A conceptual framework for the work–life balance of police officers: a post-COVID-19 perspective

S., Sandhya D. Article A conceptual framework for the work–life balance of police officers: a post-COVID-19 perspective Cogent Business & Management Provided in Cooperation with: Taylor & Francis Group Suggested Citation: S., Sandhya D. (2024) : A conceptual framework for the work–life balance of police officers: a post-COVID-19 perspective, Cogent Business & Management, ISSN 2331-1975, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, Vol. 11, Iss. 1, pp. 1-19, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2304429 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/326009 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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To cite this article: Sandhya D. S. (2024) A conceptual framework for the work–life balance of police officers: a post-COVID-19 perspective, Cogent Business & Management, 11:1, 2304429, DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2024.2304429 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2304429 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published online: 30 Jan 2024. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 6352 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 1 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oabm20 ManageMent | Review aRticle Cogent Business & ManageMent 2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2304429 A conceptual framework for the work–life balance of police officers: a post-COVID-19 perspective Sandhya D. S. school of Business and Management, CHRist (Deemed to be university), Bengaluru, india ABSTRACT this study has undertaken a comprehensive review of literature from 2019 to 2021, encompassing work/life balance review articles to identify the research gap in the work/life balance area. employing the PRiSMa framework for systematic literature review, the study identified prospective areas for future research on work/life balance and variables associated with work/life balance in the police sector. the articles published between 2013 and 2023 relating to the police force over the past decade were reviewed to frame a conceptual framework for the work/life balance of police officers. Further literature review attests that there is a research gap in the police sector. the primary goal is to identify the area (work/life balance in the police sector) that lacked research and establish a conceptual framework addressing the work/life balance of police officers, even in challenging situations like cOviD-19. the articles related to police from 2013 to 2023 were scrutinised through the PRiSMa framework to identify variables necessary for constructing the conceptual framework for police officers. this article, set in the post-cOviD-19 era, delves into the factors influencing police officers’ capacity to uphold a healthy work–life balance. By pinpointing those research gaps, the article proposes a conceptual framework designed to help police officers balance their professional and personal lives. Such a framework can aid organisations in formulating effective strategies for employee well-being, facilitating work–life balance even in challenging circumstances, such as those imposed by the cOviD-19 pandemic. IMPACT STATEMENT investigating work/life balance within the police force holds substantial advantages for the community and law enforcement organisations. Foremost, a police force that maintains equilibrium and mental well-being is better equipped to safeguard and serve the public. this research aims to pave the way for formulating policies and methodologies that strengthen the welfare of officers, resulting in heightened levels of public safety. when officers have ample time for rest and personal life, they are more inclined to make rational decisions, exhibit sound judgment, and respond effectively to challenges like the cOviD-19 pandemic. Delving into this area of research sheds light on the intricate challenges police officers face as they strive to harmonize their personal and professional lives, pinpointing areas necessitating additional support and resources. By addressing these hurdles, police departments can cultivate a more favourable work environment, ultimately benefiting the community. Introduction Over the past 50 years, changes in work, jobs, gender roles, and families have led to increased research on work/life balance (Powell etal., 2019). From 1970 to 1977, the phrases ‘work/life’, ‘family’, ‘work’, and ‘non-work’ generated only 68 hits. However, in 2010, there were more than 5000 hits (Powell et al., 2019). longer working hours demanded by companies often result in less time for other © 2024 the author(s). Published by informa uK Limited, trading as taylor & Francis group CONTACT sandhya D. s. [email protected], [email protected] school of Business and Management, CHRist (Deemed to be university), Bengaluru, india. