gi ls is nega i e and
no s a is ically signi ican . When con olling o a ious ac o s, we ound ha child en
whose mo he s possess highe le els o educa ion a e mo e likely o pass hei p ima y
school exams. The esul s highligh he signi icance o women’s educa ion, unde sco ing
i s ole in no only in eg a ing women in o he labo ma ke , bu also in os e ing hei
child en’s academic success. In e ms o economic policy implica ions, he s udy sugges s
ha s a e au ho i ies should con inue o in es mo e in imp o ing women’s li e acy a es
and in s eng hening hei academic and p o essional capaci ies, he eby enabling hem o
achie e ad anced le els o educa ion and highe quali ica ions.
Keywo ds: labo ma ke ; educa ional p og ession; ins umen al a iable; Senegal
1. In oduc ion
Child en’s educa ional success has become a majo social conce n, gi ing ise o
widesp ead mobiliza ion (Hill e al.,2005;Tong e al.,2009;Kasiwa,2018). Mos o he
wo ks e iewed main ain ha , in addi ion o he so-called disciplina y skills associa ed
wi h he acquisi ion o knowledge in adi ionally augh subjec s (Tulk,2013), he amily
emains he ancho poin in he de elopmen o young people and hei success a school
(Belsky e al.,2005). Howe e , he weakening o ma i al unions, he di e si ica ion o
amily s uc u es, and he ac i e pa icipa ion o mo he s in he labo ma ke a e all ac o s
ha inc ease he complexi y o amily o ganiza ion and, inciden ally, he pa en al ole in
child en’s educa ion (Pa en & B ousseau,2008;Tulk,2013). In his esea ch, we we e
pa icula ly in e es ed in he e ec o he mo he ’s wo k on child ea ing in a con ex
Economies 2025,13, 132 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13050132
Economies 2025,13, 132 2 o 18
whe e women a e inc easingly engaged in he labo ma ke and ace se ious di icul ies in
econciling hei p o essional ole wi h hei ma e nal obliga ions.
In he economic li e a u e, he mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke as a di ec
de e minan o child en’s educa ional success has been li le explo ed. Howe e , acco ding
o A idi e al. (2016), he e a e h ee main channels h ough which ma e nal employmen
a ec s child en’s educa ion. Fi s ly, o e all household income is likely o inc ease when
he mo he s a s ea ning an income. This can lead o g ea e in es men in child en’s
human capi al. Secondly, when he mo he is in ol ed in ou side wo k, he child en
may be equi ed o ake on household cho es and o he domes ic obliga ions, which can
wo sen hei school pe o mance. Thi dly, ea ning an income can gi e he mo he he
powe o make decisions abou he alloca ion o esou ces wi hin he household. This high
decision-making powe o he woman posi i ely a ec s he human capi al o he child en
in he household.
All h ee channels may be a play, making he di ec ion o he e ec o women’s
pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke on child en’s human capi al ambiguous. Indeed, i
a woman’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke is due o an exogenous shock pu ing he
household in a p eca ious si ua ion, his would ha e no e ec on he child en’s human
capi al, among o he hings. Simila ly, in he absence o a woman’s high decision-making
powe wi hin he household, an inc ease in household income due o he pa icipa ion
in he labo ma ke may no be bene icial o imp o ing child en’s human capi al. This
sugges s ha a g ea e weigh ing o wo king mo he s’ p e e ences in household decision-
making could be a key ac o in imp o ing hei child en’s educa ional a ainmen . The
exis ing li e a u e has shown ha when a mo he wo ks, she gene ally has mo e in luence
o e household decisions, which can encou age child en o a end school. Howe e , in
some cul u es, and in he pa ia chal egimes ha p e ail in A ica, e en i a woman wo ks,
she does no con ol he income, which educes he impac on child en’s schooling.
In Senegal, mo e and mo e women a e ac i e in he job ma ke . Be ween 2005 and 2020, he
emale labo o ce pa icipa ion a e ose signi ican ly, om 36.9% o 48.6% (ANSD,2021). The
employmen a e also changed conside ably o e he same pe iod. I ose om 25.5% in 2005
o 31.1% in 2020 (ANSD,2021). Howe e , al hough hey a e economically ac i e, hey ope a e
mainly in he subsis ence a ming sec o and in ma ginal ac i i ies o he in o mal economy,
wi h low added alue and insu icien economic p o i abili y (BIT,2007).
