Usman Ahmad Qad i e al.
A icle
The lea ning e ec on o ganiza ional pe o mance du ing
a c isis: A se ial media ion analysis wi h knowledge
c ea ion, s o age and sha ing
Eu opean Jou nal o Managemen and Business Economics (EJM&BE)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Eu opean Academy o Managemen and Business Economics (AEDEM), Vigo (Pon e ed a)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Usman Ahmad Qad i e al. (2024) : The lea ning e ec on o ganiza ional
pe o mance du ing a c isis: A se ial media ion analysis wi h knowledge c ea ion, s o age and
sha ing, Eu opean Jou nal o Managemen and Business Economics (EJM&BE), ISSN 2444-8451,
Eme ald, Leeds, Vol. 33, Iss. 1, pp. 37-53,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1108/EJMBE-03-2021-0107
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/325557
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The lea ning e ec on
o ganiza ional pe o mance du ing
a c isis: a se ial media ion analysis
wi h knowledge c ea ion, s o age
and sha ing
Usman Ahmad Qad i
Uni e si i Sul an Zainal Abidin, Kuala Te engganu, Malaysia and
Ins i u e o Sou he n Punjab, Mul an, Pakis an
Mazu i Bin i abd Ghani
Uni e si i Sul an Zainal Abidin, Kuala Te engganu, Malaysia
Shumaila Bibi
In e na ional Islamic Uni e si y, Islamabad, Pakis an, and
Abdul Haseeb Tahi , Muhammad Im an Fa ooq and
Abdul Rau Kashi
Ins i u e o Sou he n Punjab, Mul an, Pakis an
Abs ac
Pu pose –The aim o his s udy is o in es iga e he se ially media ing e ec o knowledge managemen (KM)
p ac ices (namely, knowledge c ea ion, s o age and sha ing) on he o ganiza ional lea ning (OL) and
o ganiza ional pe o mance (OP) ela ionships du ing a c isis.
Design/me hodology/app oach –Based on heo ies-o -ac ion, knowledge-based and esou ce-based
heo ies, his s udy p oposed a sequen ial media ion model whe e OL unde lying mechanisms h ough which
KM p ac ices ha e acili a ed OP du ing he c isis. The sample da ase con ains 440 esponses collec ed om
he manage s o he so wa e de elopmen companies in Pakis an. The au ho s used Hayes P ocess mac o wi h
SPSS o es he s udy hypo heses.
Findings –The esul s o he s udy e eal ha knowledge c ea ion, s o age and sha ing se ially media e he
ela ionships be ween OL and OP. These indings s eng hen he a gumen sugges ing ha OL plays he key
ole in KM ha helps so wa e companies o mend hei pe o mance in imes o c isis.
O iginali y/ alue –This s udy con ibu es o he KM li e a u e in wo ways: (1) g ounded on he s udy’s
p oposed amewo k, o ganiza ions can imp o e and manage hei businesses in imes o c isis and (2) lea n
how o gene a e new knowledge in esponse o business c ises.
Keywo ds O ganiza ional lea ning, Knowledge managemen p ac ices, O ganiza ional pe o mance,
Theo ies o ac ion, Co id-19 c isis, So wa e de elopmen indus y
Pape ype Resea ch pape
1. In oduc ion
Lea ning du ing a c isis (i.e. Co id-19) is a e y di icul and challenging ask o a i m. A c isis
is usually a kind o e en o o ganiza ions ha canno be planned (De e ell, 2009;Alles, 2021).
