Debus, Maike E.; Ingold, Pia V.; G oss, Ch is ian; Bolino, Ma k C.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Reaching he Top? P o iles o Imp ession Managemen
and Ca ee Success
Jou nal o Business and Psychology
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Debus, Maike E.; Ingold, Pia V.; G oss, Ch is ian; Bolino, Ma k C. (2024) :
Reaching he Top? P o iles o Imp ession Managemen and Ca ee Success, Jou nal o Business and
Psychology, ISSN 1573-353X, Sp inge US, New Yo k, NY, Vol. 39, Iss. 6, pp. 1283-1301,
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Reaching heTop? P o iles o Imp ession Managemen andCa ee
Success
MaikeE.Debus1 · PiaV.Ingold2 · Ch is ianG oss1,3,4 · Ma kC.Bolino5
Accep ed: 1 May 2024 / Published online: 24 May 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Employees use imp ession managemen (IM) ac ics o in luence hei image a wo k. Whe eas indings ega ding he e ec s
o IM on in e iew ou comes and pe o mance e alua ions a e ex ensi e, ou unde s anding o he ca ee implica ions o IM
is bo h limi ed and inconclusi e. In his wo-s udy pape , we used la en p o ile analysis o be e unde s and he ela ionship
be ween he use o i e IM ac ics in combina ion—ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion, exempli ica ion, in imida ion, and supplica-
ion—and mul iple indica o s o objec i e ca ee success (i.e., sala y, p omo ions, and supe iso - a ed ewa d ecommenda-
ions) and subjec i e ca ee success. Fou di e en IM p o iles we e iden i ied in a sample o 237 employees in S udy 1 and
which we e eplica ed in S udy 2 wi h 268 employees. In S udy 1, we ound ha he highes le els o sala ies and p omo ions
( e lec ing objec i e ca ee success) we e associa ed wi h a passi e use o IM (i.e., employing all i e IM s a egies a low
equency), he eby unning coun e o ou ini ial expec a ions. In con as , he highes le el o subjec i e ca ee success
was associa ed wi h a posi i e use o IM (i.e., a pa e n employing he h ee posi i e s a egies ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion
and exempli ica ion a highe le els). In S udy 2, we ound posi i e use o IM o be associa ed wi h he highes le el o
supe iso - a ed ewa d ecommenda ions as a u he indica o o objec i e ca ee success ( ollowed by passi es wi h he
second highes ewa d ecommenda ions). Ou indings highligh he impo ance o iewing objec i e and subjec i e ca ee
success as quali a i ely di e en cons uc s and sugges bene i s o employing passi e IM use o objec i e ca ee success.
Keywo ds Imp ession managemen · La en p o ile analysis· Rewa d ecommenda ion· Ca ee success
Fo he pas 40yea s, he e has been a g owing in e es in
unde s anding how employees manage imp essions in o de
o shape how hey a e seen by o he s a wo k ( o a e iew,
see Bolino e al., 2016). Du ing his ime, a numbe o s udies
ha e shown ha imp ession managemen (IM) a ec s who
is hi ed in o ganiza ions (Ba ick e al., 2009; Peck & Le -
ashina, 2017), how in- ole and ex a- ole pe o mance a e
e alua ed (Bolino e al., 2006; B oue e al., 2015; Wayne &
Liden, 1995), and how IM a ec s employee esou ce deple-
ion and de iance (Klo z e al., 2018a, 2018b). S udies ha e
also shown ha employees who expe ience job insecu i y
use IM o imp ess hei supe iso s (Huang e al., 2013), and
ha employees who expe ience shame use he IM ac ic o
exempli ica ion o appea mo e dedica ed and wo hy (Bon-
ne e al., 2017). In sho , esea ch p o ides ample e idence
ha IM plays a ubiqui ous ole in o ganiza ional li e.
P e ious esea ch has con ibu ed o ou unde s and-
ing o he na u e, an eceden s, and consequences o IM,
bu his wo k has mos o en in es iga ed he e ec s o
ing a ia ion and sel -p omo ion ( wo speci ic posi i e IM
ac ics) on in e iew decisions and pe o mance e alu-
a ions (Peck & Le ashina, 2017). Al hough hese ou -
comes a e impo an , communica ion p o essionals and
execu i e coaches emphasize ha managing imp essions
Maike E. Debus and Pia V. Ingold sha e i s au ho ship o his
a icle.
* Maike E. Debus
[email p o ec ed]h
1 Ins i u e o Wo k andO ganiza ional Psychology, Uni e si y
o Neuchâ el, Neuchâ el, Swi ze land
2 Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, Denma k
3 Depa men o Psychology, Uni e si y o Zu ich, Zu ich,
Swi ze land
4 Big Da a Resea ch, Adol Wü h GmbH & Co. KG, Be lin,
Ge many
5 P ice College o Business, Uni e si y o Oklahoma, No man,
OK, USA
1284 Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
is c i ical o ca ee success (e.g., K ame & Ha is, 2020).
Ca ee success has been e med he “ul ima e ou come o
a ca ee ” (e.g., Spu k e al., 2019, p. 37) and desc ibes
he “accumula ed posi i e wo k and psychological ou -
comes esul ing om one’s wo k expe iences” (Ng e al.,
2005, p. 368). Despi e he po en ial impo ance o IM
o ad ance one’s ca ee , he e has been su p isingly li -
le esea ch explo ing his opic. Judge and B e z (1994)
ound ha supe iso - ocused ing a ia ion was posi i ely
ela ed o ca ee success, while job- ocused sel -p omo ion
was nega i ely ela ed o ca ee success. Howe e , he e
has been e en less esea ch dedica ed o unde s anding he
ac ics o exempli ica ion, in imida ion, and supplica ion,
whe eby people seek o be seen as dedica ed, h ea ening,
and needy, espec i ely, and how hese ac ics may also
a ec ca ee success, pa icula ly when used in combina-
ion wi h ing a ia ion and sel -p omo ion. In o he wo ds,
al hough p io esea ch indica es ha people use a i-
ous IM ac ics o shape hei image (Bolino & Tu nley,
1999; Bolino e al., 2008), mos s udies end o ocus on
he indi idual use o ce ain ac ics (see s udies below
o excep ions on IM on he job, and Moon e al., 2023,
o IM in selec ion), a he han in es iga ing hei join
e ec s, despi e e idence sugges ing ha he e is conside -
able alue in unde s anding how people use IM ac ics in
combina ion.
Th ee di e en s udies ha e examined he use o IM
ac ics a wo k in combina ion, and all ha e hin ed owa ds
simila i ies in iden i ied p o iles o IM use. In he i s
s udy, Bolino and Tu nley (2003) used clus e analysis
o iden i y h ee pa e ns o ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion,
exempli ica ion, in imida ion, and supplica ion used by
s uden s. They labeled hose who ended o use only he
posi i e IM ac ics o ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion, and
exempli ica ion as he posi i es; hose who used ela i ely
high le els o all o he ac ics as agg essi es; and hose
who used ela i ely ew o he ac ics as passi es. They
also ound ha posi i es and passi es we e iewed as mo e
desi able eam membe s compa ed o he agg essi es.
