B ennens uhl, Ma cus; O o, Robe ; Elango an, Pawan Kuma ; Eicke , U sula
A icle — Published Ve sion
The Po en ial o Vehicle- o-Home In eg a ion o
Residen ial P osume s: A Case S udy
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: B ennens uhl, Ma cus; O o, Robe ; Elango an, Pawan Kuma ; Eicke , U sula
(2024) : The Po en ial o Vehicle- o-Home In eg a ion o Residen ial P osume s: A Case S udy,
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy, ISSN 2731-8087, Sp inge Na u e Singapo e, Singapo e, Vol. 9,
Iss. 1,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s40866-024-00206-4
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ORIGINAL PAPER
The Po en ial o Vehicle- o-Home In eg a ion o Residen ial
P osume s: A Case S udy
Ma cus B ennens uhl1·Robe O o1·Pawan Kuma Elango an1·U sula Eicke 2
Recei ed: 8 May 2023 / Accep ed: 28 Ap il 2024 / Published online: 18 May 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
The ansi ion o he anspo sec o o e-mobili y poses a ious challenges bu also p o ides g ea lexible load and supply
po en ial and hus enables a s onge coupling o he anspo sec o wi h o he sec o s. I eme ging oppo uni ies such as
bidi ec ionalcha gingin hecon ex o Vehicle- o-HomeandVehicle- o-G idapplica ionsa eu ilised,ap e iouslyunimagined
load managemen and s o age po en ial can be apped. This can ans o m e-mobili y om an addi ional bu den o he g id
o a g id-suppo ing ac o ha enables g ea e in eg a ion o enewable ene gies and educes addi ional in es men s in
in as uc u e like g id expansion and s a iona y s o age sys ems. In o de o in es iga e his po en ial, wi hin his wo k we
examine simula ion based a ious Vehicle- o-Home (PV sel -consump ion, load shi ing due o lexible elec ici y a i ) and
Vehicle- o-G id (seconda y ese e) scena ios o di e en d i ing p o iles o a esiden ial building wi h hea pump, PV
sys em and op ionally a small wind u bine. In addi ion, a cha ge load op imisa ion is ca ied ou using a gene ic algo i hm.
The ene gy quan i ies, sa ing po en ial and addi ional numbe o ba e y cycles a e quan i ied. The esul s show ha , despi e
addi ional ba e y deg ada ion, signi ican inancial incen i es can be achie ed.
Keywo ds Vehicle- o-Home ·Vehicle- o-G id ·Bidi ec ional cha ging ·Cha geload managemen ·Hea pump ·
Gene ic algo i hm ·Small wind u bine and PV sel -consump ion
In oduc ion
The coupling o he anspo and elec ici y sec o s is
cu en ly eme ging due o he a ailable echnologies and
poli ical incen i es, especially in he passenge ca sec o .
I is p edic ed ha he sha e o elec ic ehicles (BEV, Ba -
e y Elec ic Vehicle) and e-hyb id ehicles (PHEV, Plug-in
BMa cus B ennens uhl
[email p o ec ed]
Robe O o
[email p o ec ed]
Pawan Kuma Elango an
pawan.elango [email p o ec ed]
U sula Eicke
[email p o ec ed]
1Cen e o Sus ainable Ene gy Technology, Uni e si y o
Applied Sciences S u ga , Schellings aße 24, 70174
S u ga , Baden-Wue embe g, Ge many
2Canada Excellence Resea ch Chai Nex Gene a ion Ci ies,
Conco dia Uni e si y, 1455 Boul. de Maisonneu e Oues , QC
H3G 1M8 Mon éal, Québec, Canada
Hyb idElec icVehicle)inGe manywillinc ease om1.2%
in 2020 o 24.4% in 2030. This co esponds o 11.6 mil-
lion ehicles in 2030 [1]. This esul s in inc eased elec ici y
consump ion and po en ial bo lenecks du ing peak cha g-
ing imes. I is p edic ed ha o BEVs (passenge ca s), an
addi ional 44 TWh o elec ici y pe yea (70 TWh o all
e-mobili y wi hou ail anspo ) will ha e o be gene a ed
by 2030 [2]. Equally, his also o e s eno mous po en ial.
Acco ding o Figgene e al. [3], he 1,270,000 BEVs and
PHEVs egis e ed in Ge many by he end o 2021 had a
cumula i e ba e y capaci y o 39.6 GWh in conjunc ion wi h
a o al possible AC cha ging capaci y o 7.7 GW and a DC
cha ging capaci y o 51.8 GW wi h a PHEV sha e o app ox.
50%. This means ha BEVs and PHEVs al eady ha e a s o -
age and pe o mance po en ial simila o ha o all pumped
s o age powe plan s ins alled in Ge many, which ha e a s o -
age po en ial o 39 GWh and a powe gene a ion po en ial
o 6.2 - 6.7 GW [4,5]. I we assume his sha e o PHEVs
and he a e age ba e y capaci y ins alled pe ehicle would
be cons an up o he yea 2030, hen in conjunc ion wi h he
p edic ed 11.6 million ehicles [1], his would esul in an
ins alled capaci y o 457.4 GWh, an AC cha ging capaci y o
123
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
88.9 GW (s anda d household wallbox), and a DC cha ging
capaci y o 598.3 GW. I only 10% o his ins alled s o age
capaci y we e used, 45.7 GWh would be a ailable in 2030.
Fo compa ison, he o al ins alled powe plan based elec-
ici y gene a ion capaci y in Ge many is cu en ly 223 GW
[6]. In o de o cap u e his po en ial, bidi ec ional cha ging
can be used, o example, in he con ex o Vehicle- o-G id
andVehicle- o-Home.In hecon ex o Vehicle- o-G id,elec-
ici y is supplied o he elec ici y g id, e.g., o smoo h
peak loads o o p o ide balancing powe . By Vehicle- o-
Home, elec ici y is supplied o a building, e.g., o co e he
household elec ici y demand o he elec ici y demand o a
hea pump. In an eme gency, his could also se e o supply
powe in he e en o a g id ailu e. A BEV could supply
a mul i-pe son household wi h elec ici y o up o a week.
In combina ion wi h a PV sys em o a small wind u bine,
Vehicle- o-Home can lead o a signi ican inc ease in sel -
consump ion and sel -su iciency [7]. This po en ial is also
shown in connec ion wi h hea pumps. In A naudo e al. [8],
o example, i is shown on he basis o simula ions ha bidi-
ec ionalcha ginginconjunc ionwi hhea pumpscan elie e
heexis ingg id in as uc u e and hus enable hein eg a ion
o hea pumps. Basically, i can be said ha Vehicle- o-G id
can imp o e he e iciency and cos -e ec i eness o elec ic-
i y g ids and sa e CO2 emissions [9]. In So acool e al. [9], a
wide ange o business a eas a e iden i ied ha go a beyond
ehicle owne s and elec ici y supplie s as well as g id se -
ices and can ep esen a comp ehensi e alue chain. In O o
e al. [10] he possibili ies o bidi ec ional cha ging in he
con ex o pa king ga ages and a model o cha ge load p e-
dic ionwe ein es iga ed.Despi eall hesep omising ac o s,
he e a e majo hu dles ha p e en a wide sp ead u ilisa ion.
Besides he lack o s anda disa ion, which is cu en ly being
aken ca e o , he ea o ba e y deg ada ion and pe manen
damage due o addi ional ba e y cycles, as well as unce -
ain ies conside ing in e e e iciencies, especially o small
luc ua ing loads, de e many po en ial use s.
