Sharing the island: Economic and social challenges and opportunities: Evidence from an ESRI research programme

McGinni y, F ances; Be gin, Adele; McGuinness, Séamus; Smy h, Eme
Resea ch Repo
Sha ing he island: Economic and social challenges and
oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
Resea ch Se ies, No. 202
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
The Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e (ESRI), Dublin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: McGinni y, F ances; Be gin, Adele; McGuinness, Séamus; Smy h, Eme (2025) :
Sha ing he island: Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI
esea ch p og amme, Resea ch Se ies, No. 202, The Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e (ESRI),
Dublin,
h ps://doi.o g/10.26504/ s202
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Sha ing he Island: Economic
and Social Challenges and
Oppo uni ies: E idence om
an ESRI Resea ch P og amme
FRANCES MCGINNITY, ADELE BERGIN, SEAMUS
MCGUINNESS AND EMER SMYTH
ESRI
RESEARCH SERIES
Numbe 202, Ap il 2025
SHARING THE ISLAND: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES: EVIDENCE
FROM AN ESRI RESEARCH PROGRAMME
F ances McGinni y
Adele Be gin
Seamus McGuinness
Eme Smy h
Ap il 2025
RESEARCH SERIES
NUMBER 202
A ailable o download om www.es i.ie
h ps://doi.o g/10.26504/ s202
© 2025 The Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e
Whi ake Squa e, Si John Roge son’s Quay, Dublin 2
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ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly c edi ed.
ABOUT THE ESRI
The Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e (ESRI) ad ances e idence-based
policy-making ha suppo s economic sus ainabili y and social p og ess in I eland.
ESRI esea che s apply he highes s anda ds o academic excellence o challenges
acing policymake s, ocusing on en a eas o c i ical impo ance o 21s Cen u y
I eland.
The Ins i u e was ounded in 1960 by a g oup o senio ci il se an s led by
D T.K. Whi ake , who iden i ied he need o independen and in-dep h esea ch
analysis. Since hen, he Ins i u e has emained commi ed o independen
esea ch and i s wo k is ee o any exp essed ideology o poli ical posi ion.
The Ins i u e publishes all esea ch eaching he app op ia e academic s anda d,
i espec i e o i s indings o who unds he esea ch.
The ESRI is a company limi ed by gua an ee, answe able o i s membe s and
go e ned by a Council, comp ising up o 14 ep esen a i es d awn om a c oss-
sec ion o ESRI membe s om academia, ci il se ices, s a e agencies, businesses
and ci il socie y. Funding o he ESRI comes om esea ch p og ammes suppo ed
by go e nmen depa men s and agencies, public bodies, compe i i e esea ch
p og ammes, membe ship ees, and an annual g an -in-aid om he Depa men
o Public Expendi u e NDP Deli e y and Re o m.
Fu he in o ma ion is a ailable a www.es i.ie.
THE AUTHORS
F ances McGinni y is an Associa e Resea ch P o esso a he ESRI, Adjunc P o esso
a T ini y College Dublin (TCD) and Visi ing Senio Fellow a he Cen e o he
Analysis o Social Exclusion a he London School o Economics (LSE). Adele Be gin
is an Associa e Resea ch P o esso a he ESRI and Adjunc P o esso o Economics
a TCD. Eme Smy h and Seamus McGuinness a e Resea ch P o esso s a he
Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e (ESRI) and Adjunc P o esso s a TCD.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This esea ch o ms pa o a esea ch pa ne ship be ween he ESRI and he Sha ed
Island Uni o he Depa men o he Taoiseach on ‘The Economic and Social
Oppo uni ies om Inc eased Coope a ion on he Sha ed Island’. The pu pose o
he p og amme is o p oduce esea ch ou pu s which will add o unde s anding o
cu en and po en ial linkages ac oss he island o I eland in a ange o economic,
social and en i onmen al domains.
The au ho s would like o hank he Sha ed Island Uni o he Depa men o he
Taoiseach and he membe s o he esea ch p og amme s ee ing commi ee o
hei inpu . Pa icula hanks o Ka y Haywa d o he commen s and ad ice as
ex e nal ad iso , o ESRI e iewe s o hei commen s and o Helen Russell who
ac ed as edi o . Special hanks o ou ESRI colleagues pas and p esen bo h o
compiling hese p og amme epo s ini ially, and o checking his one.
This epo has been accep ed o publica ion by he Ins i u e, which does no i sel ake ins i u ional
policy posi ions. All ESRI Resea ch Se ies epo s a e pee e iewed p io o publica ion. The au ho s
a e solely esponsible o he con en and he iews exp essed.

FOREWORD
In 2020, he Sha ed Island Uni in he Depa men o he Taoiseach app oached he
ESRI abou he possibili y o c ea ing a join esea ch p og amme o suppo he
o e all aims o he Sha ed Island ini ia i e. Following discussions, i was ag eed ha
a p og amme should be es ablished wi h wo b oad goals.
Fi s , ecognising ha he island o I eland has wo se s o public policy on
economic, social and en i onmen al issues, he e was clea ly scope o lea n abou
he impac o di e en policies by compa ing he ou comes ac oss a ious domains
in he wo ju isdic ions. In his way, he esea ch p og amme would ollow he ypes
o compa a i e analyses ha a e ypically conduc ed ac oss he egions o he UK,
he coun ies o Eu ope and he s a es o he US. Indeed, i was somewha
su p ising ha his esea ch me hod had no been exploi ed mo e ex ensi ely on
he island o I eland p e iously.
The second b oad goal o he p og amme was o explo e he possibili y o inc eased
collabo a ion and linkage on he island o I eland, including on public se ice
deli e y. By in e na ional s anda ds, he popula ions o I eland and No he n
I eland a e small and so he scope o exploi economies o scale is limi ed. I
seemed sensible o explo e how his scope migh be maximised by conside ing
elemen s o public se ice deli e y on an all-island basis whe e his could bene i
ci izens ac oss he island. O he a eas o inc eased linkage could also be explo ed
such as ade in goods and se ices.
The ESRI was e y pleased o wo k on he p og amme. Ou mission is ‘ o p o ide
e idence o in o m policymaking and public deba e’. Since ou ounding in 1960,
he mission has been pu sued p ima ily wi h ega d o I eland bu , on occasions,
ou wo k p og amme included No he n I eland. One example was he 1999
publica ion I eland No h and Sou h: Pe spec i es om Social Science.1 The
ambi ion o unde ake mo e esea ch on all-island issues and on No he n I eland
was always p esen and was p omo ed wi hin he ESRI by Boa d membe s such as
D T.K. Whi ake and Si Geo ge Quigley, bo h o whom we e well-known o hei
suppo o all-island collabo a ion. Hence, he oppo uni y p o ided o us by he
Sha ed Island ini ia i e was hea ily welcomed by he ESRI.
In he i e yea s since 2020, my colleagues ha e p oduced a se ies o epo s on a
ange o opics whe e he objec i es o he p og amme – mu ual lea ning and
po en ial collabo a ion – ha e been pu sued. We ha e held a la ge numbe o
1 Hea h, A., B een, R. and Whelan, C. (1999). I eland No h and Sou h: pe spec i es om social science. Ox o d: Ox o d
Uni e si y P ess o he B i ish Academy.
i | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies- e idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
con e ences and webina s o dissemina e he wo k, including con e ences in
Bel as , join ly wi h Queen’s Uni e si y Bel as and Uls e Uni e si y. As he indings
o his body o wo k and implica ions o policy a e p esen ed in his epo , I will
no y o summa ise hose indings bu ins ead will o e some b oad obse a ions.
Wi hin he p og amme, he epo s which ha e looked a economic ou comes
ac oss he island poin o he ela i e success o I eland in achie ing highe le els
o disposable income and li ing s anda ds. This in u n has been linked in he
esea ch o ac o s such as he di e ing na u e o o eign di ec in es men in
I eland and No he n I eland and lowe le els o human capi al in No he n I eland.
These indings could c ea e a sense o disappoin men abou he a e o economic
p og ess seen in No he n I eland since 1998, bu an al e na i e pe spec i e is o
ocus on he economic po en ial which exis s. Fo many yea s, I eland’s
pe iphe ali y and lack o na u al esou ces led o a belie ha he economic
pe o mance would always lag behind G ea B i ain and he coun ies a he
Eu opean co e. Howe e , I eland has shown ha wi h he igh economic policies,
i is possible o a small, pe iphe al s a e o achie e s anda ds o li ing ha a e
compa able o hose o high p oduc i i y, high-income Eu opean s a es. The e is no
eason o belie e ha simila le els o income canno be achie ed in No he n
I eland and he esul s o he esea ch conduc ed in his p og amme poin o he
needed in es men s.
While I eland has achie ed highe le els o income, i should also be no ed ha
na ional ou pu has shown g ea e ola ili y in I eland compa ed o No he n
I eland o e he las wen y yea s and poo policy in I eland has con ibu ed. I
should also be no ed ha income inequali y is simila ac oss he wo ju isdic ions,
al hough wi h di e en ac o s bo h inc easing and educing income inequali y. As
discussed in he epo , his p o ides lessons o policy aimed a educing income
inequali y.
On inc eased linkage and collabo a ion, heal hca e is an a ea whe e he possible
bene i s seem po en ially signi ican . The heal hca e sys ems in bo h I eland and
No he n I eland ace challenges and e o m p oposals exis o bo h. Specialisa ion
and collabo a ion in cen es o excellence could lead o imp o emen s in ca e o
all on he island. E en i his is ue, he p essu es on hose wo king in bo h sys ems
p obably makes i di icul o engage on s a egic issues ac oss he bo de . Hence,
addi ional p ocesses and ins i u ions o os e and acili a e his ype o c oss-
bo de coope a ion may be needed.
Be o e closing, I wan o hank Taoiseach Micheál Ma in TD and he ange o
Go e nmen Minis e s o e he las numbe o yea s who ha e all shown signi ican
in e es in and suppo o he esea ch p og amme and engaged wi h indings
ac oss a numbe o a eas. I would also hank o icials in he Depa men o an
Taoiseach – in pa icula Aingeal O'Donoghue, Éme Deane and Eoghan Du y - o
he Depa men al suppo o his join esea ch ini ia i e and o engaging wi h
he esea ch ou pu s in such a cons uc i e manne . I also wan o hank Anne
Ba ing on o chai ing he p og amme’s S ee ing Commi ee, and Ka en Bonne o
Uls e Uni e si y o he membe ship o ha Commi ee. Adele Be gin and F an
McGinni y ep esen ed he ESRI on he S ee ing Commi ee and I wan o say a
wo d o hanks o hem also.
Finally, I wan o hank my colleagues o hei wo k unde he p og amme. An
imp essi e body o knowledge has been gene a ed h ough which we now know a
lo mo e abou I eland, No he n I eland and all-island linkages.
Alan Ba e , ESRI Di ec o
Feb ua y 2025
iii | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
in how hese skills a e e lec ed in quali ica ions. Much highe a es o ea ly
school lea ing in No he n I eland ha e consequences o access o, and he
quali y o , employmen as well as p oduc i i y le els. The e a e di e ences oo
in ake-up o pos -seconda y quali ica ions, showing he po en ial o de elop
u he educa ion and aining in No he n I eland as a ou e o employmen .
• Educa ional inequali y h oughou he educa ion sys em is appa en in bo h
ju isdic ions bu is mos e iden in quali ica ion le els in No he n I eland and
uppe seconda y g ades in I eland. This is an impo an policy issue gi en he
consequences o poo educa ional a ainmen o adul li e chances, including
employmen and heal h. The e is po en ial o mu ual policy lea ning a ound
he a ge ing o local a eas o schools as a basis o add essing educa ional
disad an age.
• Bo h sys ems ace challenges a ound wai ing lis s o heal hca e and adequacy
o housing supply, highligh ing he need o wo k o ce de elopmen in bo h
sec o s.
• Challenges a e simila oo in he gende ed na u e o ca e and i s impac on
access o employmen , wi h a need o (con inued) expansion o a o dable
ea ly yea s and a e -school ca e in bo h ju isdic ions. Lone mo he s ace
pa icula challenges in accessing high-quali y employmen in bo h I eland and
No he n I eland, sugges ing he need o app op ia e educa ion and aining
suppo s as well as childca e.
CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION
The 1998 Good F iday Ag eemen (GFA) es ablished an impo an amewo k o
he o mal ope a ionalisa ion o c oss-bo de coope a ion on he island o I eland
wi h he es ablishmen o six No h-Sou h bodies ha ope a e unde he policy
di ec ion o he No h Sou h Minis e ial Council (NSMC). A u he six b oad policy
a eas we e ea ma ked o c oss-bo de coope a ion unde he ag eemen , wi h
common policy app oaches o be ag eed in he NSMC and implemen ed sepa a ely
in each ju isdic ion. Despi e some well ecognised success in he a ea o c oss-
bo de ou ism, i is easonable o conclude ha p og ess on c oss-bo de
coope a ion has so a ailed o mee i s ull po en ial since he signing o he GFA.
The e is a consensus among s akeholde s ha le els o c oss-bo de coope a ion
ha e ailed o mee expec a ions in many o he policy a eas designa ed as being
s a egically impo an such as educa ion, heal h, ag icul u e and he en i onmen .