Building on his esea ch, Mahe e al. (2018) used clus e
analysis o eplica e he IM p o iles iden i ied by Bolino
and Tu nley (2003). Resul s con e ged in h ee ou o ou
di e en samples o esponden s. Mo e ecen ly, Chawla
e al. (2021) used la en p o ile analysis (LPA) o iden i y
p o iles o IM. Ac oss h ee s udies, hey again iden i ied
passi e, agg essi e, and posi i e p o iles (as well as h ee
addi ional p o iles). Fu he , hey ound ha p o iles o
IM we e ela ed o employees’ eelings o inau hen ici y
and cowo ke assessmen s o employee job pe o mance,
wi hd awal, absen eeism, and since i y.
These s udies demons a e he insigh gained om explo -
ing how employees manage imp essions using a “pe son-
cen e ed” pe spec i e (e.g., Wang e al., 2013; Woo e al.,
2024). Pe son-cen e ed esea ch (as opposed o a iable-
cen e ed esea ch) acknowledges he ac ha he e may be
sub-g oups o indi iduals who di e in hei con igu a ions
o pa e ns o ce ain cha ac e is ics and beha io s, such as
IM in he p esen case. Rela edly, such an app oach also
o e s a new oppo uni y o shed ligh on he mixed me a-
analy ic e ec s o he use o single IM ac ics on ca ee ou -
comes (Higgins e al., 2003). Fo example, he 95% c ed-
ibili y in e al o he ela ionship be ween sel -p omo ion
and objec i e ca ee success (e.g., p omo ion and sala y
ecommenda ion) anges om nega i e o posi i e alues.
In ac , hese a ying esul s may be explained by he di e -
en ial impac o dis inc pa e ns o IM. Ye , pe son-cen e ed
IM esea ch so a (Bolino & Tu nley, 2003; Chawla e al.,
2021; Mahe e al., 2018) has no ye p o ided insigh s on
he e ec s o a combina o y use o IM on ca ee ou comes.
Gi en ha ca ee success, as highligh ed abo e, is a key
ou come om bo h a heo e ical and a p ac ical pe spec i e,
his is a c i ical limi a ion. Thus, he pu pose o his pape is
o build upon p e ious IM esea ch by using LPA o iden i y
di e en pa e ns o IM use and o examine hei impac
on subjec i e and objec i e indica o s o ca ee success. In
doing so, we con ibu e o he IM li e a u e in h ee ways.
Fi s , we examine he ela ionship be ween IM p o iles
and mul iple indica o s o ca ee success (e.g., Ng e al.,
2005; Spu k e al., 2019): sala ies, p omo ions, and ewa d
ecommenda ions as objec i e indica o s o ca ee suc-
cess, and pe cei ed ca ee success (i.e., he deg ee o which
employees eel hei ca ee s ha e been success ul) as an
indica o o subjec i e ca ee success. As such, we p o ide
knowledge on how e ec i e di e en combina ions o IM
ac ics a e wi h a ocus on employees’ ca ee . This is espe-
cially ele an because IM aims a p esen ing onesel in a
ce ain ligh , and di e en combina ions o IM could exe
a di e en ial in luence on employees’ ca ee s and he pe -
cep ion o hei ca ee . We he eby ex end p io esea ch
because, as p e iously no ed, Mahe e al. (2018) did no
examine any ou comes o IM p o iles, and Bolino and Tu n-
ley (2003) only looked a whe he pee s pe cei ed s uden s
using ce ain IM p o iles as mo e a o able g oup membe s.
Fu he , whe eas p io esea ch has equen ly in es iga ed
he e ec s o IM on in e iewing decisions and pe o mance
app aisals (Bolino e al., 2016), ew s udies ha e examined
he ca ee implica ions o IM ac ics (e.g., Judge & B e z,
1994), and no s udy has in es iga ed how he use o IM ac-
ics in combina ion may a ec employees’ ca ee success.
Second, we ex end he ca ee li e a u e by o e ing a mo e
nuanced unde s anding o IM e ec i eness in he con ex
o bo h objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success. On he one
hand, objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success a e mode a ely
co ela ed. Ye , on he o he hand, esea ch also indica es
ha bo h ypes o ca ee success a e undamen ally di e en
and o en ha e di e en an eceden s and implica ions (Ng &
1285Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
Feldman, 2014). Thus, i is impo an o dis inguish e ec s
o each ou come. The e o e, we examine di e en ial e ec s
o IM p o iles on objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success
o allow o speci ic conclusions ega ding each indica o .
No ably, we do his in an explo a o y manne o subjec-
i e ca ee success. This is because, heo e ically, oppos-
ing e ec s o how ce ain IM p o iles may a ec subjec i e
ca ee success a e possible, and he lack o a iable-cen e ed
esea ch on his ela ionship means he e is li le empi ical
guidance o de e mining a di ec ion. Al oge he , s udying
e ec s on bo h objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success p o-
ides a mo e comp ehensi e and comple e unde s anding
o how p o iles o IM a e ela ed o ca ee success. This can
also lead o heo y-d i en esea ch on IM and subjec i e
ca ee success.
Thi d and inally, as no ed ea lie , Bolino and Tu nley
(2003) conduc ed hei s udies wi h wo samples o unde -
g adua e s uden s. Mahe e al. (2018) used mul iple samples
in hei esea ch, including ull- ime employees ec ui ed by
s uden s in managemen cou ses (Samples 1 and 4); employ-
ees wo king o an au omo i e o ganiza ion (Sample 2); and
HR p o essionals, wo king o o ganiza ions in a a ie y o
indus ies (Sample 3). Chawla e al. (2021) also used mul-
iple samples o ull- ime employees, ec ui ed ia Ama-
zon Mechanical Tu k (S udy 2) o unde g adua e s uden s
(S udy 1 and 3), wi h an addi ional sample o s udy pa -
icipan s’ cowo ke s (S udy 3). Whe eas he da a collec ed
by Mahe e al. (2018) we e all sel - epo ed, Bolino and
Tu nley (2003) collec ed mul i-sou ce da a om s uden s,
and Chawla e al. (2021) included mul i-sou ce da a om
employees and hei cowo ke s (S udy 3). We collec bo h
employee sel - epo da a as well as da a om employee-
supe iso dyads. In doing so, we ex end p io esea ch
by a oiding same-sou ce bias (Podsako e al., 2012), and
acknowledge supe iso s as one o he mos impo an ga e-
keepe s/decision-make s o ca ee p og ession (e.g., King,
2004).