Ba e y Deg ada ion Due o Bidi ec ional Cha ging
Ba e ydeg ada ionis one issue ha hasno ye been cla i ied
in he con ex o bidi ec ional cha ging. The main p oblem
wi h his opic is ha no p ac ical long- e m expe ience is
a ailable. So a , s udies ha e been ca ied ou on he basis
o labo a o y es s and simula ions, which ha e come o e y
di e en and some imes con adic o y conclusions. In Wang
e al. [11], o example, he ba e y deg ada ion o a ious
Vehicle- o-G id se ices such as con ol powe and peak load
smoo hingwasin es iga edusing a semi-empi icalmodel. In
he wo s case, an addi ional educ ion in ba e y capaci y o
3.6% was obse ed o e a pe iod o en yea s due o he
p o ision o balancing powe , and a educ ion o 5.6% due
o he p o ision o peak load smoo hing. Fu he mo e, he
s udy ound a deg ada ion cos o $ 0.20 o p o iding wo
hou s o balancing powe , $ 0.38 o p o iding wo hou s
o peak sha ing, and $ 1.18 o load shi ing o e 24 hou s.
A comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew by Thompson e al. [12],
ocusing on he beha iou o di e en ba e y echnologies,
comes o he conclusion ha wi h ega d o ageing h ough
cha ging cycles, he amoun o ene gy ex ac ed is unda-
men ally mo e decisi e han he numbe o cycles. Howe e ,
he way in which he ene gy is ex ac ed (discha ge powe ,
cell empe a u e) also plays an impo an ole. Thompson
e al. conclude ha dedica ed implemen a ion o bidi ec-
ional cha ging h ough con inuous ba e y moni o ing and
con olled cha ging and discha ging can ac ually inc ease
ba e y li e. In Shinzaki e al. [13], a ield es wi h a PHEV
was conduc ed o e se e al mon hs, and i was shown ha
bidi ec ional cha ging had e y li le o no nega i e e ec on
he li e ime o he ehicle ba e y due o he ela i ely low
ene gy h oughpu . In Lunz e al. [14], he e ec s o bidi-
ec ional cha ging we e in es iga ed in a simula ion-based
manne . The s udy concluded ha bidi ec ional cha ging can
signi ican ly inc ease ba e y li e expec ancy due o he con-
s an moni o ing o he ba e yand he educed ba e y cha ge
and discha ge imes a high SOC. In Uddin e al. [15], in es-
iga ions we e ca ied ou based on a comp ehensi e ba e y
deg ada ionmodel.I wasalsoconcluded ha in elligen bidi-
ec ional cha ging can educe ba e y ageing and hus he
capaci y loss o BEVs by up o 9.1% and he powe loss
by up o 12.1%. In Leh ola e al. [16], measu emen da a,
d i ing da a, and da a om Vehicle- o-G id ope a ion we e
combined wi h a ba e y ageing model. I was ound ha he
decisi e ac o s ha in luence calenda ageing a e ime, em-
pe a u e, and s a e o cha ge. Cycle ageing is de ined by he
numbe o cycles, he dep h o discha ge, and he cha ging
a e. An impo an inding o his wo k is ha a ull ba -
e y capaci y, he ba e y e ains less han 80% o i s ini ial
capaci y a e less han 1000 cycles, whe eas i he ba e y
is used in a ange be ween 40% and 60% o SOC, 86.7%
o he o iginal capaci y is s ill le a e 3000 cycles. This
is pa icula ly ele an wi h ega d o cycles in he con ex
o bidi ec ional cha ging, as only 5 kWh - 10 kWh, which
co esponds o 10% - 15% o he ba e y capaci y o com-
mon la ge BEV ba e ies, a e equi ed o Vehicle- o-Home
applica ions. Wi h op imal cha ging managemen and bidi-
ec ional ope a ion in his SOC ange, cycle- ela ed ba e y
ageing and he esul ing cos s could be signi ican ly educed.
In e e E iciency
Rega ding he e iciency o AC-DC in e e s in BEVs in he
con ex o bidi ec ional cha ging, a wide ange o s a emen s
123
25 Page 2 o 23
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
can be ound in esea ch publica ions. Thing ad e al. [17]
ha ein es iga edacomme ciallya ailablein e e as usedin
BEVs wi h ega d o he p o ision o posi i e and nega i e
p ima y con ol powe . They came o he conclusion ha
e iciency a ies g ea ly depending on he powe called up
o ed in o he g id. They ound poo e iciencies o less
han 50% a low powe (0 - 2 kW) and good e iciencies
o 90% a nominal powe o he cha ging and discha g-
ing p ocesses. Basically, hey conclude ha he e is a need
o imp o emen in e ms o e iciency o he applica ion
o bidi ec ional cha ging on a b oad scale. Videgain Ba -
anco e al. [18] in es iga ed he cha ging and discha ging
beha iou o a Nissan Lea ZE1 in connec ion wi h a 3-phase
10 kW CHAdeMO cha ging connec ion unde labo a o y
condi ions. E iciencies be ween 77.6% a 2 kW cha ging
and discha ging powe and 81.5% a 7 kW cha ging and dis-
cha ging powe we e de e mined o combined cha ging and
discha ging o Vehicle- o-Home applica ions. Howe e , a
cons an powe ex ac ion was assumed in his es se ies. In
Sch am e al. [19], he powe -dependen e iciencies o AC
cha gingand discha gingo aNissan Lea andaRenaul ZOE
we e de e mined. The e iciencies de e mined anged om
78% o cha ging and discha ging wi h 2.8 kW o 86.5%
o cha ging and discha ging wi h 11.0 kW. Co eia e al.
[20] we e able o show, howe e , wi h ega d o bidi ec ional
DC cha ging, ha a signi ican imp o emen in e iciency
could be achie ed by using a dedica ed in e e . Measu e-
men s wi h a con en ional in e e a 2.5 kW cha ging and
discha ging powe esul ed in an o e all e iciency o 64.6%,
and a 10 kW cha ging and discha ging powe in an o e all
e iciency o 80.4%. Wi h in e e s based on silicon ca bide,
on he o he hand, 90.9% e iciency could be achie ed a
2.5 kW and 91.2% e iciency a 10 kW cha ging and dis-
cha ging powe . Basically, he indings so a show ha AC
as well as DC in e e s su e om e iciency loss a low
powe le els and high powe luc ua ions. This is due o he
ac ha he in e e s ins alled ha e no ye been op imised
o bidi ec ional cha ging and he co esponding powe spec-
um. The obs acles o his a e no so much on he echnical
le el as on he economic le el, since wi hou widesp ead
use o bidi ec ional cha ging, he cos s o de elopmen and
he ins alla ion o co esponding op imised in e e s on he
side o ehicle manu ac u e s canno be jus i ied. Ne e he-
less, al eady in he powe spec um ha is ele an , e.g., o
he ope a ion o hea pumps in esiden ial buildings (2 kW
- 5 kW powe inpu ), accep able e iciencies in he egion
o 80% a e achie ed o combined cha ging and discha ging.
In e es ingly, his would make Vehicle- o-G id o Vehicle- o-
Homesys emswi hane iciencyo 70%-80%[21]simila in
e iciency o dedica ed pumped s o age powe plan s, which
ha e an e iciency o 70% o olde plan s and 83% o he
newes ones [22].
