Hille , F ank; Za now, S e anie
A icle
Fos e ing inno a i e lea ning and sa is ac ion in i ual
eamwo k: Shedding ligh on app en ices
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional
Resea ch Associa ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hille , F ank; Za now, S e anie (2024) : Fos e ing inno a i e lea ning and
sa is ac ion in i ual eamwo k: Shedding ligh on app en ices, In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch
in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET), ISSN 2197-8646, Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional Resea ch Associa ion, B emen,
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Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and
Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k:
Shedding Ligh on App en ices
F ank Hille *, S e anie Za now
Ins i u e o Human Resou ce Educa ion and Managemen , LMU Munich School o
Managemen , LMU Munich, Munich, Ge many
Recei ed: 22 June 2023, Accep ed 27 Decembe 2023, Published: 02 Ap il 2024
Abs ac
Pu pose: The digi al ans o ma ion and he inc eased use o echnologies ha e changed he
wo ld o wo k se e ely. Wi h i , collabo a ion and coope a ion me hods among employees.
The e o e, new ways o wo king oge he mus be applied o wo k in an in e na ional and di-
gi al wo king en i onmen . Fo Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET), de eloping new
( ans e sal) compe encies o engage in i ual eamwo k is necessa y o adequa ely p epa e
young p o essionals o he p esen and u u e labo ma ke . Howe e , he e is li le esea ch
on he cu en si ua ion in VET ega ding i ual eamwo k.
App oach: We deployed a c oss-sec ional design and collec ed da a om N = 181 comme -
cial app en ices in Ge many ega ding i ual eamwo k. We analyze ou da a using Pa ial
Leas Squa es S uc u al Equa ion Modeling (PLS-SEM) o examine he in e ela ionships
be ween inpu , p ocess, and ou come a iables o os e sa is ac ion and inno a i e lea ning
in i ual eams as desi ed a ge s o VET. To assess hese esul s ega ding i uali y, he
complexi y o asks, gende o he app en ices, and he size o he aining i ms, we de i ed
a mul ig oup analysis (MGA) o ou model.
Findings: The esul s indica e ha o ganiza ional ac o s ha e he mos signi ican in luence
conce ning he ela ionship be ween inpu and p ocess ac o s. Su p isingly, he echnical
a ini y o indi iduals has only a mino e ec . Rega ding he ela ionship be ween p ocess
*Co esponding au ho : hi[email p o ec ed]
172 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
and ou come ac o s, mo i a ion and esponsibili y ha e he highes impac on inno a i e
lea ning, whils communica ion cul u e se e ely a ec s he pe cei ed sa is ac ion in i ual
eamwo k.
Conclusion: The indings lead o aluable insigh s on ac o s in luencing i ual eamwo k in
VET and can help o design lea ning p og ams o p epa e young p o essionals o smoo hly
ansi ion o and success ully mas e hei u u e wo king en i onmen s by using new ways
o collabo a ion and coope a ion. This is pa icula ly ele an o VET, as p io esea ch has
ocused p ima ily on p ima y and seconda y educa ion. Las ly, we iden i y po en ial scales
and i ems ha help cap u e some o he inhe en cons uc s o i ual eamwo k.
Keywo ds: Team Wo k, Wo kplace Lea ning, Collabo a ion, New Wo k, Ou comes o Edu-
ca ion and T aining, Voca ional Educa ion and T aining, VET
1 In oduc ion
The digi al ans o ma ion and he inc eased use o in o ma ion and communica ion ech-
nologies ha e changed ou daily li e in many sphe es. Majo changes become appa en pa -
icula ly in he wo ld o wo k. The apid ans o ma ion o he economy and wo k p ocesses
se e ely a ec how wo k is pe o med in o ganiza ions (Dob icki e al., 2020; Paeßens e al.,
2023). One impo an change ega ds he ways o wo king oge he : Collabo a ion in (global)
eams in a echnology-enhanced wo king en i onmen is becoming inc easingly impo an
(Noble & Bille , 2017; Schlich , 2019). In addi ion, he mega end o globaliza ion g owingly
equi es in e na ional, c oss-bo de coo dina ed beha io . Wi h ha , a new mindse o mas-
e hese challenges is equi ed (Schili ò, 2021) and a new se o ( ans e sal) compe encies o
collabo a e in i ual eams (VT) mus be de eloped. Howe e , i ually wo king oge he in
eams is a demanding ask o bo h employees and young p o essionals (Da ban, 2022). This
pu s p essu e on Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VET):
The o e a ching goal o VET is o p epa e young p o essionals o bo h smoo hly ansi-
ion in and success ully mas e hei u u e p o ession (Eu opean Commission, 2013). An
inc eased engagemen in i ual eams and he de elopmen o co esponding VT-compe-
encies du ing he app en iceship has he e o e become necessa y (Ha eis, 2018; Schwendi-
mann e al., 2018). VET ac s as a c ucial ac o o os e his by oca ional aining ei he in a
school-based way o by aining in he i m (Busemeye & T ampusch, 2012).