Knowledge
managemen
p ac ices
37
© Usman Ahmad Qad i, Mazu i Bin i abd Ghani, Shumaila Bibi, Abdul Haseeb Tahi , Muhammad
Im an Fa ooq and Abdul Rau Kashi . Published in Eu opean Jou nal o Managemen and Business
Economics. Published by Eme ald Publishing Limi ed. This a icle is published unde he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may ep oduce, dis ibu e, ansla e and c ea e
de i a i e wo ks o his a icle ( o bo h comme cial and non-comme cial pu poses), subjec o ull
a ibu ion o he o iginal publica ion and au ho s. The ull e ms o his licence may be seen a h p://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
The cu en issue and ull ex a chi e o his jou nal is a ailable on Eme ald Insigh a :
h ps://www.eme ald.com/insigh /2444-8494.h m
Recei ed 31 Ma ch 2021
Re ised 16 July 2021
18 Sep embe 2021
Accep ed 19 Oc obe 2021
Eu opean Jou nal o Managemen
and Business Economics
Vol. 33 No. 1, 2024
pp. 37-53
Eme ald Publishing Limi ed
e-ISSN: 2444-8494
p-ISSN: 2444-8451
DOI 10.1108/EJMBE-03-2021-0107
Al hough he ha m ul impac o he c isis on o ganiza ions has been s udied ex ensi ely
(Olsson, 2014), limi ed esea ch has examined how companies can deal wi h hese challenges
and lea n om a c isis, pa icula ly in he so wa e de elopmen indus y (Boehm e al., 2020).
An o ganiza ion ha ac i ely compac s in an unce ain en i onmen should no only c ea e
in o ma ion and knowledge bu also p ocess i well. Simila ly, success ul o ganiza ions a e
hose ha adap o changing en i onmen s and h i e despi e ex e nal ac o s. Acco dingly,
so wa e de elopmen companies a e cons an ly looking o me hods o imp o e quali y and
p oduc i i y (Gopalk ishna e al.,2012;Nguyen-Duc e al.,2015). Knowledge managemen (KM)
p ocesses, such as knowledge c ea ion, s o age and sha ing, p o ide a pla o m o sol ing
p oblems e icien ly. In addi ion, many esea che s ha e ied o explain how o de elop and
implemen e ec i e c isis managemen s a egies o imp o e o ganiza ional pe o mance (OP)
in imes o c isis (e.g. Ca oll and Ha akenaka, 2001). Despi e he g owing in e es in KM and
OP, insu icien a en ion has been paid o in es iga ing he ole o KM p ac ices (i.e., knowledge
c ea ion, s o age and sha ing) in achie ing OP, pa icula ly wi h he aids o o ganiza ional
lea ning (OL). In pa icula , mo e empi ical s udies a e needed a he company le el o
de e mine wha ac o s could in e e e wi h OP du ing a c isis. Wi h hese lines, while handling
c ises (e.g. Co id-19), o ganiza ions need o p ocess and apply a la ge amoun o new da a in a
imely manne . They need o de elop p ocesses ha enable hem o achie e hei goals
e ec i ely (Hu e al., 2021). Acco dingly, he s udy o knowledge c ea ion (KC) and OL is
“pu sued as independen hemes in esea ch [...] and he links be ween hem end o be
o go en [...] because i is ha d o econcile undamen al assump ions abou knowledge,
in o ma ion, en i onmen and lea ning”(Lyles, 2014, pp. 132–133).
In ligh o abo e a gumen s, his esea ch add esses OL, which has been s a ed and
sugges ed as a se o o ganiza ional alues and no ms. These days, i ms a e conside ed
success ul i hey ha e he abili y o lea n and do i quickly. Consequen ly, his pape adds o
ex an esea ch by in es iga ing he sequen ial media ion ela ionship be ween OL and OP ia
knowledge c ea ion, s o age and sha ing in he so wa e de elopmen indus y o Pakis an.
2. Li e a u e e iew and hypo hesis de elopmen
2.1 Theo ies
Li le is known abou how knowledge is encoded in he employees’minds. Acco ding o
A gy is e al. (1985), people c ea e hei own “men al maps,” he way hey ac in a pa icula
si ua ion. These include how hey plan, execu e and e iew hei beha io s. In OL, hese
men al maps guide he employees’ac ions a he han hei heo e ical claims (A gy is e al.,
1985;A gy is, 2000). Al hough e y ew employees a e amilia wi h he heo ies o maps
hey use; heo ies o ac ion guide hem o conside changes in he dep h o knowledge.