Aim o his Wo k
Wi hin his wo k, we examine he po en ial o an op imisa-
ion o Vehicle- o-Home and Vehicle- o-G id scena ios on
a single building le el ega ding PV and small wind powe
sel -consump ion, lexibleelec ici y a i andnega i eau o-
ma ic F equency Res o a ion Rese e (aFRR), also known as
seconda y ese e. Fo his in es iga ion, a digi al win o a
esiden ial building wi h an ene gy e icien building s an-
da d, hea pump, PV sys em, and in one use case wi h an
addi ional small wind u bine is c ea ed. The building and
i s sys ems a e esembled as whi e box models and cali-
b a ed and alida ed based on de ailed moni o ing da a. Fo
each use case and wo di e en d i ing p o iles, a dynamic
co-simula ion on a yea ly basis wi h a one minu e ime eso-
lu ion is ca ied ou . Fo each day o he yea , he cha ge load
managemen is op imised by a gene ic algo i hm and com-
pa ed o no mal ope a ion wi hou bidi ec ional cha ging and
op imisa ion. The aim is o show he possible echnical and
economic bene i s o bidi ec ional cha ging in he con ex o
Vehicle- o-Home and Vehicle- o-G id. I is shown ha sub-
s an ial inancial gains can be made and a g id suppo i e
ole can be ul illed e en wi h equen BEV usage. In addi-
ion, he impac on ba e y li e wi h espec o he addi ional
ba e y cycles equi ed is examined and e alua ed.
Me hodology
This wo k is based on a esiden ial building om a posi i e
ene gy se lemen in he Ge man municipali y o Wüs en-
o . The building ha was cons uc ed in 2013 is equipped
wi h a hea pump connec ed o a cold local dis ic hea ing
ne wo k, wo he mal bu e s o age anks, and a PV sys em.
The de ailed sys em pa ame e s can be ound in Fig. 1. High-
esolu ion measu emen da a o all ele an ene gy lows was
collec ed om his building o e se e al yea s. Based on his,
a whi e box model was c ea ed in he INSEL simula ion en i-
onmen , calib a ed wi h measu ed da a, and alida ed. This
calib a ion and alida ion me hodology is desc ibed in de ail
in [23]. Mo e de ails abou he a angemen o he cold dis-
ic hea ing g id and he plus ene gy se lemen can be ound
in [24].
Modelling and Op imisa ion App oach
Ino de oop imise he lexibili ypo en ial, he dynamic sim-
ula ion model is coupled wi h a me aheu is ic op imisa ion
based on a gene ic algo i hm. The aim o his app oach is o
op imise he bidi ec ional cha ging anddischa gingo a BEV
wi h ega d o a ious c i e ia. In doing so, schedules o a
ce ain ime ho izon a e c ea ed and au oma ically upda ed
123
Page 3 o 23 25
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Fig. 1Building sys em
speci ica ions Building ID 12
Hea pump Wa e ko e Modell DS 5023.5Ai, 22.2 kW
The mal bu e s o age DHW 400l; Hea ing 1000l
Ba e y s o age None
Ins alled PV powe 13.64 kWp
PV o ien a ion 58.4 m² (48 mod.) o ien a ion 180°, il 15°;
49.5 m² (40 mod.) o ien a ion 0°, il 15°
PV manu ac u e and model Sola F on ie Typ SF155-L
Residen ial useable a ea 285.13 m²
Hea ing demand 22,696 kWh
based on wea he and demand o ecas da a. A ime ho izon
o 24 hou s is conside ed he e. Howe e , his is scaleable
in e ms o ime, so ha ope a ion can also be op imised a
signi ican ly sho e (hou ly) in e als. A gene ic algo i hm
based on he DEAP oolbox in Py hon [25]isused o a y he
cha ging and discha ging s a es o he BEV. This is imple-
men ed as an INSEL-Py hon co-simula ion.
Rega ding he examined building, he hea ing demand and
hus he elec ici y demand o hehea pump aswell as he PV
elec ici y gene a ion a e simula ed dynamically. The house-
holdelec ici ydemandisincludedbasedonmeasu ed alues
ha we e collec ed in 5 s in e als. The ehicle ba e y is also
dynamically esembled in he INSEL model. The model con-
igu a ion is shown in Fig. 2.
I he BEV is used (a ailabili y is de e mined based on
speci ic d i ing p o iles, see chap e “D i ing P o iles”) i ’s
ba e y capaci y is excluded om he model, and he con-
sumed amoun o ene gy is ans e ed o he modelled
ehicle’s ba e y as an ene gy deb , which is o be cha ged
as e icien ly as possible by he cha ge load op imisa ion. In
o de o educe he se ling ime o he model, pa s o he
model a e pa ame e ised wi h measu ed alues a each sim-
ula ion s a , which e lec he ac ual s a e o he building
and i ’s sys ems. A se ling ime o he model o 3 hou s was
de e mined based on an i e a i e s udy. Fu he mo e, con ol
in e als o 5 min a e selec ed o ensu e a high amoun o
lexibili y wi hou oo small cha ge and discha ge in e als.
In o de o conside he ebound e ec , he subsequen 3 h
a e he 24 h op imisa ion a e also included in he ene gy
low balance. Rega ding mobili y p edic ion accu acy, o
simpli ica ion easons, i is assumed ha depa u e imes a e
a ailable o he op imisa ion algo i hm in ad ance. In eali y,
his could be ealised, e.g., ia an app in which use s spec-
i y he depa u e imes in ad ance, o also by a sel -lea ning
algo i hm. The cha ging and discha ging s a es ha a e used
by he op imisa ion a e as ollows:
Wea he da a: empe a u e,
global adia ion, wind speed
PV-sys em
(Two diode model,
pa ame e i )
In e e
(pa ame e i )
Household
elec ici y demand
G id demand
and in eed
Dynamic building
model
Tempe a u e cold
dis ic hea ing g id
Household DHW
demand
BEV ba e y (no
elec ochemical model)
The mal mul i
laye DHW s o age
The mal mul i
laye space hea ing s o age
Hea pump
(cha ac e is ic cu e model)
Global adia ion
Tempe a u e
Wind speed
Elec ici y
Small wind u bine
(cha ac e is ic cu e model)
Fig. 2 Ene gy sys em model scheme
123
25 Page 4 o 23
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
•Allow discha ging by household and hea pump elec ic-
i y:Yes/No.
•Allow cha ging by PV / small wind u bine elec ici y:
Yes / No.
•Allow cha ging by g id elec ici y: Yes / No.
In he ollowing scena ios, he possible daily op imisa ion
po en ial is de e mined by he simula ion. Fo each day o
he yea , a demand and gene a ion simula ion as well as an
op imisa ion based on he wea he da a o ecas o ha day
a e pe o med. These esul s a e hen compa ed wi h he da a
ha was measu ed in eali y a ha ime.
D i ing P o iles
To ep esen he BEV, annual load p o iles a e i s c e-
a ed in one-minu e esolu ion using a mobili y gene a o
ool de eloped wi hin he Sma 2Cha ge p ojec , based on
ep esen a i e p o iles om [26–28]. P o iles such as daily
commu ing o wo k o usage as a seconda y ca wi h a high
a eo a ailabili ya eusedandin es iga ed.Thep o ilesgen-
e a ed by he mobili y gene a o a e i s a ailable as weekly
p o iles. To c ea e annual p o iles, hese a e andomised. The
s a o a i al ime is ede e mined using a Gaussian no mal
dis ibu ion wi hin +/- 30 min a ound he o iginal ime. Fo
each d i ing e en , a andomly gene a ed alue be ween -1/5
and 1/5 o he ene gy quan i y equi ed acco ding o he d i -
ing p o ile is added o he balance. These load p o iles a e
hen coupled wi h he dynamic building model. In he ol-
lowing, he in es iga ed weekly d i ing p o iles a e shown
wi h ega d o BEV a ailabili y and ene gy consump ion.