While subs an ial esea ch has been unde aken o look a how digi al echnologies a e
used in he con ex o lea ning and how espec i e lea ning ou comes can be os e ed, his
has p edominan ly been done in he con ex o p ima y and seconda y educa ion o highe
educa ion. Howe e , he immanen ac o s ha shape VET need o be aken in o accoun
o allow o a meaning ul and con ex ual in e p e a ion. Ye , only a e y limi ed numbe o
173
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
esea ch analysing he use o digi al echnologies in VET in a collabo a i e way can be ound
(Schwendimann e al., 2018).
The e o e, we shed ligh on how app en ices cu en ly wo k oge he in VTs and on he
ac o s which help o hinde cogni i e, a ec i e, mo i a ional, and beha io al p ocesses o
os e meaning ul ou comes o bo h app en ices and aining i ms: Sa is ac ion (SAT) and
inno a i e lea ning (IL). We ocus on hese wo indi idual ou comes as hese can be bes
depic ed and e alua ed by app en ices in a sensi i e and meaning ul way. We de i e h ee
esea ch ques ions (RQs) o shed ligh on his phenomenon:
RQ1: To wha ex en has i ual eamwo k (VTW) been in eg a ed in o VET?
RQ2: Which ela ionships can be iden i ied wi hin he inpu , p ocess, and ou come ac o s
o VTW in VET?
RQ3: How does he model di e in he mul ig oup analysis ega ding gende , i uali y, ask
complexi y (TC), and i m size in VTW?
2 Theo e icalFounda ion
In o de o es ablish he heo e ical basis, he ollowing chap e de ines ele an concep s
ega ding i uali y and i ual eamwo k and p esen s he unde lying model o examine he
in e ela ionships o inpu , p ocess, and ou come ac o s o VTW o os e sa is ac ion and
inno a i e lea ning in i ual eams.
2.1 Vi uali yandVi ualTeamwo k
De ining he concep o a VT is no an easy ask, as no uni o m de ini ion o he e m exis s.
In he li e a u e, e ms such as dis ibu ed, compu e -media ed, ansna ional o emo e
eams a e also used o desc ibe VTs (Jacques e al., 2020; Ja e e al., 2016; Lage s öm &
Ande sson, 2003; Sil a & Me ino, 2017). When i comes o VTs, schola s o en e e o as-
pec s o dispe sion and he use o digi al media (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017; Gibson & Gibbs,
2006; O'Lea y & Cummings, 2007). The ph ase dispe sion e e s o a geog aphical, empo al,
and s uc u al sp eading (O'Lea y & Cummings, 2007). Conce ning he use o digi al media
in a VT, Ki kman and Ma hieu (2005) iden i ied h ee dimensions: The ex en o he use o
i ual ools, he in o ma ional alue, and he synch onici y. The ex en o he use o i ual
ools pe ains o how much eam membe s depend on digi al ools o in e ac wi h each
o he . The in o ma ional alue speci ies he ex en o which i ual ools ans e da a ha
a e use ul o VT e ec i eness. Synch onici y encompasses he exchange in a eam, which
can occu in eal ime (synch onous), o wi h a ime di e ence be ween he in e ac ions
174 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
(asynch onous) (Goel e al., 2003). Addi ionally, he dimensions o di e si y, ansna ionali y,
and he e ogenei y indica e a VT (Ea ley & Mosakowski, 2000; Zande e al., 2012). Howe e ,
none o hese ac o s is a p e equisi e o a VT s a us. The ansi ion om a ace- o- ace eam
o a VT occu s wi hou a clea bounda y. Mos eams a e loca ed somewhe e on he spec um
be ween he wo ex emes o a ace- o- ace eam o a solely VT (G i i h e al., 2003; Ki kman
& Ma hieu, 2004). Fo his pape , we ollow he de ini ion o He el e al. (2005, p. 71), who
desc ibe a VT as ollowing:
"VT consis o (a) wo o mo e pe sons who (b) collabo a e in e ac i ely o achie e common goals,
while (c) a leas one o he eam membe s wo ks a a di e en loca ion, o ganiza ion, o a a
di e en ime so ha (d) communica ion and coo dina ion is p edominan ly based on elec onic
communica ion media (…)".
2.2 TheInpu -P ocess-Ou comeModelo Vi ualTeams
The inpu -p ocess-ou come (IPO) model p o ides a heo e ically based amewo k o de-
composing VTW in o i s essen ial componen s (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017). The basic ame-
wo k o he model is de i ed om he empi ically es ed model o McG a h (1964). Fol-
lowing his, some modi ica ions exis , such as he app oaches aken by Ma ins e al. (2004),
Cohen and Gibson (2003), o Mazne ski and Chudoba (2000), who explici ly ocus on he
collabo a ion o a VT. Ilgen e al. (2005) adap ed he model wi h ega d o he alloca ion o
he p ocess le el by assigning conc e e subca ego ies (Ilgen e al., 2005; Ma ks e al., 2001).
Fu he mo e, eedback loops, which can coun e ac he s a ic cha ac e h ough hei cyclical
iewpoin , ha e been in eg a ed (Hackman & Mo is, 1975; Ilgen e al., 2005; Salas e al.,
2009). In 2017, Dulebohn and Hoch modi ied he o iginal model by in eg a ing eigh inde-
penden , empi ical s udy esul s ha adop di e en pe spec i es ega ding he e ec i eness
o VT. In addi ion, hey inco po a ed a eedback loop in o he model based on Ilgen e al.