Theo ies o ac ion a e a “mechanism” h ough which employees associa e hei hough s wi h
hei ac ions (A gy is e al., 1985). A gy is and Schon (1974) di ided heo ies o ac ion in o wo
pa s ha go e n employees’ac ions ha a ec OL. Acco dingly, “espoused heo ies a e
hose ha an indi idual claims o ollow; heo ies-in-use a e hose han can be in e ed om
ac ion”(A gy is e al., 1985, p. 82). In his s udy, he au ho s explain ha OL’s heo ies ocus
on KC and he use o ha knowledge wi hin he o ganiza ion.
In addi ion, his s udy used heo ies such as knowledge-based iew (KBV) and esou ce-
based iew (RBV) o desc ibe he KM p ocesses and o ganiza ional pe o mance o so wa e
companies. The RBV sugges s ha o ganiza ions can imp o e hei pe o mance and use
hei esou ces and capabili ies o c ea e a compe i i e ad an age (Singh e al., 2019).
2.2 KM p ac ices
Da och (2005, p. 211) de ines KM as a “managemen unc ion ha c ea es o loca es
knowledge, manages he low o knowledge wi hin o ganiza ions and ensu es ha he
EJMBE
33,1
38
knowledge is used e ec i ely and e icien ly o he long- e m bene i o he o ganiza ion.”
This s udy uses 3 KM dimensions (namely, knowledge c ea ion, s o age and sha ing).
Howe e , KM a ies om s udy o s udy. Fo example, acco ding o Ode and Aya oo (2020),
KM p ac ices a e based on knowledge applica ion and use. Ea ly s udies o KM such as Addis
(2016), ocused on he KC p ocess and knowledge ans e wi h an emphasis on implici and
explici knowledge. While ecen s udies iden i y “knowledge c ea ion, acquisi ion, sha ing
and applica ion”as he main componen s o he KM p ocesses (Ode and Aya oo, 2020), o he s
ha e iden i ied he knowledge c ea ion, ans e , s o age and applica ion as he key KM
p ocesses (Al-Em an e al., 2018). The impo ance o KM o so wa e de elopmen companies
is inc edible. KM helps imp o e implemen a ion and coo dina ion ac oss he company, which
is a challenge o so wa e companies. Fu he mo e, KM also helps in deli e y speed and
execu ion accu acy o so wa e companies (Khos a i and Nilashi, 2018).
2.3 Hypo hesis de elopmen
2.3.1 Di ec ela ionship be ween OL, KM p ocesses and OP. In he imes o Co id-19 c isis, he
p ocess o lea ning and KM wi hin o ganiza ions is being gi en much impo ance (Vel
asquez
and La a, 2021). Despi e a lo being w i en abou OL, li le a en ion is being paid o KM,
which is a big issue. P io o ha , mos o OL’s heo ies we e based on he misconcep ion ha
“ he de elopmen o knowledge shapes lea ning”(Senge, 1990). La e , Nonaka and Takeuchi
(1995) expose he allacy o he idea and s a e ha “a comp ehensi e iew o wha cons i u es
OL has no been de eloped.”Acco ding o Meh alian e al. (2018), OL has he po en ial o
enhance he e iciency o he lea ning p ocess and KC in so wa e companies. In o he wo ds,
he e a e lea ning p ocess equi emen s o enhance he quali y o so wa e p oduc s (Saha
and Annamalai, 2021). Simila ly, lea ning h ough be e in o ma ion and unde s anding has
led o a change in beha io ha helps imp o e o ganiza ional pe o mance (Ullah e al., 2021).