The e a e clea ad an ages o subs an ially upscaling No h-Sou h coope a ion in
exis ing s a egic a eas such as educa ion, heal h and en i onmen al policy and in
ex ending he emi o coope a ion o include new s a egic a eas o coope a ion
such as, o example, skills p o ision, o eign di ec in es men , labou ma ke
access and ene gy secu i y. The a eas iden i ied as being s a egically impo an o

Execu i e summa y | ix
c oss-bo de coope a ion should, ideally, be e iewed pe iodically o allow o
changing p io i ies and, p e e ably, ha e dedica ed budge s and o e sigh sys ems.
CONCLUSIONS
The esea ch p og amme indings poin o impo an commonali ies and
di e ences be ween I eland and No he n I eland, no only a one poin in ime bu
in ends o e ime. Thus, while income inequali y le els a e simila , o he
economic indica o s ela ing o li ing s anda ds and p oduc i i y gene ally a ou
I eland, and he indings also show g owing di e gence in hese key indica o s in
ecen yea s.
A key elemen o he esea ch p og amme has been o acknowledge he limi a ions
o he compa able e idence used, and no e wha addi ional e idence o ac ions
would be equi ed o ad ance esea ch in a pa icula policy a ea. Some o hese
include: coope a ion be ween he CSO and NISRA, and la ge samples in No he n
I ish da a. Linking su ey da a wi h adminis a i e da a could also ha ness he
po en ial o exis ing e idence o compa ison.
P og amme esea ch o da e has documen ed impo an commonali ies and
di e ences in ou comes be ween No he n I eland and I eland as a basis o public
unde s anding, policy lea ning and coope a ion, bu has also highligh ed pe sis ing
ba ie s o his endea ou . The challenge o he u u e, bo h o esea ch and o
p ac ical coope a ion, will be o go beyond la gely desc ip i e accoun s o unco e
and iden i y ways o add ess he p ocesses unde lying hese di e en ou comes
and he impac s hey ha e on economic and social de elopmen and socie al
wellbeing.
In oduc ion | 1
CHAPTER 1
In oduc ion
I eland and No he n I eland sha e many social, his o ical and geog aphical
cha ac e is ics bu hei poli ical ins i u ions and he con igu a ion o policy a e
e y di e en . These simila i ies and di e ences make a compelling case o
compa ing he wo ju isdic ions, and he in e ac ion be ween he wo. Recen yea s
ha e seen inc easing esea ch in e es in he opic, hough he las comp ehensi e
compa ison was in he 1990s (Hea h e al., 1999). This gap in esea ch is beginning
o be add essed including h ough he ex ensi e and ambi ious esea ch
p og amme be ween he ESRI and he Sha ed Island Uni (SIU) o he Depa men
o he Taoiseach o e he pas ou yea s, wi h 15 esea ch epo s published in
o al.
The esea ch is se agains a backd op o ecen subs an ial challenges: he exi o
he UK om he EU and implica ions o No he n I eland and No h-Sou h
ela ions and coope a ion; he COVID-19 pandemic and associa ed lockdown; apid
in la ion and cos -o li ing challenges; capaci y p essu es on heal hca e sys ems
and housing ma ke s in bo h I eland and No he n I eland. All o hese ac o s
in luence he economic, social and poli ical con ex in which hese epo s we e
w i en. The analysis in he p og amme is all based on he pe iod a e he Good
F iday Ag eemen (1998). Ye he legacy o 25 yea s o iolen con lic on he
economy and socie y in No he n I eland, a con lic om which I eland was la gely
spa ed, is impo an o bea in mind (Coul e e al., 2021; NESC, 2022).
The ocus o he join esea ch p og amme o da e has been b oadly o in es iga e
he economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies ha sha ing he island
p esen s. Some o he epo s compa e hemes ac oss he island, o he s he
in e linkages be ween ju isdic ions. The esea ch and policy scope is b oad, wi h
some opics ocusing mo e on he economy – such as c oss-bo de ade, o eign
di ec in es men and p oduc i i y – and o he s on he p o ision o co e se ices
such as housing, p ima y heal hca e and ene gy gene a ion. O he epo s ocus on
mic o-le el issues: one se o pape s ocuses on skills acquisi ion ac oss he li e
cou se including educa ion and aining, s uden mobili y, ea ly childhood ca e and
lea ning, while a second se conside s aspec s o equali y in he wo ju isdic ions –
gende equali y, income inequali y, child po e y, mig an in eg a ion, and social
and poli ical a i udes.
The pu pose o his epo is o syn hesise some key indings om he p og amme
epo s and b ing ou in e linkages be ween hem. I also seeks o highligh and
2 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
e lec on implica ions o policy lea ning o he island as a whole in he u u e.
The epo is by na u e selec i e gi en he b ead h o esea ch conduc ed.
As a esea ch p og amme be ween he ESRI and he Sha ed Island Uni , he opics
o enqui y we e no p e-de ined. Ra he hey we e de eloped on an ongoing and
i e a i e basis, esponding o key in e es s and challenges o bo h ju isdic ions and
knowledge gaps a ising, including knowledge gaps iden i ied in p e ious epo s
and du ing s akeholde consul a ions. Topics de eloped we e also based on he
ESRI esea che s’ expe ise and he da a a ailable. Repo s use he mos
app op ia e me hods in he ele an ield o enqui y, d awing on in e na ional bes
p ac ice, and hese a y conside ably ac oss opics in he p og amme. Fo example,
he epo in es iga ing income inequali y in he wo ju isdic ions uses
sophis ica ed mic osimula ion models, as is ypical in esea ch in es iga ing he
impac o ax and wel a e sys ems – e ec i ely a ‘policy swap’ (Doo ley e al., 2024).
The epo compa ing p oduc i i y ac oss he island included simula ion analysis o
illus a e how p oduc i i y le els migh a y o changes in he le el o endowmen s
o key p oduc i i y- ela ed ac o s such as human capi al (Be gin and McGuinness,
2022). In hei analysis o enhancing he a ac i eness o he island o high- alue
Fo eign Di ec In es men (FDI), Siedschlag e al. (2021) examined a ange o
coun e ac ual ou comes associa ed wi h policy choices and po en ial policy
coo dina ion o enhancing he a ac i eness o FDI in high- alue sec o s. Many
s udies explo ed policy a eas ha had been well documen ed o da e on a single
ju isdic ion basis bu had ne e been comp ehensi ely compa ed and analysed
ac oss bo h I eland and No he n I eland.
Many esea ch p ojec s cap u ed an o en- apidly changing policy landscape. Fo
his eason, i e epo s in he p og amme unde ook consul a ions. In mos o
hese, p elimina y indings we e p esen ed o policy s akeholde s and eedback
ecei ed on policy p io i ies and di ec ion o a el (Smy h e al., 2022; Cu is an e
al., 2023; Smy h and Da mody, 2023; Hing e e al., 2024; Russell e al., 2025). In
one epo , he consul a ion speci ically add essed an issue no amenable o
s a is ical da a analysis – c oss-bo de a el o mig an s (McGinni y e al., 2023).
In e iews wi h s akeholde s in bo h ju isdic ions also p o ided an impo an
e idence base o he s udies on educa ion (which co e ed all le els om ea ly
yea s h ough o u he and highe educa ion). P ima ily hese in e iews
complemen ed he indings o quan i a i e wo k, gi ing an on- he-g ound
pe spec i e and insigh s in o policy.
The p og amme placed a p emium on high-quali y ep esen a i e da a wi h
ha monised measu es, o ensu e ha di e ences be ween ju isdic ions a e no due
o ei he skewed, biased samples, o measu emen di e ences, bo h o which
could dis o compa isons. A challenge h oughou he p og amme has been
a ailabili y o e idence o compa ison. These e idence cons ain s in luence bo h
In oduc ion | 3
choice o opics (wha can be esea ched) and he me hod o analysis. E en in well-
es ablished su ey exe cises which use consis en , in e na ional measu es,
No he n I eland, as a egion o he UK, is o en no speci ied in UK-wide da ase s
o included in s a is ically su icien numbe s; his means i is o en in eg a ed
wi hin o e all UK analyses, which makes compa ison wi h I eland and e en wi h
o he pa s o he UK di icul . As Lawless (2021) poin ed ou when analysing c oss-
bo de ade in se ices, da a limi a ions and challenges mean less o a ocus on
se ices han ade in goods. Acco dingly, an impo an by-p oduc o he
p og amme has been o iden i y e idence gaps and build up a knowledge base o
enable igo ous compa ison. A key elemen o he esea ch p og amme has been
o acknowledge he limi a ions o he compa able e idence used and no e wha
addi ional e idence o ac ions would be equi ed o ad ance esea ch in a
pa icula policy a ea. Only in iden i ying e idence gaps can hey po en ially be
illed. We e u n o his poin in Chap e 6.
As well as wha is easible gi en he a ailabili y o da a o po en ial o collec new
da a, opics we e selec ed o e lec esea ch gaps and no duplica e exis ing o
ongoing esea ch. Fo example, he e olu ion o poli ical iden i ies has been
ex ensi ely esea ched al eady (Todd, 2021; Haywa d and Roshe , 2023), so he
conside a ion o social and poli ical a i udes does no co e hese, ocusing ins ead
on us in ins i u ions, social us and belie in he e ec i eness o poli ics
(Lau ence e al., 2023b). As a syn hesis epo , he p ima y ocus he e is on epo s
published as pa o he esea ch p og amme, bu o he complemen a y esea ch
is ci ed whe e i is pa icula ly ele an o use ul o he opics examined (Na ional
Economic and Social Council (NESC), 2022; Depa men o Finance, 2024; he
Analysing and Resea ch I eland No h and Sou h (ARINS) esea ch ini ia i e;2
Haywa d e al., 2022).3
The pu pose o his o e iew epo is o syn hesise some key indings om he
p og amme as a whole and i s con ibu ion o knowledge. In summa ising he
epo s, i will d aw o e all conclusions on he economic and social con igu a ion
o he island o I eland oday and e lec on implica ions o policy lea ning in bo h
ju isdic ions. Chap e 2 conside s he policy con ex in b oad e ms and p esen s
key demog aphic s a is ics. I also e iews di e ences in income and li ing
s anda ds.
Chap e 3 syn hesises p og amme indings o assess inequali y in ou comes ac oss
he li e cou se in I eland and No he n I eland and how hese a e in luenced by
policy con igu a ions. Beginning a he ea ly yea s, h ough p ima y, pos -p ima y
and pos -school/ hi d-le el educa ion, i hen conside s di e ences among he
2 h ps://www. ia.ie/ esea ch-p og ammes/a ins/ ead-a ins- esea ch/.
3 h ps://www.nesc.ie/publica ions/sha ed-island-sha ed-oppo uni y-nesc-comp ehensi e- epo /.

4 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
wo king-age popula ion in: p oduc i i y, gende and labou ma ke inclusion;
mig an in eg a ion; he cos o li ing; pe sonal axa ion and how he s a e
edis ibu es income. Housing supply is also conside ed ele an o all age g oups
as is p ima y heal hca e, e en mo e ele an o olde age g oups. Di e ences in
social and poli ical a i udes ac oss measu es o people’s us in ins i u ions, in
hei pee s and hei go e nmen a e conside ed, and how hese can be in luenced
bo h by he b oade policy and economic con ex and by people’s socio-economic
posi ions.
Chap e 4 e lec s on o e a ching policy conside a ions o bo h ju isdic ions as
iden i ied h ough he esea ch p og amme including he impo ance o inc easing
educa ion and skills in No he n I eland, o acili a e g ea e employmen
pa icipa ion, highe p oduc i i y and ea nings, and o inc ease No he n I eland’s
a ac i eness o in es men o acili a e economic g ow h. I also highligh s
wo k o ce de elopmen , including in cons uc ion, ea ly ca e and educa ion, and
heal hca e in bo h ju isdic ions.
Chap e 5 maps he exis ing c oss-bo de connec ions and coope a ion in he a eas
conside ed h ough he esea ch p og amme. I also explo es how mo e s a egic
coope a ion, in es men and planning could help o achie e sha ed economic and
social goals and add ess common policy challenges o bo h ju isdic ions. These
include he ope a ion and e ec i eness o c oss-bo de ins i u ions; c oss-bo de
coope a ion in heal h; acili a ing s uden mobili y and deepe coope a ion on
educa ion and skills de elopmen ; and po en ial o u he coope a ion on
ou ism, ene gy gene a ion and enewable ene gy.
Chap e 6 summa ises he indings, and e lec s on hemes and issues no
add essed by his p og amme o da e, how any such gaps impac on he
compa isons ha can be d awn, and how u u e esea ch could help add ess
emaining gaps in ou knowledge. I e lec s on u u e p ospec s o he island as a
whole o he yea s o come.