Figu e 3a and b show a d i ing p o ile ha includes egu-
la commu ing o wo k, while Fig. 4a and b show a d i ing
p o ile ha co esponds o usage as a seconda y ca wi h a
signi ican ly highe ime spen a home.
Op imisa ion Scena ios
Based on he p e iously desc ibed simula ion and op imisa-
ion app oach, he he ollowing scena ios a e examined and
op imised:
•PV sel -consump ion.
•Vehicle- o-Home(PVandwindpowe sel -consump ion).
•Vehicle- o-Home ( lexible elec ici y a i ).
•Vehicle- o-G id (aFRR).
The aim he eby is o educe peak demand, he amoun o
elec ici y ha is ed in o he g id and hus g id load, as well
as he ope a ion cos s o he building owne .
PV Sel -consump ion
The goal o PV sel -consump ion op imisa ion is o min-
imise he cumula i e amoun o elec ici y d awn om he
g id. This includes BEV elec ici y demand, hea pump elec-
ici y demand, as well as household elec ici y demand.
Basically, unde Ge man egula o y condi ions, i is desi -
able o consume as much PV elec ici y as possible onesel ,
as he household elec ici y p ice in Ge many oday is mo e
han ou imes highe han he ixed eed-in a i o small
(smalle han 10 kWp) newly ins alled PV sys ems. This
esul s in he ollowing Eq. 1as he op imisa ion objec i e
unc ion o which he esul is o be minimised:
M=op end
op s a +3h(Qel_Hh +Qel_HP +Qel_BEV)
∗m a i −(Qel_PV ∗mPV_ og id)(1)
Whe e M[C] is he o al cos o p o i om ope a ion,
Qel_Hh [kWh] is he household elec ici y demand o each
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thu sday F iday Sa u day Sunday
A ailabili y
(a) A ailabili y
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thu sday F iday Sa u day Sunday
Demand [kWh]
(b) Demand
Fig. 3 Weekly usage and consump ion p o ile, ype wo k commu e
123
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thu sday F iday Sa u day Sunday
(a) A ailabili y
Demand [kWh]
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thu sday F iday Sa u day Sunday
(b) Demand
Fig. 4 Weekly usage and consump ion p o ile, ype seconda y ehicle
ime s ep, Qel_HP [kWh] is he elec ici y demand o he hea
pump o each ime s ep, Qel_BEV [kWh] is he elec ici y
demand o he BEV o each ime s ep, and Qel_PV [kWh] is
he amoun o elec ici y om he PV sys em ha is ed in o
he g id o each ime s ep. m a i is he elec ici y pu chase
a i [C/kWh] and mPV_ og id is he eed-in a i o he PV
elec ici y [C/kWh].
Vehicle- o-Home (PV and Wind Powe Sel -consump ion)
The aim o he PV and wind powe sel -consump ion op i-
misa ion is o minimise he cumula i e amoun o elec ici y
d awn om he g id. This includes he BEV elec ici y
demand, he hea pump elec ici y demand, as well as he
household elec ici y demand.
This esul s in he ollowingEq. 2as heobjec i e unc ion
o which he esul is o be minimised.
M=op end
op s a +3h(Qel_Hh +Qel_HP +Qel_BEV)∗m a i −
Qel_PV ∗mPV_ og id −Qel_Wind ∗mWind_ og id(2)
Whe e M[C] is he o al cos o p o i om ope a ion,
Qel_Hh [kWh] is he household elec ici y demand o each
imes ep, Qel_HP [kWh]is he hea pumpelec ici y demand
o each ime s ep, Qel_BEV [kWh] is he elec ici y demand
o he BEV o each ime s ep, Qel_PV [kWh] is he amoun
o elec ici y om he PV sys em ha is ed in o he g id o
each ime s ep, and Qel_Wind [kWh] is he amoun o elec-
ici y om he small wind u bine ha is ed in o he g id
o each ime s ep. m a i is he elec ici y pu chase a i
[C/kWh], mPV_ og id is he eed-in a i o PV elec ic-
i y [C/kWh] and mWind_ og id is he eed-in a i o wind
elec ici y [C/kWh].
Vehicle- o-Home (Flexible Elec ici y Ta i )
In o de o in es iga e he load shi ing possibili ies o
Vehicle- o-Home applica ions in conjunc ion wi h a lexible
elec ici y a i , a ToU a i is implemen ed in he model
ha uses a dynamic ne wo k ee. PV elec ici y gene a ion
is hus no conside ed in o de o be e e alua e he e ec s
o he lexible a i . The a i app oach is desc ibed in [29].
Fo he ToU a ian wi h a a iable ne wo k ee, a ixed p ice
componen o he g id ee is included in he calcula ion ha
is linked o he dis ibu ion g id load in o de o coun e ac
he g id load and, a he same ime, inc ease he incen i e o
end cus ome s compa ed o he daily a ia ion o elec ici y
exchange p ices. This a iable componen is se a h ee p ice
le els. 2.75 imes, 1.3 imes, and 0.3 imes he o iginal le el
o he a iable componen o he ne wo k ee. I is en isaged
ha in o al, he a iable ne wo k ee will be equal o he
o iginal s a ic amoun o be paid. [29]
Applying he ne wo k ee o he yea 2022 and he day-
ahead exchange elec ici y p ices om calenda week 25 o
2022 using his me hodology esul s in he ToU a i shown
in Fig. 5.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
P ice [c /kWh]
Time
Day-ahead s ock p ice O he ees excl. ne wo k ee
Dynamic ne wo k ee Flexible a i p ice
Fig. 5 Flexible ToU elec ici y a i
123
25 Page 6 o 23
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
The aim o op imising he use o a lexible elec ici y a -
i is o minimise he use o g id elec ici y om pe iods
wi h high a i p ices o pe iods wi h lowe p ices. This
includes he BEV elec ici y demand, he hea pump elec-
ici y demand, as well as he household elec ici y demand.
This esul s in he ollowing Eq. 3as he objec i e unc ion
o which he esul is o be minimised.
M=op end
op s a +3h
(Qel_Hh+Qel_HP+Qel_BEV)∗m a i _ lex
(3)
Whe e M[C]is he o alcos o p o i o ope a ion, Qel_Hh
[kWh] is he elec ici y demand o he household o each
ime s ep, Qel_HP [kWh] is he elec ici y demand o he
hea pump o each ime s ep, and Qel_BEV [kWh] is he
elec ici y demand o he BEV o each ime s ep. m a i _ lex
is he lexible elec ici y a i [C/kWh].