In addi ion, OL is impo an o he o ganiza ion’s cus ome s because i in ol es mee ing and
unde s anding la en needs h ough new se ices, p oduc s and ways o doing business
(Zhang e al., 2020). Concu en ly, OL has p o en o be in aluable in imp o ing pe o mance
wi hin so wa e companies (Waheed e al., 2019). The e o e, o ganiza ions should use OL o
gene a e new knowledge (Pasama e al., 2019). In addi ion, se e al p io s udies ha e
sugges ed signi ican and posi i e ela ionships be ween OL, KM and OP, as shown in
Table 1.
Acco dingly, companies wi h echnology capabili ies and high-le el KC a e mo e e icien
and can imp o e o ganiza ions (Abusweilem and Abualoush, 2019). The e o e, knowledge is
a key success ac o in ob aining compe i i e ad an age in he imes o c isis (Meh alian e al.,
2018). Acco ding o Abusweilem and Abualoush (2019), KM p ocesses (i.e. KC, knowledge
s o age [KS] and knowledge sha ing [KSI]) ha enhance in e media e OP will lead o posi i e
inancial pe o mance. Consequen ly, in he essence o RBV heo y, we p opose ha i a
company ob ains esou ces and uses hem e ec i ely, i may ha e a majo “s a egic
ad an age” ha will inc ease OP. Thus, we sugges ed ha
H1. (a) OL, (b) KC, (c) KS and (d) KSI a e e ec i e in imp o ing OP.
In addi ion, Boella e al. (2016) s a ed ha he o ganiza ion’s success is highly dependen on
knowledge and KM. F om he KM p ocesses, KSI is aluable o o ganiza ions as i helps
hem imp o e pe o mance (Obeida and Zyod, 2015). In addi ion, i is impo an o
o ganiza ions o exchange knowledge as i p omo es OL (Pa k and Kim, 2018). In o he wo ds,
Pa k and Kim (2018) p oposed he posi i e ela ionship be ween OL and KSI. Acco dingly,
one o he impo an ou comes o KM is KC (A go e e al., 2003). The alue o he KC depends
on le el o KSI and skills among people ac oss he o ganiza ion (Oli ei a e al., 2020).
Subsequen ly, KC and KS a e wo i al aspec s o KM ha play an impo an ole in c ea ing
Knowledge
managemen
p ac ices
39
Au ho s Resea ch objec i e
Independen
a iables
Dependen
a iables Media o s Me hodology Resul s
Limi a ions and u u e
s udies
Pu a and
Ruslan (2021)
To analyze he e ec
o OL on OP
OL OP –This s udy used
he SAQ o collec
he da a om 221
employees
The esul s show
ha OL has a
signi ican
posi i e e ec on
OP
None epo ed in his
a icle
Hu agalung
e al. (2020)
To de e mine he
e ec o OL on eache
pe o mance
OL Teache
pe o mance
Inno a ion
capabili y
Used SAQs o he
collec he da a
om 327 samples
The indi ec e ec
o OL on eache
pe o mance ia
inno a ion
capabili y
Based on he p oposed
h eshold o his s udy,
u u e s udies should
ind o he a iables
ha may a ec
eache s’pe o mance
Sahibzada
e al. (2020)
To in es iga e he
media ing e ec o OL
on he ela ionship
be ween KM
p ocesses and OP
KM p ocesses OP C ea i e OL This s udy used
SAQs o collec he
da a om 536
adminis a i e
and academic
s a
This s udy ound
he media ing
e ec o OL on he
ela ionship
be ween KM
p ocesses and OP
This s udy encou aged
he eplica ion o his
amewo k in o he
cul u es o co ec he
indings. In addi ion,
he indi ec link
be ween KM p ocesses
and OP should be
in es iga ed u he
ia some o he
media o s
Obeso e al.
(2020)
To in es iga e he
indi ec e ec o KM
p ac ices on OP ia
OL
KM OP OL Telephone su ey
was used o he
collec da a om
employees o 400
SMEs
This s udy shows
ha KM p ac ices
ha e an indi ec
e ec on OP ia
OL
Fu u e esea ch would
need o di e en ia e
be ween di e en KM
p ac ices
(con inued)
Table 1.