Economic pe o mance and li ing s anda ds | 5
CHAPTER 2
Economic pe o mance and li ing s anda ds
2.1 POLICY CONTEXT
Public policy in I eland, No h and Sou h, spans nume ous a eas (e.g. heal h,
housing, educa ion) and sha es he o e a ching goal o imp o ing he wel a e o
he popula ion. Bo h ju isdic ions ha e poli ical and adminis a i e s uc u es ha
espec i ely shape he di ec ion and deli e y o policy. Bo h ju isdic ions also ace
cons ain s in de eloping and implemen ing policies. Some o hese cons ain s a e
common o bo h, and o o he coun ies, such as ha ing he necessa y esou ces
and he da a in as uc u e o assess need and e alua e policy. Howe e , No he n
I eland aces addi ional signi ican cons ain s, pa icula ly in e ms o he
expe ience o ins abili y o he de ol ed poli ical ins i u ions and he limi ed iscal
au onomy ha can impac scope o policy de elopmen and e ec i eness.
In No he n I eland, iscal spending is p ima ily unded h ough he UK
Go e nmen ’s block g an , supplemen ed by local axes and o he e enues.4
Changes o he block g an a e gene ally de e mined by he Ba ne o mula.5 This
iscal mechanism adjus s he inancing in p opo ion o spending changes in he
es o he Uni ed Kingdom, accoun ing o No he n I eland’s popula ion sha e.
No he n I eland has bene i ed conside ably om he g an o e decades, hough
a he same ime he Execu i e has limi ed powe o bo ow money. While he
No he n I eland Assembly has de ol ed powe s o many economic and social
a eas,6 i s limi ed e enue aising powe s limi s iscal au onomy.7,8
The na u e o he mul i-pa y powe -sha ing go e nmen sys em and he
equi emen o coope a ion in key a eas o policy-making, while in p inciple is
designed o ensu e balance and inclusi i y, can lead o poli ical deadlock. Execu i e
minis e s a e appoin ed by he D’Hond p ocess in p opo ion o he pa ies’
s eng h in he Assembly.9 This p ocess whe eby indi idual pa ies wi h o en
compe ing objec i es ha e esponsibili y o a leas one o eigh 10 de ol ed policy
4 A ound 90 pe cen o No he n I eland Execu i e-led spending is inanced by he block g an (Fiscal Commission
No he n I eland, 2022).
5 Fo a summa y o he o mula and deba e a ound i , see: h ps://commonslib a y.pa liamen .uk/ esea ch-
b ie ings/cbp-7386/.
6 h ps://www.go .uk/guidance/de olu ion-se lemen -no he n-i eland.
7 See Fiscal Commission No he n I eland (2022) o mo e de ails.
8 The de ol ed adminis a ions in Sco land and Wales also ecei e g an s om he UK Go e nmen ha und mos o
hei spending (see Keep, 2024 o mo e de ails). Each o he de ol ed adminis a ions can also bo ow ce ain
amoun s, ha is mos ly o und capi al in es men s.
9 h ps://www.niassembly.go .uk/news-and-media/assembly-explained/unde s anding- he-dhond -me hod-i s-use-in-
he-no he n-i eland-assembly/.
10 In addi ion o he Execu i e O ice, he e a e minis ies in he a eas o (1) Jus ice (2) Economy (3) Educa ion (4) Finance
(5) Heal h (6) Communi ies (7) In as uc u e, and (8) Ag icul u e, En i onmen and Ru al a ai s.
6 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
a eas means ha i can be ela i ely mo e di icul o ag ee on a well-in eg a ed,
cohe en p og amme o go e nmen . Mo e undamen ally, he ac ha he
Execu i e and Assembly ha e epea edly collapsed since hei o ma ion is a
challenge o policy-making. As Coul e e al. (2021) no e:
In Augus 2018, No he n I eland a ained he unen iable s a us o
being he democ a ic poli y ha has gone he longes pe iod in peace
ime wi hou a se ing go e nmen (ibid., p50).
This was be o e subsequen suspensions. When he de ol ed go e nmen is no in
place, Minis e s can con inue in o ice in ca e ake oles o de ined pe iods and he
UK Pa liamen e ains he powe o legisla e o No he n I eland. Howe e , o he
as majo i y o policy a eas, no ha ing minis e s in place du ing Assembly
suspensions mean policy decisions and legisla ion we e no being made. This
limi ed iscal au onomy and poli ical ins abili y can esul in delays in policy
implemen a ion and can also limi he scale and scope o wha can be achie ed.
Fu he mo e, policy in many a eas in No he n I eland is subs an ially shaped by
he UK Go e nmen . Fo example, he pa i y p inciple means ha he social wel a e
sys em is b oadly aligned wi h he wide UK. I No he n I eland de ia es om he
es o he UK in e ms o wel a e policies, i has o co e he ex a cos om i s
de ol ed budge . Fo ins ance, he No he n I eland Execu i e was able o
in oduce a scheme o mi iga e he e ec s o he unde -occupancy penal y (‘ he
bed oom ax’). In addi ion, he wel a e e o m mi iga ion package pu in place by
he No he n I eland Execu i e cu en ly o se s he UK bene i cap o mos
amilies (Russell e al., 2025). In o e all e ms, howe e , he Execu i e has limi ed
iscal space o di e ge signi ican ly om wide UK wel a e policy.
The e a e also ins ances whe e policies in oduced in o he pa s o he UK ha e
no been adop ed in No he n I eland. England in oduced 30 hou s ee ea ly
childhood ca e and educa ion in 2017, and Sco land and Wales ollowed soon a e ;
in No he n I eland child en a e en i led o 12.5 hou s o ea ly ca e and educa ion
pe week (S ewa and Reade , 2020). Childca e policy s akeholde s in No he n
I eland a ibu ed he lack o policy de elopmen in he a ea o e he p e ious
decade o he unce ain and uns able poli ical si ua ion and exp essed us a ion
a he slow pace o change (Cu is an e al., 2022).11 Howe e , mo e ecen ly,
addi ional unding has been alloca ed o p e-school p o ision by he new
Execu i e12 wi h a commi men o s anda dise p e-school hou s. Gende pay policy
and pay epo ing ha e also seen delays in No he n I eland. Since 2017, pay gap
11 ‘No hing has mo ed o wa d because we don’ ha e a unc ioning execu i e a he minu e o sign o on any unding’
(Childca e S akeholde , NI, quo ed in Cu is an e al., 2023).
12 h ps://www.educa ion-ni.go .uk/news/educa ion-minis e -announces-ps25million-package-measu es-ea ly-
lea ning-and-childca e-no he n-i eland.
Economic pe o mance and li ing s anda ds | 7
epo ing has been manda o y o la ge employe s in England, Sco land and
Wales.13 Sec ion 19 o he Employmen Ac (No he n I eland) 2016 p o ides o
he making o gende pay gap epo ing egula ions by June 2017, bu a he ime
o w i ing (la e 2024) hese ha e no ye been en o ced.14
While p e iously bo h ju isdic ions on he island o I eland we e pa o he
Eu opean Union, he wi hd awal o he UK om he Eu opean Union has b ough
challenges in e ms o econciling egula ions and s anda ds be ween No he n
I eland and I eland. One example o his is in he a ea o equali y and human igh s.
In A icle 2 o he I eland/No he n I eland P o ocol (Windso F amewo k), he UK
Go e nmen commi ed o ensu ing ha he igh s, sa egua ds and equali y laws
se ou in he Good F iday Ag eemen would no be diminished as a consequence
o B exi . The UK Go e nmen has con e ed new s a u o y powe s and ela ed
esou ces on he No he n I eland Human Righ s Commission and he Equali y
Commission o No he n I eland o moni o he implemen a ion o his a icle,
known as he ‘Dedica ed Mechanism’.15 This Dedica ed Mechanism has highligh ed
di e gence in he a ea o igh s and equali y law since i s es ablishmen ,
pa icula ly in he a ea o gende equali y policy (C aig e al., 2024), and also o EU
equali y unding.16 Mo e b oadly, he common amewo k o EU law and policy
p e iously acili a ed No h-Sou h coope a ion ac oss all sec o s signi ican ly, and
di e ging legal and policy amewo ks pos -B exi could well aise challenges o
cons ain s.
In I eland, policy-making is ela i ely cen alised and iscal policy plays an impo an
ole in managing he economy, and he budge p ocess de e mines unding o
a ious policy ini ia i es. While coali ion go e nmen s a e he no m, he
o mula ion o P og ammes o Go e nmen has ypically been ela i ely mo e
s aigh o wa d han in No he n I eland.17 The Go e nmen o I eland has a
spending ule o help guide policy and is also subjec o EU iscal ules. Howe e ,
I eland aces ela i ely less cons ain unde hese ules as hey a e de ined using
13 h ps://gende -pay-gap.se ice.go .uk/.
14 See h ps://www.equali yni.o g/Gende PayPolicy o u he de ails. In p inciple he Good Jobs Bill in No he n I eland
could add ess his issue, hough he e is no indica ion o his o da e. See h ps://www.economy-
ni.go .uk/si es/de aul / iles/consul a ions/economy/good-jobs-consul a ion.PDF.
15 The UK Go e nmen has con e ed new s a u o y powe s and ela ed esou ces on he No he n I eland Human Righ s
Commission and he Equali y Commission o No he n I eland o moni o he implemen a ion o his a icle. See
h ps://www.equali yni.o g/b exi ; h ps://www.ih ec.ie/documen s/equali y-and- igh s-on- he-island-o -i eland-
a e -b exi /.
16 h ps://www.equali yni.o g/ECNI/media/ECNI/Publica ions/Deli e ing%20Equali y/DMU/DMU-Windso F amewo k-
AnnualRepo 2022-23.pd .
17 Tha is no o say go e nmen o ma ion in I eland is uncomplica ed; he mul i-pa y and p opo ional ep esen a ion
elec o al sys em gene ally en ails coali ion go e nmen s who ha e o ag ee on a p og amme o go e nmen . Coali ion
go e nmen o ma ion ypically akes se e al weeks o a ew mon hs in I eland. The e a e cases whe e i ex ends
beyond ha , such as a e he 2020 Gene al Elec ion i ook o e ou mon hs o o m a go e nmen . In No he n
I eland, pa ies ha e 24 weeks o ag ee on a powe -sha ing execu i e. Howe e , he e ha e been cases o much longe
ime ames, such as, a e he 2017 elec ion, whe e he execu i e was only es o ed in 2020.
14 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
33.5 pe cen compa ed o 31.7 pe cen in No he n I eland, indica ing ha he
gap in li ing s anda ds has widened o e he pe iod.
TABLE 2.2 STANDARD OF LIVING – ECONOMIC INDICATORS
Uni s
Yea
I e
’000
NI
’000
% Di
(I e - NI)
% Change
2015-22
(I e)
% Change
2015-22
(NI)
GNI* Pe Capi a
Cons an p ices,
€, ’000
2022
53.4
34.1
56.5
26.7
14.8
GDP Pe Capi a
Cons an p ices,
€, ’000
2022
104.2
34.1
205.3
66.2
14.8
Household
Disposable
Income
Cons an p ices,
€, ’000 (Pe Equi alen
Household)
2018
35.3
29.9
18.3
33.5
31.7
Sou ce: OECD Regional Economy Da abase. CSOs Na ional Income and Expendi u e Accoun s, popula ion da a om CSOs Annual
Popula ion and Mig a ion Es ima es, PPP adjus men om OECD Regional Economy Da abase. All es ima es a e con e ed in o
eu o.
No es: The g ow h a e o household disposable income is measu ed om 2015-2018.
As p e iously discussed, di e ences in educa ional a ainmen a e a key d i e o
di e ences in p oduc i i y and, by ex ension, li ing s anda ds. In Table 2.3 we use
da a om he OECD egional da abase o p o ide an assessmen o changes in
le els o educa ional a ainmen by age g oup be ween 2018 and 2022. The
pa e ns a e ela i ely s able o e ime, bu he e a e some no ewo hy changes.
The educa ional en olmen a es among 3- o 5-yea -olds ell in bo h ju isdic ions
o e he pe iod, bu mo e signi ican ly in I eland. I is no clea wha d o e he all
in en olmen a es, especially in I eland o e his pe iod. I could be ela ed o he
pandemic. The e has been an imp o emen in he No he n I eland en olmen a e
among 6- o 14-yea -olds, wi h he a e eaching 100 pe cen in bo h No he n
I eland and I eland in 2022. The gap in en olmen a es o 15- o 19-yea -olds,
which will be hea ily in luenced by hose engaged in pos -seconda y educa ion,
inc eased o e he 2015 o 2022 pe iod om 19 o 23.3 pe cen age poin s in a ou
o I eland. This is pa icula ly wo ying as i poin s o a u he e osion o u he /
oca ional educa ion in No he n I eland, which ha ms skills accumula ion in
No he n I eland and will end o u he widen any exis ing p oduc i i y gap.
Table 2.3 shows ha be ween 2018 and 2022 he a e o ea ly school lea ing (as a
sha e o he 18- o 24-yea -old popula ion) has allen by 1.3 pe cen age poin s in
I eland and inc eased by 0.6 pe cen age poin s in No he n I eland, wi h he a e
o ea ly school lea ing 2.7 imes highe in No he n I eland compa ed o I eland, in
2022. Finally, he e has been a decline in he a es o 18- o 24-yea -olds no in
employmen , educa ion o aining (NEET) in bo h ju isdic ions be ween 2015 and
2022, wi h a mo e subs an ial decline in I eland o e he 2018 o 2022 pe iod.