Vehicle- o-G id (aFRR)
To de e mine he economic po en ial o BEV pa icipa ion in
he aFRR ma ke , qua e -hou ly aFRR demand da a [30]
we e used o he yea 2019 and me ged wi h he co e-
sponding p ice da a o he aFRR powe and balancing ene gy
ma ke (4h esolu ion) [30]. The assump ion was made ha
nega i e aFRR can be p o ided o he ull pe iod ha he
ehicle is a home and ha he elec ici y demand is solely
ul illed by aFRR. The e enues om pa icipa ion in he
powe ma ke a e no included in he balance because hey
a e assumed o be negligible in his con ex . The adop ed
pa icipa ion condi ions a e ha he lowes p ice is o e ed
on he balancing ene gy ma ke in o de o be ac i a ed as
o en as possible. Thus, he case s udied he e ep esen s he
highes possible numbe o ac i a ions and hus he g ea es
possible lexibili y ha mus be p o ided. The household,
hea pump, and d i ing demands a e ul illed by he ene gy
empo a ily s o ed in he ehicle ba e y. This is done o all
imes epswhe e heaFRRdemandisnega i e.Fo elec ici y
pu chases ha all ou side o his ime pe iod, an elec ici y
pu chase p ice o 0.42 C/kWh is applied. Du ing pe iods
when he ehicle is no a ailable, pa icipa ion in he aFRR
ma ke is excluded. The cash low is calcula ed acco ding o
he ollowing Eq. 4:
M=op end
op s a +3hQel_aFRR ∗(maFRR +mc)
∗(VAT+1)+Qel_ a i ∗m a i (4)
Whe e M[C]is heincomeo cos ,maFRR [C/kWh]is he
o e ed aFRR balancing ene gy ma ked p ice, mc [C/kWh]
is he sum o su cha ges and axes o 0.135 C/kWh (see also
Table 1), m a i is he s anda d elec ici y a i amoun ing
o 0.42 C/kWh, Qel_aFRR is he amoun o deli e ed aFRR
elec ici y[kWh] and Qel_ a i [kWh]is he amoun o a i
elec ici y pu chased. The VAT is assumed o be 19%.
Resul s
Vehicle- o-Home: PV Sel -consump ion
In he ollowing, wo di e en d i ing p o iles ( i s ca , com-
mu ing o wo k, and seconda y ca wi h less equen use) a e
in es iga ed o op imising PV sel -consump ion. The aim is
o keep he SOC in he ange be ween 40% and 60%, which
enables a high cycle ole ance and hus low ba e y deg ada-
ion.
D i ing P o ile Fi s Ca , Commu ing o Wo k, 80 kWh
S o age Size, 10 kWh S o age Usage
Table 2shows he mon hly cos educ ion esul ing om
he op imised ope a ion and he a oided elec ici y pu chase
cos s. Op means he p edic ed imp o emen , Meas Op
means he imp o emen ha would occu aking in o accoun
he o ecas unce ain ywi h ega d oglobal adia ion,ambi-
en empe a u e, elec ici y consump ion, DHW demand and
he associa ed elec ici y consump ion o he hea pump. As
expec ed, he e is a signi ican sa ings po en ial o up o
32.5% in he summe mon hs and in he ansi ional pe iod,
aking in o accoun he o ecas de ia ion. in he win e
mon hs, he op imisa ion achie es negligible esul s due o
he low PV yield.
Fo his use case, he calcula ed annual cos sa ings wi h-
ou aking he o ecas de ia ion in o accoun is 303.1 C.
Taking he o ecas de ia ion in o accoun , i is 242.0 C.
The numbe o ba e y cycles would be 45.5 wi h op imised
Vehicle- o-Home ope a ion and 31.7 wi hou . This would
Table 1 Su cha ges and axes o elec ici y pu chase as o Sep embe
2022
EEG ealloca ion cha ge No longe equi ed
as o 07/01/2022
CHP su cha ge 3.78 C/MWh
§19 S omNEV- ealloca ion 4.37 C/MWh
O sho e appo ionmen o liabili y 4.20 C/MWh
Realloca ion cha ge o swi chable
loads
0.03 C/MWh
Ne wo k ee 80.80 C/MWh
Elec ici y ax 20.05 C/MWh
VAT 21.51 C/MWh
To al 134.74 C/MWh
123
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Table 2Mon hly cos educ ion h ough Vehicle- o-Home, wi h op imisa ion o PV sel -consump ion (d i ing p o ile o i s ca , commu ing o
wo k)
Mon h Jan Feb Ma Ap May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oc No Dec
Op 0.1% 3.7% 8.6% 18.0% 28.2% 52.3% 50.8% 48.6% 22.5% 8.2% 0.5% 0.0%
Meas Op 0.1% 3.4% 8.2% 21.4% 32.5% 21.2% 21.4% 31.5% 18.7% 9.0% 1.2% 0.0%
co espond o 13.8 addi ional cycles. The op imised ope a-
ion could sa e he pu chase o 661.1 kWh o g id elec ici y.
Assuming a li e span o 3,000 cycles, which migh be possi-
ble wi h his mode o ope a ion, and a p ice o 20,000 C o
a eplacemen ba e y, his would esul in 92.2 Co dam-
age o he ba e y. Inc easing he usable capaci y o 20 kWh
esul ed in a u he educ ion o pu chased g id elec ic-
i y o 29%. This would sa e 344.5 Cpe yea , aking in o
accoun he o ecas unce ain y. The numbe o cha ging
cycles inc eases by ano he 3.5 cycles o 49. Howe e , when
using 20 kWh and hus 25% o he SOC, i is no longe
possible o keep he SOC in he op imal ange o he ba -
e y, which can inc ease he cycle- ela ed deg ada ion o
he ba e y. Figu es 6(no mal ope a ion) and 7(op imised
ope a ion) show he di e ence be ween no mal and op i-
mised ope a ion o one weekday in he ansi ion pe iod.
The d i ing p o ile he e de ines ha du ing a la ge pa o
he ime wi h PV yield, he ehicle is no a ailable. Ne -
e heless, a signi ican pa o g id powe consump ion can
be a oided h ough op imisa ion. In he mo ning hou s, o
example, he hea pump is powe ed by he ehicle ba e y.
A e e u ning om he wo k ip, he ba e y is echa ged
wi h he emaining a ailable PV elec ici y. All in all, he
SOC can be kep in he ideal ange be ween 40% and 60%
despi e he p o ision o hea pump and household elec ici y
andajou neyo app ox.50kilome es.I canalsobeseen ha
he ope a ing cos s a e signi ican ly educed by he educ ion
in g id elec ici y consump ion and ha a sligh p o i can
e en be achie ed in he balance o ed-in and pu chased g id
elec ici y on he day shown.
D i ing P o ile Seconda y Ca , 80 kWh S o age Size, 10 kWh
S o age Usage
Table 3shows he mon hly cos educ ion esul ing om
he op imised ope a ion and he a oided elec ici y pu chase
cos s. As expec ed, he e is a signi ican sa ings po en ial
o up o 52,1% in he summe mon hs and in he ansi ion
pe iod, aking in o accoun he o ecas de ia ion. in he win-
e mon hs, his ope a ional op imisa ion esul s in only a
small imp o emen due o he low PV yield.
Fo his use case, he calcula ed annual cos sa ings wi h-
ou aking he o ecas de ia ion in o accoun is 547.7 C.
Taking he o ecas de ia ion in o accoun , his is 484.2 C.
The o ecas de ia ion he e o e plays a smalle ole he e
due o he g ea e a ailabili y o he ehicle ba e y and hus a
g ea e lexibili y. Taking he o ecas de ia ion in o accoun ,
he numbe o ba e y cycles would be 48.6 wi h Vehicle- o-
Home ope a ion and 18.2 wi hou . This would co espond o
30.4 addi ional cycles. The op imised ope a ion could sa e
he pu chase o 1380.1 kWh o g id elec ici y. Assuming a
ba e y li e o 3,000 cycles, which migh be possible wi h
his mode o ope a ion, and a p ice o 20,000 C o a eplace-
men ba e y, his would esul in 202.7 Co damage o he
Fig. 6 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile
commu ing owo k
123
25 Page 8 o 23
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
o 650.2 C, aking in o accoun he o ecas unce ain y. The
numbe o cycles inc eases by 11.2 o 72.5, which would co -
espond o a ba e y damage o 362.0 C. Figu es 16 (no mal
ope a ion) and 17 (op imised ope a ion) show he di e ence
be ween no mal and op imised ope a ion in he ansi ion
pe iod. The d i ing p o ile makes he ehicle a ailable o
a la ge pa o he ime. I is shown ha he ba e y s o -
age is loaded a imes o low elec ici y a i p ices in o de
o co e he household and pa ly he hea pump elec ici y
demand. Hea pump ope a ion in he mo ning is ed by a -
i elec ici y as long as he a i p ice is low. A e ha , i
is co e ed by he ehicle ba e y. In o al, despi e he p o-
ision o hea pump and household elec ici y as well as
he demand o he BEV, he SOC can be kep in he ideal
ange be ween 40% and 60%. I is also shown ha ope a ing
cos sa e educedbypu chasingelec ici ya mo e a ou able
condi ions.