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2304429 this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. the terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 2 august 2023 Revised 8 January 2024 accepted 8 January 2024 KEYWORDS work/life balance; police officers; social support; resilience; job satisfaction REVIEWING EDITOR ansar abbas, Universitas airlangga - Kampus B, indonesia SUBJECTS work & Organizational Psychology; Organizational Studies; Organizational theory & Behavior 2 SanDHYa D. S. responsibilities in life, depending on the organisation and type of employment. additionally, the participation of both men and women in the workforce has resulted in less time for other responsibilities in life. traditionally, men focused on their jobs as the ‘breadwinners’, while women took care of the house as the ‘homemakers’ (asiedu-appiah & Zoogah, 2019; Powell et al., 2019; wood & eagly, 2012). However, globalisation and liberalisation have enabled women to enter the workforce and raise family incomes to levels comparable to their male counterparts, allowing them to balance work and life. Despite this progress, women with professional and family duties still bear an unequal burden, making it challenging to manage both responsibilities and the imbalance of work and life (lekchiri & eversole, 2020). with dual earners and the blending of gender roles brought on by the same equality, the family structure has changed (Powell et al., 2019), leaving less time for managing personal and family responsibilities. the evolving family structure significantly impacts both work and personal life, creating a ripple effect in both areas. as remote work gains traction in the post-pandemic era, the relevance of work–life balance for police officers comes into question. However, the answer is clear: yes, it is still essential. while some employees may solely complete office tasks online from home, police officers have diverse responsibilities requiring their physical presence. these include interrogating suspects, solving crimes, and attending private meetings. although there may be some administrative tasks that can be completed remotely, the blending of work and personal life occurs less frequently in policing compared to other professions. according to Kyprianides et al. (2021), the cOviD-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on police practices and mental health. Police officers must operate more effectively and prioritise the general public’s safety in the post-pandemic era (Kyprianides etal., 2021). However, the pandemic has presented challenges for police officers in effectively managing their professional duties and personal responsibilities. Despite these challenges, police officers have continued investigating crimes and adapting to the new regulations and facing difficulties at work while interacting with a significant portion of society. the cOviD-19 pandemic has also led to changes in government policies and guidelines, making it increasingly difficult for police personnel to do their jobs. notably, police officers have been particularly vulnerable to the virus due to their front-line work, which has often resulted in feelings of sadness and anxiety (Kyprianides et al., 2021). additionally, the pandemic has increased the strain on police officers and other policing resources, making it crucial to evaluate how police officers manage their professional and personal lives. in this study, a conceptual framework is put forth to address police officers’ capacity to manage professional and personal obligations in the wake of the pandemic, as it is crucial to evaluate how police officers manage their professional and personal lives. through the research gap, this study examines the theoretical underpinnings of police officers’ work– life balance. Review of literature Work/life balance and Police the phrase ‘work/life balance’ has been used in ordinary speech since 1986 (lockwood, 2003). work/ family balance was once more frequently utilised than work/life balance. the term ‘balance’ is a complex one in the english language and has several different meanings (guest, 2002). a ‘balance’ is a term that refers to a set of scales, a weighing instrument, and the regulating mechanism in a clock. Balance occurs when there is an ‘equal distribution of weight or amount’ using scales (guest, 2002). Furthermore, the kind of balance that many people seek may include different weights for each side. However, it can also refer to the ‘stability of body and mind’, both physically and psychologically (guest, 2002). a person employs work/life balance to set aside specific time for work and non-workrelated activities. thomas Kalliath, a professor and researcher in work–family conflict and enrichment and work engagement, stated that actions carried out in both work and non-work domains are included in work/life balance (Kalliath & Brough, 2008). the concept of work–life balance today encompasses both work-related and non-work-related activities (lockwood, 2003). the competing responsibilities that today’s workforce must manage—work, kids, housework, volunteering, and taking care of cOgent BUSineSS & ManageMent 3 aging parents and spouses—put stress on individuals, families, and the communities in which they reside, making it difficult to balance work and life (Dhas, 2015). this challenge