Economic pe o mance and li ing s anda ds | 15
TABLE 2.3 STANDARD OF LIVING – MEASURES OF OPPORTUNITY
I eland
No he n I eland
2018
2022
2018
2022
Educa ion En olmen Ra es by Age Range:
3-5 yea -olds
100.0
93.2
86.6
83.8
6-14 yea -olds
100.0
100.0
98.1
100.0
15-19 yea -olds
92.6
93.9
73.6
70.6
20-29 yea -olds
29.0
30.6
15.2
16.9
30-39 yea -olds
7.3
6.5
3.3
4.1
40-64 yea -olds
5.6
3.3
1.3
0.8
Ra e o Ea ly Lea e s om Educa ion
and T aining (in % o he o al popula ion
aged 18 o 24)
5.0
3.7
9.4
10.0
Sha e o 18-24 yea -olds popula ion no in
educa ion and unemployed o inac i e (NEET)
12.6
9.8
13.9
12.4
Sou ce: OECD Regional Economy Da abase.
No e: I should be no ed ha hese igu es e e o hose esiden and en olled in he ju isdic ion and does no include hose who ha e
mo ed om No he n I eland o I eland o he es o he UK o s udy (see Smy h and Da mody, 2023).
Li e expec ancy a bi h is a measu e ha ends o e lec di e ences in agg ega e
wellbeing and changes in key d i e s o li ing s anda ds, such as income le els,
educa ional pa icipa ion, access o heal hca e and educa ion p o ision.31 In 2017,
li e expec ancy a bi h in No he n I eland was epo ed o be 1.6 yea s below ha
o I eland (McGuinness and Be gin, 2020) and he e we use da a om he OECD
egional da abase in Figu e 2.1 o upda e and ex end he analysis up o 2021. The e
has been a gene al upwa d end in li e expec ancy in bo h egions be ween 1999
and 2018, wi h li e expec ancy a es highe in No he n I eland ela i e o I eland
un il 2003, a e which poin li e expec ancy a es in I eland began o inc ease mo e
apidly han hose in No he n I eland. By 2019, li e expec ancy in I eland s ood a
82.8 yea s compa ed o 80.6 yea s in No he n I eland, a gap o 2.2 yea s. Be ween
2019 and 2021 li e expec ancy in bo h I eland and No he n I eland declined
sligh ly, pe haps e lec ing he impac s o he pandemic; by 2021 he li e
expec ancy gap was 2.0 yea s in a ou o I eland. Finally, we epea he analysis by
gende in Figu e 2.2, and he ends hea ily e lec hose in he p e ious cha , wi h
he a es subs an ially highe in I eland by he end o he pe iod. By 2021 he gap
in li e expec ancy was 2.1 yea s o males and 2.0 yea s o emales. Consis en wi h
he li e a u e, li e expec ancies o emales in bo h ju isdic ions we e
app oxima ely ou yea s highe han o males.
31 The o e all heal h o he popula ion will no only impac heal h- ela ed needs and spending, bu also he need o ca e
bo h wi hin and ou side he home, labou ma ke pa icipa ion and he wellbeing o he popula ion.
16 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
FIGURE 2.1 LIFE EXPECTANCY, OVERALL, FOR <1-YEAR-OLDS
Sou ce: OECD Regional Da abase.
FIGURE 2.2 LIFE EXPECTANCY, BY GENDER, FOR <1-YEAR-OLDS
Sou ce: OECD Regional Da abase.
2.5 SUMMARY
This chap e p o ides an o e iew o di e ences in li ing s anda ds be ween
I eland and No he n I eland ac oss a ange o dimensions including adi ional
economic measu es as well as b oade measu es o oppo uni y and o e all
wel a e/wellbeing. I d aws on indings om se e al compa a i e s udies including
on educa ion (Smy h e al., 2022), p oduc i i y (Be gin and McGuinness, 2022), and
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Yea s
I eland No he n I eland
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
Yea s
I eland Female No he n I eland Female I eland Male No he n I eland Male
Economic pe o mance and li ing s anda ds | 17
income inequali y (Doo ley e al., 2024), as well as upda ing some key me ics om
p e ious s udies. I is impo an o unde s and di e ences wi hin he di e en
policy con ex s ha I eland and No he n I eland ope a e. In pa icula , No he n
I eland is mo e cons ained in e ms o iscal au onomy, and mo e a ec ed by
expe ience o poli ical ins abili y and he legacy o he T oubles.
The chap e inds ha household disposable income, a eliable measu e o income
ha is no subjec o he d awbacks o o he con en ional me ics used o assess
li ing s anda ds, was 18.3 pe cen highe in I eland han No he n I eland in 2018
and his gap had widened o e ime. Access o and pa icipa ion in educa ion is a
key ac o in de e mining wage g ow h, ca ee p og ession and social p og ession
and ep esen s a key measu e o oppo uni y in each egion. The mos ecen da a
show ha ac oss all age g oups educa ion pa icipa ion a es a e highe in I eland
han in No he n I eland, and he gaps ha e inc eased o e ime o all age g oups
excep o he younges age g oup. A ange o ac o s including income, educa ion
and employmen oppo uni ies, and access o heal hca e se ices will gene ally
de e mine li e expec ancy. As such, di e ences in li e expec ancy can be in e p e ed
as a cumula i e measu e o di e ences in gene al wel a e and li ing s anda ds. The
mos ecen da a show ha li e expec ancy a bi h o males and emales in I eland
exceeded ha o No he n I eland by wo yea s. On balance, he e idence on
economic pe o mance and li ing s anda ds p esen ed shows a ying ends o e
ime be ween he wo ju isdic ions, hough in mo e ecen yea s I eland is
ou pe o ming No he n I eland in mos me ics.
18 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
CHAPTER 3
Policy con igu a ions and implica ions o li e chances
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Indi idual p og amme epo s ocus on speci ic opics, policy a eas and o en
pa icula g oups in he popula ion. The pu pose o his chap e is o syn hesise
a ailable indings om ea ly yea s o la e li e o gain a be e unde s anding o how
people’s ela i e condi ions ac oss he li e cou se a e in luenced by whe e hey li e
on he island o I eland. A li e cou se pe spec i e d aws pa icula a en ion o how
an indi idual’s expe ience a one poin in hei li e can impac la e ou comes – o
example, ea ly childhood expe iences in luence school pa hways, skills acquisi ion,
job quali y and incomes du ing he li e cou se (Maye , 2009).32 Li e cou se esea ch
highligh s how he impac o his o y and pas ins i u ions can combine o in luence
he li e ajec o ies o di e en bi h coho s o gene a ions, o example hose
bo n in he 1950s, 1970s o 1990s (Fosse and Winship, 2019). These coho s migh
expe ience a ecession o an economic g ow h pe iod di e en ly. His o y and
ins i u ions – such as he educa ion sys em, he labou ma ke , he ax and wel a e
sys ems – combine o shape indi idual li e ajec o ies (Maye , 2004). While he
ocus in his p og amme has been p ima ily on compa ing indi iduals and g oups
in socie ies as a whole, indi iduals’ own decisions will in luence hei si ua ion.
Mo eo e , pe cep ions o hei si ua ion will also in luence he decisions people
make, so i is impo an o conside popula ion a i udes o hei socie y and hei
place wi hin i , and how hese a y in di e en pe iods and o di e en bi h
coho s. A guiding heme o his chap e is li e cou se inequali ies wi hin bo h
ju isdic ions as well as be ween hem.
3.2 LEARNING SKILLS: FROM PRE-SCHOOL TO THIRD LEVEL
Ea ly yea s a e c ucial o skills de elopmen , bo h a home and in childca e and
educa ion se ings (Ca an e al., 2024). Child en’s skills a e s ongly in luenced by
hei pa en s’ skills and hei home en i onmen , bu childca e can play a ole in
compensa ing o a poo s a (Kulic e al., 2019). Bo h I eland and No he n I eland
ha e ended o lag behind Eu opean coun e pa s in ea ly yea s p o ision and
in es men . Cu is an e al. (2023) desc ibe how ecen policy changes ha e
expanded p o ision, pa icula ly in I eland. Inequali ies in cogni i e ou comes a e
ound a an ea ly age. A age 5, child en om lowe income households and hose
whose mo he s ha e lowe educa ion ha e poo e ocabula y skills (Cu is an e
al., 2023). S akeholde s highligh ed how app oaches o addi ional suppo s o
child en in p e-school se ings di e ed ac oss ju isdic ions, wi h he po en ial o
32 Ideally, esea ch using a li e cou se pe spec i e would analyse da a om he same people o e ime (longi udinal da a)
(see o example Diewald e al., 2006). Howe e , o mos o he opics analysed unde he esea ch p og amme,
compa a i e longi udinal da a a e no a ailable. We e u n o his poin in Chap e 6.
Policy conside a ions and implica ions o li e chances | 19
policy lea ning. The e was mo e emphasis on child en in disad an aged a eas in
No he n I eland ( he Su e S a scheme) and child en wi h special needs in I eland
( he AIM p og amme) (Cu is an e al., 2023), hough ecen ly in I eland policy
changes ha e expanded p o ision o child en expe iencing disad an age.33
As child en mo e in o school se ings, Smy h e al. (2022) ind ha I eland and
No he n I eland pe o m well in in e na ional compa isons o skill de elopmen a
p ima y and seconda y le els. A age 5, Cu is an e al. (2023) ind ha child en’s
li e acy and nume acy skills a e high in bo h ju isdic ions. In e es ingly, eache s’
a ings o language a e highe in I eland, while eache a ings o numbe skills a e
highe in No he n I eland. Howe e , he e a e ma ked di e ences in educa ional
a ainmen be ween he ju isdic ions, wi h a lowe p opo ion o young people in
I eland lea ing school ea ly and lowe expec a ions o eaching hi d-le el
educa ion in No he n I eland, la gely d i en by hose in non-g amma schools.34
Fu he mo e, a es o ea ly school lea ing in No he n I eland a e wice as high as
in I eland. The ac ha o e all li e acy and nume acy skills a e simila bu
educa ional a ainmen is so di e en sugges s ha he di e en educa ional
sys ems a e p oducing di e en ou comes. Smy h e al. (2022) highligh wo key
con ibu o y ac o s in his di e ence. Fi s ly, hey poin o he success o he
Deli e ing Equali y o Oppo uni y in Schools (DEIS) p og amme in suppo ing and
e aining s uden s in disad an aged a eas in I eland. Secondly, hey emphasise he
impac o academic selec ion in No he n I eland, which lea es s uden s in non-
g amma schools mo e likely o lea e school ea ly and ha e lowe expec a ions o
educa ional success as s ong con ibu o y ac o s in his di e ence.
How an educa ion sys em inco po a es mig an s uden s is some imes seen as a
‘li mus es ’ o mig an in eg a ion policy (OECD, 2023a). In mos OECD coun ies,
mig an -o igin s uden s sco e signi ican ly lowe han hei na i e pee s in e ms o
eading li e acy a age 15, hough his a ies depending on he linguis ic and socio-
economic backg ound o he mig an s and hei child en (OECD, 2019). In I eland,
McGinni y e al. (2023) ind li le di e ence in ei he academic achie emen sco es
a age 15 be ween mig an -o igin s uden s, bo h i s and second gene a ion, and
hei I ish-o igin pee s in 2018. In No he n I eland, i s gene a ion mig an -o igin
s uden s ha e lowe achie emen sco es in English eading and ma hema ics han
hei No he n I eland o igin pee s. This di e ence emains e en a e con olling
o language spoken a home and he child’s socio-economic backg ound
(McGinni y e al., 2023). Second-gene a ion mig an -o igin child en in No he n
33 h ps://www.go .ie/en/p ess- elease/035a5-equal-s a - o -child en-expe iencing-disad an age-a-majo -new-model-
o -go e nmen - unded-suppo s-is-
announced/#:~: ex =Equal%20S a %20is%20a%20 unding, hei %20 amilies%20who%20expe ience%20disad an age.
34 In No he n I eland, s anda dised es s owa ds he end o p ima y schooling a e used o de e mine en y o
academically selec i e g amma schools, wi h he emainde o he s uden popula ion a ending seconda y (non-
g amma ) schools.

20 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
I eland do no di e om hei No he n-I eland o igin pee s in e ms o
achie emen .
Bo h ju isdic ions a e simila in he o ien a ion o seconda y s uden s owa ds
highe educa ion, wi h u he educa ion pe cei ed as a ‘second bes ’ op ion,
hough he landscape o pos -school oppo uni ies di e s. Highe a es o e u n o
skills can incen i ise people o emain in educa ion. Wage e u ns o educa ion in
I eland subs an ially exceed hose in No he n I eland a all le els o a ainmen .
Added o ha , in No he n I eland a signi ican p opo ion o s uden s pu sue hi d-
le el educa ion in o he pa s o he UK and, as many o hese highly-skilled
g adua es – a ound one-qua e – ail o e u n, he e is a sys ema ic leakage o
skills away om No he n I eland (Smy h e al., 2022).35 The cap on places in
uni e si ies in No he n I eland o local s uden s has esul ed in signi ican
compe i ion o highe educa ion he e (1.7 applican s o e e y place) (Pi o al,
2021).36 This means many applican s need o mo e ou side No he n I eland o
s udy, wi h a ound a qua e going o he es o he UK o uni e si y (Smy h and
Da mody, 2023). Smy h and Da mody (2023) sugges ha he cap on places in
No he n I eland could use ully be e isi ed o enhance highe educa ion
pa icipa ion in gene al, and s uden mobili y be ween I eland and No he n
I eland.