Vehicle- o-G id (aFRR)
In he ollowing, wo di e en d i ing p o iles ( i s ca , com-
mu ing o wo k and seconda y ca wi h equen leisu e use)
a ein es iga edwi h ega d o hep o isiono nega i eaFRR
powe . The cha ge con ol sys em is designed o keep he
SOC be ween 40% and SOC 60% in o de o achie e a high
cycle s abili y and hus lowe losses due o ba e y deg a-
da ion. Howe e , he lowe SOC limi may be unde sho by
BEV d i ing. Fo each d i ing p o ile, he daily ini ial SOC,
which co esponds o he a ge ed SOC a he end o he day,
and hecha gingpowe a e a ied o ind he combina ion ha
o e s he g ea es lexibili y and can hus mee all nega i e
aFRR ac i a ions on as many days as possible.
D i ing P o ile Fi s Ca , Commu ing o Wo k, 80 kWh
S o age Size
The esul s o a ying he cha ging powe and he daily s a
and end capaci y o he ehicle ba e y, so ed by he leas
numbe o days on which he nega i e aFRR ac i a ions can-
no be me , a e shown in Fig. 23. The bes case he e is a daily
ini ial SOC o 40% in conjunc ion wi h 2 kW o cha ging
powe . In his case, no all aFRR ac i a ions could be ul-
illed on 35 days. Only h ee o hese days a e on weekends.
On 28 days, he inal capaci y o he ehicle ba e y would
be highe han he nex day’s equi ed ini ial capaci y, which
on he one hand means ha addi ional powe has been s o ed
ha would u he imp o e he economics, bu on he o he
hand may also esul in limi ing he po en ial o p o iding
nega i e aFRR he nex day. Table 8shows he mon hly cos
educ ion ha esul s omob ainingnega i eaFRRandelec-
ici y pu chase cos s ha a e a oided as a esul . This shows
a sa ings po en ial o up o 30.4%, aking in o accoun o e-
cas unce ain y. The seasonal di e ences can be explained
by he ac ha in he win e mon hs, he elec ici y consump-
ion is highe due o he hea pump ope a ion, and he e o e
he ela i e imp o emen is lowe .
Fo his use case, he calcula ed annual cos sa ings
wi hou conside ing he o ecas de ia ion is 1387.5 C. Con-
side ing he o ecas de ia ion, his would be 1154.0 C. The
numbe o ba e y cycles would be 85.9 wi h aFRR ac i-
a ions and 31.7 wi hou . This would co espond o 54.6
addi ional cycles. Assuming a ba e y li e o a leas 3,000
cycles, which migh be possible wi h his ope a ing mode,
and a p ice o 20,000 C o a eplacemen ba e y, his would
esul in 364 Co damage o he ba e y. Howe e , i is no
possible o s ay consis en ly in he ange be ween 40% and
60%wi h his d i ingp o ile.I he uppe limi o amaximum
Fig. 16 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile
seconda y ca , lexible
elec ici y a i
123
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Fig. 17 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile
seconda y ca ,
Vehicle- o-Home, op imised o
lexible elec ici y a i
SOC o 60% is me , he SOC d ops o as low as 30% on
some days due o he addi ional ene gy demand o d i ing.
Thiscouldbecompensa edbypu pose ulcha gingbe o e he
s a o he ip, bu his would mean a highe a i elec ici y
demand. In Figs. 18 (no mal ope a ion) and 19 (aFRR ul-
ilmen ), he di e ence be ween no mal and ope a ion wi h
aFRR ul ilmen is shown o a weekday in he ansi ion
pe iod. Due o he d i ing p o ile, he ehicle is no a ailable
du ing he day. I can be seen ha much o he g id elec ici y
demand can be eplaced by p o iding nega i e aFRR. Simi-
la ly, wi h he cha ging powe educed o 2 kW, he SOC o
he ehicle ba e y is consis en ly in he op imal ope a ing
ange. I is also shown ha ope a ing cos s a e signi ican ly
educed by ob aining elec ici y h ough nega i e aFRR.
P o ile Seconda y Ca , 80 kWh S o age Size
The esul s o a ying he cha ging powe and he daily s a
and end SOC o he ehicle ba e y, so ed by he leas num-
be o days on which he nega i e aFRR ac i a ions canno
be me , a e shown in Fig. 24. The mos a ou able case is
ep esen ed by a daily ini ial SOC o 40% in conjunc ion
wi h 2 kW o cha ging powe . In his case, no all aFRR ac i-
a ions could be ul illed on 21 days. On 42 days, he inal
SOC o he ehicle ba e y would be highe han he equi ed
s a SOC o he nex day, which on he one hand means ha
addi ional powe has been s o ed ha would u he imp o e
he economic e iciency, bu on he o he hand may also lead
o a limi ed po en ial o p o iding nega i e aFRR on he nex
day. Table 9shows he mon hly cos educ ion ha esul s
om ob aining nega i e aFRR and hus a oiding he pu -
chase o a i elec ici y. This shows a sa ings po en ial o
up o 40.7%, akingin o accoun he o ecas unce ain y. The
seasonal di e ences can be explained by he ac ha in he
win e mon hs, he elec ici y consump ion is highe due o
he hea pump ope a ion, and hus he ela i e imp o emen
is lowe .
Fo his use case, he calcula ed annual cos sa ings wi h-
ou conside ing he o ecas de ia ion is 1709.2 C. Including
he o ecas de ia ion, his would be 1490.5 C. The num-
be o ba e y cycles would be 91.4 wi h aFRR ul ilmen
and 18.2 wi hou . This would co espond o 73.2 addi ional
cycles. Assuming a ba e y li e o a leas 3,000 cycles, which
migh be possible wi h his ope a ing mode, and a p ice o
20,000 C o a eplacemen ba e y, his would esul in 488.0
Cin damage o he ba e y. Howe e , e en wi h his d i ing
p o ile, i is no possible o consis en ly s ay wi hin he ange
be ween 40% and 60%. I he uppe limi o a SOC o 60%
has o be me , on some days he SOC d ops o as low as 35%
due o he addi ional ene gy demand o he ips. This could
becompensa ed by pu pose ul cha gingbe o e hes a o he
ip, bu his would mean a highe a i elec ici y demand.