(2005), as a complex sys em like a VT can ha e mo e han a single cycle (Dulebohn & Hoch,
2017). The in en ion o he IPO model is o p o ide a heo e ical amewo k ha can be
used o iden i y and ca ego ize selec ed success ac o s o VTW and o sys ema ically ep e-
sen hei in e connec ions and ela ions (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017). The model has been
employed in he in e na ional esea ch con ex mul iple imes. Re e ences can be ound, i.e.,
o in es iga ing leade ship in i ual eams (Ba sch e al., 2020; Wong & Be n zen, 2019), o
analyze i ual collabo a ion du ing he COVID-19 pandemic (Shockley e al., 2021), o o
iden i y ac o s a ec ing eam pe o mance (Be be e al., 2020; Kim e al., 2020).
175
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
Figu e 1: Inpu -P ocess-Ou come Model o Vi ual Teams (own illus a ion
based on i ual eams in o ganiza ions om Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017)
As isualized in Figu e 1, he model is composed o ou pa s: Inpu ac o s, eam p ocesses
o eme gen s a es, mode a o s, and ou come ac o s.
The inpu ac o s a e di ided in o h ee ca ego ies: The o ganiza ional ac o s (OF), eam
leade ship, and eam composi ion. The OF e e o he o ganiza ional design and he objec i-
es o he VT, he wo king en i onmen , and he s uc u al suppo (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002;
Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017). The eam leade ship subsumes skills and beha io o compensa e
o he absence o ace- o- ace con ac o lead a VT success ully. A eam leade can apply di -
e en leade ship concep s, such as ans o ma ional leade ship o leade membe exchange
(Hoch & Kozlowski, 2014). The eam composi ion e e s o su ace-le el di e si y, such as
cul u e, e hnici y, o language, and o he deep-le el di e si y, such as he pe sonali y ai s o
VT membe and hei alues. Mo eo e , he knowledge, skills, and a i udes o a eam mem-
be cons i u e he eam composi ion ac o s (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017).
The eam p ocesses and eme gen s a es a e dynamic p ocesses ha occu when in e ac-
ing in a VT, whe eas he s a es a e eam p ope ies, a ec ed by he inpu s, p ocesses, mo-
de a o s, and ou comes (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017; Ma ks e al., 2001). Indi iduals o a eam
come oge he , in e ac wi h each o he , and o m a social sys em – a eam ha is mo e han
he sum o i s pa s (S eine , 1972). The p ocess wi hin he eam de e mines he pe o mance
o e ec i eness o he eam and i s indi iduals (Hackman, 1987; S eine , 1972). In he model,
176 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
eam p ocesses and eme gen s a es a e di ided in o cogni i e, a ec i e, mo i a ional, and
beha io al p ocesses.
The mode a o s in luence he s eng h and di ec ion be ween he inpu and he eam p o-
cesses/eme gen s a es as well as be ween he eam p ocesses/eme gen s a es and he ou -
comes. Acco ding o Dulebohn and Hoch (2017, p. 572), he key mode a o in he model is
i uali y as a "mul i-dimensional concep and phenomenon". Fu he mo e, ask indepen-
dence, TC, and he eam con ex – as he ex e nal en i onmen in which a VT pe o ms – a e
included as mode a o s in he model.
Two le els o ou comes a e dis inguished in he model: The eam le el and he indi idual
le el. Each e e s o pe o mance and e ec i eness as a eam and as an indi idual VT mem-
be , espec i ely. Fu he mo e, indi idual SAT and IL, which cons i u e he main ocus o ou
pape , a e in eg a ed in o he model (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017).
2.3 De i a iono Hypo heses
The hypo heses o be es ed a e de i ed based on he links be ween he inpu and p ocess
(H1–H4), as well as be ween he p ocess and ou come ac o s (H5–H8). The hypo heses a e
isualized in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2: Inpu -P ocess-Ou come Fac o s o Vi ual Teamwo k – La en Va iables and Hypo-
heses (own illus a ion based on i ual eams in o ganiza ions om Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017)
177
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
The cons uc o OF in ou s udy includes he eam o ganiza ion as well as o ganiza ional suppo .
Team o ganiza ion ep esen s he o ganizing o a eamwo k, ask planning, and he dis ibu ion
o asks, as well as how decision-making is suppo ed (Wiedemann e al., 2013). The o ganiza i-
onal suppo ocuses on easonable communica ion among he eam as well as on building us
h ough os e ing equi y and unde s anding (Gibson & Manuel, 2003). P omo ing a suppo i e
clima e in a eam encou ages, amongs o he aspec s, e ec i e con lic managemen , a sha ed
unde s anding conce ning he goals o he VTW, and he eedom o exp ession in a VT (Gibson
& Manuel, 2003; Hinds & Weisband, 2003). I is impo an ha he o ganiza ional goals a e con-
g uen wi h he mo i a ion o indi idual eam membe s and he eam as a whole (Kozlowski &
Bell, 2003). In he con ex o VET, he in luence o he o ganiza ion on eam-le el p ocesses is
expec ed o be highe han in egula wo k con ex s, as aining and supe ising by ins uc o s o
eache s plays a signi ican ole in app en iceships (O ganisa ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and
De elopmen [OECD], 2021). We he e o e de i e he ollowing hypo heses:
H1a/b/c/d: The dimensions o OF a e posi i ely ela ed o goal se ing (GO) / cohesion
(COH) / mo i a ion and esponsibili y (MoR) and communica ion cul u e (CC).