Iden i ying IM P o iles
The i s aim o ou esea ch is o iden i y IM p o iles using
LPA. Following he idea o cons uc i e eplica ion (e.g.,
Köhle & Co ina, 2019), we expec o ind p o iles ha
di e bo h quan i a i ely (i.e., in hei equency, such as
people demons a ing a high e sus low amoun o all i e
ac ics) and quali a i ely (i.e., in hei shape, such as peo-
ple demons a ing a high amoun o only posi i e ac ics
e sus a high amoun o all i e ac ics; e.g., Gab iel e al.,
2015; Ma sh e al., 2009). Despi e some inconsis encies
in he numbe o p o iles ac oss s udies (i.e., om h ee o
i e, Bolino & Tu nley, 2003; Chawla e al., 2021; Mahe
e al., 2018), in each p e ious s udy, ac oss mul iple samples,
h ee p o iles di e ed quan i a i ely and quali a i ely: he
posi i e p o ile, encompassing hose employees who mainly
use he posi i e IM ac ics o ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion,
and exempli ica ion; he agg essi e p o ile, including hose
employees who make use o all ac ics a ela i ely high le -
els; and he passi e p o ile, including employees who make
less use o all IM ac ics. Thus, in S udy 1 we examine he
ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1: Using LPA, he e will be quali a i ely and
quan i a i ely dis inc p o iles o IM in S udy 1, including
an agg essi e, passi e, and posi i e p o ile.
Then, in S udy 2, we aim o assess whe he he p o ile
s uc u e o S udy 1 could be eplica ed in a second sample.
Hence, ou second hypo hesis p edic s ha we will ind he
same p o iles as in S udy 1.
Hypo hesis 2: In S udy 2, he same p o iles o IM iden i-
ied in S udy 1 will be ound.
IM P o iles andThei Rela ion oObjec i e
andSubjec i e Ca ee Success
The second aim o ou esea ch is o u he con ibu e o
ou unde s anding o how IM p o iles ela e o ca ee suc-
cess. IM heo y posi s ha people use IM o achie e desi ed
ou comes (Lea y & Kowalski, 1990; Schlenke , 1980), and
his has been an impo an a ea o o ganiza ional esea ch
o decades (Bolino e al., 2016). In he ca ee con ex , his
pe ains o ca ee success, which has been concep ualized
as he “ul ima e ou come o a ca ee ” (Spu k e al., 2019, p.
37). In suppo o such heo izing, esea ch on indi idual
posi i e IM ac ics has illus a ed ha IM can in luence
ca ee success. Fo ins ance, supe iso - ocused ing a ia-
ion was ound o ela e posi i ely o ca ee success, while
job- ocused sel -p omo ion nega i ely ela es o ca ee
success (Judge & B e z, 1994). While ca ee success has
been de ined as he “posi i e psychological o wo k- ela ed
ou comes o achie emen s one accumula es as a esul o
wo k expe iences” (Seibe e al., 1999, p. 417; Seibe &
K aime , 2001), esea ch has o en included only one o wo
ope a ionaliza ions o ca ee success, ha is, ei he objec i e
ca ee success o subjec i e ca ee success (e.g., Ng e al.,
2005). Objec i e ca ee success can be di ec ly obse ed
by o he s and can be measu ed in a s anda dized way (e.g.,
sala y o numbe o p omo ions, Spu k e al., 2019, see also
Boud eau & Boswell, 2001; Judiesch & Lyness, 1999; Ng
e al., 2005; Seibe e al., 2001). Subjec i e ca ee success
e e s o “ he ocal ac o ’s e alua ion and expe ience o
achie ing pe sonally meaning ul ca ee ou comes” (Spu k
e al., 2019, p. 36), and i can be measu ed as pe cei ed
1286 Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
ca ee success (e.g., Abele & Spu k, 2009; Heslin, 2003;
Tu ban & Doughe y, 1994).
Based on indings om a iable-cen e ed esea ch, IM
p o iles may also p edic ca ee success, and LPA allows
us o examine whe he ca ee success di e s be ween p o-
iles. To ob ain a be e unde s anding o how IM p o iles
p edic ca ee success comp ehensi ely, we examine he
ela ionship o di e en IM p o iles wi h impo an indica-
o s o objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success. Fo objec i e
ca ee success, we ocus on sala y, numbe o p omo ions,
and ewa d ecommenda ions. Rewa d ecommenda ion is
a mo e o wa d-looking indica o o ca ee success and one
ha would be a ed by he employee’s supe iso (Allen
& Rush, 1998; Spu k e al., 2019). Mo e p ecisely, ewa d
ecommenda ions cap u e he supe iso ’s willingness o
ecommend hei subo dina es o sala y inc eases, p omo-
ions, high p o ile p ojec s, public ecogni ion, and oppo -
uni ies o p o essional de elopmen (e.g., Allen & Rush,
1998). Rewa d ecommenda ions can be ca ego ized as an
objec i e ca ee success indica o because hey a e e alua ed
objec i ely by someone who has impo an in luence o e
he employee’s ca ee (i.e., immedia e supe iso s). Building
on he no ion ha IM can in luence ca ee success, he di e -
en ial e ec s o he combined use o IM (i.e., IM p o iles) on
he supe iso - a ed ou come o ewa d ecommenda ions,
an indica o o he e ec i eness o indi iduals’ IM use, may
be especially ele an (Bozeman & Kacma , 1997; Fe is &
Judge, 1991; Ga dne & Ma inko, 1988). Supe iso s a e
ypically he ones who ecommend hei subo dina es o
ewa ds (e.g., Allen & Rush, 1998), and he e is empi ical
e idence ha employees’ use o IM ela es o he ewa d
ecommenda ions hey ecei e (Deng e al., 2020).
Fo subjec i e ca ee success, we ocus on pe cei ed
ca ee success (Ng e al., 2005; Spu k e al., 2019), whe eby
employees subjec i ely e alua e how success ul hei ca ee
has been. Ou app oach o conside bo h objec i e and sub-
jec i e ca ee success indica o s is especially ele an in
ligh o a ecen e iew highligh ing he necessi y o adop -
ing a holis ic app oach o ca ee success, including bo h
objec i e and subjec i e indica o s gi en ha hey ep e-
sen nomologically-dis inc ace s o ca ee success (Spu k
e al., 2019).
P edic ing Objec i e Ca ee Success
An es ablished ene o IM heo y as well as social in luence
heo y is ha IM is employed o maximize one’s ewa d-
cos a io when in e ac ing wi h o he s (Fe is e al., 2002;
Lea y & Kowalski, 1990; Schlenke , 1980). In he wo k
con ex , ewa ds ypically include sala ies, p omo ions, and
ewa d ecommenda ions. We assume ha a clea emphasis
on posi i e IM ac ics such as sel -p omo ion, ing a ia ion,
and exempli ica ion (consis en wi h he posi i e p o ile
om p io esea ch) would be bene icial o achie ing hese
objec i e ou comes in compa ison o a lowe use o IM ac-
ics (i.e., he passi e p o ile ha is cha ac e ized by a lowe
use o IM). The unde lying mechanism is ha he posi i e
p o ile should be e con ey he image o a compe en , dedi-
ca ed, and likeable employee (Bolino & Tu nley, 2003) who
is o be ewa ded in o ganiza ions. Mo e speci ically, sel -
p omo ion and ing a ia ion aim o inc ease how employees
a e pe cei ed on compe ence and likeabili y/wa m h, which
a e ecognized as he wo key dimensions o pe son e alu-
a ions (Fiske e al., 2007). In addi ion, pe cei ing someone
as dedica ed, as in ended h ough he use o exempli ica ion,
should esul in seeing he employee as mo e commi ed and
inclined o engage in o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io s – a
beha io ha is highly alued by o ganiza ions because i
con ibu es o o ganiza ional success (e.g., Podsako e al.,
2009).