Senegal is cha ac e ized by a highly in o mal labo ma ke , which may in luence
he e ec s o women’s employmen on child en’s schooling di e en ly om coun ies
whe e o mal employmen is mo e widesp ead. Gende no ms play an impo an ole in
he di ision o domes ic and p o essional labo , which could a ec he e ec o women’s
pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke on child en’s educa ional ollow-up. The p e alence o ex-
ended amilies in Senegal could be a ac o mi iga ing o ampli ying he impac o women’s
employmen on child en’s educa ion. In ce ain si ua ions, o he amily membe s (g and-
pa en s, aun s) can compensa e o ma e nal absence and hus educe he po en ial nega i e
impac on school supe ision. Con e sely, in a con ex o hea y domes ic bu den o
women, he lack o al e na i e childca e op ions could hampe hei educa ional p og ess.
On he poli ical le el, Senegal has been pu suing a bold policy o uni e sal en ollmen
o almos wo decades, wi h signi ican esul s in e ms o access o schooling and he
educ ion o inequali ies be ween gi ls and boys in compulso y educa ion cycles. An
analysis o he academic p og ession
1
o p ima y school pupils shows ha , o each p ima y
le el, he coun y eco ded mo e han 94% o pupils p og essing o he nex le el be ween
2016 and 2017 (ANSD & AFRISTAT,2019). Analysis by gende shows ha he p opo ion
o gi ls mo ing on o he nex g ade is gene ally highe han ha o boys, excep o he las
g ades o p ima y, seconda y 1, and seconda y 2 schools. In ac , a hese le els, boys a e
Economies 2025,13, 132 3 o 18
mo e likely o succeed and mo e on o he nex le el (89.2% o gi ls and 86% o boys pass
he p ima y le el and mo e on o seconda y le el 1).
These s a is ics aise a cen al ques ion: wha is he po en ial e ec o mo he s’ pa ici-
pa ion in he labo ma ke on he school su i al o pupils (gi ls and boys) a he end o
p ima y school in Senegal?
D awing on da a om (ANSD & AFRISTAT,2019)’s In eg a ed Regional Su ey on
Employmen and he In o mal Sec o (ERI-ESI), he o e all objec i e o his esea ch was
o examine he e ec o mo he s’ labo ma ke pa icipa ion on child en’s educa ion in
Senegal. Speci ically, i aimed o (i) iden i y he ac o s de e mining mo he s’ pa icipa ion
in he labo ma ke and (ii) analyze he e ec o mo he s’ pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke
on he academic success o child en (gi ls and boys) a he end o p ima y school. Table 1
below shows elemen a y school su i al a es by a ea o esidence and gende .
Table 1. P ima y school su i al a e acco ding o he a ea o esidence and he gende o he pupils.
A ea o
Residence
Pe cen age o
Child en Who
We e in Thei
Fi s Yea in 2016
and Thei Second
Yea in 2017 (%)
Pe cen age o
Child en Who
We e in Thei
Second Yea in
2016 and Thei
Thi d Yea in
2017 (%)
Pe cen age o
Child en Who
We e in Thei
Thi d Yea in
2016 and Thei
Fou h Yea in
2017 (%)
Pe cen age o
Child en Who
We e in Thei
Fou h Yea in
2016 and Thei
Fi h Yea in 2017
(%)
Pe cen age o
Child en Who
We e in Thei
Fi h Yea in 2016
and Thei Six h
Yea in 2017 (%)
Pe cen age o
Child en Who
We e in Thei
Se en h Yea in
2016 and Thei
Se en h Yea in
2017 (%)
Daka 95.5 98.9 94.6 96.6 92.4 77.6
O he owns 95.8 97 94.9 96.3 96.3 92.7
Ru al 96.5 96.9 95.3 96.3 95.6 91.4
Sex
Boys 95.7 97.3 95 96 94.6 89.2
Gi ls 96.5 97.3 95 96.6 95.2 86
Senegal 96.1 97.3 95 96.3 94.9 87.5
Sou ce: ANSD, ERI-ESI 2018.
This esea ch esponds o a ques ion o in e na ional in e es , and om his poin o
iew, i is ele an o bo h scien i ic esea ch and policy-making. As a as scien i ic esea ch
is conce ned, we a e unawa e o any wo ks in Wes A ica, pa icula ly in Senegal, ocusing
on iden i ying he causal e ec o mo he s’ pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke on hei
child en’s school pe o mance. I is his gap ha he p esen esea ch sough o ill. F om a
policy poin o iew, his esea ch con ibu es o inclusi e g ow h and i s in pe ec ly wi h
he achie emen o sus ainable de elopmen goals, no ably quali y educa ion, decen wo k
and economic g ow h, and gende equali y.