C i ical syn hesis
li e a u e e iew on OL,
KM and OP
EJMBE
33,1
40
Au ho s Resea ch objec i e
Independen
a iables
Dependen
a iables Media o s Me hodology Resul s
Limi a ions and u u e
s udies
Abusweilem
and
Abualoush
(2019)
To in es iga e he
di ec e ec o KM
p ocesses on OP
KM p ocesses OP –Used SAQs o
collec he da a
om 126 s a s
This s udy
concludes ha
he e is a
signi ican
posi i e
ela ionship
be ween KM
p ocesses and OP
None epo ed in his
a icle
Sawaean and
Ali (2020)
To iden i y he
media ing e ec o
inno a ion capaci y
on he lea ning
o ien a ion and OP
links
Lea ning
o ien a ion
OP Inno a ion
capaci y
SAQs, collec ed
da a om 384
owne s o he
a ious
co po a ions
This s udy ound
he indi ec e ec
o lea ning
o ien a ion on OP
ia inno a ion
capaci y
Fu u e s udies should
conside o he
a iables ha may
a ec OP
Zaim e al.
(2019)
To in es iga e he
media ing e ec o
knowledge u iliza ion
on he links b/ KM
and OP
KM p ocess OP Knowledge
u iliza ion
This s udy used
SAQs o collec he
da a om 1,068
employees
This esea ch
ound he indi ec
e ec o
knowledge
u iliza ion on he
KM–OP
ela ionships
None epo ed in his
a icle
Wahda (2017) To iden i y he
indi ec e ec o OL
on OP ia KM
OL OP KM This s udy used
SAQs o collec he
da a om 138
esponden s
This s udy ound
ha KM media es
he ela ionships
be ween OL–KM
As his s udy ook KM
as a media ing
a iable, i would be
in e es ing o ake KM
as exogenous o
endogenous a iables
in he u u e s udies
(con inued)
Table 1.
Knowledge
managemen
p ac ices
41
Au ho s Resea ch objec i e
Independen
a iables
Dependen
a iables Media o s Me hodology Resul s
Limi a ions and u u e
s udies
Tseng and
Lee (2014)
To in es iga e he
indi ec e ec o KM
capabili y on OP ia
dynamic capabili y
KM capabili y OP Dynamic
capabili y
SAQs and online
su ey (e-mail)
we e used o
collec he da a
om 237
esponden s
Resul s indica ed
ha KM
capabili y
inc eases he
dynamic
capabili y o he
i ms, esul ing in
an inc ease in OP
This esea ch used a
pu posi e sampling
echnique; his s udy
sugges ed ha o
inc ease he
gene alizabili y o he
esul s, u u e s udies
should apply a andom
sampling echnique
No uzy e al.
(2013)
To in es iga e he
ela ionship be ween
ans o ma ional
leade ship, OL, KM,
o ganiza ional
inno a ion and OP
T ans o ma ional
leade ship
OP OL, KM and
o ganiza ional
inno a ion
This s udy used
SAQS o collec
he da a om 280
esponden s
This s udy ound
he signi ican
ela ionship
be ween
cons uc s
Based on he p oposed
limi s. This s udy
sugges ed ha mo e
s udies in his a ea a e
equi ed o in es iga e
ela ionships be ween
hese cons uc s in
di e en
o ganiza ional se ing
and cul u e
Kuo (2011) To de e mine he
ela ionship among
human esou ce
managemen , OL, KM
capabili y,
o ganiza ional
inno a ion and OP
Human- esou ce
managemen
OP, KM
capabili y, OL
and
o ganiza ional
inno a ion
–213 su eys we e
collec ed om he
employees o he
echnological
companies
This s udy ound
he signi ican
posi i e
ela ionship
among he
a iables
This s udy collec ed
da a only om
Taiwanese
esponden s; u u e
s udies may apply his
amewo k o o he
egions o coun ies
whose en i onmen is
simila o Taiwan in
o de o achie e mo e
gene al esul s
No e(s): KM 5knowledge managemen ; OL 5o ganiza ional lea ning; OP 5o ganiza ional pe o mance; SAQs 5sel -adminis e ed ques ionnai es; SMEs 5small and
medium-sized en e p ises
Table 1.