Hypo hesis 3: Employees wi h a posi i e IM p o ile will
ha e (a) highe sala ies, (b) highe p omo ions, and (c)
highe ewa d ecommenda ions han employees belong-
ing o he passi e p o ile.
Second, we p opose ha a p o ile wi h an undi e en ia ed
high use o IM (consis en wi h he agg essi e p o ile om
p io esea ch, Bolino & Tu nley, 2003; Mahe e al., 2018)
will be associa ed wi h less objec i e ca ee success han a
p o ile wi h a ocus on posi i e ac ics (consis en wi h he
posi i e p o ile om p io esea ch) o a p o ile cha ac e -
ized by low le els o IM usage (consis en wi h he passi e
p o ile om p io esea ch). In pa icula , i has been a gued
in he IM li e a u e ha such a “sho gun” app oach, in which
ela i ely high le els o IM a e used indisc imina ely, may
back i e o employees (Bolino e al., 2016), and ha using
oo much IM inc eases he isk o being pe cei ed as oo
ob iously o anspa en ly managing imp essions o e en
manipula ing o he s (Go don, 1996; Jones, 1964).
The mechanism unde lying his ca ee -unde mining e ec
o he agg essi e p o ile migh ela e o he images ha can
be elici ed when employing nega i e ac ics. Speci ically,
he use o supplica ion and in imida ion can come a he
high cos o appea ing less dedica ed and lazie (supplica-
ion), and o appea ing mo e supe io and bossie (in imida-
ion) (see Tu nley & Bolino, 2001, o his a iable-cen e ed
esea ch). Such images migh esul in un a o able eac-
ions om supe iso s and colleagues, as hey unde mine
he image o a likeable and dedica ed employee, he eby
educing supe iso s’ willingness o p omo e he employ-
ee’s ca ee and colleagues’ willingness o coope a e wi h he
employee, which may likewise unde mine he employee’s
ca ee success (Bolino & Tu nley, 2003). This e ec migh
be pa icula ly high o employees belonging o he agg es-
si es p o ile who simul aneously use high le els o nega i e
1287Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
ac ics, and high le els o posi i e ac ics. This is because
i migh be pe cei ed as mo e manipula i e when used in
combina ion (as desc ibed abo e) as hey y o con ey con-
lic ing images (Chawla e al., 2021). In compa ison, bo h
posi i es and passi es ocus on posi i e ac ics (albei a
di e en le els), and a oid displaying high le els o nega-
i e ac ics. In suppo o his a gumen , in p io esea ch,
agg essi es el mo e inau hen ic han passi es and posi i es
(Chawla e al., 2021, S udy 1 and S udy 2) and we e less
likely o be pe cei ed a o ably (Bolino & Tu nley, 2003),
in compa ison o bo h passi es and posi i es. Acco dingly,
we expec employees in he agg essi e p o ile o exhibi he
lowes ca ee success.
Hypo hesis 4: Employees wi h an agg essi e IM p o ile
will ha e (a) lowe sala ies, (b) ewe p omo ions, and (c)
lowe ewa d ecommenda ions han employees belong-
ing o he posi i e1 and passi e p o iles.
Explo ing heP edic ion o Subjec i e Ca ee
Success
Wi h ega d o subjec i e ca ee success, we examine he
di ec ion o he ela ionship o he e y ac i e IM use s (i.e.,
he posi i e and he agg essi e p o ile) in compa ison o he
passi e p o ile. We pose his as a esea ch ques ion (RQ)
because heo y sugges s ha opposing e ec s may come
in o play he e, and i is di icul o de e mine he di ec ion
o e ec s a p io i. On he one hand, i appea s possible ha
hese ac i e IM use s (posi i es and agg essi es) employ IM
in o de o enhance hei sel -image, as sel -enhancemen is
an impo an IM mo i e (Lea y, 1995; Schlenke , 1985). As
such, when hese indi iduals ac i ely manage hei ca ee -
ela ed image by using IM, and hey pe cei e hei beha io s
as e ec i e, i could enhance he posi i i y o hei ca ee -
ela ed sel -image, hence hei subjec i e ca ee pe cep ions.
On he o he hand, in ligh o ego-deple ion heo y (e.g.,
Baumeis e e al., 1998), i is possible ha a mo e ac i e
use o IM (i.e., he posi i e and he agg essi e p o ile) and
cons an moni o ing migh consume esou ces ha can lead
o highe le els o exhaus ion,subjec i e a igue, andnega-
i e a ec (Baumeis e e al., 1998; Hagge e al., 2010;
T ougakos e al., 2015). This esou ce consump ion, in
u n, couldlowe employees’ subjec i e pe cep ions o hei
ca ee in compa ison o passi e IM use s (i.e., he passi e
p o ile) who would ha e conse ed he esou ces necessa y
o deploy his e y ac i e o m o IM. The e o e, we examine
he ollowing RQ:
Resea ch Ques ion 1: How does he subjec i e ca ee
success o employees wi h a e y ac i e use o IM (i.e., an
agg essi e o posi i e p o ile) compa e o he subjec i e
ca ee success o he passi e p o ile?
We conduc ed wo s udies o in es iga e ou hypo heses
and RQ1. S udy 1 sough o iden i y IM p o iles ha di e
bo h quan i a i ely and quali a i ely, he eby aiming o epli-
ca e IM p o ile solu ions ound in ea lie esea ch (Bolino &
Tu nley, 2003; Chawla e al., 2021; Mahe e al., 2018) and
es ing Hypo hesis 1. Mo eo e , S udy 1 examined ela ion-
ships be ween IM p o iles and sala ies and p omo ions as
objec i e ca ee success indica o s (Hypo heses 3 a-b and 4
a-b), as well as explo ed ela ionships wi h subjec i e ca ee
success (RQ1). Hypo heses we e es ed among employees
wo king in a di e se ange o occupa ions and indus ies.
S udy 2 se ou o eplica e he p o iles ound in S udy 1
(i.e., es ing Hypo hesis 2) and o examine he ela ionship
be ween IM p o iles and supe iso a ings o ewa d ec-
ommenda ions as a u he , mo e o wa d-looking indica o
o objec i e ca ee success (i.e., Hypo heses 3c and 4c). To
do so, S udy 2 used da a om employee-supe iso dyads
who we e again employed in a ious di e en occupa ions
and indus ies.
S udy 1
In S udy 1, we iden i y IM p o iles (Hypo hesis 1) and es
Hypo heses 3 a-b and 4 a-b wi h ega d o hei ela ionship
wi h objec i e ca ee success (e.g., sala y, p omo ions) and
RQ1 wi h ega d o subjec i e ca ee success (i.e., pe cei ed
ca ee success).