3.3 INEQUALITIES IN WORK AND INCOME
The skills acqui ed by child en and young people in hei pa h o adul hood a e e y
impo an o labou ma ke oppo uni ies – bo h ge ing a job and he quali y o
ha job in e ms o wages and wo king condi ions.37 Hing e e al. (2024) ind low
educa ion a s ong ba ie o wo k, and ha di e ences in educa ional a ainmen
accoun o much o he a ia ion in labou ma ke pa icipa ion be ween I eland
and No he n I eland (see also Table 2.1).
The gende ed na u e o ca e and i s consequences o access o employmen ,
especially high-quali y jobs, emains a common ea u e o bo h se ings. In 2022,
women’s labou o ce pa icipa ion s ood a 76 pe cen in I eland and 72 pe cen
in No he n I eland, compa ed o men’s labou o ce pa icipa ion o 88 pe cen in
I eland and 81 pe cen in No he n I eland. This con empo a y pic u e o women
s ands in con as o his o ical ends, whe eby emale labou ma ke pa icipa ion
35 The impac o his ou low is compounded by he low le el o in low om he es o he UK, o indeed I eland, o ake
up uni e si y places in No he n I eland (Smy h and Da mody, 2023).
36 This cap o local s uden s in No he n I eland, including hose om I eland, is de i ed using he Maximum Agg ega e
S uden Numbe (MASN) o mula.
37 This is no o downplay he impo ance o engagemen in educa ion and aining as an adul (see Bloss eld e al., 2019),
hough mos educa ion is acqui ed in he ini ial educa ion sys em and esea ch has shown ha pa icipa ion in li elong
lea ning ends o be highe among hose who al eady ha e highe le els o educa ional a ainmen ( o an o e iew,
see Weiss, 2019).
Policy conside a ions and implica ions o li e chances | 21
was highe in No he n I eland han I eland in he 1970s, 1980s and 1990s
(O’Conno and Sho all, 1999).
Women wi h child en a e less likely o be in paid employmen – no jus mo he s
o p e-school child en bu also mo he s o olde child en. The na u e o
pa icipa ion also di e s be ween men and women, wi h highe a es o pa - ime
wo k among women in bo h ju isdic ions, ei he h ough choice o cons ain .
Cu is an e al. (2023) link mo e pa - ime pa icipa ion o lowe p o ision o o mal
childca e in No he n I eland (see abo e). Lone mo he s also ha e lowe
pa icipa ion a es han pa ne ed mo he s, pa icula ly in No he n I eland, e en
hough labou ma ke ac i a ion in he wel a e sys em is s onge in No he n
I eland (Hing e e al., 2024).38
Hing e e al. (2024) show how pa icipa ion in he labou ma ke d ops among olde
wo king-age adul s in bo h ju isdic ions. This is also ound in e na ionally, and may
be o a combina ion o easons, including declining heal h, ca ing esponsibili ies,
income and pension en i lemen s (P i alko e al., 2019). The d op in pa icipa ion
s a s a ound age 50 and is pa icula ly sha p in No he n I eland; o hose aged
be ween 60-64 in No he n I eland, pa icipa ion is less han 50 pe cen . De lin e
al. (2023a) in es iga e why such a high p opo ion o 50–64-yea -old adul s a e
economically inac i e because o an illness/disabili y in No he n I eland.
Compa isons o I eland and No he n I eland poin o a lowe li e expec ancy (see
Chap e 2) and highe p e alence o ch onic heal h condi ions such as hea disease
and diabe es in No he n I eland, which may explain pa o he di e ence in
pa icipa ion o olde age g oups ac oss ju isdic ions. No he n I eland has a
pa icula ly high incidence o men al illness, and suicide a es a e he highes in he
UK (O’Neill e al., 2019). A se ies o s udies has ound high le els o Pos T auma ic
S ess Diso de (PTSD) among he popula ion o No he n I eland, which is
associa ed wi h o he men al heal h p oblems and may make hem pa icula ly
ha d o ea (Fe y e al., 2008). De lin e al. (2023a) ind disabili y a es in
No he n I eland end o be highe in dep i ed a eas, pa icula ly hose mos
a ec ed by he T oubles. A body o wo k now a gues ha men al ill-heal h is a
majo d i e o wo klessness and ela ed po e y in No he n I eland, a po en ial
legacy o he p o ac ed iolen con lic (Tomlinson, 2013; O’Conno and O’Neill,
2015; NESC, 2022; De lin e al., 2023a).
Fo hose who a e a wo k, he quali y o ha job ma e s o bo h income and
wellbeing. Wha cons i u es a decen job is deba ed (Bu chell e al., 2014), hough
along wi h employmen secu i y and he quali y o he wo king en i onmen ,
38 Hing e e al., 2024, show he p opo ion o wo king-age adul s who a e li ing in lone pa en households (wi h child en
o any age) in 2022 is sligh ly highe in No he n I eland han I eland. Tha said, hese models con ol o di e ences in
household composi ion ac oss ju isdic ions.
22 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
wages a e a key indica o (Cazes e al., 2016). Hou ly and weekly wages a e much
highe in I eland han No he n I eland o e all (see Be gin e al., 2025). Howe e ,
ocusing on low wage wo k can be ins uc i e o assess income adequacy and signal
poo quali y wo k. Hing e e al. (2024) compa e a es o low pay among men and
women in he wo ju isdic ions. In I eland, low pay e e s o he p opo ion o
employees ea ning less han wo- hi ds o he median hou ly pay; in No he n
I eland, i e e s o hose ea ning less han wo- hi ds o he Uni ed Kingdom
median ea nings (Depa men o he Economy, 2023).39 Women a e mo e likely
han men o be in low-paid jobs bo h No h and Sou h. Using hese de ini ions, he
p opo ion o employees who a e low paid in No he n I eland is ac ually lowe
han he p opo ion who a e low paid in I eland, linked o highe wage inequali y
in I eland (Doo ley e al., 2024). Highe educa ion o e s s ong p o ec ion om low
pay in bo h ju isdic ions (Hing e e al., 2024), ei e a ing he s ong link be ween
educa ion, skills and job quali y.
Wages also ha e a s ong impac on o e all household income. Linked o highe
wages and p oduc i i y, household incomes a e highe in I eland han No he n
I eland (see Table 2.1 in Chap e 2). Ye how income is dis ibu ed is also impo an
o li ing s anda ds. Doo ley e al. (2024) ind, using 2019 income da a, ha ma ke
income inequali y ( ha is be o e axes and ans e s) is lowe in No he n I eland.
The younge and mo e highly educa ed popula ion educes inequali y in I eland.
Howe e , his is mo e han o se by g ea e wage di e ences be ween high- and
low-educa ed wo ke s, and highe wages and wage inequali y o e all (ibid.). While
bo h sys ems adop simila wel a e models, wi h a hea y emphasis on means-
es ing, hey di e in design. The I ish ax sys em is mo e p og essi e in e ms o
edis ibu ing income han in No he n I eland. Howe e , he le el and co e age o
means- es ed bene i s in I eland a e lowe han ha in No he n I eland. The e o e,
he I ish means- es ed bene i sys em educes inequali y less han he No he n
I ish means- es ed bene i sys em. The highe le el o bene i ecipien s in
No he n I eland is ela ed o highe le els o inac i i y he e, including long- e m
illness and disabili y- ela ed inac i i y, discussed abo e (De lin e al., 2023a;
Tomlinson, 2013). The esul is ha inequali y in disposable income, ha is pos -
ax and ans e s, is e y simila be ween ju isdic ions.40
In bo h I eland and ac oss he UK, child en ha e had he highes income po e y
a es o all he age g oups o e he pas decade (Russell e al., 2025). Childhood
po e y is a clea illus a ion o how expe iences in one li e domain can spill in o
ano he : childhood po e y leads o poo e ou comes in cogni i e and educa ional
39 Fo I eland he low pay h eshold in 2022 was €14.13; In No he n I eland he h eshold was £9, based on he UK
median hou ly wage (£13.50 pe hou ).
40 Inequali y as measu ed by he Gini coe icien using ha monised mic osimula ion models is sligh ly highe in I eland
(0.28) han in No he n I eland (0.26), hough his di e ence is small and no s a is ically signi ican (Doo ley e al.,
2024).
Policy conside a ions and implica ions o li e chances | 23
a ainmen , socio-emo ional de elopmen , and heal h in childhood (Maî e e al.,
2021). I also illus a es how ea ly li e e en s can in luence la e li e ajec o ies, as
childhood po e y is associa ed wi h unemploymen and highe po e y in
adul hood (Cu is an e al., 2022). Russell e al. (2025) show how since 2009, child
po e y a es ha e been highe in No he n I eland han I eland, and he gap is
widening, as child po e y a es ise in No he n I eland and all in I eland. The
sha p ise in child po e y h oughou he UK, including No he n I eland, has been
pa ly as a esul o child- ela ed bene i cu s (Ande sen e al., 2024). The wo-child
limi o child bene i ( o child en bo n a e 2017) has had a pa icula ly ma ked
e ec in No he n I eland, gi en la ge a e age amily sizes he e han in he UK as
a whole, and child po e y is pa icula ly high in 2023 o child en om la ge
amilies (Russell e al., 2025).41 By con as , using a scale ha measu es he
en o ced lack o i e key i ems o household expendi u e, Russell e al. (2025)
ound consis en ly highe le els o child ma e ial dep i a ion in I eland om 2010
onwa ds. This end con inued un il 2022/2023, when ma e ial dep i a ion in bo h
I eland and No he n I eland eached app oxima ely 24 pe cen , wi h No he n
I eland expe iencing a ecen sha p inc ease.42 Highe p ices mean e en i hey a e
no income poo , amilies canno a o d essen ial i ems. Compa a i e analysis o
a e age dep i a ion ac oss income quin iles om bo h su eys indica es ha
amilies in I eland s uggle mo e o ansla e hei income in o a sa is ac o y
s anda d o li ing han amilies in simila income posi ions in No he n I eland,
p ima ily due o he highe cos o li ing in I eland. In I eland, a es o child ma e ial
dep i a ion ose and ell ollowing he cycle o boom, ecession and eco e y
(Roan ee e al., 2024). The luc ua ion o e ime in bo h child po e y (No he n
I eland) and child ma e ial dep i a ion (I eland) unde sco es he impo ance o
‘pe iod e ec s’ desc ibed abo e; in pa icula , how some pe iods can a ec some
g oups/li e s ages, and indeed some ju isdic ions mo e. The speci ic ‘pe iod’ may
in luence compa isons o , o example, child po e y and ma e ial dep i a ion
be ween No h and Sou h a any one poin in ime.
3.3 HEALTH AND HOUSING ACROSS THE LIFE COURSE
While heal hca e p o ision is ele an o all age g oups, i may be pa icula ly
impo an o olde coho s, as heal h isks ise wi h inc easing age. Connolly e al.
(2022) analysed he p ima y heal hca e sys ems o I eland and No he n I eland. A
key dis inc ion be ween he wo sys ems is ha in No he n I eland, esiden s a e
en i led o a wide ange o heal h and social ca e se ices ha a e ee a he poin
o use, while in I eland, a majo i y o he popula ion pay ou o pocke o a ange
o basic heal hca e se ices. This is also e lec ed in use o p i a e heal h insu ance
in he wo ju isdic ions, wi h 18 pe cen up ake in No he n I eland compa ed o
41 Wel a e mi iga ion package in No he n I eland means bene i cap has no been applied (see Chap e 2).
42 The i e i ems a e hose common o he Family Resou ces Su ey (NI) and he Su ey o Income and Li ing Condi ions
(SILC) a e: being in a ea s on bills; inabili y o keep he home adequa ely wa m; inabili y o a o d a holiday away om
home in he las 12 mon hs; canno a o d o eplace wo n ou u ni u e; no money o spend on sel . The o icial I ish
measu e o dep i a ion is based on en o ced lack o 11 i ems (see Russell e al., 2025, o u he discussion).
30 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
how policy in e en ions a emp o ackle inequali ies in e ms o socio-economic
backg ound, gende and o he ac o s.
4.2 SKILLS, QUALIFICATIONS, EMPLOYMENT AND PRODUCTIVITY
A numbe o s udies unde he p og amme ha e p o ided impo an insigh s in o
he ela ionship be ween skills, educa ional quali ica ions, employmen quali y and
p oduc i i y le els in bo h ju isdic ions. Li e acy and nume acy skill le els wi hin
p ima y and seconda y educa ion a e ound o be on a pa in I eland and
No he n I eland (Smy h e al., 2022). The s iking di e ence lies in how hese
skills a e ecognised h ough quali ica ions, wi h much highe a es o ea ly
school lea ing e iden in No he n I eland. The s udy adds o he body o esea ch
ha shows he way in which academic selec ion in No he n I eland leads o
unde pe o mance and wi hd awal om educa ion among wo king-class young
people (B own e al., 2021; Gallaghe and Smi h, 2000). Be ween-ju isdic ion
di e ences a e e iden oo in pos -school skill o ma ion, wi h a mo e de eloped
u he educa ion and aining (FET) sec o leading o pos -seconda y
quali ica ions in I eland, sugges ing he po en ial o de elop FET as a ou e o
highe -le el quali ica ions in No he n I eland.