is further intensified by the escalation in female labour force participation, the rise in single-parent households, and the prevalence of dual-earner families, all of which contribute to the growing complexity of managing multiple responsibilities (Dhas, 2015). it is essential to understand the work/life balance of the police force who are responsible for safeguarding the nation. Policing, characterised by its involvement with cases of abused women and children, human suffering, and the necessity for sudden decisions with potential life-or-death consequences, is commonly perceived as more stressful than many other occupations (viegas & Henriques, 2020). it also includes reducing crimes that affect people and property, providing emergency services, and investigating crimes to gather evidence. Because of their circumstances at work, police officers experience stress. Officers must recall every action taken in their presence and report it in the format specified (gutshall etal., 2017). the job is regarded as one of the most stressful due to the irregular long hours and the nature of their work, adversely affecting police officers’ mental and physical health (aytac, 2015). During cOviD-19, the day-to-day responsibilities of police officers changed due to a decrease in theft and burglary cases and an increase in domestic violence and child abuse cases due to the pandemic (Mohler et al., 2020). Due to the nature of their jobs, they are expected to work and remain calm in all circumstances, even when their lives are at risk (gutshall et al., 2017). Furthermore, they contend with an increasing demand stemming from public occurrences such as terrorist attacks, political events, criminal activities, and incidents like the cOviD-19 pandemic. Police officers’ working conditions harm their working memory and cognitive performance (gutshall et al., 2017). in addition, stress symptoms, stress sources, and anger are related to each other, affecting their mental health altogether. as a result of higher stress levels, there are more physical and psychological issues among police officers (aytac, 2015). anyhow, it has been seen that workers with a strong work/ life balance have fewer mental health problems and fewer unfavourable attitudes towards mental health problems. therefore, mental health problems and attitudes are associated with work/life balance (Kotera et al., 2019). in order to achieve a work–life balance where health is valued equally by a family (gragnano etal., 2020), it is crucial for organisations, including police departments, to focus on the well-being of their workforce. to be more precise, when coping with everyday stressors, grateful people have an optimistic perspective toward themselves and help relieve the adverse effects of stressors, which increases resilience and raises levels of well-being (Kong et al., 2020). Support from family, friends, organisations, supervisors, and co-workers is necessary to build resilience among employees to reduce stress levels (Bahadır Yılmaz, 2017), with reduced work hours and hiring more workforce. the police profession has a very high level of occupational stress that negatively impacts both spheres (viegas & Henriques, 2020). Uncertain workplace conditions such as isolation, which involves working alone, experiencing organisational isolation, and feeling unloved and uncared for, impact the well-being and job of police officers (Ricciardelli, 2018). Occupational stress harms job satisfaction and employee performance (nisar & Rasheed, 2019). the conditions mentioned above are related to the work/life balance concept (guest, 2002), which states that individuals’ work and home cultures also determine the balance between their work and personal lives. the high levels of stress that come with being a police officer affect both work and personal life (viegas & Henriques, 2020). work and family are considered a person’s two primary spheres of existence. Police officers experience high stress levels and various unpleasant scenarios at work, reducing job satisfaction (viegas & Henriques, 2020). like negative work features, low levels of positive work aspects, and work support, which are also associated with higher levels of depression and stress (nelson & Smith, 2016), support for work/life balance strategies within organisations lessen the adverse effects of work on employees (Poulose & Dhal, 2020). enhancing work/life quality in organisations supports employee productivity, skill deployment, and work/life balance (Bhende etal., 2020). the best work/life balance practices and work/life balance programs require favourable interpersonal and organisational support among managers, supervisors, and co-workers 4 SanDHYa D. S. (Olumuyiwa Oludayo & Ojo Omonijo, 2020), as this improves the quality of work and life. Since work/life quality affects work/life balance, support from the company, manager, co-workers, friends, and family can help to improve it. according to eisenberger et al. (1986), a renowned researcher and professor in employee–organisation interactions, employee engagement, and innovation, mentioned organisational support is crucial since it