Membe s o a VT ha e inhe en cha ac e is ic pe sonali y ai s like hough s o beha io s (Du-
lebohn & Hoch, 2017). One o hese ai s is he commi men (CMT) o ac as a membe o a VT.
Being p oud o and commi ed o he eam, and con ibu ing o he asks o he eam, a e key
d i e s o building us and o he COH o a ( i ual) eam (De en, 2016; Gonzalez & Melo,
2021). Beha io s in a ( i ual) eam o os e a commonly sha ed CMT aise, among o he s, he
le el o us and go along wi h highe deg ees o COH as well as o CC (De en, 2016; Hackman,
1987). The eeling o belonging o a ( i ual) eam is also desc ibed o app en ices (P ice & Lusz-
na , 2018). We he e o e de i e he ollowing hypo heses:
H2a/b/c: The CMT o a VT membe is posi i ely ela ed o COH / MoR / CC.
In gene al, he e ogeneous eams s uggle wi h a lowe deg ee o COH, emphasizing he impo -
ance o in e cul u al compe ence (IC) (S aples & Zhao, 2006). Au and Ma ks (2012) ound ha
cul u e and na ionali y ha e an impac on he iden i ica ion wi h he VT, whe eas missing iden-
i ica ion wi h he VT can lead o s e eo ypical hinking o a lack o CMT and COH. Gibson
and Manuel (2003) disco e ed e idence ha us among eam membe s, is nega i ely impac ed
by cul u al di e ences. In addi ion, communica ion among cul u ally di e en eam membe s is
expec ed o be mo e di icul (Gibson & Manuel, 2003). The e o e, a su icien deg ee o IC is es-
pecially ele an o o e come cul u al, empo al, o o ganiza ional hu dles (O'Ha a-De e eaux &
Johansen, 1994), especially as app en ices ha e di e en cul u al backg ounds and coope a ion in
an in e na ional con ex becomes mo e ele an du ing and a e VET (S amm, 2013). On hese
g ounds, we de i e he ollowing hypo heses:
H3a/b/c: The IC o a VT membe is posi i ely ela ed o COH / MoR / CC.
178 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
F anke e al. (2019, p. 456) de ined he a ini y o echnology in e ac ion as a "key pe sonal
esou ce o echnology in e ac ion". In VTs, eam membe s wi h a highe echnical a ini y
(TA) a e expec ed o be mo e able o cope wi h complex ( echnical) equi emen s (F anke e
al., 2019). They a e mo e engaged in he eam, ace complex si ua ions wi h a highe mo i a ion,
ake esponsibili y, and acili a e easie ( i ual) communica ion. App en ices, many o hem
belonging o "Gene a ion Z" and, hus, used o socializing online, a e expec ed o ha e a ce ain
TA (Schwiege & Ladwig, 2018; Se inikli, 2019). Thus, we de i e he ollowing hypo heses:
H4a/b: The TA o a VT membe is posi i ely ela ed o MoR / CC.
Clea and explici o mula ed (lea ning) goals (Edmondson & Rolo , 2009) a e an impo an
ac o o lea ning. Resea che s ha e ound a signi ican ela ionship be ween GO and he ou -
come le el, on SAT and lea ning o ien a ion, amongs o he s (Lloyd & Hä el, 2010; Sa in & Mc-
De mo , 2003). As app en ices lack ex ensi e expe ience conce ning VTW and goal se ing in
VTs, he speci ica ion o an explici goal and assis ance conce ning ways o achie e his goal a e
impo an . Based on his de i a ion, we de i e he ollowing hypo heses be ween GO and he
ou come le el:
H5a/b: The GO is posi i ely ela ed o IL / SAT.
The eeling o belonging o a eam and iden i ying wi h a common goal posi i ely in luences
he pe o mance o he eam as well as eam lea ning (Edmondson & Rolo , 2009). The clima e
o sa e y in a eam also a ec s he ou come le el (Ho mann & S e ze , 1996). S udies (B ahm &
Kunze, 2012; DeO en iis e al., 2013) ha e shown ha o adolescen s and young adul s, COH
in a ( i ual) eam is ele an o e ec i e eamwo k, esul ing in he desi ed eam pe o mance.
We he e o e de i e he ollowing hypo heses conce ning he ela ionship be ween COH and
he ou come le el:
H6a/b: The COH is posi i ely ela ed o IL / SAT.
Resea ch has shown ha MoR – a an indi idual as well as a a eam le el – a e c i ical ac o s
o eam pe o mance (Hackman, 1987; Yang & Ok Choi, 2009). Mo i a ion and engagemen o
each he goals o he eam can lead o be e change managemen , commi men o he o gani-
za ion and i s goals, as well as mo i a ed employees wi h low le els o u no e ( McBain, 2007).