In Figs. 20 (no mal ope a ion) and 21 (aFRR ul ilmen ), he
di e ence be ween no mal and ope a ion wi h aFRR ul il-
Table 8 Mon hly cos educ ion om Vehicle- o-Home and Vehicle- o-G id ope a ion when p o iding nega i e aFRR (d i ing p o ile i s ca ,
commu e o wo k)
Mon h Jan Feb Ma Ap May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oc No Dec
Op 12.5% 17.8% 22.2% 21.0% 19.0% 30.3% 27.1% 30.4% 29.0% 25.6% 18.6% 21.2%
Meas Op 11.8% 18.1% 20.7% 20.8% 20.9% 30.4% 22.4% 30.2% 24.0% 24.7% 17.1% 17.6%
123
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Fig. 18 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile i s ca ,
commu e o wo k,
Vehicle- o-Home and
Vehicle- o-G id
men is shown o a weekday in he ansi ion pe iod. Due o
he d i ing p o ile, he ehicle is una ailable wice du ing he
day o sho e pe iods o ime. I can be seen ha a la ge pa
o he a i elec ici y consump ion, especially ha caused
by he cycling o he hea pump, can be eplaced by p o iding
nega i e aFRR. Howe e , he SOC d ops o as low as 38%
due o he wo ips. I can also be seen ha he ope a ing cos
d ops signi ican ly by p o iding nega i e aFRR.
Discussion
The model-based in es iga ion o op imised cha ge and dis-
cha ge load managemen o di e en Vehicle- o-Home and
Vehicle- o-G id applica ion scena ios shows ha he o e-
cas unce ain y o hea pump and household powe demand
as well as o PV powe gene a ion plays a measu able bu
subo dina e ole. This can be mainly a ibu ed o he lexibil-
i y o e ed by he ehicle ba e y (capaci y, ac i a ion speed,
maximum cha ging, and discha ging powe ). Fo all scena -
ios in es iga ed, i is also shown ha he e enue is g ea e
han he de e mined po en ial damage o he ehicle ba e y
due o addi ional cycles. An o e iew o he po en ial sa ings
o he indi idual a ian s wi h and wi hou addi ional cos s
due oba e ydeg ada ionisgi eninFig.22.He e, he a ian
o pa icipa ing in he nega i e aFRR balance ene gy ma ke
o e s he g ea es inancial po en ial bu also he g ea es
planning unce ain y since he ac ual numbe o ac i a ions
ha will occu and he expec ed p ices a e di icul o p edic .
In his con ex , i should also be aken in o accoun ha ,
wi h he de e mined cycle numbe s, he BEV would ha e o
bein ope a ion o mo e han 10 yea swi h aconse a i eli e
expec ancy o 1000 cycles, and o mo e han 20 yea s wi h
Fig. 19 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile i s ca ,
commu e o wo k,
Vehicle- o-Home, and
Vehicle- o-G id op imised o
p o iding nega i e aFRR
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Table 9Mon hly cos educ ion om Vehicle- o-Home and Vehicle- o-G id ope a ion when p o iding nega i e aFRR (d i ing p o ile seconda y
ca )
Mon h Jan Feb Ma Ap May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oc No Dec
Op 14.9% 23.8% 28.7% 27.9% 29.1% 42.6% 37.9% 41.6% 36.0% 35.9% 22.5% 17.9%
Meas Op 14.3% 25.6% 28.4% 28.1% 31.4% 40.7% 36.7% 40.6% 29.8% 35.8% 20.5% 20.2%
Fig. 20 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile
seconda y ca , Vehicle- o-Home
and Vehicle- o-G id
Fig. 21 Daily ene gy and cos
balance d i ing p o ile
seconda y ca , Vehicle- o-Home
and Vehicle- o-G id op imised
o p o iding nega i e aFRR
Fig. 22 Annual cos educ ion
om a ious Vehicle- o-Home
and Vehicle- o-G id applica ions
D i ing p o ile PV sel -
consump ion [€/a]
PV and wind sel -
consump ion [€/a]
Flexible a i
[€/a] aFRR [€/a]
Fi s ca (commu e
o wo k) 242.0 341.5 201.4 1154.0
Seconda y ca
(no commu e) 484.2 647.6 444.5 1490.5
Fi s ca (commu e
o wo k) 149.8 175.5 81.3 790.0
Seconda y ca
(no commu e) 281.5 271.6 157.2 1002.5
Wi hou cos s due o addi ional ba e y cycles
Wi h cos s due o addi ional ba e y cycles
123
25 Page 18 o 23
Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
a mo e op imis ic li e expec ancy o 2000 o 3000 cycles,
un il he ba e y capaci y d ops below 80%. In his pe iod,
he ehicle is al eady dep ecia ed on he balance shee , and i
is ques ionable whe he he cos s incu ed by he addi ional
cycles mus be included in he balance. Acco ding o he Ge -
man Fede al Mo o T anspo Au ho i y, 91.7% o passenge
ca s on Ge many’s oads in 2021 we e less han 20 yea s old
[31] and he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Finance speci ies a
use ul li e o 6 yea s o passenge ca s in i s ables o dep e-
cia ion o wea and ea (A A) [32]. A he same ime, i is
possible ha supe ised ope a ion o he ehicle ba e y in
he ange o he op imum SOC can e en posi i ely in luence
i s se ice li e and o se he nega i e e ec s o he addi ional
cycles.
Vehicle- o-Home (sel -consump ion):
Wi h op imised cha ge and discha ge load managemen wi h
espec o PV sel -consump ion and he combined PV and
windsel -consump ion, a signi ican annual sa ingspo en ial
isshown ha ismainlydepende on he d i ingp o ile and he
a ailabili y o he BEV. A he same ime, i he addi ional
ba e y ageing is aken in o accoun , he sa ings po en ial
would be app oxima ely hal ed. An inc ease o he used s o -
age capaci y o 20 kWh compa ed o he 10 kWh in es iga ed
b ings only a sligh imp o emen . The o ecas unce ain y
has a g ea e impac in e ms o yield educ ion o d i -
ing p o iles wi h g ea e absence du a ions due o he lowe
lexibili y. The o ecas unce ain y o small wind gene a-
ion was no conside ed. This migh be coun e ac ed in a eal
implemen a ion by using ule-based logic o model p edic-
i e con ol (MPC).
Vehicle- o-Home ( lexible elec ici y a i ):
The usage o a lexible elec ici y a i in combina ion wi h
op imised cha ge and discha ge load managemen leads o
signi ican ly mo e cycles wi h simila cos sa ings com-
pa ed o he op imised sel -consump ion use case. This can
be explained by he ac ha a signi ican ly la ge amoun
o ene gy is shi ed, bu he inancial incen i e is lowe
compa ed o sel -consump ion. In e ms o g id suppo i e
ope a ion, howe e , his a ian is ecommendable. Thus,
depending on he d i ing p o ile, 15% - 33% o he o al g id
elec ici y demand o building and BEV could be shi ed o
imes o low a i p ices and he eby low g id s ess. Wi h
ega d o he used capaci y o he ehicle ba e y, a u ilisa ion
o a la ge sha e han he conside ed 10 kWh is easonable.
In o de o limi he use o he ehicle ba e y o he ange
be ween 40% and 60% o he SOC, a maximum o 16 kWh
should be used in he conside ed case o an 80 kWh ehicle
ba e y.
Vehicle- o-G id (aFRR):
This a ian o e s he g ea es po en ial, inancially speak-
ing, bu i is highly dependen on he bidding s a egy. In
eali y, ehicles would be ac i a ed less o en, esul ing in
lowe sa ings bu also less lexibili y needed and a lowe
cycle load. A he same ime, o pa icipa e in he aFRR
ma ke , he minimum powe o 1 MW equi es a pool ope -
a ion equi alen o mo e han 500 ehicles a he de e mined
op imal cha ging powe o 2 kW. This would also imply addi-
ional cos s o an agg ega o and pla o m in as uc u e.
Equally, howe e , a pool ope a ion can compensa e o si u-
a ions whe e a ehicle canno ul il all ac i a ions and hus
a oid compensa ion paymen s. Basically, he s udy showed
ha a a he low cha ging powe is use ul o p o ide mo e
lexibili y and hus o be able o ul il all aFRR ac i a ions.