This a icle is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2p esen s he li e a u e e iew, Sec ion 3
de ails he esea ch me hodology and desc ibes he da a used, Sec ion 4p o ides he esul s
and hei economic in e p e a ions, and Sec ion 5desc ibes he conclusions.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
The con lic be ween he oles o mo he and wo ke is conside ed o s em om he
sepa a ion o home and wo kplace, he na u e o employmen , and social no ms ega ding
he oles o men and women (Mason & Palan,1981;Rind uss & B ews e ,1996). Howe e ,
his con lic could be a enua ed unde ce ain ci cums ances. Fi s , he e a e some jobs
wi h cha ac e is ics ha allow o he simul aneous ul ilmen o wo ke and mo he oles,
he eby educing he incompa ibili y be ween he wo. Fo example, women occupied in
ag icul u e, wo king a home o on a amily a m, a e la gely able o combine hei wo king
and mo he ing oles. Fo women wo king ou side he home, pa icula ly in he mode n
sec o , i is mo e di icul o combine pa en ing and wo ke oles.
Economies 2025,13, 132 4 o 18
Resul s om s udies by Luke and Munshi (2011) ocusing on plan a ions in sou he n
India whe e women a e pe manen ly employed show ha a ela i e inc ease in women’s
income has a posi i e impac on hei child en’s educa ion. Using da a om he Young
Li es S udy (YLS) in India, A idi e al. (2016) ound ha highe ma e nal labo ma ke
pa icipa ion is associa ed wi h mo e ime spen in school by child en in hei households.
Mo eo e , hey ound ha he impac was mo e p onounced in poo e households. In
ac , almos hal o he inc ease in ime spen in school by s uden s could be explained
by an inc ease in he p obabili y o a child a ending school while he mo he is a wo k.
Mo eo e , his inc ease in school a endance ansla es in o be e educa ional ou comes o
he s uden s.
A s udy conduc ed in Canada showed ha a woman’s employmen has a posi i e
impac on he child’s academic pe o mance and well-being (Tulk e al.,2016). In ac , he
mo e in ol ed a mo he is in he wo k, he mo e likely he child is o do well in school.
Howe e , changes in ca ee di ec ion, p omo ions, o i egula wo king hou s could a ec
amily li e and cause anxie y o child en. This would undoub edly dep i e hem o
aluable ime ha could ha e been spen playing oge he , eading, doing homewo k, and
going on ou ings (Tulk e al.,2016). These indings a e consis en wi h hose o Ma chan
e al. (2001), who showed ha he ela ionship be ween s uden s and hei pa en s and
he suppo hey ecei e om hei pa en s con ibu e signi ican ly o academic success.
Cawley and Liu (2012), in a s udy conduc ed in he Uni ed S a es, ound ha wo king
ou side he home is associa ed wi h less ime spen wi h child en o p o ide cogni i e
s imula ion, bu he magni ude o he e ec emains small. Mo he s who wo ked ou side
he home spen only 12 min less pe day wi h hei child en and 37 min less on di ec child
ca e han mo he s who did no wo k ou side he home.
Ruhm (2004) showed ha ma e nal employmen du ing he i s h ee yea s o a child’s
li e has a small nega i e e ec on he es ima ed e bal abili y o h ee-yea -olds and a la ge
nega i e e ec on eading and achie emen o i e- and six-yea -olds. Nelen e al. (2013)
ound ha he e is no nega i e ela ionship be ween ma e nal wo king hou s and child
ou comes, as is o en ound o p eschool-aged child en. Ins ead, hey ound ha child en’s
so ing es sco es we e highe i hei mo he wo ked pa - ime (gi ls) o ull- ime (boys).
A he same ime, wo king may bene i child en, o example, by inc easing amily income.
De Hoop e al. (2017) ound ha women’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke inc eases
household income and he demand o child en’s educa ion and hobbies, which in u n
educes child en’s labo supply. This inding is in line wi h p e ious s udies ha showed
ha an inc ease in ma e nal income ac i i y, which ansla es in o highe in es men in
child en’s heal h, leads o an imp o emen in child en’s human capi al (Haddad e al.,1997).