Indi idual and eam-le el mo i a ion should go hand in hand as a as possible (Kozlowski &
Bell, 2003). In VET, aking on MoR mus be p omo ed as hey a e needed in bo h VTW and
la e in wo king li e. Following his, we de i e he hypo heses conce ning he ela ionship be -
ween MoR and he ou come le el:
H7a/b: The MoR a e posi i ely ela ed o IL / SAT.
185
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
Figu e 3: Du a ion o Vi ual Teamwo k in VET (N=181. Own illus a ion)
When assessing he equency o a e age du a ion o a VTW, he use o digi al ools becomes also
impo an . I is o high ele ance o look a speci ic ools ha a e used when i ually wo king
oge he . We he e o e asked abou he equency o usage ega ding some o he mos p omi-
nen ha dwa e (such as PC / lap op, able s, sma phones), ways o communica ion ( ia e-mail,
ideocon e encing ools, ins an messaging), and collabo a ion ools (such as sha ing o lea ning
pla o ms) when i ually wo king oge he in VET. When compa ing he equency o he ools
used in VTW in espec i e lea ning si es, we ind meaning ul di e ences (Figu es 4 and 5).
Figu e 4: F equency o Tools Used in Vi ual Teamwo k in
Voca ional Schools (N=181. Own illus a ion)
186 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
Figu e 5: F equency o Tools Used in Vi ual Teamwo k in
T aining Fi ms (N=181. Own illus a ion)
In aining i ms, he use o PCs/lap ops seems o be much mo e common han in oca io-
nal schools (mTF = 4.80/mVS = 3.29), while able s a e mo e equen ly used in oca ional
schools (mTF = 2.42/mVS = 2.94). A meaning ul di e ence can be seen wi h ega d o how o en
ideocon e encing ools a e used (mTF = 4.20/mVS = 2.51). While in aining i ms, n = 149
VET-s uden s s a ed hey ( e y) equen ly use such ools, only n = 40 indi iduals use hem
e y equen ly when wo king in VT in oca ional schools.
RQ2: Which ela ionships can be iden i ied wi hin he inpu , p ocess, and ou come ac o s o
VTW in VET?
Conce ning RQ2, a co ela ion ma ix depic ing he bi a ia e co ela ions be ween ou
cons uc s was examined3. Be o e in e p e ing ou s uc u al model, we b ie ly ouch on he
ele an assessmen c i e ia in acco dance wi h Hai e al. (2022). Fi s , collinea i y issues
canno be ound in he da a. Second, he explana o y powe o ou model is discussed using
R² as well as 2 (Cohen, 1988; Hai e al., 2022). The model explains he p opo ion o a i-
ance in he dependen a iables acco ding o Cohen (1988) as subs an ial (≥.26) wi h he
ollowing alues: GO: R² = .402, COH: R² = .368, MoR: R² = .318, CC: R² = .348, IL: R² = .446
and SAT: R² = .444. Thi d, we u n o he model's p edic i e powe o p oduce meaning ul
ou -o -sample s a emen s. Fo ha , we assess S one-Geisse 's Q2 as well as he mean absolu e
e o (MAE) and he oo mean squa e e o (RMSE) (Hai e al., 2022). As mos indica o s
3 The de ailed co ela ion ma ix can be eques ed om he co esponding au ho .
187
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
in he wo key a ge cons uc s (IL/SAT) uphold he ele an s a is ical compa ison (PLS-
SEM alues < linea eg ession model (LM) alues), we can deduce ha ou model has a
medium p edic i e powe 4.
To answe he hypo heses, he esul s o he pa h analysis be ween inpu , p ocess, and
ou come ac o s a e illus a ed in Figu e 6. All he ela ionships sugges a posi i e connec ion
be ween he ac o s, excep he pa h om GO o IL wi h a (non-signi ican ) β = -.013.
Figu e 6: Final PLS-SEM Pa h Model Wi h β Coe icien and P-Values
No e. Pa h coe icien s a e p esen ed as s anda dized β, while p- alu-
es a e indica ed wi h as e isks: *p < .1, **p < .05, ***p < .01
Fo he ela ionships be ween he inpu and he p ocess ac o s, OF a e posi i ely associa ed
wi h all p ocess ac o s, wi h each ela ionship being highly signi ican (p < .01). When asses-
sing he e ec sizes acco ding o Cohen (1988) (≥.02 small e ec , ≥.15 medium e ec , ≥.35
la ge e ec ) a la ge e ec is indica ed om OF o GO (H1a: β = .634, p = .000) and om OF o
CC (H1d: β = .520. p = .000), and a medium e ec om OF o COH (H1b: β = .486, p = .000),
and om OF o MoR (H1c: β = .374, p = .000). Conce ning CMT, a highly signi ican , small
posi i e e ec is ound om CMT o COH (H2a: β = .233, p = .003) as well as om CMT o
MoR (H2b: β = .260, p = .000). The in luence o IC on MoR (H3b: β = .141, p = .039) and CC
4 O he han in CB-SEM, no GoF measu es like RMSEA o CFI a e epo ed. This is due o s i ing o ano he goal in PLS-
SEM: Making an in-and-ou -o -model p edic ion. To assess he p edic i e powe o a PLS-SEM model, se e al s a is ical
analyses need o be ca ied ou (Hai e al., 2022; de ails can be eques ed om he co esponding au ho ).