shows that the company values and cares for its employees. an organisation must provide employees with work/life balance policies and implement coping strategies to minimise mental health concerns to achieve good company and employee performance and improve employee and company performance (wiradendi wolor etal., 2020). Police officers have also responded to the cOviD-19 pandemic by safeguarding the public from danger, handling civil unrest, looking into crimes, and addressing the challenges of meeting the growing demands even in scenarios like cOviD-19 (tehrani, 2022). in contrast to most previous significant events, cOviD-19 has remained a severe public health emergency for an extended time, making the situation much more challenging due to this pandemic (tehrani, 2022). all these job-related situations and conditions impact police officers’ work–life balance and mental and physical health. all the events mentioned above, circumstances, and conditions influence individuals’ professional and personal aspects (Staines, 1980). a positive work environment contributes to contentment in one’s personal life, thereby establishing a parallel between events in the work and family domains (Staines, 1980). enhancing job satisfaction and cultivating resilience is crucial for the above reasons, as it enhances individuals’ capacity to cope with the inherent stressors associated with policing roles and working conditions (Hesketh etal., 2019). therefore, it has become essential to examine the work/life balance of police officers. this article aims to identify the research gap in the work/life balance area and develop a conceptual framework for police officers. Objective the article aims to identify the research gap in the area of work/life balance through review articles. the research gap in work/life balance can be seen in two articles. Rashmi and Kataria (2021) mentioned the research gap within any sector related to contextual (situational), psychological, and organisational factors in work/life balance in developed and developing economies. thilagavathy and geetha (2020) found a sector-wise research gap; the police sector is one of them in developed and developing countries. then, this article aims to develop a conceptual framework for police officers to balance work and life even in challenging circumstances, such as those imposed by the cOviD-19 pandemic. Research gap extensive research has been conducted on work–life balance across various industries. notably, most of this research has focused on the service sector, while work/life balance needs to be studied more in the police sector (thilagavathy & geetha, 2020). Rashmi and Kataria (2021) mentioned the need to examine how contextual (situational) factors, psychological factors, and organisational culture affect work/life balance in developed and developing economies. From the above two papers, it is understood that there is a need to study work/life balance in the police sector considering contextual (family and friends support), psychological resources (resilience), and organisational culture (supervisor, co-worker, and organisational support) (Rashmi & Kataria, 2021; thilagavathy & geetha, 2020). Moreover, in their systematic literature review, Singh etal. (2022) discovered only one research article addressing work/family conflict within the context of police. additionally, the systematic literature review following the PRiSMa framework on the police sector for framing the conceptual model gave points that there is a lack of research in the police sector in the domain of work/life balance. cOgent BUSineSS & ManageMent 5 the existence of a research gap within the police sector is perceptible, by the aforementioned researchers, and the systematic literature review reveal the existing research gap to be addressed. Regarding the variables in the study, the combined (social support) and single effect of the supervisor, co-worker, family, and friends, and organisational support can be studied as there is a research gap (Rashmi & Kataria, 2021; thilagavathy & geetha, 2020) and also a systematic literature review found that these variables are not used in the context of work/life balance in police officers. a thematic analysis of police literature spanning from 2013 to 2023 reveals a recurring focus on the importance of resilience in enhancing the overall well-being of the police workforce (Hesketh et al., 2015). additionally, the literature consistently underscores job satisfaction as a pivotal factor influencing police officers in executing their duties (Paoline & gau, 2019). also, the literature review found that research needs to be done considering social support, job satisfaction, and resilience relating to the work/life balance of police officers. Methodology this research article aims to identify the research gap in work/life balance. the search was conducted through a database provided by the University, which has access to databases like Sage, taylor and Francis, and Springer. Search terms such as ‘work-life Balance’ and ‘Balancing work-life’ were used to find articles published between 2019 and 2021. a total of 121 articles related to the