Hill e al. (2005) es ima ed he impac o ma e nal employmen on child en’s cogni i e
ou comes (measu ed o child en aged 3 o 8). They ound ha es ima ing he ue impac o
women’s labo ma ke pa icipa ion on child en’s de elopmen is complica ed by selec ion
bias and he endemic lack o da a in mos s udies o such policies. To o e come hese
p oblems, esea che s ha e eso ed o he use o p opensi y sco e ma ching and mul iple
impu a ion. Hill e al. (2005) compa ed he esul s o ou me hods o ma e nal employmen
s a us: no wo king in he i s h ee yea s a e childbi h, wo king only a e he i s
yea , wo king pa - ime in he i s yea , and wo king ull- ime in he i s yea . The
esul s highligh ed he small and nega i e, bu signi ican , e ec s o ma e nal labo ma ke
pa icipa ion on child en’s cogni i e ou comes in he case o ull- ime wo k in he i s yea
a e childbi h, compa ed o delaying wo k un il he end o he i s yea a e childbi h.
Mul iple impu a ions p oduced es ima es o he di e en measu es ha di e ed ma kedly
om a case-by-case app oach. These esea che s also ound ha he di e ences be ween
he esul s o p opensi y sco e ma ching and eg ession modeling we e o en minimal.
Economies 2025,13, 132 5 o 18
Rela i ely ew empi ical s udies ha e ocused on he impac o mo he s’ labo ma ke
pa icipa ion on hei child en’s well-being in gene al and on child en’s human capi al
in pa icula , especially wi h espec o de eloping coun ies. The impac o women’s
pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke on child en’s su i al a school in Wes A ica is highly
dependen on he ype o employmen held by mo he s. While s able, well-paid wo k o
women imp o es school en olmen a es, in o mal and insecu e wo k can lead o economic
cons ain s ha inc ease he isk o d opping ou o school (Kpadonou,2022).
Debela e al. (2019) used panel da a es ima ed using he ixed e ec s model om
a s udy conduc ed in Tanzania. They concluded ha ma e nal employmen has a non-
linea e ec on child en’s weigh - o -age z-sco es. Moo e and Schmid (2004) used he
ins umen al a iables (IV) me hod and ound ha ma e nal employmen has a nega i e
e ec in he i s yea o child en’s li es and a po en ially posi i e and de ini e e ec in he
second yea . The ne e ec o e he i s h ee o ou yea s is signi ican . Diagne (2006)
showed ha in u al Senegal, economic cons ain s o ce child en om amilies whe e he
mo he wo ks o d op ou o school ea ly o con ibu e o he household income. The esul s
o E ans and Acos a (2021) a e in line wi h hese indings, showing ha an economically
ac i e mo he imp o es he child en’s chances o su i al a school, p o ided ha he
income is s able and su icien o co e educa ional cos s. Filme and Schady (2009) showed
ha in households whe e women con ibu e o income, school en olmen a es a e highe .
A he same ime, i he mo he ’s employmen is uns able o in o mal, he posi i e impac
may be limi ed (Tsimpo & Wodon,2016).
The e is, he e o e, no consensus in he li e a u e on he impac o women’s labo
ma ke pa icipa ion on child well-being in gene al and on human capi al in pa icula . The
impac o women’s employmen on child well-being is usually cap u ed by he socioeco-
nomic s a us o he household, which, in u n, ope a es h ough a numbe o ‘p oxima e
de e minan s’ o child heal h and educa ion. In his con ex , child heal h and educa ion ou -
comes depend on a combina ion o social, economic, biological, and en i onmen al o ces.
Women’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke con ibu es o household income, which gene -
ally p o ides access o mo e and be e -quali y ood, housing, p o ec ion om epea ed
school absen eeism, and imp o ed school pe o mance.
3. Me hodology and Da a
To analyze s uden beha io , speci ic s a is ical me hods a e necessa y o isola e he
e ec s o pa icula explana o y a iables. Impac e alua ion models, especially he in-
s umen al a iable me hod, help co ec o hese e ec s. This s udy aimed o examine
he impac o mo he s’ labo ma ke pa icipa ion on p ima y school comple ion a es in
Senegal, wi h a ocus on gende di e ences.
The obse ed co ela ions be ween a child’s educa ional success and he mo he ’s labo
ma ke in ol emen may no indica e causa ion bu could ins ead esul om o he sha ed
ac o s in luencing bo h a iables (an endogenei y issue). Fo example, an unobse ed
ac o , such as he mo he ’s alen , migh simul aneously lead o he ca ee ad ancemen
and he child’s imp o ed academic pe o mance. Simila ly, household ensions could
bo h impac he mo he ’s employmen s a us—po en ially leading o unemploymen —and
nega i ely a ec he child’s educa ional ou comes (Duée,2005).