188 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
(H3c: β = .161, p = .012) is signi ican a p < .05 wi h a small e ec . Su p isingly, TA shows no
signi ican in luence and no no ewo hy e ec on MoR o CC.
The ela ionships be ween he p ocess ac o s and IL, MoR (H7a: β = .443, p = .000) and
CC (H8a: β = .313, p = .001) show a highly signi ican associa ion wi h a medium e ec o
MoR o IL and a small e ec o CC o IL. The associa ion wi h SAT is highly signi ican o
GO (H5b: β = .211, p = .004), MoR (H7b: β = .253, p = .000) and CC (H8b: β = .335, p = .000)
wi h a small e ec , espec i ely.
RQ3: How does he model di e in he MGA ega ding gende , i uali y, ask complexi y, and
i m size in VTW?
By analyzing he esul s o he MICOM p ocedu e (Hensele e al., 2016; de ails can be e-
ques ed om he co esponding au ho ), we can con i m con igu al in a iance (S ep 1) as
he se up o ou model is equal ac oss all g oups. Composi ional in a iance (S ep 2) is ap-
p o ed o TC, Vi VS, and i m size. We he e o e e ain om conduc ing MGA o Vi TF
and gende . As he means and a iances o TC, Vi VS, and i m size a e no equal (S ep 3),
we can assume pa ial measu emen in a iance and can compa e he pa h coe icien s o he
espec i e wo g oups.
A e MGA o TC, Vi VS, and i m size, we ind no signi ican di e ence ega ding Vi VS,
which canno be adduced as mode a o o explaining he di e ences in pa h coe icien s
be ween g oup 0 (low i uali y) and 1 (high i uali y). Rega ding TC, compa ing g oup 0
(high TC) and g oup 1 (low TC) indica es a signi ican di e ence o pa h coe icien s only
o he ela ionship be ween MoR and IL (p = .023). A compa ison o he pa h coe icien o
g oup 0 = .684 and o g oup 1 = .303 e eals a di e ence in pa h coe icien s o .380. Con-
ce ning i m size, g oup 0 (smalles , small, medium sized i ms) and g oup 1 (la ge i ms)
di e ega ding he ela ionship be ween GO and IL (p = .025). The pa h coe icien s o he
ela ionship be ween GO and IL a e -.374 o g oup 0 and .061 o g oup 1, esul ing in a
di e ence o -.434.
5 DiscussionandImplica ions
The numbe s displayed in RQ1 p esen he mani old challenges ha a VT holds: Employees
and app en ices in pa icula need o be p epa ed o ha e he abili y o wo k oge he in VT
in a sho -, medium-, and long- e m ashion. Mo eo e , he equency o VTW indica es he
ele ance o i ually wo king oge he .
Rega ding RQ2, hypo heses H1a–H1d can be suppo ed and e eal he impo ance o he
o ganiza ional in luence on p ocesses in VT. Suppo and guidance, including app en ices
ecei ing all ele an in o ma ion and ha ing clea goals se , seem o be c ucial ac o s in
in oducing and encou aging app en ices in VTW in VET. This equi es suppo du ing he
189
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
p epa a ion and scheduling (e.g., ask planning and he de ini ion o goals), implemen a ion
(e.g., suppo ing communica ion) and e alua ion (e.g., eedback, e lec ion, and he iden i i-
ca ion o oom o imp o emen ). Following an Me iënboe and Ki schne (2018), suppo
and guidance should be g adually diminished and educed o e ime, un il he ask can be
pe o med wi hou assis ance. We encou age o ganiza ions o keep his p inciple in mind
when supe ising VTW o os e lea ning in and abou VTs. In he case o VET, his could be
inco po a ed by dec easing suppo o lea ne s du ing he p og ess o hei app en iceship
and by encou aging app en ices o ake mo e esponsibili y om he planning o he e alu-
a ion o VTW (Ryan & Deci, 2018). Mo i a ion is impo an o app en ices du ing VET as
well as o hei u u e wo king li es. The impo ance o CMT, i.e., eeling commi ed owa d
a VT o ul il a ce ain ask, is especially ele an o COH and MoR. CMT and IC a e ac o s
e e ing o in insic mo i a ion as well as being open-minded and help app en ices o ca y
ou VTW ollowing hei own ee will and wi h in e es and en husiasm, in acco dance wi h
he cogni i e e alua ion heo y o Ryan and Deci (2018). Following ou assump ions, CMT
also posi i ely in luences COH in a VT. A highe deg ee o IC leads o a be e CC, which
makes sense, especially o wo king i ually in cul u ally di e se eams. Su p isingly, being
open o lea ning new echnical sys ems o enjoying wo king wi h hem (TA) has no signi i-
can in luence on MoR o CC. The e o e, ou hypo heses H4a and H4b canno be con i med.
The idea ha a basic TA helps app en ices du ing VTW is he e o e ques ionable. This can be
iewed as a chance o app en ices who do no ha e a high deg ee o TA o ca ch up and no
be disad an aged when i comes o VTW in VET. I also sugges s ha he echnical equi e-
men s can be lea ned wi hou p io knowledge and wi hou a penchan o echnical abili y.