Me hod
Sample andP ocedu e
We collec ed da a om Swiss employees ia an online su -
ey wi h he help o a ma ke esea ch company2 ( o a simi-
la app oach see Ba inic e al., 2010; Debus e al., 2020). As
pa o he in o med consen , we in o med employees ha
hey could wi hd aw om he s udy a any poin wi hou
consequence and we also assu ed anonymi y. Pa icipan s
we e compensa ed wi h bonus poin s wo h 0.50 EUR,
which hey we e la e able o exchange o dona ions o a
cha i able o ganiza ion, cash, o shopping ouche s.
In o al, 401 indi iduals ag eed o pa icipa e. We
excluded 142 pa icipan s who we e no wo king o pay,
we e s uden s, we e sel -employed, o did no comple e he
1 Please no e ha we decided agains including he compa ison o he
posi i e and agg essi e p o ile in Hypo hesis 3 o a oid an o e lap
wi h Hypo hesis 4, which includes his compa ison. 2 Fo mo e in o ma ion see www. bilen di. de.
1288 Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
su ey. Mo eo e , we excluded 17 pa icipan s who p o-
ided nonsensical answe s o ques ions abou hei sala y
o hei job i le, which sugges s ha hese esponden s we e
esponding ca elessly o he su ey. Finally, we excluded i e
pa icipan s who demons a ed no a ia ion when answe -
ing he imp ession managemen i ems. As such, ou inal
sample included 237 pa icipan s (59.1% o he ull sample).
O hese, 51.9% we e male, and mean age was 42.47yea s
(SD = 11.13). On a e age, pa icipan s had been employed
a hei cu en company o 7.76yea s (SD = 7.75). A o al
o 63.7% o pa icipan s had oca ional aining, 22.8% had
a bachelo ’s deg ee o a deg ee om a uni e si y o applied
sciences, 13% had a uni e si y o a doc o al deg ee, and
0.4% had no o mal deg ee. The majo i y o pa icipan s
wo ked ull- ime (64.1%) e sus pa - ime. Pa icipan s
wo ked in a a ie y o indus ies (e.g., heal h and social se -
ices, eal es a e/IT/ esea ch and de elopmen , cons uc-
ion, comme ce, ag icul u e, c edi and insu ance, educa-
ion, communica ions and in o ma ion ansmission) as well
as in a a ie y o di e en occupa ions (e.g., eache , ligh
a endan , p ocess manage , cashie s, IT specialis s, ucke ,
cus ome ela ions manage ).
Measu es
We adminis e ed all measu es in Ge man. Fo measu es
o which a Ge man e sion o he scale was una ailable,
we ollowed B islin’s (1980) ansla ion/back- ansla ion
p ocedu e.
Imp ession Managemen Tac ics Imp ession managemen
ac ics we e assessed using Bolino and Tu nley’s (1999)
measu e, in which each o he i e ac ics is measu ed wi h
ou o i e i ems. Sample i ems a e “I alk p oudly abou my
expe ience o educa ion” (sel -p omo ion), “I complimen
my colleagues so hey will see me as likeable” (ing a ia-
ion), “I s ay a wo k la e so people know I am ha d wo k-
ing” (exempli ica ion), “I am in imida ing wi h cowo ke s
when i will help me ge my job done” (in imida ion), and
“I ac like I know less han I do so people will help me
ou ” (supplica ion). Responden s we e asked o indica e how
o en hey engage in each o hese beha io s a wo k, ang-
ing om 1 = ne e beha e his way o 5 = o en beha e his
way. C onbach’s alphas we e 0.83 o sel -p omo ion, 0.86
o ing a ia ion, 0.68 o exempli ica ion, 0.83 o in imida-
ion, and 0.91 o supplica ion. We also ollowed he ecom-
menda ion by Cheung e al. (2023) and examined he a e -
age a iance ex ac ed (AVE). AVE indica es he amoun
o a iance ha is cap u ed by a cons uc in ela ion o he
amoun o a iance due o measu emen e o and se es as a
c i e ion o con e gen alidi y. The esul s show ha AVEs
we e g ea e han he 0.50 h eshold p oposed by Fo nell
and La cke (1981) o sel -p omo ion (0.60), ing a ia ion
(0.61), in imida ion (0.51), and supplica ion (0.69), ye ha
o exempli ica ion i was below his h eshold (0.36).
Objec i e Ca ee Success Objec i e ca ee success was
assessed ia sala y and numbe o p omo ions.
Sala y was assessed by asking esponden s o epo
hei mon hly sala y (in Swiss ancs). To accoun o di -
e ences in esponden s’ con ac ual wo kload, we calcula ed
he ull- ime equi alen mon hly sala y o each espond-
en . Responden s’ mean sala y was 6,925.54 CHF/mon h
(SD = 2,897.91, ange: 1,000 o 19,500 CHF).
Numbe o p omo ions was assessed by asking espond-
en s abou he numbe o p omo ions ha hey had ecei ed
du ing hei en i e ca ee (mean numbe o p omo-
ions = 1.87, SD = 1.82, ange: 0.00—12.00).
Subjec i e Ca ee Success Subjec i e ca ee success was
assessed as pe cei ed ca ee success using he ou -i em
measu e by Tu ban and Doughe y (1994), adap ed o he
s a emen o ma . A sample i em was “My ca ee has been
success ul.” Responses we e gi en on a se en-poin a ing
scale, anging om 1 = ully disag ee o 7 = ully ag ee.
C onbach’s alpha was 0.87 and AVE was 0.63.
Con ols We con olled o se e al a iables ha migh
in luence ca ee success ou comes, speci ically age, enu e,
wo kload, and whe he indi iduals we e in a leade ship posi-
ion (Ng & Feldman, 2014; Ng e al., 2005).
Analy ic App oach
We es ed ou hypo heses using LPA in Mplus 8 (Mu hén
& Mu hén, 1998–2017). As alluded o in he in oduc ion,
LPA is a ela i ely no el analy ic s a egy in he wo k and
o ganiza ional beha io li e a u e ha allows us o iden i y
g oups o indi iduals (i.e., la en subpopula ions o p o iles)
ha sha e simila pa e ns o a iables (he e: p o iles wi h
ega d o he use o he i e IM ac ics, e.g., Spu k e al.,
2020; Wang e al., 2013). As compa ed o mo e adi ional
clus e ing me hods (e.g., k-means clus e ing, hie a chical
clus e ing) ha a e non-la en in na u e, g oup membe ship
is ea ed as an unobse ed, ca ego ical a iable by LPA.
The alue o his a iable indica es he deg ee o p obabili y
o which an indi idual belongs o a ce ain p o ile. Fu he
ad an ages o LPA o e adi ional clus e ing me hods a e
ha a iables wi hin LPA may be con inuous, ca ego ical,
coun s, o a combina ion o hese, and ha u he co a i-
a es can be used o p o ile desc ip ion – which is wha we
will do when examining whe he he iden i ied p o iles di -
e en ially ela e o ou comes in he o m o ca ee success
indica o s in he p esen s udy (Spu k e al., 2020).