To add ess his issue, we es ima ed a bi a ia e model wi h wo equa ions, one ex-
plaining he mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke and he o he explaining he child’s
educa ional su i al. No e he ollowing:
Economies 2025,13, 132 6 o 18
-y1
— he mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke is cap u ed he e by he occupa ion
o any job. This a iable is he implemen a ion o an unobse ed a iable:
y1=1(y∗
1>0)(1)
-y2
— he school su i al o he child ( ansi ion o a highe g ade in wo consecu i e
yea s). This a iable is he ul ilmen o unobse ed a iable y∗
2:
y2=1(y∗
2>0)(2)
The model is, he e o e, w i en as ollows:
y∗
1i=X1iα+ε1i
y∗
2i=X2iβ+δy1i+ε2i
(3)
whe e
X1i
and
X2i
a e he indi idual cha ac e is ics o he mo he s and hei pupils, espec-
i ely. The model inco po a es explana o y a iables linked o s uden s’ sociodemog aphic
cha ac e is ics (such as gende and a ea o esidence), ma e nal cha ac e is ics (includ-
ing age, quali ica ions, educa ion ype, employmen ype, and social backg ound), and
household a ibu es (no ably, a ea o esidence).
Fo he model o be iden i ied, i is p e e able ha a leas one a iable, called he
ins umen , be excluded. We, he e o e, needed o ind a a iable ha di ec ly de e mined
he mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke bu had no di ec impac on he s uden ’s
su i al in school. Ins umen s used in he li e a u e include capi al income (Maye ,1997)
o unioniza ion in he company whe e he pa en wo ks, which a e hough o explain
pa o he household income wi hou in luencing child en’s educa ional success (Shea,
2000;Duée,2005). O he ins umen s, such as g andpa en cha ac e is ics (socioeconomic
s a us o socio-p o essional ca ego y), ha e been used (Mau in,2002;Duée,2005). The
assump ion is ha hese a iables ha e no di ec e ec on he child’s educa ion, bu ha
hei e ec is aken in o accoun by he a ious con ol a iables desc ibing he pa en s’
le el o educa ion, a he ’s and mo he ’s quali ica ions, e c.
In his esea ch, he exis ence o a ade union in he sec o in which he mo he is
employed was used as an ins umen o women’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke . This
app oach is jus i ied by he s uc u ing ole ha ade unions ha e played in p omo ing
gende equali y and imp o ing wo king condi ions in se e al de eloping coun ies (ILO,
2018). In hese coun ies, union ac ion has helped o educe s uc u al ba ie s o women’s
economic pa icipa ion, jus i ying he ele ance o unioniza ion as an ins umen . The
unde lying assump ion is ha he p esence o unions imp o es wo king condi ions (be e
job secu i y, mo e lexible wo king hou s, highe wages), making women’s pa icipa ion in
he labo ma ke mo e a ac i e. In he Senegalese con ex , ade unions, al hough o en
domina ed by men, ha e g adually in eg a ed he gende issue in o hei demands, no ably
by p omo ing equal pay, igh ing occupa ional disc imina ion, eo ganizing wo king hou s,
and de ending he igh s o women wo ke s in he in o mal sec o (ILO,2020).
We pos ula e ha he exis ence o a union in a gi en sec o can a ec an indi idual’s
decision o wo k in ha sec o . I an indi idual is unionized, his can ha e a di ec e ec on he
household en i onmen h ough channels such as job s abili y, social bene i s, and imp o ed
household income. Thus, we assume ha he impac o he mo he ’s unioniza ion on he
child en’s educa ional a ainmen is solely h ough i s e ec s on he mo he ’s employmen
condi ions, job secu i y, imp o ed income, and legal ecogni ion o he mo he ’s wo k— hus
sa is ying he exclusion condi ion. This app oach ollows he logic o Ca d (1996) and Ang is
and K uege (2001), who ecommended he use o agg ega e a iables o cap u e s uc u al
e ec s wi hou in oducing biases ela ed o indi idual cha ac e is ics.
Economies 2025,13, 132 7 o 18
The ins umen al a iable me hod used he e allowed us o deal wi h he endogenei y
o he “mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke ” a iable, which was ou a iable o
in e es . I should be no ed ha o he a iables in ou model (con ol a iables) may also be
suspec ed o endogenei y. In he case o ou esea ch, we s a ed om he s ong assump ion
ha he con ol a iables used we e exogenous, o ha hei possible endogenei y would
no signi ican ly bias he es ima e o he e ec o a mo he ’s pa icipa ion in he labo
ma ke on pupils’ school esul s a he end o p ima y school.