Rela i ely high a es o ea ly school lea ing in No he n I eland ha e consequences
o employmen quali y and o e all p oduc i i y, wi h a la ge gap in p oduc i i y
eme ging be ween I eland and No he n I eland since 2001 (Be gin and
McGuinness, 2021). By 2020, p oduc i i y pe wo ke was app oxima ely 40 pe
cen highe in I eland compa ed o No he n I eland, linked o bo h highe
in es men and highe skills and educa ion le els. F om a policy pe spec i e, his
s eng hens he a gumen o imp o e quali ica ion le els in No he n I eland.
Howe e , he esea ch indica es ha imp o ing skills alone would be insu icien ,
gi en he scale o he p oduc i i y gap. The e o e, any measu es o imp o e skills
and quali ica ions mus also be suppo ed by e o s o p omo e FDI in es men
and s a egies aimed a imp o ing compe i i eness a he i m le el.55 Access o a
pool o highly educa ed wo ke s also in luences he le el and na u e o o eign
di ec in es men and ela ed job c ea ion (Siedschlag e al., 2021).
The apid expansion o educa ional pa icipa ion in I eland since he 1990s coupled
wi h an emphasis on a ac ing highe quali y jobs has shown he way in which
educa ional in es men can help o le e inc eased p oduc i i y and highe li ing
s anda ds (Be gin and McGuinness, 2022). Budge a y cons ain s in No he n
I eland ha e limi ed he scale o educa ional in es men , wi h lowe pe s uden
unding han in he es o he UK (Sibie a, 2021). The cap on uni e si y places ac s
55 On he basis o a ailable esea ch, i is no possible o speci y de ailed measu es needed. Fu he esea ch is needed
gi en ha analysis o he usual d i e s o p oduc i i y does no explain he lowe p oduc i i y le els in No he n I eland.

Implica ions o policy | 31
as an incen i e o young people o lea e No he n I eland o uni e si y, wi h many
no e u ning subsequen ly. I is no jus an issue o esou ces, as ins i u ional
di e en ia ion a seconda y le el appea s o limi e u ns on exis ing in es men by
dampening he expec a ions o young people no selec ed o g amma schools
(Smy h e al., 2022). The p ocess has longe e m implica ions oo, by leading o
highe le els o in e gene a ional educa ional inequali y in No he n I eland (De lin
e al., 2023b).
To da e, he p og amme has no add essed li elong lea ning and skill upg ading
among he adul popula ion, a opic ha would me i u u e esea ch. Exis ing
s udies do, howe e , show ha bo h ju isdic ions ace challenges ega ding
wo k o ce de elopmen in a numbe o sec o s, especially ea ly childhood ca e and
educa ion, heal h and housing (Cu is an e al., 2023; Connolly e al., 2022; Disch
e al., 2024). These challenges ha e been iden i ied as ba ie s o inc easing
housing supply, de eloping ea ly ca e and educa ion, and mee ing heal hca e
needs in bo h ju isdic ions. The po en ial o u he c oss-bo de coope a ion in
ela ion o hese and o he key s a egic p io i ies will be discussed u he in
Chap e 5.
4.3 TACKLING INEQUALITY
Resea ch unde he p og amme has shown he way in which ins i u ional sys ems
in I eland and No he n I eland ein o ce o coun e b oade inequali ies. O e all
income le els a e highe in I eland han in No he n I eland, bu le els o income
inequali y a e highe oo (Be gin and McGuinness, 2021; 2022; Doo ley e al.,
2024). In bo h ju isdic ions, he ax and wel a e sys ems in e ac in complex ways
o shape le els o income inequali y o e all and o pa icula g oups o he
popula ion (Doo ley e al., 2024). In bo h I eland and No he n I eland, po e y
a es among child en a e highe han o o he age g oups (Russell e al., 2025).
Income po e y a es a e highe in No he n I eland han I eland in 2022-2023 o
he popula ion as a whole and o child en, a si ua ion ha has pe sis ed since
2009/2010 (Russell e al., 2025; see also Be gin and McGuinness, 2021). Howe e ,
he pic u e is mo e complex han his sugges s, wi h highe a es o ma e ial
dep i a ion in I eland han in No he n I eland. These highe dep i a ion le els
appea o e lec a ela i ely educed abili y o con e income in o an adequa e
s anda d o li ing due o a highe cos o li ing in I eland.
4.3.1 Socio-economic inequali ies
The esea ch indings highligh he way in which socio-economic ci cums ances a e
associa ed wi h poo e educa ion, heal h and housing ou comes in bo h
ju isdic ions. Howe e , he scale and na u e o such inequali y is ound o di e .
32 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
The e is a consis en body o e idence in e na ionally highligh ing he impo ance
o ea ly in e en ion in educing educa ional (and o he o ms o ) inequali y (Ca an
e al., 2024; Heckman, 2006). I eland and No he n I eland ha e a his o ical legacy
o unde de eloped and expensi e ea ly yea s p o ision, al hough he e has been
a apid expansion o p o ision and suppo s o amilies in ecen yea s in I eland
(Cu is an e al., 2023). The e is conside able po en ial o policy lea ning om
hese ecen de elopmen s as No he n I eland emba ks on an expansion o ea ly
yea s p o ision. The Su e S a p og amme in No he n I eland p o ides a use ul
example o w ap-a ound suppo s o add ess he holis ic needs o child en li ing in
disad an aged communi ies. Un il ecen ly, ea ly yea s p o ision in I eland has had
an income- ela ed componen in subsidies o pa en s bu did no ake accoun o
a ea-based dep i a ion in he alloca ion o esou ces o p o ide s. The newly
launched Equal S a p og amme56 in I eland d aws on he example o Su e S a
and o he in e en ions in e na ionally o p o ide addi ional esou ces and
suppo s o se ings in communi ies wi h a high le el o disad an age.
In seconda y educa ion, inequali y in No he n I eland is gene ally mani es in
quali ica ion le els bu , in I eland, g ades a he end o uppe seconda y le el a e
e en mo e di e en ia ed by social backg ound (Smy h e al., 2022). These
pa e ns a e consis en wi h in e na ional esea ch which shows he way in which
middle-class amilies seek o secu e ad an age o hei child en ia di e en
s a egies depending on exis ing ins i u ional s uc u es (Lucas, 2001; Doecke,
2023). I is wo h bea ing in mind, he e o e, ha emo ing educa ional
di e en ia ion in No he n I eland may no be a su icien condi ion o b inging
abou educa ional equali y in he absence o o he measu es o ackle
disad an age.57
The wo sys ems di e in how hey add ess educa ional disad an age, especially in
whe he esou ces a e a ge ed on he basis o he p o ile o he s uden o he
school. The Deli e ing Equali y o Oppo uni y in Schools (DEIS) p og amme in
I eland a ge s addi ional esou ces and suppo s owa ds schools se ing
disad an aged communi ies and equi es hese schools o se and epo on a ge s
o s uden s. I has been widely p aised as a model (OECD, 2024). Howe e , he e
a e also some disad an ages wi h his model, wi h disad an aged s uden s
a ending non-DEIS schools ecei ing no suppo s by i ue o hei disad an age.
In No he n I eland, esou ces ollow he s uden wi h addi ional paymen s
( h ough a pupil p emium) made o all schools ha ha e s uden s om
disad an aged backg ounds. This model has been c i icised o no being
56 h ps://www.go .ie/en/p ess- elease/b9219-minis e -announces-de ails-o -addi ional- unding- o-ensu e-child en-
expe iencing-disad an age-can-access-ea ly-lea ning/.
57 Ve y ecen ly, he RAISE p og amme is being pilo ed in 15 locali ies based on he iden i ica ion and a ge ing o a eas
a he han on he p o ile o schools. The a eas we e selec ed on he basis o mul iple indica o s o disad an age as well
as educa ion indica o s, including a endance, p e alence o special educa ion needs and GCSE a ainmen .
h ps://www.educa ion-ni.go .uk/a icles/ aise-p og amme.
Implica ions o policy | 33
su icien ly speci ic abou wha he addi ional unding is in ended o (NI Audi
O ice, 2021). The e appea s o be a s ong basis o policy lea ning in bo h
di ec ions – in a ge ing esou ces whe e disad an age is highly concen a ed in
ce ain schools and linking his o speci ic equi emen s, bu also p o iding some
suppo s o disad an aged s uden s in mo e socially mixed schools.
In e na ional esea ch has indica ed ha heal h s a us and u ilisa ion o heal hca e
se ices a y signi ican ly by socio-economic backg ound (Cu ie, 2024; Ma mo ,
2005). A ailable in o ma ion does no allow o a de ailed compa ison o socio-
economic inequali ies in heal h ou comes in I eland and No he n I eland.
Howe e , esea ch indings sugges ha inancial ba ie s o accessing ca e play a
s onge ole in I eland han in No he n I eland (Connolly e al., 2022). Despi e
signi ican ins i u ional di e ences be ween he sys ems, hey bo h ha e long (and
g owing) wai ing lis s o seconda y ca e se ices (ou -pa ien s, day- and
in-pa ien s), highligh ing he impo ance o a g ea e emphasis on se ice deli e y
and wo k o ce de elopmen in bo h se ings.
Housing is an impo an domain in luencing quali y o li e. Housing enu e and
quali y a y by socio-economic backg ound (Lau ence e al., 2023a). Resea ch
unde he p og amme indica es ha bo h sys ems need g ea e in es men in
social o a o dable housing o add ess he needs o hose who canno a o d
housing on he p i a e ma ke , wi h labou sho ages in he cons uc ion sec o
ope a ing as a cons ain on he expansion o housing supply (Disch e al., 2024).
4.3.2 Gende and o he inequali ies
In in e na ional esea ch, I eland and he UK a e o en cha ac e ised as ha ing
simila i ies in he se o policies ha in luence gende equali y in he labou ma ke
(see, o example, Ligh man, 2019). Howe e , a mo e de ailed nea -neighbou
compa ison conduc ed unde he esea ch p og amme highligh s impo an
di e ences as well as commonali ies be ween he wo ju isdic ions (Hing e e al.,
2024). The gende ed na u e o ca e and i s impac on employmen access is a
common ea u e o bo h se ings, highligh ing he impo ance o (con inued)
expansion o mo e a o dable ea ly yea s p o ision and a e -school ca e.
Simila ly, lone pa en s ace pa icula challenges in accessing (high-quali y)
employmen , wi h e en lowe pa icipa ion in No he n I eland despi e a g ea e
emphasis on labou ma ke ac i a ion. This pa e n ein o ces he case o subsidies
o ea ly yea s p o ision as well as app op ia e educa ion and aining
oppo uni ies o acili a e access o well-paid employmen .
The esea ch has also highligh ed o he aspec s o social di e en ia ion, including
disabili y and mig an s a us. Disabili y has no been explo ed in de ail o da e
unde he esea ch p og amme and would me i u u e esea ch. Howe e ,
34 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
exis ing esea ch poin s o he way in which poo heal h s a us can lead o ea lie
wi hd awal om he labou ma ke in No he n I eland o women and men
(Hing e e al., 2024), highligh ing he in e ela ionship o di e en dimensions o
inequali y.
Bo h ju isdic ions ha e expe ienced signi ican inwa d mig a ion in ecen decades,
wi h a much highe p opo ion o wo king-age adul s in I eland bo n ab oad
compa ed o No he n I eland (McGinni y e al., 2023). The s udy indings poin o
challenges o in eg a ion in bo h se ings, wi h some mig an g oups mo e likely
o be ou o wo k and less likely o wo k in p o essional o manage ial jobs han
migh be expec ed gi en hei high quali ica ion le els. The esul s sugges he
need o inc eased suppo s o language lea ning and imp o ed quali ica ion
ecogni ion among employe s in bo h ju isdic ions. I is no possible on he basis
o a ailable da a o iden i y he ex en o which disc imina ion and nega i e
a i udes owa ds mig an s play a ole in hese ou comes. Howe e , esea ch unde
he p og amme has shed impo an ligh on a i udinal pa e ns in I eland and
No he n I eland.
Inequali y in di e en ou comes can be p oduced and ep oduced no only ia
ins i u ional s uc u es bu also h ough mic o-le el in e ac ions ha shape he
po en ial aul -lines in socie y. P og amme esea ch poin s o he dynamic na u e
o us in ins i u ions and in o he people, as well as in pe cep ions o democ acy
and in people eeling hey ha e a say in poli ical issues (poli ical e icacy), wi h
a i udes esponsi e o economic c isis (Lau ence e al., 2023b; McGinni y e al.,
2023). A i udes a e also esponsi e o poli ical ins abili y, wi h he pe iods in
which he Execu i e was no in place impac ing on he people’s belie in he
powe o poli ics o imp o e hei si ua ion as well as nega i ely in luencing he
pace o policy change. The e a e challenges a ound low le els o poli ical e icacy
in bo h ju isdic ions, albei wi h e en lowe le els in No he n I eland han in
I eland.