Following bes p ac ices (e.g., Spu k e al., 2020; Wang
e al., 2013), we s a ed by iden i ying he op imal numbe o
1289Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
p o iles in ou sample; his p o ided an answe o Hypo he-
sis 1. To do so, we ollowed he ecommenda ions by Nylund
e al. (2007) and i s speci ied wo la en p o iles and hen
inc eased he numbe o p o iles. In doing so, we assessed
he inc ease in model i and heo e ical in e p e abili y o
he model in each s ep. We selec ed he bes - i ing p o ile
solu ion by elying on h ee ypes o s a is ical i indica o s
(see Gab iel e al., 2015; Klo z e al., 2018a, 2018b; Nylund
e al., 2007; To ighi & Ende s, 2007). Fi s , we compa ed
ou models using ou ela i e i in o ma ion c i e ia: log
likelihood (LL), Akaike in o ma ion c i e ion (AIC), Bayes-
ian in o ma ion c i e ion (BIC), and sample-size-adjus ed
BIC (SSA–BIC). The e a e no cu o sco es o LPA i s a-
is ics, bu lowe LL, AIC, BIC, and SSA–BIC alues in
compa ison o o he p o ile solu ions indica e be e model
i . Second, we compa ed di e en likelihood a io es s (i.e.,
he Lo-Mendell-Rubin likelihood a io es [LMR] and he
boo s ap likelihood a io es [BLRT]) “ ha quan i y spe-
ci ic compa isons be ween he model o in e es and a model
wi h one ewe class” (Spu k e al., 2020, p. 10). Bo h he
LMR (Lo e al., 2001) and he BLRT (Nylund e al., 2007)
should be signi ican (p < .05). Thi d, we inspec ed en opy
as an indica o o classi ica ion quali y, which e lec s he
“con idence wi h which indi iduals ha e been classi ied as
belonging o one g oup o ano he ” (Spu k e al., 2020, p.
10). An en opy alue should be abo e he ecommended
h eshold le el o 0.80, and la ge en opy alues compa ed
o o he p o ile solu ions indica e be e model i (Cla k
& Mu hén, 2009). In he nex s ep, we examined whe he
he iden i ied p o iles ela e di e en ly o he wo objec-
i e ca ee success indica o s (i.e., sala y and numbe o
p omo ions, as p oposed in Hypo heses 3a-b and 4a-b) and
subjec i e ca ee success (i.e., pe cei ed ca ee success as
p oposed in RQ1). S a is ically, his implies ha we es
mean di e ences ac oss he di e en p o iles in ela ion o
he h ee a o emen ioned ca ee success indica o s. Fu he ,
o accoun o he in luence o he con ol a iables, we
deployed McLa non and O’Neill’s (2018) p oposed manual
3-s ep app oach o he DU3STEP p ocedu e in Mplus 8.
DU3STEP allows o unequal p o ile-speci ic a iance and
has been ecommended o use o con inuous ou come a i-
ables (Aspa ouho & Mu hén, 2014), which is he case in
ou s udy (see also Hi schi e al., 2020; Zhu e al., 2017).
Resul s
Means, s anda d de ia ions, and co ela ions o S udy 1
a iables a e shown in Table1. Table2 displays he i s a-
is ics o possible la en p o ile s uc u es. As shown he e,
he ou -p o ile solu ion exhibi ed be e i compa ed o
he wo- and h ee-p o ile solu ions because i had lowe
LL, AIC, BIC, SSA–BIC alues, and signi ican LMR and
BLRT alues. Al hough he i e-p o ile solu ion had sligh ly
lowe LL, AIC, and SSA–BIC s a is ics and a sligh ly highe
en opy alue in compa ison o he ou -p o ile solu ion, he
LMR i s a is ic was no signi ican o he i e-p o ile solu-
ion. Gi en ha bo h LMR and BLRT should be signi ican
(Gab iel e al., 2015), we e ained he ou -p o ile s uc u e
(see Fig.1).
Figu e1 p esen s he es ima ed means o all i e
imp ession managemen s a egies o each p o ile. In line
wi h Bolino and Tu nley (2003) and Mahe e al. (2018),
we ound a “posi i e” p o ile, in which 85 indi iduals
(i.e., 35.9%) epo ed using ela i ely high le els o hose
ac ics ha gene ally seek o elici a posi i e imp ession
(i.e., ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion, and exempli ica ion) and
ela i ely low le els o hose ac ics ha end o e oke an
un a o able imp ession (i.e., supplica ion and in imida-
ion). The second p o ile comp ised 69 esponden s (i.e.,
29.1%) who used ela i ely low le els o all i e IM ac-
ics. Following Bolino and Tu nley (2003) and Mahe e al.
(2018), we labelled his p o ile he “passi es.” The hi d
p o ile was cha ac e ized by 20 indi iduals (i.e., 8.4%)
who exhibi ed high le els o all i e IM ac ics. Following
Bolino and Tu nley (2003) and Mahe e al. (2018), we
labelled his p o ile he “agg essi es.” Finally, he ou h
p o ile, which has no been ound in p io esea ch, was
cha ac e ized by 63 esponden s (i.e., 26.6%) who showed
Table 1 Means, s anda d
de ia ions, and co ela ions o
S udy 1 a iables
No e.N = 237. Sala y is indica ed in Swiss ancs/1000
* p < .05; ** p < .01
Va iables M SD 123 45 67
1 Sel -p omo ion 2.81 0.75
2 Ing a ia ion 2.84 0.86 .34**
3 Exempli ica ion 2.17 0.72 .44** .53**
4 In imida ion 1.85 0.73 .36** .14* .37**
5 Supplica ion 1.55 0.70 .18** .28** .47** .55**
6 Sala y 6.93 2.90 −.07 −.10 −.18** .04 −.14*
7 P omo ions 1.87 1.82 −.01 −.12 −.15* −.09 −.15* .39**
8 Pe cei ed ca ee success 4.46 1.15 .18** .04 −.03 .01 −.09 .36** .36**
1290 Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
mode a e le els o all i e IM ac ics; we e med his
p o ile he “mode a es.” In sum, we iden i ied di e en
p o iles ha di e ed quan i a i ely and quali a i ely and
ha included h ee p o iles which we e simila o ea lie
esea ch (Bolino & Tu nley, 2003; Chawla e al., 2021;
Mahe e al., 2018) – hus suppo ing Hypo hesis 1.