EJMBE
33,1
42
o ganiza ional alue. In KM, KS is a phase o s o e explici knowledge. The e o e, mos
o ganiza ions in he so wa e de elopmen indus y a e ocused on imp o ing hei KSI
capabili y o c ea e new knowledge (Ca meli e al., 2013). This also helps o e ie e
knowledge o la e usages as well. So, we p oposed ha
H2. (a) OL, (b) KC and (c) KS a e e ec i e in imp o ing KSI ac i i ies.
2.3.2 Se ial media ion e ec o KC, KS and KSI. A numbe o s udies (Calab e a e al., 2017)
ha e examined how KC plays a key ole in he success and su i al o a i m. In addi ion,
Calab e a e al. (2017, p. 392) subsumes he KC p ocess “embedding new ideas, cogni i e
ames, and manne s o hinking in o ganiza ions equi e adap a ion (i.e., ansla ion) o he
speci ic p ac ices and socio-cul u al con ex o he a ge o ganiza ion.”Acco dingly,
companies can enhance bo h inancial and non inancial pe o mance h ough a ec ed
KC me hods (Kao and Wu, 2016). P e ious esea ch (Sahibzada e al., 2020) p oposed
he di ec ela ionships be ween KC, KS and KSI. Con a iwise, none o hese s udies
iden i ied an indi ec ela ionship be ween hem. In addi ion, Zaim e al. (2019), in es iga e he
signi ican posi i e associa ion be ween KM p ac ices and OP. Acco dingly, lea ning has he
signi ican posi i e e ec on KC and KS (Abusweilem and Abualoush, 2019), which in u n
lead o inc ease o ganiza ional OP (Ko dab e al., 2020). Thus, he ollowing hypo heses a e
p oposed:
H3. (a) KC, (b) KS and (c) KSI media e he ela ionship be ween OL and OP.
H4. (a) KC and KS, (b) KC and KSI, (c) KS and KSI, and (d) KC, KS and KSI se ially media e
he ela ionship be ween OL and OP.
3. Resea ch design
3.1 Resea ch model and measu emen
Based on heo y o ac ion, KBV and RBV heo ies, we p oposed ha he h ee media o s –KC,
KS and KSI could play he ole o sequen ial media o be ween OL and OP. This means ha
OL a ec s OP ia KC, KS and KSI in a sequen ial manne (see, Figu e 1). G ounded on
heo e ical amewo k, he s udy’s ques ionnai e was p epa ed, and ou i ems o OL we e
measu ed on a i e-poin Like -scale anging om “15s ongly disag ee o 5 5s ongly
ag ee”adap ed om he s udy o Ga c
ıa-Mo ales e al., (2008). Fu he mo e, his s udy
measu ed he h ee p ocesses o KM (namely, knowledge c ea ion, s o age and sha ing)
O ganiza ional
lea ning
Knowledge
s o age
Knowledge
sha ing
O ganiza ional
Pe o mance
Knowledge
c ea ion
Figu e 1.
Resea ch model
Knowledge
managemen
p ac ices
43
h ough 14 i ems. In which, i e i ems o KC and six i ems o KSI we e measu ed h ough i e-
poin Like scale adap ed om he s udy o Lee and Wong, (2015) and Hol shouse, (1998).
While h ee i ems o KS we e measu ed h ough i e-poin Like -scale aken om he s udy
o Hansen e al. (1999), ou i ems o OP adap ed om he s udy Cho e al. (2008) we e
measu ed h ough i e-poin scale om 1 (poo ) o 5 (excellen ) (see Appendix).