In bo h se ings, he e is a g owing gap in social and ins i u ional us by
educa ional le el and by gene a ion, wi h much less buy-in among younge
people and hose wi h lowe quali ica ions. The esea ch indings also show ha
impo an le e s o social cohesion such as eeling hea d in poli ics and in e -g oup
mixing ha e posi i e spillo e e ec s on a i udes o mig an s (McGinni y e al.,
2023). Despi e di e ences in poli ical ins i u ions, he e appea o be common
challenges in I eland and No he n I eland a ound os e ing a sha ed sense o
social cohesion, wi h he po en ial o g ea e agmen a ion e idenced by ecen
io s in Dublin and Bel as , os ensibly uelled by an i-mig an sen imen s.
Fu he mo e, i is wo h no ing ha one o he majo aul -lines in No he n I eland,
ha o cul u al o na ional iden i y, is gene ally no well cap u ed in exis ing
Implica ions o policy | 35
la ge-scale compa a i e su eys,58 in luencing wha is possible unde he join
esea ch p og amme. While, in one way, his ep esen s a lacuna, i may ha e
hidden ad an ages in u ning he lens on o commonali ies in he expe ience o
socio-economic disad an age ac oss communi ies.
This chap e has used he lens o policy lea ning o look a common policy
challenges acing I eland and No he n I eland. Socio-economic and gende
inequali ies a e e iden in bo h ju isdic ions bu can ake di e en o ms,
depending on he ins i u ional s uc u es. The discussion highligh s he po en ial
o he wo sys ems o lea n om each o he in how bes o ackle educa ional
disad an age, o example, and indeed he e is ecen e idence o such lea ning in
he o m o he Equal S a p og amme in I eland and he RAISE p og amme in
No he n I eland. The po en ial o g ea e policy lea ning and some o he
po en ial ba ie s a e discussed in g ea e de ail in Chap e 5.
58 The e is, howe e , a ich body o esea ch which looks a a i udes, belie s and ou comes on he basis o cul u al,
eligious and/o na ional iden i y (see, o example, Gillespie e al., 2024; Shu lewo h e al., 2021).

36 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
CHAPTER 5
The na u e and ex en o No h-Sou h coope a ion on he island o
I eland
In his chap e we e iew he ex en and na u e o c oss-bo de coope a ion on he
island o I eland. We e iew he e idence on he e ec i eness o he c oss-bo de
ins i u ions se up unde he 1998 Good F iday Ag eemen (GFA) and he ex en
and na u e o collabo a ions in he speci ic policy a eas designa ed o c oss-bo de
bo de coope a ion unde he GFA.
5.1 THE WORKINGS OF THE CROSS-BORDER INSTITUTIONS
In examining he ex en o No h-Sou h coope a ion in I eland, i is use ul o begin
by assessing he pe o mance o poli ical ins i u ions and bodies ha deli e c oss-
bo de o all-island coope a ion and he ex en o which hese ha e os e ed
coope a ion in key a eas ele an o he li e cycle, such as educa ion, heal h,
in as uc u e de elopmen and economic de elopmen . In e ms o ins i u ions,
he No h Sou h Minis e ial Council (NSMC)59 is he o e a ching poli ical ins i u ion
wi h esponsibili y o de eloping c oss-bo de coope a ion, b inging oge he
Minis e s ac oss he wo Adminis a ions on he island. The NSMC was es ablished
unde he 1998 Good F iday Ag eemen wi h a emi o de elop consul a ion,
coo dina ion and ac ion ac oss he island o I eland. The NSMC has 12 a eas o
esponsibili y, and o six o hese a eas he e a e common policies ag eed a he
NSMC which a e hen implemen ed sepa a ely in each ju isdic ion; hese a e: (1)
Educa ion (2) Heal h (3) En i onmen (4) Tou ism (5) T anspo and (6) Ag icul u e.
In addi ion, he e a e six No h-Sou h Implemen a ion Bodies ha ope a e on an
all-island basis, unde he o e all di ec ion se by he NSMC, and a e accoun able
o he Council as well as o he Houses o he Oi each as and he No he n I eland
Assembly. These a e (1) Wa e ways I eland (2) In e T ade I eland (3) Sa eFood (4)
Special Eu opean Union P og ammes Body (5) The Language Body and (6) Foyle,
Ca ling o d and I ish Ligh s Agency. The NSMC can mee in ei he a Plena y o
Sec o al o ma , wi h Sec o al mee ings being he mo e equen . The Sec o al
mee ings deal wi h speci ic a eas o coope a ion and in ol e he Minis e s wi h
a ea esponsibili y om I eland, wo om No he n I eland including he minis e
wi h esponsibili y o he sec o and an accompanying Execu i e Minis e o
ano he designa ion in he Assembly.
The NSMC is dependen on de ol ed powe -sha ing ins i u ions being in place in
No he n I eland and he Council did no mee du ing pe iods when he No he n
I eland Execu i e was no ope a ional. While exis ing coope a ion and he wo k o
59 h ps://www.no hsou hminis e ialcouncil.o g/.
The na u e and ex en o No h-Sou h coope a ion on he island o I eland | 37
he six No h-Sou h Implemen a ion bodies con inues, he de elopmen o c oss-
bo de coope a ion a he poli ical le el ac oss he key a eas has been highly
cons ained by Assembly suspensions. Since he i s mee ing o S o mon on
Decembe 2, 1999, he No he n I eland poli ical ins i u ions ha e no been in place
on a numbe o occasions o sus ained pe iods; by Feb ua y 2022 S o mon had
been wi hou a unc ioning go e nmen o 35 pe cen o i s li e-span.60
In addi ion o he ins i u ional amewo k o coope a ion h ough he Good F iday
Ag eemen he e is a wide a ay o o he coope a ion ha akes place be ween he
wo Adminis a ions, in line wi h he p inciples o No h-Sou h coope a ion laid
down in he Good F iday Ag eemen . These include in he a eas o ene gy;
elecommunica ions and b oadcas ing; jus ice and secu i y; highe and u he
educa ion; a s, cul u e and spo ; and inland ishe ies. The e is also ex ensi e
c oss-bo de coope a ion a local au ho i y le els pa icula ly in bo de egions,
and by ci il socie y o ganisa ions. The e a e, in addi ion, a numbe o EU ini ia i es
ha ha e unded p ojec s ha a e designed o s eng hen peace, econcilia ion and
c oss-bo de coope a ion be ween I eland and No he n I eland. The la es
i e a ion o his unding s eam is he PEACE PLUS p og amme, which combines he
p e ious INTERREG and PEACE unding s ands in o a single p og amme o he
2021-2027 pe iod. These unding s eams ocus on building c oss-bo de
coope a ion h ough he unding o c oss-bo de p ojec s, many o which a e
adminis e ed by o ganisa ions in he olun a y and p i a e sec o s and, while
impo an , end no o ha e majo impac s on he na u e o policy o p o ision
ac oss key s uc u al a eas. Lagana (2017) concludes ha he highly cen alised
na u e o bo h he UK and I ish adminis a i e sys ems coupled wi h he poli ical
conno a ions o c oss-bo de ini ia i es es ic ed he genuine pa icipa ion o
some ac o s and in e es g oups in ea lie EU unded ini ia i es. Howe e , Lagana
(2017) also ound ha he c ea ion o bodies such as he NSMC and Special EU
P og ammes Body (SEUPB), had posi i e impac s on la e EU c oss-bo de
p og ammes such as INTERREG III. Ne e heless, he o al scale o impac s o
Eu opean unding s eams on c oss-bo de coope a ion is di icul o assess.
Pollak (2019), who is a o me di ec o o he Cen e o C oss Bo de S udies,
a gues ha No h-Sou h coope a ion had become la gely in isible o e ime and
ha ou ism was he sole No h-Sou h a ea ha could be conside ed a clea
success s o y. Tou ism I eland, which ma ke s ou ism on an all-island basis, is seen
as a p ime example o success ul c oss-bo de coope a ion. O e seas ou ism was
wo h app oxima ely €6 billion o he island economy in 2023 (Tou ism I eland).61
On he o he hand, Pollak a gues ha i is di icul o see e idence o majo p og ess
in o he a eas – namely educa ion, heal h, ag icul u e o ene gy – whe e he
60 h ps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-no he n-i eland-60249249.
61 h ps://www. ou ismi eland.com/news-and-p ess- eleases/p ess- eleases/a icle/ ou ism-i eland-commen s-on-
o e seas- ou ism- igu es- o -janua y-sep embe -2024.
38 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
bene i s o po en ial economies o scale and mu ual lea ning a e subs an ial. Pollak
(2019) e iews p og ess on c oss-bo de coope a ion in each o hese a eas. Wi h
espec o ag icul u e, while he e was a high le el o coope a ion o con ain he
sp ead o oo and mou h disease in 2001, he e has been li le subsequen
p og ess on an all-island animal heal h policy o join ma ke ing campaigns unde
an I ish expo b and.
In he a ea o heal h, he Coope a ion and Wo king Toge he (CAWT), which is a
pa ne ship o heal h boa ds and us s se up in 1992 o se e he en i e bo de
egion be ween Dundalk and De y, is an example o success ul good p ac ice.
Unde he CAWT o e 50,000 people ha e bene i ed om c oss-bo de se ice
p o ision in he a eas such as ENT, adiog aphy and paedia ic heal h su ge y.
Howe e , he e has been a clea ailu e o ex end such coope a ion beyond he
bo de egions (Pollak, 2019). Wi h espec o educa ion, Pollak (2019) asse s ha
in he 25 yea s since he signing o he Good F iday Ag eemen , his la gely
amoun ed o housands o indi idual p ojec s unded by he EU and o he bodies;
howe e he e was a lack o any s uc u ed coo dina ion be ween he educa ion
depa men s in bo h ju isdic ions. Finally, Pollak (2019) no es ha he e ha e been
subs an ial de elopmen s in he a ea o ene gy, despi e his no being one o he
designa ed a eas o coope a ion unde he NSMC, wi h comme cial conside a ions
ac ing as a majo d i e o coope a i e beha iou . Examples o coope a ion in he
a ea o ene gy include he ex ension o he gas ne wo k om I eland o No he n
I eland in 2005 and he es ablishmen o an all-island elec ici y ma ke in 2007 and
an all-island elec ici y g id in 2008. The e a e also many examples o success ul
c oss-bo de ini ia i es, ac oss a ange o a eas, such as he olun a y sec o (see
he Jou nal o C oss Bo de S udies).
5.2 CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN HEALTH
While Pollak (2019) p o ides an impo an o e iew o he e olu ion and
e ec i eness o No h-Sou h coope a ion, o he s udies ha e p o ided mo e
de ailed insigh s in o he na u e o coope a ion in he a eas o bo h heal h and
educa ion. McQuillan and Sa gen (2011),62 in a e iew o exis ing se ices,
iden i ied a se ies o a eas o po en ial collabo a ion which included ENT su ge y,
paedia ic ca diac su ge y and acu e men al heal h ca e. Heenan (2021) examines
he na u e o c oss-bo de coope a ion in heal h using he esponse o he
COVID-19 pandemic as a case s udy. Consis en wi h Pollak (2019), Heenan (2021)
poin s ou ha despi e subs an ial po en ial gains om a mo e joined-up app oach
o heal hca e deli e y, he e has been li le in he way o any sys ema ic e o s o
de elop an all-island deli e y app oach, wi h any ad ances o da e mos ly p ojec
speci ic. This is despi e he ac ha bo h sys ems ace many common challenges
including ageing popula ions, e ol ing heal hca e needs and wo k o ce planning
62 h ps://www.c ossbo de .ie/pubs/2011-c oss-bo de -heal h.pd .
The na u e and ex en o No h-Sou h coope a ion on he island o I eland | 39
challenges. Bo h also ha e poo e heal h ou comes when compa ed o o he
Eu opean coun ies, c ea ing e en s onge g ounds o enhanced coope a ion.
Speci ic p ojec -based examples o collabo a ion include (1) he p o ision o
paedia ic ca diology se ices based a Ou Lady’s Child en’s Hospi al C umlin, (2)
he No h Wes Cance Cen e, (3) C oss-bo de pe cu aneous co ona y
in e en ion se ices based in he Al nagel in Hospi al and (4) he Human Dono
B eas Milk Bank. The e a e also some long-s anding c oss-bo de heal h ini ia i es
ha p eda e he Good F iday Ag eemen , such as he Coope a ion and Wo king
Toge he (CAWT) pa ne ship, ha goes back o 1992 which, as no ed, acili a es
c oss-bo de collabo a ion in Heal h and Social Ca e. CAWT’s s a ed objec i e is o:
add alue o heal h and social ca e ac i i y by b inging a c oss-bo de
dimension o he ongoing collabo a ion be ween he heal h sys ems in
bo h ju isdic ions, and accessing EU unding in suppo o such
ac i i ies whe e app op ia e.63
CAWT ini ia i es appea o be mos ly p ojec based.
