Navigating food environments for complementary feeding in the drylands of northern Kenya

Kip ono, Pa icia J.; Kaise , Jenni e ; Wa io, Hussein T.; Hounkpa in, Waliou
Amoussa; Kau mann, B igi e A.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding
in he d ylands o no he n Kenya
Food Secu i y
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Kip ono, Pa icia J.; Kaise , Jenni e ; Wa io, Hussein T.; Hounkpa in, Waliou
Amoussa; Kau mann, B igi e A. (2025) : Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding
in he d ylands o no he n Kenya, Food Secu i y, ISSN 1876-4525, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech ,
Vol. 17, Iss. 4, pp. 883-904,
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RESEARCH
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding
in hed ylands o no he n Kenya
Pa iciaJ.Kip ono1,2 · Jenni e Kaise 1· HusseinT.Wa io3· WaliouAmoussaHounkpa in4· B igi eA.Kau mann1,5
Recei ed: 2 Ap il 2024 / Accep ed: 10 May 2025 / Published online: 9 June 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
Despi e nume ous s udies and aid p og ams, child malnu i ion in A ican d ylands emains a c i ical challenge o child
g ow h and de elopmen . Al hough mo he s a e cen al o child en’s nu i ional well-being, hei pe spec i es a e a ely
p io i ized. We seek o unde s and mo he s’ decision-making o eeding hei child en wi hin he speci ic con ex s o hei
pe sonal ood en i onmen s, including socioeconomic cons ain s and en i onmen al condi ions. Speci ically, we analysed
he in luence o hese cons ain s and condi ions be ween loca ions and e hnic communi ies in Ma sabi Coun y, no he n
Kenya. We used a pa icipa o y app oach o quali a i e da a collec ion o compa e he ex en o which women’s pe sonal
ood en i onmen s in luence child- ood p o ision among Rendille (pas o al), Bo ana (ag o-pas o al), and Bu ji (c op- a ming)
communi ies. In 18 ocus g oup discussions conduc ed in 2021–2022, women ca egi e s in six g oups in hese h ee com-
muni ies a ed and discussed up o 35 oods acco ding o accessibili y, a o dabili y, con enience, heal hiness, and accep ance
by child en. Mo he s' pe spec i es on ood cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s a y depending
on hei con ex ual condi ions. The a ings o ood i ems acco ding o hese ac o s di e ed be ween he pas o al and ag o-
pas o al communi ies. The concep s o he ood en i onmen show how a ious ac o s a ec mo he s' ood choices and
child nu i ion. These ac o s include loca ion, li elihood sys ems, seasonali y, in as uc u e, household condi ions, and
ood cul u es. The e o e, ood en i onmen aming p o ides be e s a egies o in o m in e en ions ha aim o p omo e
heal hy and sus ainable die s o imp o e child en’s nu i ion and well-being.
Keywo ds Child eeding· Food secu i y· Mo he s· Food choices· (ag o-)pas o alis s· T open ag 2023
1 In oduc ion
Malnu i ion is a global heal h conce n, pa icula ly in d y-
land a eas o sub-Saha an A ica whe e a high pe cen age
o child en a e unde nou ished. D ylands a e o en eco-
nomically ma ginalized, and la ge pa s o he popula ion
depend on p ima y p oduc ion, ei he ain- ed c opping o
angeland-based li es ock p oduc ion. Ma sabi Coun y in
no he n Kenya lies in d ylands, which cons i u e 80% o he
coun y’s o al land a ea. Household ood secu i y di ec ly
impac s he a ailabili y and quali y o ood o child en,
o en leading o child ood po e y (UNICEF, 2024). How-
e e , ood insecu i y may a y among household membe s
(Coleman-Jensen, 2020). Fo ins ance, dispa i ies in ood
alloca ion wi hin households can esul in ei he child en
o adul s being ood insecu e (Ma inda, 2006). As de ined
by FAO, ood secu i y is achie ed when indi iduals ha e
physical and economic access o su icien , sa e, and nu i-
ious ood o mee hei die a y needs and p e e ences o an
ac i e and heal hy li e (FAO e al., 2020). I is a undamen-
al human igh , aligned wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen
Goals (SDGs), pa icula ly Goal 2, which emphasizes ze o
hunge (Uni ed Na ions, n.d.).