search terms were found. the search results were filtered using the journal option and n = 65 articles were accessible in full text. the search was then refined to focus on review articles. through Mendeley and inclusion and exclusion criteria, articles were screened for duplication and relevancy. N = 2 review articles were identified for developing the conceptual model and finding the research gap. Scholarly research articles related to police were identified using the search terms ‘Police’, ‘Police-officers’, and ‘Policing’ for the period between 2013 and 2023 to frame the conceptual framework. a total of n = 254 articles were found. the search results were filtered using the journal option, and n = 84 articles were accessible in full text. through inclusion and exclusion criteria, selected research articles were screened for duplication and the relevance in Mendeley. N = 44 articles were selected to identify the variables related to police officers’ work and life. Of these, nine articles specifically addressed keywords like ‘work’, ‘life’, ‘work/life’, and ‘work/family’. these nine articles highlighted variables such as well-being, emotional intelligence, organizational support, resilience, work/life balance, stress, gender, job stress, job satisfaction, stress, and turnover intentions. in these variables, job satisfaction appeared most frequently in 22 articles, resilience in 10 articles, and work/life balance and emotional intelligence in only one article among the selected n = 44 articles. the literature review identified a need to study work/life balance in the police sector. For thematic analysis, n = 24 articles were selected using the variables identified through the keywords ‘work’, ‘life’, ‘work/life’, and ‘work/family’. it is found that the key to maintaining and enhancing the well-being of the police workforce is increasing their resilience (Hesketh et al., 2015), and one of the critical elements for police officers to have a good life is job satisfaction (lambert et al., 2016). also, job satisfaction is pivotal in influencing police officers to execute their duties (Paoline & gau, 2019). N = 24 articles are selected to frame the conceptual framework through thematic analysis (tables 1 and 2; Figures 1 and 2). Table 1. inclusion and exclusion parameters for identifying the research gap. inclusion criterion exclusion criterion • articles from business and management, psychology and social sciences subjects were included. • articles from the subjects which are not in the inclusion criterion. • Review papers • empirical papers • Papers published in english language • Books, dissertations, book reviews and conference proceedings • Papers published other than in english language source: singh et al. (2022) and author’s work. 6 SanDHYa D. S. A theoretical basis for the development of the conceptual framework the spillover and conservation of resource theories are considered as the theoretical foundation for the current study. the "conservation of Resources" (cOR) theory is introduced in 1989 by author and researcher Steven e. Hobfoll in stress, anxiety, and resilience. in Hobfoll’s (1989) opinion, the primary motivation of individuals is accumulating, preserving, and developing their resources to safeguard their well-being and the social ties holding them together. Such an idea offers a framework for preserving the resources required for performing appropriate behaviours. according to cOR theory, resources are crucial in stressful situations that help individuals cope with stress. these resources include objects (a house and a car), personal characteristics (self-esteem, appearance), conditions (a happy marriage and social Figure 1. PRisMa flow chart for identification of research gap on work/life balance. source: Moher et al. (2009) and author’s work. Table 2. inclusion and exclusion parameters for identifying the variables for conceptual framework. inclusion Criterion exclusion criterion • articles from business and management, psychology and social sciences subjects were included. • articles from the subjects which are not in the inclusion criterion. • Research papers • Papers published other than in english language • only papers published in english language • Books, dissertations, book reviews and conference proceedings • in accessible articles to identify the variables for conceptual framework keywords like “Work”, “Life”, “Work/life” and “Work/ family” were used. • Review papers source: singh et al. (2022) and author’s work. cOgent BUSineSS & ManageMent 7 support), as well as energies (knowledge, money, and time) that individuals value and that enable them to meet demands more quickly than they could without them (Hobfoll, 1989). as per the theoretical readings, resilience becomes one of the personal characteristics. Moreover, looking at Staines’s (1980) spillover theory, the repercussions of work reflect at home. individuals who are content at work are typically content at home. Similarly, dissatisfaction at work might result in a strained relationship with family members. Conceptual framework Saunders et al. (2007) state that "a conceptual framework presents the