Ne e heless, despi e some good examples o collabo a ion, he di e gen
app oach o he COVID-19 pandemic unde lines how di e ences in poli ical
pe spec i es can unde mine c oss-bo de coope a ion i espec i e o he ob ious
bene i s o ha ing a sha ed app oach o heal hca e p o ision and pandemic
managemen wi hin a sha ed landmass. Poli ical en enchmen no h o he bo de
coupled wi h s ained B i ish-I ish ela ions ollowing B exi all c ea ed ba ie s o
a deepe collabo a i e c oss-bo de heal h app oach du ing he pandemic
(Heenan, 2021; Haywa d, 2020). The absence o an all-island app oach o pandemic
managemen has been iden i ied as a majo ac o in he obse ed highe COVID-19
in ec ion a es in bo de a eas (De lin e al., 2024).
5.3 CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION IN EDUCATION
Smy h e al. (2022)64 examined le els o c oss-bo de coope a ion in educa ion. Co-
ope a ion in educa ion was la gely ad-hoc, based on indi idual ela ionships o
speci ic p ojec s, wi h li le e idence o any sus ained e o o coo dina e p o ision
o ac i i ies a a s uc u al le el. Ne e heless, despi e his, a numbe o
s akeholde s, in e iewed as pa o he s udy, highligh ed a ew examples o good
p ac ice. These included eache educa ion h ough SCoTENs (S anding Con e ence
on Teache Educa ion, No h and Sou h), s ong links be ween he Inspec o a es,
he Middle own Cen e o Au ism, which is a join No h-Sou h ini ia i e, and
coope a ion on he Peace p og amme unding. Also, ou u he and highe
educa ion ins i u ions,65 on bo h sides o he bo de in he no h-wes , es ablished
he No h Wes Te ia y Educa ion Clus e wi h he goal o es ablishing e ec i e
63 h ps://caw .hscni.ne /abou -us/wha -we-do/.
64 h ps://www.es i.ie/sys em/ iles/publica ions/RS138_1.pd .
65 Uls e Uni e si y, Le e kenny Ins i u e o Technology, No h Wes Regional College and Donegal ETB.
46 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
I eland, and in No he n I eland h ough he RAISE p og amme, which is pa o a
wide p og amme o coope a ion and mu ual lea ning by he Educa ion
Depa men s, No h and Sou h.
In bo h ju isdic ions add essing inequali y is impo an o social cohesion, as well
as he wel a e o socie y mo e b oadly. Widening gaps in e ms o inancial, social
and cul u al esou ces be ween g oups in socie y can exace ba e clea ages and
unde mine people’s us in he people and ins i u ions hey in e ac wi h, as well
as hei belie ha policy and poli ics can mee hei needs, and op imism o he
u u e. Religious o communi y iden i y was no a di e ence explici ly explo ed in
his esea ch p og amme, no leas due o a lack o compa able e idence. Wha he
p og amme does illus a e is he mul iple inequali ies and he di e si y e iden in
bo h ju isdic ions in e ms o socio-economic s a us, age, gende , amily and
mig a ion s a us. Ye as Coul e e al. (2021) poin ou , he pe sis ing ocus in
No he n I eland on he na ionalis -unionis clea age ails o acknowledge o he
di e ences and inequali ies. These a e challenges ha cu ac oss he na ionalis -
unionis di ide and ela e o he needs and wellbeing o he popula ion o e all, so
add essing hem can bene i all sec ions o he communi y.
Policy-making does no occu in a acuum, howe e , and is subjec o a numbe o
cons ain s. I is c ucial o no e ha iscal and policy cons ain s a e mo e signi ican
in No he n I eland, which impac s on he complexi y o pu suing sys emic e o m.
Policy de elopmen in key a eas, such as ea ly yea s p o ision, has also been
delayed du ing pe iods when he No he n I eland Execu i e was no in place.
I eland aces o he cons ain s; policy-making can change mo e apidly because o
i s exposu e o ex e nal shocks as a e y open economy, as illus a ed by he
inancial c isis and i s impac on he economy and socie y. In bo h sys ems, di e en
ins i u ional s uc u es can also limi he scope o sys emic policy change, so policy
lea ning needs o ake accoun o cu en policy landscapes in looking a wha can
and should be done.
Ye challenges wi h main aining s able poli ical go e nmen in No he n I eland
since 1998, demons a ed mos cogen ly by mul iple pe iods o Assembly
suspension, ha e had o he consequences han challenges and delayed policy-
making. Analysing social and poli ical a i udes in I eland and No he n I eland,
Lau ence e al. (2023b) ound people in No he n I eland a e less sa is ied wi h he
poli ical sys em, ha e lowe us in poli ical, judicial and media ins i u ions, and
less o a belie ha hei oice coun s in poli ics han in I eland a he s a o he
21s cen u y and mo e ecen ly. The au ho s a ibu e his in pa o he ins abili y
o poli ical ins i u ions in No he n I eland, and no e how his highligh s he
impo ance o an e ec i ely unc ioning poli ical sys em which is able o main ain
legi imacy and e ec i ely mee he needs o he popula ion i se es. While he
pe iod analysed in his esea ch p og amme is a e he Good F iday Ag eemen , a

Conclusions | 47
key di e ence be ween I eland and No he n I eland is he cha ac e isa ion o
No he n I eland as a pos -con lic socie y (Coul e e al., 2021).
C oss-bo de coope a ion has he po en ial o imp o e skill de elopmen ,
employmen oppo uni ies, heal hca e p o ision and e iciency o ene gy supply,
and help de elop app oaches o mi iga e he e ec s o clima e change. Howe e
he main execu i e o um o such coope a ion, he No h-Sou h Minis e ial
Council, is cu en ly limi ed o six policy a eas, and he egula i y o mee ings has
been a ec ed by pe iods o suspension o S o mon . While he e a e se e al
examples o good p ac ice, o he a enues o coope a ion ha e ended o be ad
hoc, elying on pa icula p og ammes o ini ia i es and/o key indi iduals. The
s udy indings in his epo poin o he po en ial alue o enhancing c oss-bo de
coope a ion bu in a way ha is sys ema ic, anspa en and co e s a b oade ange
o policy a eas. The e a e a numbe o challenges o enhancing c oss-bo de
coope a ion. No leas , B exi is likely o lead o g ea e di e ences be ween
ju isdic ions in impo an domains like ade, labou ma ke egula ion, and
en i onmen al p o ec ion, po en ially widening gaps in key ou comes. B exi has
al eady made igh s and en i lemen s o mig an wo ke s o wo k, access se ices
and a el o he o he ju isdic ion mo e complex and insecu e (McGinni y e al.,
2023).
The e has been subs an ial unding o c oss-bo de ini ia i es, wi h a o al all-
island in es men commi men o mo e han €4 billion o 2030 (Depa men o
Finance, 2024). This includes o e €500 million which has been alloca ed om he
Go e nmen o I eland’s Sha ed Island Fund o da e.
I is impo an ha policy coope a ion and ela ed unding should be in o med by
he e idence. SIU esea ch has been commissioned h ough he join esea ch
p og amme wi h he ESRI, by he Na ional Economic and Social Council and h ough
an I ish Resea ch Council call o p oposals. The e idence base is g owing, bu in a
con ex whe e li le sys ema ic compa a i e esea ch was conduc ed un il e y
ecen ly.
6.2 WHAT WE KNOW AND WHAT WE NEED TO KNOW
The esea ch conduc ed unde he ESRI-SIU p og amme has la gely d awn on
exis ing la ge-scale da ase s conduc ed a he na ional, Eu opean and/o
in e na ional le el. In-dep h in e iews and consul a ions wi h key s akeholde s
ha e also yielded ich insigh s, pa icula ly in policy domains ha ha e no been
well documen ed o da e.
48 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
The e ha e been a numbe o challenges in secu ing compa able and up- o-da e
in o ma ion on he wo ju isdic ions. In pa icula , B exi b ough abou a up u e
in he da a in as uc u e, wi h he UK wi hd awing om key EU su eys such as
he Labou Fo ce Su ey and he Su ey o Income and Li ing Condi ions. The e is
now a welcome commi men by he B i ish Go e nmen o enewing da a
coope a ion, bu he scope o he a angemen , a leas a p esen , is mo e limi ed
han be o e B exi .
Ano he limi a ion has esul ed om he place o No he n I eland in he UK da a
in as uc u e. Fo ins ance, in some UK-wide s udies, he No he n I eland sample
is no su icien ly la ge o sepa a e analyses o sub-g oups o he popula ion.
No he n I eland is included, and in su icien numbe s, in some longi udinal
s udies, such as Unde s anding Socie y and he Millennium Coho S udy, bu
se e al longi udinal school s udies a e con ined o England only. The lack o an
es ablished longi udinal s udy o adul s in I eland means ha ollowing coho s o
adul s in bo h ju isdic ions, an impo an elemen o a li e cou se pe spec i e, is
no cu en ly possible.
In No he n I eland high-quali y in o ma ion on social and poli ical a i udes is
egula ly collec ed h ough he No he n I eland Li e and Times Su ey, bu no
equi alen da a a e collec ed in I eland.
Mo e gene ally, u u e coope a ion be ween he CSO and NISRA could u he
acili a e he gene a ion o compa able s a is ical da a. In addi ion, linking ou ine
adminis a i e da a wi h su ey da a could also ha ness he po en ial o exis ing
e idence o compa a i e pu poses (Connolly e al., 2022). As no ed in Chap e 1,
hese limi a ions on e idence cons ain wha we can know – he ques ions we can
ask and wha we can disco e – bu i is only in highligh ing he gaps in e idence
ha hey can po en ially be add essed.
Su ey da a a e no , o cou se, he only po en ial sou ce o in o ma ion. Expe
in e iews wi h policymake s and de ailed analysis o policy documen s can be
used o yield ich insigh s in o policy commonali ies and di e ences and a e
especially help ul in documen ing a changing policy landscape.
As men ioned abo e, sys ema ic e idence is i al in in o ming cu en and u u e
c oss-bo de coope a ion and ela ed policy de elopmen . The e idence base is
g owing bu needs o be de eloped u he in wo main di ec ions.
Conclusions | 49
Fi s ly, exis ing esea ch a he ESRI and elsewhe e has, o en o he i s ime,
iden i ied impo an di e ences in ou comes ac oss he li e cou se ha can eed
in o policy lea ning. Policy coope a ion ha could mo e impac ully con ibu e o
closing hose gaps o people ac oss he island, would bene i om a u he
de eloped e idence base, o del e in o he mechanisms d i ing hese gaps and o
assess he impac o exis ing inequali ies and gaps on he b oade economy and
socie y.
To gi e an example, he s udy on educa ion indica ed highe a es o ea ly school
lea ing and lowe le els o pos -seconda y quali ica ions in No he n I eland.
Howe e , u he esea ch would be needed o explo e wha unde lies hese
p ocesses o ea ly school lea ing and o de e mine which ypes o u he
educa ion could be o bene i o he cu en and u u e economy o No he n
I eland. Simila ly, he esea ch conduc ed poin s o la ge and g owing gaps in li e
expec ancy be ween I eland and No he n I eland, bu u he wo k would be
needed o look a d i e s o he social and o he de e minan s o hese heal h
ou comes.
A second di ec ion o esea ch ela es o he opics co e ed by he p og amme o
da e. An ob ious gap ela es o clima e change and en i onmen , wi h conside able
po en ial o e idence-based coope a ion in his sphe e. Disabili y has eme ged as
an impo an in luence on labou ma ke pa icipa ion and po e y, so would me i
u he in es iga ion, along wi h ela ed men al and physical heal h di e ences
be ween ju isdic ions. O he opics ha could use ully be add essed include bu
a e no limi ed o; li elong lea ning and skills upg ading among he adul
popula ion, income adequacy among olde people, housing p eca i y and
dep i a ion, digi al skills and b oadband connec i i y. Also, egional and
u ban/ u al di e ences ac oss bo h ju isdic ions ecu ed in many epo s and
consul a ions unde he p og amme as an impo an dynamic ha i was no
possible o ully explo e using exis ing da a sou ces.
A newly de eloped mac oeconomic model o he No he n I eland economy can
be used o examine he po en ial impac o economic shocks and policy changes
(Be gin e al. 2025),69 while he success ul ha monisa ion o mic osimula ion
models analysing gene al income inequali y could also be applied o o he
ques ions.
In conclusion, esea ch o da e has documen ed impo an commonali ies and
di e ences in ou comes be ween No he n I eland and I eland as a basis o public
69 The modelling amewo k in Be gin e al. (2025) allows he examina ion o he e ec s o economic policies, shocks and
oppo uni ies on No he n I eland, I eland, he UK and he in e na ional economy.
50 | Economic and social challenges and oppo uni ies: E idence om an ESRI esea ch p og amme
unde s anding, policy lea ning and coope a ion, bu has also highligh ed signi ican
ba ie s o his endea ou . The challenge o he u u e, bo h o esea ch and o
p ac ical coope a ion, will be o unco e and iden i y ways o add ess he p ocesses
unde lying hese di e en ou comes and he impac s hey ha e on economic and
social de elopmen and socie al wellbeing.
Re e ences | 51
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