The a iables used in he di e en models a e p esen ed in Table 2below.
Table 2. Summa y desc ip ion o he a iables.
Numbe Va iables Explana ion Ca ego ies
1Y1Pa icipa ion o women in he labo ma ke 0 = Do no pa icipa e
1 = Pa icipa e
2Y2Child’s academic achie emen s 0 = No p omo ed o he nex g ade
1 = P omo ed o he nex g ade
3x1Child’s sex 0 = Boy
1 = Gi l
4x2Mo he ’s age ( e .: 15–24 yea s)
0 = 15–24 yea s
1 = 25–34 yea s
2 = 35–64 yea s
3 = 65 yea s and o e
5x3A ea o esidence ( e .: Daka )
0 = Daka
1 = O he u ban a eas
2 = Ru al
6x4Mo he ’s deg ee ( e .: no deg ee)
0 = No deg ee
1 = CFE
2 = BFEM
3 = CAP
4 = BEP
5 = BAC
6 = DEUG, DUT, BTS
7 = Unde g adua e deg ee
8 = Mas e ’s, DESS, DEA, BSc in Enginee ing
7x5Ma i al s a us ( e .: Single)
0 = Single
1 = Ma ied
2 = Di o ced
3 = Widow
8x6Household size ( e .: 1–6 people)
0 = 1–6 people
1 = 7–10 people
2 = 11–15 people
3 = 16 and mo e
9x7Type o app en iceship ( e .: academic aining)
0 = Academic aining
1 = Simple (p a icals wi h no heo y)
2 = Dual ( heo y and p ac ice)
10 x8Pa en s’ social ca ego y ( e .: child en
o manage s)
0 = Child en o manage s
1 = Child en o he employees
2 = Child en o a sel -employed wo ke
3 = Child en o ano he social ca ego y
o pa en s
Economies 2025,13, 132 8 o 18
Table 2. Con .
Numbe Va iables Explana ion Ca ego ies
11 x9Mo he ’s g oup job ( e .: highly quali ied)
0 = Highly quali ied
1 = Low-skilled wo ke
2 = Quali ied employee
3 = Unquali ied employmen
12 x10 Exis ence o a ade union in he sec o in which
he mo he is employed ( e .: no unionized)
0 = No unionized
1 = Unionized
Sou ce: au ho s’ own cons uc ion.
The da a used we e ex ac ed om he In eg a ed Regional Su ey on Employmen
and he In o mal Sec o (ERI-ESI, 2017–2018), which co e s wo componen s: he i s
componen collec s da a on he socioeconomic cha ac e is ics o he popula ion (educa ion,
heal h, employmen , demog aphy, e c.), and he second componen ela es o he collec ion
o da a om he in o mal non-ag icul u al p oduc ion uni s iden i ied du ing he i s
componen . We ocused mainly on he i s phase, du ing which wo ques ionnai es we e
used: a household ques ionnai e used o collec in o ma ion on all household membe s,
he household, and he dwelling, and an employmen ques ionnai e adminis e ed in each
household o all indi iduals aged 10 and o e . We pe o med a desc ip i e analysis o he
da a acco ding o ce ain cha ac e is ics o he mo he s (see Appendix B, Table A1).
4. Resul s and Discussion
In his sec ion, we i s p esen he esul s o he bina y logi model used o iden i y
he de e minan s o women’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke . Secondly, using he ins u-
men al a iables me hod, we discuss he esul s o he impac o mo he s’ pa icipa ion in
he labo ma ke on pupils’ academic success a he end o p ima y school, dis inguishing
be ween boys and gi ls.
-De e minan s o women’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke
The de e minan s o women’s pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke we e ob ained by
es ima ing a bina y logi model (Table 3). Es ima es we e made by applying Whi e’s co ec-
ion o ob ain unbiased pa ame e s in he p esence o he e oscedas ici y. The p obabili ies
associa ed wi h he Wald s a is ic we e ze o, indica ing ha he o e all quali y o he model
was sa is ac o y. In o he wo ds, he a iables selec ed con ibu e o explaining women’s
pa icipa ion in he labo ma ke . Mo eo e , he pe cen age o co ec p edic ions is 77.34%.