researcher’s perspective on the concept involved in the research and relationship between the concepts." the evaluation of the literature results in the conceptual framework, which serves as a guide for the research (abdullah al Mamun & nazmul Hasan, 2017). the elements or variables for this conceptual framework were drawn from a literature review and a research gap about work–life balance. guest (2002), in his model, mentioned culture at work and home effect (social support being one of the determinants), an individual’s work/ life balance, and also, according to Hobfoll’s (1989) conservation of resources theory. every individual’s attempt to have a work/life balance (dependent variable) achieving equilibrium between professional and personal life using resources, that is, conditions like social support (independent variables), personal characteristics like resilience (Hobfoll, 1989) (a mediating variable), to maintain work–life balance Figure 2. 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Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2 Appendix sl. no Questions strongly disagree Disagree neutral agree strongly agree Work/life balance 1 2 3 4 5 1My personal life does not suffer because of work. 2My job does not make my personal life difficult. 3i do not neglect personal needs because of work. 4i do not put personal life on hold for work. 5i do not miss personal activities because of work. 6i do not struggle to juggle work and non-work. 7i am happy with the amount of time for non-work activities. 8My personal life does not drains me of energy for work. 9i am not too tired to be effective at work. 10 My work does not suffer because of my personal life. 11 it is not hard to work because of personal matters. 12 My personal life gives me energy for my job. 13 My job gives me energy to pursue personal activities. 14 i have better mood at work because of personal life. 15 i have better mood because of my job. Resilience 1 2 3 4 5 16 i tend to bounce back quickly after hard times. 17 i have a hard time making it through stressful events*. 18 it does not take me long to recover from a stressful event. 19 it is hard for me to snap back when something bad happens*. 18 SanDHYa D. S. sl. no Questions strongly disagree Disagree neutral agree strongly agree 20 i usually come through difficult times with little trouble. 21 i tend to take a long time to get over set-backs in my life*. *items are reversed. sl. no. Questions strongly disagree Disagree slightly disagree neither agree or disagree slightly agree agree strongly agree Job satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 all in all, i am satisfied with the work of my job. 23 all in all, i am satisfied with my co-workers. 24 all in all, i am satisfied with the supervision. 25 all in all, i am satisfied with my pay (total wages and tips). 26 all in all, i am satisfied with the promotional opportunities. emotional intelligence 27 i have a good sense of why i have certain feelings most of the time. 28 i have good understanding of my own emotions. 29 i really understand what i feel. 30 i always know whether or not i am happy. 31 i always know my friends’ emotions from their behaviour. 32 i am a good observer of others’ emotions. 33 i am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of others. 34 i have good understanding of the emotions of people around me. 35 i always set goals for myself and then try my best to achieve them. 36 i always tell myself i am a competent person. 37 i am a self-motivated person. 38 i would always encourage myself to try my best. 39 i am able to control my temper and handle difficulties rationally. 40 i am quite capable of controlling my own emotions. 41 i can always calm down quickly when i am very angry. 42 i have good control of my own emotions. sL.no Questions strongly agree agree Disagree strongly disagree social support 1 2 3 4 Family and Friends support 43 i have the support i need from my family and friends when i have a personal problem. cOgent BUSineSS & ManageMent 19 sl. no. Questions strongly disagree Disagree slightly disagree neither agree or disagree slightly agree agree strongly agree 44 i have the financial support i need from my family when i have a financial problem. supervisor support 45 My supervisor or manager is responsive to my needs when i have family or personal business to take care of – for example, medical appointments, meeting with child’s teacher, etc. 46 My supervisor or manager is understanding when i talk about personal or family issues that affect my work. 47 i feel comfortable bringing up personal or family issues with my supervisor or manager. 48 My supervisor or manager really cares about the effects that work demands have on my personal and family life Co-worker support 49 i have the support from coworkers that i need to do a good job. 50 i feel i am really a part of the group of people i work with. 51 i have support from coworkers that helps me to manage my work and personal or family life. organisational support 52 at my place of employment, employees have to choose between advancing in their jobs or devoting attention to their family or personal lives