Sub-Saha an A ica emains he leas ood-secu e egion
globally (FAO e al., 2024), wi h an a e age ood secu i y
* Pa icia J. Kip ono
[email p o ec ed]; [email p o ec ed]
1 Ge man Ins i u e o T opical andSub opical Ag icul u e
(DITSL), Wi zenhausen, Ge many
2 Uni e si y o Kassel, No dbahnho s . 1a,
37213Wi zenhausen, Ge many
3 Cen e o Resea ch andDe elopmen inD ylands (CRDD),
PO Box35-60500, Ma sabi , Kenya
4 Uni e si y o Abomey-Cala i, 01 BP 526, Abomey-Cala i,
Benin
5 Uni e si y o Hohenheim, 70599S u ga , Ge many
884 P.J.Kip ono e al.
sco e o 47 based on he Global Food Secu i y Index (GFSI),
which is calcula ed using indica o s o ood secu i y d i -
e s, wi h 100 being he highes sco e. This makes sub-
Saha an A ica he only egion below he global a e age
o 62 (Economis Impac g oup, 2022). Kenya’s weak sco e
o 53, hough abo e he egional a e age, highligh s pe -
sis en ulne abili ies. The coun y’s weakes pe o mance
is in he a o dabili y ca ego y (42), highligh ing he high
cos o ood ela i e o household income and limi ed sa e y
ne co e age o ulne able popula ions (Economis Impac
G oup, 2022). Such challenges ha e a di ec impac on he
ood secu i y pilla s: a ailabili y, accessibili y, u iliza ion
and s abili y (FAO e al., 2020) which in u n a ec he com-
plemen a y eeding o child en.
In he con ex o ood insecu i y, i is impo an o unde -
s and how ca egi e s make decisions abou complemen a y
eeding and hei p ac ices. While quan i a i e s udies on
complemen a y eeding p ac ices and hei de e minan s
a e dominan in sub-Saha an A ica (Abebe e al., 2019;
Amunga e al., 2022; He man e al., 2023; Paci ic e al.,
2020), hey p ima ily ocus on measu able ac o s such as
die a y di e si y and nu i ional s a us. Howe e , hese s ud-
ies o en ail o add ess he unde lying easons and b oade
con ex ual in luences shaping hese p ac ices. In con as ,
quali a i e s udies shed ligh on he en i onmen al and
socio-cul u al ac o s in luencing complemen a y eeding
p ac ices including bu no limi ed o social suppo , au on-
omy, decision-making (Ickes e al., 2017), inancial suppo
(Ahishakiye e al., 2019), physical en i onmen , and cul u al
ood adi ions (Duong e al., 2023). Despi e hei po en ial
o p o ide deepe insigh s, quali a i e s udies emain limi ed
in his opic and egion.
Unde s anding complemen a y eeding p ac ices is pa -
icula ly ele an in he d ylands, whe e malnu i ion a es
a e high; and inadequa e die a y in ake is one o he imme-
dia e causes o malnu i ion (Young, 2020). Poo die a y
in ake has been linked o women's inadequa e knowledge
and imp ope p ac ices. The e o e, go e nmen al and non-
go e nmen al o ganiza ions ha e implemen ed nu i ion
educa ion p og ams o imp o e child nu i ion. S udies ha e
shown ha nu i ion educa ion can imp o e knowledge and,
in some cases, p ac ices and nu i ional s a us ou comes
(Muluye e al., 2020; Saaka e al., 2021; Sha ma e al.,
2020). Success has been obse ed when conside ing di e -
en ac o s and sec o s (Mulwa e al., 2023). To design mo e
app op ia e in e en ions, i is c ucial o comp ehend he
decision-making p ocess and cons ain s aced by women
when eeding hei child en.