The pe cep ion o F anke e al. (2019, p. 456) o iew TA "as a key pe sonal esou ce o ech-
nology in e ac ion" canno be con i med o VTW in VET. Al e na i ely, he ools equen ly
used in VTW (see igu es 4 and 5) may also be use iendly and commonly employed (i.e.,
PC / lap op, ideocon e encing ools, e-mail), making i easy o indi iduals o engage in
VTW wi hou a highe deg ee o TA.
The indi idual ou come ac o IL in ol es he pe cei ed eelings o indi iduals in ega d
o lea ning om VTW pe sonally and p o essionally, as well as b inging in new ideas on how
o imp o e asks. IL is mos s ongly in luenced by MoR. This is consis en wi h Ryan and
Deci (2018), who iden i y in insic mo i a ion as pi o al o success ul lea ning. As we inco -
po a e he inno a i e cha ac e o lea ning in VT, ou indings unde line he impo ance o
mo i a ional aspec s. The impo ance o e ec i ely communica ing in a suppo i e clima e
o os e IL is also shown. The e o e, we can con i m he ele ance o MoR and CC o app-
en ices o p o i p i a ely and p o essionally om VTW. Fu he mo e, inno a i e wo k me-
hods a e disco e ed du ing VTW in VET, explo ing possibili ies and equi emen s o he
"new no mal" in cu en and u u e wo k li e. The SAT o app en ices depends on a clea and
commonly sha ed goal o VTW. A ealis ic ag eemen on objec i es ensu es he eachabili y
190 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
o ideally commonly se goals and ensu es ha app en ices become sa is ied h ough achie-
ing hem. The mo i a ion o app en ices is in line wi h hese indings due o hei willing-
ness o con ibu e o he VT ou come and by aking esponsibili y o he VT, esul ing in he
SAT o app en ices in VTW. The ela ionship be ween CC and SAT suppo s ou hypo heses
(H8a–H8b), iden i ying, among o he aspec s, con lic managemen and communica ion as
impo an d i e s o SAT in VTW (Lloyd & Hä el, 2010; Malik, 2013).
The compa ison o g oups sugges s ha he e is no signi ican di e ence conce ning he
pe cei ed i uali y in oca ional schools, indica ing no di e ence be ween a low and a high
i uali y o inpu , p ocess, and ou come ela ionships. VTW in his lea ning loca ion seems
o be independen om he deg ee o i uali y pe cei ed by he app en ices in a VT. The
compa ison o g oups ega ding he pe cei ed complexi y o asks demons a es no di e-
ences be ween low o high alues o TC apa om he ela ionship be ween MoR and IL.
Fo mo e di icul asks in a VTW, MoR seems o ha e a s onge in luence on IL han o
less complex o ou ine asks. This indica es ha a highe mo i a ion is needed o di icul
asks, as well as he impo ance o aking esponsibili y o a eam o p omo e i s p og ess
and de elopmen . Rega ding i m size, in smalles , small o medium sized i ms, a highe
GO leads o a lowe deg ee o IL. Too na owly de ined goals could cause a limi ed scope o
inno a ion and lea ning. In la ge companies, howe e , GO has a sligh ly posi i e e ec on IL.
This, in u n, could sugges ha despi e na owly de ined goals, a s imula ing en i onmen
o lea ning and inno a ion exis s in la ge companies. In addi ion, i is concei able ha he
s uc u es in la ge companies a e al eady so complex ha clea a ge s wi hin VTW seem o
be use ul.
Theo e ical Implica ions
In he p oblem ou line, i was made clea ha speci ic esea ch in he con ex o VET is ne-
cessa y in o de o be able o map collabo a i e lea ning wi h he aid o digi al echnologies
in a con ex -speci ic and con en - ich manne (e.g., Schwendimann e al., 2018). Re e ence
has also been made o he ac ha he VET sec o is s ill unde ep esen ed in his pa icula
esea ch a ea. Ou esea ch aims o add ess exac ly hese poin s: Wi h ou s udy, we wan o
p o ide ( i s and explo a o y) insigh s abou he di e se p ocess lows and impo an in lu-
ence ac o s o VT in he speci ic con ex o VET. To his end, we iden i ied an in e na ionally
well-known heo e ical model o VT (Dulebohn & Hoch, 2017) and po en ial scales / i ems
o bes ep esen some o he inhe en cons uc s, which could i in o esea ch in VET. The
ins umen s we e meaning ully adap ed o he needs o he a ge g oup o app en ices and
es ed in EFA / CFA. Resul s showed ha bo h ac o analysis and wi hin PLS-SEM, ou in-
s umen s and model seem o explain a signi ican sha e o a iance (wi h R2 be ween .318
and .446). As ou aim was also o make ou -o -sample p edic ions, we we e able o assess a
medium p edic i e powe o ou model.
191
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
P ac ical Implica ions
VET is supposed o p epa e young adul s o he equi emen s o hei cu en and u u e
wo kplaces. Howe e , he digi al ans o ma ion has changed he way we wo k and how hu-
mans in e ac in an unp eceden ed way (Eu opean Commission, 2013; Paeßens e al., 2023).