3.2 Da a collec ion and sampling
Du ing he second wa e o he Co id-19 c isis, we used a sel - epo c oss-sec ional su ey
me hod o collec he da a om he employees o so wa e companies. Th ough which, we
selec ed 20 companies andomly in he so wa e de elopmen indus y in Laho e, Mul an and
Islamabad, which had mo e han 20 wo ke s. In 20 companies, 17 allowed hei employees o
pa icipa e in he su ey. The s udy su ey was w i en in English because i is he o icial
language o business and highe educa ion in Pakis an. Fu he mo e, ecen esea ch (e.g.
Fa ima e al., 2020;Qad i e al., 2020) conduc ed in Pakis an and published in mains eam
jou nals has demons a ed ha he su ey o ma is easible. Consequen ly, each s udy
ques ionnai e was accompanied by a co e le e , which explained he pu pose o he s udy
and he olun ee na u e o he esponden s. The e o e, conside ing ou sample, we did no
ansla e he su ey in o U du. A e comple ing he su ey o ma , we me wi h lowe -,
middle- and op-le el manage s o so wa e companies and asked hem o pa icipa e in he
su ey.
In addi ion, his s udy used pu posi e sampling echniques as a da a collec ion s a egy
because i is less expensi e and usually equi es less ime (E ikan e al., 2016). We collec ed
he da a be ween Oc obe 2020 and No embe 2020. The da a compila ion p ocess las ed o
ou wo king weeks. Since ou esea ch model had i e a iables and a o al o 22 i ems, he
minimum size o he sample equi ed o ou s udy was 110 (22 355110). The size o he
sample used in ou s udy (i.e. N5440) is la ge han he equi ed sample size and he e o e
adequa e enough o analysis and gi e mo e eliable esul s wi h g ea e p ecision and powe
(Benne and Wald ogel, 2008).
Consequen ly, we dis ibu ed 610 ques ionnai es; among hem, in which 440 we e
e u ned, we selec ed 425; he a e o esponse was 72.13%. In he s udy, we emo ed 15
su eys ha had incomple e answe s. O he esponden s, 43% we e emales. All sampling
employees had an a e age o i e yea s wi h he company. O he esponden s, 40%
belonging o he company ha e mo e han 100 employees. The majo i y o esponden s (55%)
was lowe / i s line manage s in hei companies.
4. Da a analysis and inding
4.1 Con ol a iables
This s udy s a is ically con olled he e ec o gende (1 5Male, 2 5Female), age (1 520–35,
2536–50, 3 551–65, 4 565þ), enu e (in yea s) in he so wa e de elopmen company and
designa ion (“15 i s -line manage , 2 5middle manage , 3 5 op manage ”), we made su e
hey would no a ec o he a iables o in e es .
4.2 Reliabili y and co ela ion analysis
The mean, s anda d de ia ion, co ela ion coe icien and disc iminan alidi y alues o he
s udy cons uc s a e in Table 2. We ha e ound a posi i e signi ican co ela ion be ween KSI
and KS a ( 50.365, p< 0.001), OL and KS a ( 50.379, p< 0.001), OL and KSI a ( 50.678,
p< 0.001), KC and KS a ( 50.357, p< 0.001), KC and KSI a ( 50.464, p< 0.001), and KC and
OL a ( 50.633, p< 0.001). In addi ion, his s udy uses “C onbach’s alpha” o assess he
scales in e nal eliabili y. In his s udy, Table 3 shows ha alpha alues o OL is 0.868 o ou
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Appendix
The supplemen a y ma e ial o his a icle can be ound online.
Co esponding au ho
Usman Ahmad Qad i can be con ac ed a : usmanahmadqad i@ho mail.com
Fo ins uc ions on how o o de ep in s o his a icle, please isi ou websi e:
www.eme aldg ouppublishing.com/licensing/ ep in s.h m
O con ac us o u he de ails: [email p o ec ed]
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