Table3 (see also Fig.2) displays esul s om he 3-s ep
p ocedu e used o es di e ences in ou comes among he
Table 2 Fi s a is ics o p o ile
s uc u es o S udy 1 and S udy
2
No e.LLLog-likelihood; FPF ee pa ame e s; AICAkaike in o ma ion c i e ia; BICBayesian in o ma ion
c i e ia; SSA–BICSample-size adjus ed BIC; LMRLo, Mendell, and Rubin es ; BLRTBoo s apped log-
likelihood a io es
Numbe o
p o iles
LL FP AIC BIC SSA-BIC LMR (p) BLRT (p) En opy
S udy 1
2 −1235.364 16 2502.728 2558.217 2507.502 0.0072 0.0000 0.831
3 −1168.297 22 2380.595 2456.892 2387.160 0.0007 0.0000 0.954
4 −1116.343 28 2288.685 2385.791 2297.041 0.0000 0.0000 0.864
5 −1098.455 34 2264.909 2382.823 2275.055 0.1531 0.0000 0.883
6 −1079.700 40 2239.400 2378.122 2251.336 0.1404 0.0000 0.887
S udy 2
2 −1356.242 16 2744.485 2801.941 2751.211 0.0010 0.0000 0.780
3 −1299.420 22 2642.841 2721.843 2652.089 0.0785 0.0000 0.971
4 −1231.037 28 2518.074 2618.621 2529.844 0.0307 0.0000 0.873
5 −1204.011 34 2476.022 2598.116 2490.315 0.2311 0.0000 0.908
6 −1179.909 40 2439.819 2583.458 2456.633 0.4342 0.0000 0.924
Fig. 1 La en p o iles o di e -
en IM ac ics in S udy 1
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Ing a ia ion Sel -P omo ion Exempli ica ionSupplica ionIn imida ion
Posi i e Passi e Agg essi e Mode a e
Table 3 Resul s wi h he
manualDU3STEP app oach o
ou comes o IM p o iles (S udy
1)
Analyses we e un u ilizing he manual 3-s ep p ocedu e by Aspa ouho and Mu hén (2013; see also
McLa non & O'Neill, 2018) in Mplus. Con ol a iables included in he analyses we e age, enu e, wo k-
load, and leade ship posi ion. Subsc ip s indica e p o iles ha a e signi ican ly di e en a p < .05
** p < .01; *** p < .001
Ou comes Posi i e (A) Passi e (B) Agg essi e (C) Mode a e (D) Chi squa e
Sala y −0.15B1.16ACD 0.02B−0.20B18.14**
P omo ions 0.01BD 2.27ACD −0.21B−0.33AB 86.69***
Pe cei ed ca ee
success
0.29B−0.33A0.06 −0.31 5.89
1297Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
Thi d, simila o ea lie esea ch conduc ed in he U.S.
and B azil, we iden i ied a posi i e, an agg essi e, and a
passi e p o ile in he Swiss da a (Bolino & Tu nley, 2003;
Chawla e al., 2021; Mahe e al., 2018). Theo e ically, one
may conclude ha he agg essi e, posi i e, and passi e p o-
iles, which eme ged in his and p e ious s udies as well as
ou s, u ilizing da a om h ee di e en coun ies, a e some-
wha “cul u ally uni e sal” p o iles. Complemen ing his
pe spec i e, ou inding o an addi ional mode a e p o ile
p o ides po en ial suppo o heo izing on how cul u al
con ex s may in luence he use o IM. P e iously, agains he
backd op o he indi idual-collec i e dimension o cul u e,
Mahe e al. (2018) discussed di e ences be ween he uses o
exempli ica ion in he p o iles o esponden s om U.S. sam-
ples in compa ison o a sample o B azilian employees. Spe-
ci ically, hey sugges ha he lowe use o exempli ica ion
in he B azil sample as opposed o he highe use o i in he
h ee U.S. samples, migh be explained by a po en ially mo e
nega i e iew o exempli ica ion as a sel - ocused ac ic in
he mo e collec i is ic cul u e o B azil in compa ison o he
indi idualis ic one o he USA. In ou esea ch, we iden i-
ied a mode a e p o ile, in which esponden s used mode a e
le els o all i e IM ac ics. I migh be he case ha cul u al
di e ences ha e likewise con ibu ed o he eme gence o
his mode a e p o ile. Mo e p ecisely, Swi ze land and he
U.S. di e in e ms o he cul u al cha ac e is ic o modes y,
e e ing o “ he unde ep esen a ion o one’s posi i e ai s,
con ibu ions, expec a ions o accomplishmen s” (Wosinska
e al., 1996, p. 230). Whe eas he Swiss cul u e places g ea
impo ance on he alues o modes y and diplomacy, Anglo
coun ies, such as he U.S., highly alue being unique, ou -
s anding, and o ce ul (e.g., Schmid Mas e al., 2011). Thus,
gi en hei endency o be mo e modes and diploma ic, i
is unde s andable ha Swiss esponden s who use all i e
IM ac ics would mo e clea ly di e en ia e in using hem a
ei he mode a e o uly agg essi e le els. This, again, migh
ha e con ibu ed o he ac ha we iden i ied bo h a mode -
a e and an agg essi e IM p o ile. The mode a e p o ile migh
be ep esen a i e o cul u ally-bound p o iles, he eby sug-
ges ing ha IM heo y may ha e o acknowledge he ole o
cul u e o a g ea e ex en . To acili a e a be e unde s and-
ing o how IM use is a ec ed by cul u e, we call o sys em-
a ic c oss-cul u al esea ch on IM ha in es iga es he use o
IM and i s pe cei ed e ec i eness ac oss a ious coun ies
wi h compa able samples conce ning jobs and indus ies.
Rela edly, i would be use ul o u he del e in o he
na u e, meaning, and size o he mode a e p o ile. In con as
o cul u al alues axonomies in c oss-cul u al esea ch (such
as he axonomy by Ho s ede, 2001), modes y is a alue ha
has ecei ed much less esea ch a en ion and ha can be
indi ec ly in e ed om c oss-cul u al esea ch on hones y-
humili y [a ai de ined by he adjec i es o hones , since e,
ai , andmodes o hei opposi es (Ash on e al., 2014)].
Conce ning hones y-humili y, Swiss esponden s appea o
ob ain desc ip i ely highe sco es on hones y-humili y han
U.S. esponden s (Ga cía e al., 2022), suppo ing he no ion
ha he Swiss cul u e may ein o ce he impo ance o mod-
es y and g eed a oidance, he eby con ibu ing o he appea -
ance o a modes IM p o ile in compa ison o cul u es ha
place less alue on modes y (e.g., he U.S.). Suppo o his
assump ion s ems om a iable-cen e ed esea ch on IM
showing nega i e co ela ions be ween indi iduals’ hones y-
humili y sco es and hei IM sco es (Bou dage e al., 2015).
As such, i would be wo hwhile o explo e how le els o
hones y-humili y in a coun y in luence he eme gence o a
mode a e IM p o ile.
Fou h, addi ional esea ch is needed o mo e sys em-
a ically conside how p o iles and hei e ec i eness a e
impac ed by indus ies, o ganiza ions and jobs. So a , p io
s udies wi h employees (Chawla e al., 2021; Mahe e al.,
2018), as well as ou s udy, included samples ha we e e y
he e ogeneous in e ms o indus ies, o ganiza ions, and
jobs. Impo an ly, we canno de e mine o wha ex en hese
ac o s con ibu e o he a ia ion and e ec i eness o hese
p o iles. Fo ins ance, IM migh be mo e s ongly associa ed
wi h objec i e ca ee success in compe i i e en i onmen s
and/o jobs (e.g., in consul ancy businesses) han in less
compe i i e public o ganiza ions. Acco dingly, we ecom-
mend su eying mo e homogeneous samples ha include
people wo king in simila jobs and o ganiza ions ac oss
di e en cul u es (as desc ibed in he p io pa ag aph). By
con olling o hese ac o s, i would be easie o de e mine
whe he di e ences in p o iles a e due mo e o indus y/
o ganiza ion/job ac o s han o cul u al ac o s. Rela edly,
ou p o ile simila i y analysis demons a ed ha he p o-
ile solu ions ac oss he wo samples we e con igu ally and
s uc u ally simila , meaning ha he na u e o he p o iles
(i.e., he numbe o p o iles and he le els o he indica-
o s) we e gene alizable. Mo in e al. (2016) acknowledge
ha di e ences a e mo e likely o eme ge o dispe sion and
dis ibu ion simila i y, which is e lec ed in ou indings.