Pa icula ly he a ea o collabo a ion seems o be impac ed igo ously (Schwendimann e
al., 2018). Wi h ou s udy, we wan o con ibu e o his line o esea ch by o e ing i s and
explo a i e esul o con ex o VET ha ha e implica ions o a a ie y o p ac ical a eas:
Fi s ly, i migh help o ganiza ions in p o iding hem wi h in o ma ion on ce ain condi-
ions which a e conduci e o lea ning. In many coun ies such as Ge many, i m-based ai-
ning p o ided by in-company aine s plays a pi o al ole in p epa ing app en ices o hei
wo king li e (Baum e al., 2022). A he same ime, in-company aine s pe cei e an inc ea-
sing demand on hem igge ed by a changing wo king en i onmen . In pa icula , pedagogi-
cal and didac ic compe encies a e becoming inc easingly impo an o in-company aine s
in a p og essi ely digi al wo ld (Nicklich e al., 2022). In o e ing a mo e de ailed ision on
he mani old ac o s ha shape VTW, i ms and in-company aine s could be suppo ed o
p o ide meaning ul oppo uni ies o aining ha a e ailo ed o he needs o app en ices.
Wha is mo e, o he de elopmen o young adul s, i appea s ha he design o success ul
lea ning oppo uni ies needs o mee he con ex ualized a o dances o VET. By elabo a ing
on wha ac o s help o hinde a desi able ou come in he con ex o VTW, we migh be able
o help p ac i ione s o each his goal.
6 Limi a ionsandOu look
As in e e y s udy, some limi a ions mus be add essed. Ou pu pose ul sampling p ocedu e
was aimed a eaching as many app en ices as possible ia he c i e ion sampling me hod.
While we deem his app op ia e o answe ing ou RQs, one could ne e heless a gue ha
a mo e andom sampling would be a easonable al e na i e o a oid an o e ep esen a ion
o ce ain g oups. Wi h he a gumen ha accessing app en ices' ne wo ks is di icul , u u e
esea ch could con ol o ha by applying o he modes o da a ga he ing. Mo eo e , ou
sample consis s o indi iduals who a e unde going VET in Ge many. Acco ding o Busemey-
e & T ampusch (2012), VET in Ge many can be depic ed in he collec i e skill o ma ion
egime - wi h bo h school-based and in-company aining componen s. Acco dingly, some
o ganiza ional and con en - ela ed di e ences compa ed o o he skill o ma ion egimes
may occu . Ne e heless, all skill egimes a e cha ac e ized by a la ge a ie y o (lea ning)
si ua ions in which VT mus be applied – ega dless o he lea ning loca ion. Since VET in an
o e a ching sense pu sues he aining o all ele an knowledge, skills, and a i udes ha a e
needed o collabo a ion in mode n wo kplaces, i can be assumed ha ou esul s a e also
ele an o o he VET con ex s han he collec i e ones. Ano he limi a ion in ol es missing
192 Fos e ing Inno a i e Lea ning and Sa is ac ion in Vi ual Teamwo k
da a: F om an ini ial ound o 387 app en ices, 181 ma ched ou speci ied c i e ia, e en ually.
We examined his issue ca e ully by conside ing sophis ica ed impu a ion me hods, such as
mul iple impu a ions (Allison, 2009). In he end, we op ed o he emo al o all hose om
he sample who did no p o ide su icien da a on an indi idual le el (e.g., cu en occupa-
ion). Las ly, we need o conside a possible selec ion bias in ou sample. We p omo ed ou
su ey ia online channels a he han "pape and pencil". This could a ac hose wi h a
highe digi al a ini y and, he e o e, bias ou esul s5. Fu u e esea ch could accoun o his
bias by collec ing o he o ms o da a such as quali a i e in e iews o iangula e he esul s
om he quan i a i e s udy wi h hose om a quali a i e app oach. In ou esea ch, we ha e
ocused on hose ac o s o which we we e able o iden i y he s onges hypo heses based
on an ex ensi e li e a u e e iew. Ye , he concep o VT also en ails o he cons uc s as well,
especially us , a ilia ion, leade ship, pe cei ed eeling o eam membe ship, and human
in e ac ion. Fu u e esea ch should, he e o e, endea o an e en mo e ex ensi e use o ac-
companying ins umen s o comp ehensi ely pain a holis ic pic u e o VT and o iangula e
he p esen indings. This could also en ail an expe imen al design s udy ha migh allow a
mo e con en -cen e ed app oach by s imula ing speci ic wo k ac i i ies ac oss a wide se ing
o g oups, o by ex ending he analysis on social ac o s in a VT. Fu u e esea ch would be
also bene icial ega ding a di e en ia ion be ween labo - ela ed lea ning in explici lea ning
se ings and labo -in eg a ed lea ning as a pa o he wo king p og ess (Webe , 2013).
Wi h a "new no mal" in place, VTW is becoming inc easingly impo an . This poses ma-
ni old challenges o i ms and employees alike as well as b inging new a o dances. We con-
ibu e o his a ea o esea ch and o e a i s glance in o wha ac o s os e VTW.
E hicsS a emen
The au ho s s a e ha hey ha e heeded he e hical p inciples in his submission by imple-
men ing he e hical p inciples ia in o med consen in line wi h he IJRVET e hics s a emen .
5 A de ailed compa ison o ou sample wi h he popula ion can be eques ed om he co esponding au ho .
193
F ank Hille , S e anie Za now
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