Food decision-making is a complex p ocess in luenced by
sociocul u al, economic, and en i onmen al ac o s (Con-
eno, 2011; En iquez & A chila-Godinez, 2022; La son &
S o y, 2009). Mo he s a e conside ed p ima y ca egi e s o
child en and a e o en held esponsible o childca e and
nu i ion decisions (Mu aya e al., 2017). Speci ically, hey
decide wha oods o gi e, when, whe e, and how o eed
hem (Mul ille e al., 2022). These decisions a e in luenced
by se e al ac o s including he physical and beha iou al
cues om he child (Blake e al., 2007; Hacke e al., 2015),
socie al no ms o hei e hnic communi ies, and espec i e
ood p e e ences (Reynolds e al., 2021), and household
cha ac e is ics including hei socio-economic s a us, size,
composi ion and meal sha ing cus oms (Ahishakiye e al.,
2019; Mon e osa e al., 2012; Reynolds e al., 2021). Addi-
ionally, mo he ’s knowledge, sel -e icacy, and con idence
in eeding hei child en (He man e al., 2023) play a c i ical
ole in decision-making. Suppo om he amily membe s
and communi y can o e encou agemen (Abe e al., 2018;
Jongenelis & Budden, 2023; Ukoji & Fayehun, 2023), as
well as in o ma ional suppo ecei ed om heal h wo ke s,
amily, pee s, and ma ke e s abou child oods and eeding
(Boak e al., 2016; Pine os-Leano e al., 2019).
Mo eo e , women’s pe cep ions and e alua ions o ood
i ems s ongly in luence hei decisions. These ac o s
include cos s, how easily hey can ob ain pa icula ood
om he ma ke , and ease and ime-sa ing in ood p epa a-
ion (Be hane e al., 2018; Boak e al., 2016). They also
conside he consis ency and as e o ood (Hacke e al.,
2015; Mon e osa e al., 2012) and i s heal hiness, which
a e ela ed o i s nu i ional bene i s, ood sa e y, and quali y
(Be hane e al., 2018; Wa e s e al., 2018). Unde s anding
mo he s’ ood decision-making is a key ac o in explaining
p ac ices o eeding child en as well as he challenges aced
hinde ing ideal nu i ional ou comes and possible solu ions
o o e come hese challenges.
To be e unde s and ood choices, he concep o ood
en i onmen has ecen ly been in oduced (Blake e al.,
2021; Tu ne e al., 2020). The ood en i onmen e e s o
he physical, economic, poli ical, and socio-cul u al con ex s
a he mic o and mac o le els, whe e he consume in e -
ac s wi h he wide ood sys em and makes decisions abou
wha oods hey will sou ce, pu chase, p epa e, and consume
(Downs e al., 2020; Tu ne e al., 2018). I is sepa a ed
in o ex e nal and pe sonal ood en i onmen s. Pe sonal ood
en i onmen ac o s in luencing decisions abou wha oods
o consume o o eed a child include accessibili y, a o d-
abili y, con enience, and desi abili y; he las e e s o p e -
e ences, accep abili y, as es, and desi es owa ds he ood
sou ces and p oduc s (Tu ne e al., 2018). Food secu i y
is in luenced by bo h ood en i onmen s and social capi al
(Choi e al., 2022; Paul e al., 2019).
Se e al s udies ha e been conduc ed in he Global No h
o unde s and indi iduals’ ood en i onmen s, especially
hose ela ed o obesi y (Li e al., 2015; Penney e al., 2014).
In sub-Saha an A ica, howe e , ew s udies ela ed o ood
en i onmen s ha e been conduc ed (Auma e al., 2020; Dake
e al., 2016; Fe nandes e al., 2017) and e y ew ela ed o
885
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding in he d ylands o no he n Kenya
eeding and nu i ion in young child en (Pel o, 2015; Reyn-
olds e al., 2021; Tu ne e al., 2020; Zob is e al., 2018).
Fu he esea ch on ood en i onmen s in A ica is needed
o imp o e he heal h o he popula ion (Laa e al., 2022).
Using he concep o pe sonal ood en i onmen , Be hane
e al., (2018) demons a ed how ac o s such as con eni-
ence, child en’s p e e ences, ood sa e y, and cul u al aspec s
in luence u ban mo he s’ decision-making in Addis Ababa,
E hiopia. A s udy in Senegal showed mo he s’ e alua ion o
ood i ems ela ed o hei pe sonal ood en i onmen whe e
so and swee oods we e a ed as highly accep ed; ege a-
bles, ui s, and eggs we e a ed as heal hy; and mos oods
we e no conside ed con enien , bu he easons o he a -
ings we e no explained (Zob is e al., 2018).