We es ima ed he odds a ios in o de o ob ain a p ecise es ima e o he p obabili y o
pa icipa ing in he labo ma ke acco ding o women’s indi idual cha ac e is ics.
Table 3. De e minan s o women’s labo o ce pa icipa ion.
Women’s Pa icipa ion in he Labo Ma ke
Va iables Odds Ra ios Robus
S d. E .
Age ( e .: 15–24 yea s)
25–34 yea s 1.246 ** 0.114
35–64 yea s 1.627 *** 0.159
65 yea s and o e 0.647 * 0.144
Economies 2025,13, 132 15 o 18
Appendix B
Table A1. Desc ip i e s a is ics o he a iables used in he es ima ed models.
Employed Women Non-Employed Women
Va iables NA e age/
P opo ion
S anda d
De ia ion Min Max N A e age/
P opo ion
S anda d
De ia ion Min Max
Child en a he end o hei p ima y
school yea s
P omo ed o he nex g ade 109 0.733945 0.4439345 0 1 1163 0.9243336 0.2645773 0 1
No p omo ed o he nex g ade 109 0.266055 0.4439345 0 1 1163 0.0756664 0.2645773 0 1
Mo he ’s age
15–24 yea s 12,392 0.2293415 0.4204263 0 1 50,885 0.482657 0.499704 0 1
25–34 yea s 12,392 0.2503228 0.4332164 0 1 50,885 0.2239363 0.416884 0 1
35–64 yea s 12,392 0.4713525 0.4991988 0 1 50,885 0.2226786 0.4160484 0 1
65 yea s and o e 12,392 0.0489832 0.2158417 0 1 50,885 0.0707281 0.2563727 0 1
Mo he ’s place o esidence
Daka 12,392 0.1265332 0.3324628 0 1 50,885 0.0743245 0.2623008 0 1
O he u ban a eas 12,392 0.2997095 0.4581492 0 1 50,885 0.2730274 0.4455192 0 1
Ru al 12,392 0.5737573 0.4945499 0 1 50,885 0.6526481 0.4761334 0 1
Mo he ’s le el o educa ion
No le el 12,392 0.6792285 0.4667919 0 1 50,885 0.5638579 0.4959107 0 1
P ima y 12,392 0.1964977 0.3973652 0 1 50,885 0.3075471 0.4614829 0 1
Seconda y 12,392 0.1112815 0.3144931 0 1 50,885 0.1226114 0.3279941 0 1
Highe 12,392 0.0129923 0.1132453 0 1 50,885 0.0059837 0.0771232 0 1
Mo he ’s diploma ob ained
Wi hou diploma 12,392 0.6381256 0.4806017 0 1 50,885 0.7178749 0.4500446 0 1
CFEE 12,392 0.1687929 0.3746149 0 1 50,885 0.1636836 0.3699969 0 1
BFEM 12,392 0.1177625 0.3223662 0 1 50,885 0.0742385 0.2621648 0 1
CAP 12,392 0.0068695 0.0826073 0 1 50,885 0.0042975 0.065416 0 1
BEP 12,392 0.0206084 0.1420869 0 1 50,885 0.0223849 0.1479352 0 1
BAC 12,392 0.0252699 0.1569629 0 1 50,885 0.0126092 0.1115832 0 1
DEUG, BTS, DUT 12,392 0.0039254 0.0625377 0 1 50,885 0.0011806 0.0343409 0 1
License 12,392 0.0103042 0.1009977 0 1 50,885 0.0020307 0.0450185 0 1
Mas e ’s deg ee 12,392 00034347 0.0585131 0 1 50,885 0.0006139 0.0247706 0 1
Ma i al s a us
Single 12,392 0.1475145 0.3546324 0 1 50,885 0.4136249 0.4924914 0 1
Ma ied 12,392 0.7307133 0.4850656 0 1 50,885 0.4868353 0.4952862 0 1
Di o ced 12,392 0.0323596 0.1769604 0 1 50,885 0.0158807 0.1250162 0 1
Widowed 12,392 0.0894125 0.2853498 0 1 50,885 0.0836591 0.2768807 0 1
Household size
1–6 pe sons 12,392 0.2169948 0.4122157 0 1 50,885 0.156274 0.3631184 0 1
7–10 pe sons 12,392 0.2883312 0.4530043 0 1 50,885 0.2932691 0.4552652 0 1
11–15 pe sons 12,392 0.2458844 0.4306277 0 1 50,885 0.2607841 0.4390667 0 1
16 and o e 12,392 0.2487895 0.432329 0 1 50,885 0.2896728 0.4536149 0 1
Voca ional aining