The s udy did no ake in o accoun he aFRR powe ma ke
p ice since he e enues achie able wi h his use case do no
play a signi ican ole.
Conclusion
In his esea ch, we examined he po en ial o bidi ec ional
cha ging o di e en Vehicle- o-Home and Vehicle- o-G id
applica ions in he con ex o a esiden ial building wi h hea
pump, PV, and in one use case, small wind powe gene a ion.
Inpa icula , hepo en ialo op imisedbidi ec ionalcha ging
wi h ega d o PV and small wind powe sel -consump ion,
a lexible ToU elec ici y a i , and nega i e au oma ic F e-
quency Res o a ion Rese e (aFRR) was in es iga ed. The
examined use cases and applica ions ha e shown ha he e
is signi ican po en ial ega ding (op imised) bidi ec ional
cha ging in he con ex o Vehicle- o-G id and Vehicle- o-
Home ope a ions on a echnical as well as on an economical
le el. I has been shown ha , ega ding sel -consump ion o
PV and wind powe in be ween 150 C and 272 C could be
sa ed pe yea when he damage o he ehicle ba e y due o
addi ional cycles is included. The implemen a ion o a ToU
elec ici y a i was able o c ea e an incen i e o shi up o
one- hi d o he building’s demand o hou s o less ne load.
Howe e , i p o ed o be mo e di icul o p o ide su icien
inancial incen i es compa ed o he o he use cases. Ou
o he examined use cases he pa icipa ion in he nega i e
aFRR ma ke o e ed he highes inancial po en ial. The eby
only he pa icipa ion in ene gy balance ma ke made a el-
e an economical sense. Gains in aFRR powe ma ke we e
mino also because he aim o his use case was no o p o-
ide ese e powe wi h an exis ing powe plan bu o ob ain
elec ici y cheaply. In e es ingly, only a ac ion o he BEV
s ock p edic ed un il 2030 would be su icien o ul il a la ge
pa o he nega i e aFRR ende ed in Ge many. This could
be ex ended o he addi ional p o ision o posi i e aFRR,
which was no conside ed in his s udy since he p ima y goal
he e was o consume su plus elec ici y. In u u e esea ch,
i would be in e es ing o expand his s udy o o he in e -
na ionally impo an ma ke s. I would also be bene icial o
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
conside he in luence on economic e iciency h ough addi-
ionalpa ame e ssuchasdemand(kW)andpowe ac o (PF)
as componen s o cha ge. In addi ion, i would be compelling
o examine he e ec o an addi ional s a iona y ba e y s o -
age on he esul s.
This s udy is only a simula ion-based in es iga ion. In
o de o ans e hese esul s in o p ac ice, a ious assump-
ions, such as cha ging beha iou ( esponse speed, amp
up speed), in e e e iciency, and ba e y ageing, need o
be u he in es iga ed in ield ials o be e unde s and
hem and alida e he bene i s iden i ied he e. Also, un o e-
seen usage o he BEV ha migh impac he sa ings
po en ial has no been conside ed so a . To ap he ull
po en ial o bidi ec ional cha ging, gene al condi ions mus
be changed. Uni o m s anda ds o bidi ec ional cha ging
mus be inalised and olled ou soone han la e o p e en
he majo i y o he u u e BEV s ock om being sold incom-
pa ible.Also, he awa enessandeduca iono BEVcus ome s
ega ding ba e y ageing mus be a ge ed. In addi ion, be -
e in e e s mus be ins alled by he ca manu ac u e s ha
p o ide highe e iciencies a low powe le els (e.g. 0 - 3
kW).
Appendix A: Vehicle- o-G id (aFRR)
Fig. 23 Vehicle- o-G id
pa ame e a ia ion: p o ile i s
ca ,commu e owo k,80kWh
s o age size
Daily s a cha ge
s a e [% SOC]
aFRR powe
[kW]
Cos educ ion
[€]
Days wi hou
aFRR ull ilmen
Addic ional
ba e y cycles
40% 2 1388 35 54
43% 2 1170 52 58
40% 1 844 58 31
40% 3 1666 58 62
45% 2 1034 71 58
48% 2 1008 72 61
43% 3 1481 73 63
45% 3 1354 81 63
50% 2 961 83 61
43% 1 622 91 34
53% 2 915 94 62
48% 3 1235 98 59
40% 4 1448 112 53
45% 1 504 112 36
55% 2 809 118 59
48% 1 458 127 37
50% 3 1026 128 52
43% 4 1253 130 51
53% 1 446 133 42
50% 1 446 134 39
55% 1 435 140 43
58% 1 407 141 45
58% 2 664 152 53
45% 4 1026 162 45
53% 3 832 163 47
48% 4 848 183 39
40% 5 921 195 33
50% 4 740 198 36
43% 5 810 204 31
55% 3 594 205 36
45% 5 702 215 29
48% 5 528 240 23
53% 4 449 246 24
58% 3 391 249 28
50% 5 384 263 18
55% 4 309 270 20
53% 5 297 282 15
58% 4 200 301 14
55% 5 200 303 11
58% 5 97 323 6
60% 3 13 337 6
60% 2 12 338 7
60% 1 2 346 1
60% 4 1 346 2
60% 5 4 346 1
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Sma G ids and Sus ainable Ene gy (2024) 9:25
Fig. 24 Vehicle- o-G id
pa ame e a ia ion: p o ile
seconda y ca , 80 kWh s o age
size
Daily s a cha ge
s a e [% SOC]
aFRR powe
[kW]
Cos educ ion
[€]
Days wi hou
aFRR ull ilmen
Addic ional
ba e y cycles
40% 2 1709 21 74
43% 2 1455 31 77
45% 2 1344 39 80
40% 1 986 40 40
48% 2 1273 48 82
50% 2 1211 63 82
40% 3 1900 65 85
43% 1 731 69 43
43% 3 1754 73 88
53% 2 1134 78 82
45% 1 617 83 47
45% 3 1574 92 83
50% 1 541 109 51
55% 2 945 113 77
48% 1 549 114 46
53% 1 518 118 52
48% 3 1383 120 77
58% 1 493 123 58
55% 1 503 125 54
58% 2 778 151 69
50% 3 1140 155 68
40% 4 1332 164 62
43% 4 1220 174 60
53% 3 907 184 58
45% 4 1077 190 56
48% 4 952 205 51
55% 3 624 227 46
40% 5 855 232 40
50% 4 735 234 41
43% 5 709 244 35
58% 3 460 256 37
45% 5 588 261 30
53% 4 497 265 31
48% 5 445 276 25
55% 4 347 287 24
50% 5 336 292 20
53% 5 242 306 15
58% 4 191 308 16
55% 5 187 313 13
58% 5 130 324 10
60% 2 19 329 12
60% 3 11 337 7
60% 1 2 345 1
60% 4 2 346 1
60% 5 5 346 2
Acknowledgemen s This wo k emana ed om esea ch ha was con-
duc ed wi h he inancial suppo o he Fede al Minis y o Economic
A ai s and Clima e Ac ion g an numbe 03ET1116A wi hin he
esea ch p ojec Sma 2Cha ge
Au ho Con ibu ions All au ho s con ibu ed equally o his wo k
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek
DEAL. This wo k was unded by he Fede al Minis y o Economic
A ai s and Clima e Ac ion g an numbe 03ET1116A wi hin he
esea ch p ojec Sma 2Cha ge
Decla a ions
Con lic s o in e es No con lic o in e es / compe ing in e es s exis
ega ding his wo k
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