Food en i onmen s a e con ex -speci ic and di e acco d-
ing o pe sonal ac o s. The e o e, ood en i onmen s can
di e among people li ing in he same geog aphical loca-
ion. Resou ce-poo se ings, such as d ylands in sub-Saha-
an A ica, ace he challenge o a cons ained ood en i-
onmen , hus limi ing ood choices. In Kenya, mo he s’
pe cep ions o he impo ance o pe sonal ood en i onmen
ac o s we e compa ed be ween women li ing in Ma sabi
and o he d yland and a id a eas in he Kenya Focused E h-
nog aphic S udies (Pel o e al., 2013; Thui a e al., 2019).
Howe e , hese s udies ocused on a single pas o al e hnic
communi y in No h Ho sub-coun y, Ma sabi Coun y,
among o he communi ies and egions in Kenya. Ou s udy
builds on his ounda ion by examining a ia ions in ood
en i onmen s among h ee e hnic communi ies (Rendille,
Bo ana, and Bu ji) li ing in di e en loca ions in Ma sa-
bi Coun y (Saku and Laisamis sub-coun ies- loca ed in he
highlands and lowlands espec i ely). This app oach allows
o a deepe unde s anding o how ood en i onmen s a y
wi hin simila geog aphic con ex s, conside ing he in lu-
ence o loca ion, e hnici y, and sou ce o li elihood.
In his compa a i e s udy, we used a pa icipa o y me h-
odology o unde s and mo he s’ decision-making ega d-
ing child oods and eeding wi hin he speci ic con ex s o
hei pe sonal ood en i onmen s, including socioeconomic
cons ain s and en i onmen al condi ions. Speci ically, we
analysed he in luence o hese cons ain s and condi ions
be ween loca ions and e hnic communi ies in Ma sabi
Coun y, no he n Kenya. We compa ed women’s pe cep-
ions and hei pe sonal ood en i onmen s in Rendille
(pas o al), Bo ana (ag o-pas o al), and Bu ji (c op- a ming)
communi ies.
The speci ic objec i es we e o: (i) elici mo he s’ pe cep-
ions o ac o s belonging o hei pe sonal ood en i on-
men s and iden i y di e ences in ood en i onmen s e en
in he seemingly same d yland con ex ; and (ii) unde s and
mo he s’ cha ac e iza ion o common child- ood i ems
agains hei pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s. We he eby
add ess he gap in exis ing li e a u e whe e mos s udies
ha e used quan i a i e measu es o ood en i onmen and
complemen a y eeding ac o s, ou s udy uses a quali a i e
app oach o p o ide deepe insigh s in o he con ex ual ac-
o s and hei in e connec ions. I highligh s he en i onmen-
al and socio-cul u al ac o s ha shape ma e nal decision-
making on complemen a y eeding (concep ual amewo k
in Fig.1).
2 Me hods
2.1 S udy a ea
Ma sabi Coun y is an a id o semi-a id a ea wi h di e -
en ag o-ecological zones. The a e age annual ain all is
be ween 200 and 1000 mm, making i one o he d ies coun-
ies in Kenya. The egion expe iences wo ain all seasons,
long ains be ween Ap il and June, and sho ains be ween
Oc obe and Decembe , wi h ag icul u al p oduc ion p i-
ma ily dependen on he long ains. I is inhabi ed by a i-
ous e hnic communi ies such as Bo ana, Gab a, Rendille,
and Bu ji. The di e en sou ces o li elihood in he coun y
include pas o alism (81%), ag o-pas o alism (16%), and o h-
e s, such as o mal employmen , casual labou , and ading
(3%) (Munene, 2019). The s udy was conduc ed in wo sub-
coun ies: Laisamis and Saku.