Yes 12,392 0.3289219 0.4698405 0 1 50,885 0.5037289 0.4999923 0 1
No 12,392 0.6710781 0.4698405 0 1 50,885 0.4962711 0.4999923 0 1
Mo he ’s g oup job
Highly quali ied 12,392 0.138525 0.3454657 0 1 50,885 0.1317143 0.3381973 0 1
Low-skilled wo ke s 12,392 0.3161672 0.4649999 0 1 50,885 0.2026137 0.4019677 0 1
Quali ied employees 12,392 0.2848556 0.4513659 0 1 50,885 0.4277629 0.4947797 0 1
Unquali ied employmen 12,392 0.2604522 0.438901 0 1 50,885 0.237909 0.4258251 0 1
Pa en s’ social o igin
Child en o execu i es 12,392 0.0249485 0.1559841 0 1 50,885 0.0278065 0.1644238 0 1
Child en o employees 12,392 0.0981443 0.2975404 0 1 50,885 0.0852136 0.2792088 0 1
Child en o sel -employed people 12,392 0.7948454 0.4038562 0 1 50,885 0.7584351 0.4280467 0 1
Child en o pa en s wi h o he CSP 12,392 0.0820619 0.2744872 0 1 50,885 0.1285448 0.334707 0 1
Economies 2025,13, 132 16 o 18
Appendix C
Table A2. Resul o he i s s age o he IV eg ession.
Pa icipa ion in he Labo Ma ke
Va iables Coe icien S anda d E o
p-syndica 0.357 *** 0.017
Age ( e .: 15–24 yea s)
25–34 yea s 0.084 *** 0.006
35–64 yea s 0.143 *** 0.006
65 yea s and o e −0.101 ** 0.011
Diploma ( e .: wi hou diploma)
CFEE 0.013 ** 0.005
BFEM 0.033 *** 0.006
CAP −0.019 0.025
BEP 0.005 0.012
BAC −0.076 *** 0.132
DEUG, DUT, BTS −0.040 0.031
License 0.049 * 0.253
Mas e ’s, DESS, DEA, deg ee in Enginee ing 0.011 0.035
Type o app en iceship ( e .: heo e ical aining)
Simple (p ac ice wi hou heo y) 0.334 *** 0.005
Dual ( heo e ical and p ac ical) 0.394 *** 0.009
Ma i al s a us ( e .: Single)
Ma ied 0.113 *** 0.006
Di o ced 0.082 *** 0.009
Widowed 0.023 0.018
Household size ( e .: 1–6 people)
7–10 people −0.026 *** 0.006
11–15 people −0.024 *** 0.006
16 and o e −0.029 *** 0.006
Place o esidence ( e .: Daka )
O he u ban cen e s −0.020 *** 0.006
Ru al −0.023 *** 0.006
Cons an 0.048 *** 0.008
No e: The endogenous a iable ep esen s he pa icipa ion o women in he labo ma ke (holding any employmen
posi ion). Signs ***, **, and * indica e he signi icance o a iables o hei espec i e h esholds o 1%, 5% and 10%.
Sou ce: au ho s’ own compu a ion. CFEE: Ce i ica de Fin d’E udes Elémen ai es, BFEM: B e e de Fin d’E udes
Moyennes, CAP: Ce i ica d’Ap i ude P o essionnelle, BEP: B e e d’E udes P o essionnelles, BAC: Baccalau éa ,
DEUG: Diplôme d’E udes Uni e si ai es Géné ales, DUT: Diplôme Uni e si ai e de Technologie, BTS: B e e de
Technicien Supé ieu , DESS: Diplôme d’E udes Supé ieu es Spécialisées, DEA: Diplôme d’E udes App o ondies.
F es o exclued ins umen s
F(1, 35716) = 441.52
P ob > F = 0.000
Sande son-Windmeije mul i a ia e F es o excluded ins umen s:
F (1, 35716) = 441.52
P ob > F = 0.000
Unde iden i ica ion es
Ande son canon. Co . LM s a is ic Chi-sq (1) = 436.44 p- al = 0.000
No e
1
P og ess measu es he le el a which pupils mo e om one yea o he nex . I is calcula ed using he school su i al a e, which
is he p opo ion o child en who ha e mo ed om one le el o ano he in wo consecu i e school yea s.
Economies 2025,13, 132 17 o 18
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