Indeed, he au ho s highligh ha “di e ences do no ep-
esen an inhe en limi a ion in he da a bu a he indica e
limi s o he gene alizabili y o p o ile solu ion ha may
dese e u he explo a ion” (Mo in e al., 2016, p. 235).
We hus encou age u u e esea ch o iden i y a iables ha
may con ibu e o di e ences ega ding he a iabili y o IM
ac ics ac oss p o iles as well as di e ences in he ela i e
size o he p o iles ac oss di e en samples.
Fi h, o be e unde s and he di e en ial e ec s o IM
p o iles on ca ee success, we ecommend examining mo e
p oximal ou comes o IM p o iles in he u u e, pa icula ly
he desi ed images associa ed wi h IM. Image ou comes,
such as compe ence, dedica ion, and neediness, ha e no
been in es iga ed in p o ile-cen e ed esea ch ( o one
excep ion on he e ec s o likeabili y see Bolino & Tu nley,
1298 Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1283–1301
2003). Fu he , gi en ha IM p o iles can con ey a mo e
comp ehensi e image (e.g., ha o a compe en , likeable
and dedica ed employee o he posi i e p o ile), he e ec s
ound using a pe son-cen e ed app oach migh be mo e p o-
nounced han hose ound using a iable-cen e ed esea ch
emphasizing he link be ween indi idual ac ics and desi ed/
undesi ed images (Tu nley & Bolino, 2001). Indeed, such
in es iga ions may ind ha hese b oade images media e
he ela ionship be ween IM p o iles and ca ee success.
Finally, ou indings suppo he a gumen ha ca ee suc-
cess is a complex cons uc . Al hough schola s gene ally
di e en ia e be ween objec i e and subjec i e ca ee success
(e.g., Spu k e al., 2019), ou nuanced indings ega ding
IM p o iles and ca ee success sugges ha e en wi hin he
ca ego y o objec i e ca ee success, he ypical indica o s
may cap u e some hing sligh ly di e en . In S udy 1, o
example, he co ela ion be ween sala y and p omo ions was
only 0.39, which was negligibly highe han he co ela ion
be ween pe cei ed ca ee success and each objec i e ca ee
success indica o (e.g., Seibe e al., 2001). The e o e, we
encou age u u e s udies on ca ee success o ake a mo e in-
dep h look a he mul iple ypes o ca ee success indica o s
as well as di e en ial e ec s o p edic o s and po en ially
unde lying mechanisms.
P ac ical Implica ions
As we no e abo e, ou esea ch design p e en s conclusions
abou causali y. None heless, he p ac ical implica ions o
ou s udy a e ele an o employees who seek o e ec i ely
manage hei image in he wo kplace o ca ee pu poses,
o ca ee counsello s and execu i e coaches who suppo
employees’ e o s o be success ul a wo k, and o manag-
e s who decide upon p omo ions and o he o ganiza ional
ewa ds ha he eby shape employees’ ca ee s. In ha
ega d, i s , ou indings sugges ha employees should be
awa e ha how hey combine di e en IM ac ics can ha e
an impac on hei ca ee and ha hose e ec s may also di -
e in hei implica ions o objec i e and subjec i e ca ee
success. Speci ically, employees who wan hei supe iso s
o ecommend hem o p omo ions and o he o ganiza ional
ewa ds should es ic hemsel es o use ela i ely li le IM
(i.e., he passi e p o ile) o o a combina ion o he posi-
i e IM ac ics o ing a ia ion, sel -p omo ion, and exem-
pli ica ion o shape hei image a wo k (i.e., he posi i e
p o ile). A he same ime, howe e , ou indings indica e
ha employees who also seek o iew hei ca ee mo e posi-
i ely should aim o use posi i e ac ics a he han passi e
ones, gi en ha he o me inc eases chances o pe cei ing
hei ca ee success mo e posi i ely in compa ison o he la -
e . Ye , gi en ha he passi e p o ile was mos consis en ly
ela ed o he highes objec i e ca ee ou comes, employees
migh ha e o conside a ade-o be ween being s. eeling
mos success ul. Second, ca ee counsello s and execu i e
coaches should wa n hose hey ad ise ha he agg essi e
use o IM ac ics could also, o some deg ee, unde mine
hei ca ee success. Finally, om he pe spec i e o he
o ganiza ion, manage s may wish o e lec upon he ex en
ha decisions ha conce n hei subo dina es a e in luenced
by he subo dina es’ combined use o IM ac ics. This will
help ensu e ha hei subo dina es’ ca ee s a e no ad e sely
in luenced by ac o s ha a e un ela ed o job pe o mance.
Conclusion
Using wo s udies and a pe son-cen e ed app oach, we iden-
i ied di e en p o iles o IM use and ound ha hey a e
di e en ially ela ed o indica o s o ca ee success. In pa -
icula , ou indings sugges ha when employees engage
in passi e IM use, i is consis en ly ela ed o he highes
le els o objec i e ca ee success; in con as , engaging in
an agg essi e and/o mode a e use o IM is ela ed o signi i-
can ly lowe le els o objec i e ca ee success. In e es ingly,
we ound a somewha e e sed pa e n o subjec i e ca ee
success, whe eby posi i es sco ed highes , and passi es
sco ed lowes – a inding ha may be due o sel -a i ma ion
p ocesses and/o di e en empo al dynamics. These esul s
no only ha e impo an p ac ical implica ions o employ-
ees who seek o ge ahead in o ganiza ions, bu hey also
inc ease ou b oade unde s anding o IM and how manag-
ing imp essions a wo k can be a complica ed and po en ially
isky endea o . A he same ime, ou indings call o an
e en mo e ine-g ained concep ualiza ion o ca ee success,
abo e and beyond he objec i e-subjec i e ca ee success
dis inc ion.
Acknowledgemen s We hank Thomas Ande halden o his help
wi h da a collec ion. Supplemen a y ma e ials ha e been made pub-
licly a ailable a he Open Science F amewo k and can be accessed
a h ps:// os . io/ p3k4 /? iew_ only= 68996 11002 4845a 2879c 81691
124a4 4b.
Funding Open access unding p o ided by Uni e si y o Neuchâ el
The au ho s ecei ed no ex e nal unding o his esea ch.
Da a A ailabili y The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e
a ailable om he co esponding au ho .
Decla a ions
Con lic s o In e es s/Compe ing In e es s The au ho s ha e no con-
lic s o in e es o decla e ha a e ele an o he con en o his a icle.
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