The Laisamis lowlands, 300 m abo e sea le el, a e a id
wi h an a e age annual ain all o 128 mm. The a ea a ound
he small owns o Ngu uni and Ko ( e e ed o in his
pape as he Ngu uni -Ko s udy a ea) is inhabi ed by he
Rendille communi y, pas o alis s who aise hei li es ock
in mobile sys ems. They keep hei li es ock close o hei
illages (manya as) du ing he we season when pas u e and
wa e a e eadily a ailable; howe e , du ing d y seasons,
hey a e aken o sa elli e camps and o a o be e pas-
u e and wa e . Men mos ly mo e wi h he li es ock du ing
hese imes, lea ing he es o he household back in he
illage, bu in some cases, he whole amily eloca es (FAO,
2020; S i es, 2021). Ngu uni -Ko in Laisamis is si ua ed
a om he main oad and e en u he om Ma sabi own,
he Coun y’s capi al.
Saku is loca ed on he highlands a 1707 m abo e sea
le el, hence ecei ing highe ain all wi h an annual a e age
o 800 mm. I is inhabi ed by he Bo ana ag o-pas o alis s
and Bu ji c op a me s, communi ies in ol ed in his s udy
(Pel o, 2015). Ma sabi own, which is pa o Saku, has a
well-de eloped in as uc u e, hence be e access o wa e ,
ma ke s, elec ici y, and o he ameni ies, compa ed o he
lowlands. The e o e, hese wo sub-coun ies a e sui able
o compa ison due o hei di e ing con ex s despi e hei
simila geog aphical loca ions. The con as ing condi ions
o hese wo loca ions a e shown in Fig.2.
886 P.J.Kip ono e al.
Ma sabi Coun y along o he A id and Semi-A id Lands
(ASAL) in Kenya aced one o he wo s d ough s in he
ecen decades om 2021–2023 due o i e consecu i e
ailed ainy seasons. As o Feb ua y 2022, 20% o he ASAL
popula ions we e expe iencing acu e ood insecu i y, clas-
si ied as phase 3- c isis, acco ding o he In eg a ed Food
Secu i y Phase (IPC) classi ica ion. Ma sabi Coun y was
pa icula ly a ec ed wi h 50% o i s popula ion being acu ely
ood insecu e (phase 3) (IPC, 2022). The c isis was caused
by mul iple shocks in addi ion o he p olonged d ough ,
such as local con lic s and e ec s o COVID-19 pandemic
es ic ions (Alulu e al., 2024; IPC, 2021, 2022).
These shocks impac ed nega i ely on he a ailabili y,
accessibili y, and u iliza ion o oods by he popula ion. The
consequences o ood secu i y we e se e e, as du ing he
p olonged d ough , li es ock, a p ima y li elihood sou ce,
su e ed om poo body condi ions, low selling p ices, high
mo ali y a es, and educed milk p oduc ion. This led o
diminished household incomes, hence educed pu chas-
ing powe , while p ices o s aple oods and milk inc eased.
These economic and en i onmen al challenges a ec ed he
die a y in ake o child en and hei nu i ional s a us wi h
high a es o malnu i ion being eco ded in he a ea (IPC,
2021, 2022). As o July 2022, 19.6% o child en unde he
age o 5yea s in Ma sabi Coun y we e acu ely malnou -
ished, 30.5% we e unde weigh , and 23.8% we e s un ed.
In Saku, 10.6% we e acu ely malnou ished, 19.6% we e
unde weigh , and 19% we e s un ed. The a es we e highe
in Laisamis whe e 30.3% we e acu ely malnou ished, 47.1%
unde weigh , and 31.2% s un ed(Munene, 2023).
Fig. 1 Concep ual F ame-
wo k o unde s anding
mo he s'decision making in
ood choices o child eeding
wi hin he ood en i onmen

887
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding in he d ylands o no he n Kenya
2.2 S udy design
This s udy was pa o a la ge collabo a i e p ojec ,
‘Enhancing women’s agency in na iga ing changing ood
en i onmen s o imp o e child nu i ion in A ican d y-
lands’ (Na iNu ), which used a ansdisciplina y app oach
o emphasize he in eg a ion o knowledge om di e en
disciplines and socie al s akeholde s. The esea ch eam
on he g ound consis ed o s uden s and membe s om he
local a eas bo h men and women. They made explo a o y
ield isi s (Janua y–Ap il 2021) o in oduce he o e all
p ojec idea o he di e en socie al ac o s (mo he s, o he
ca egi e s, and s a om local go e nmen and non-
go e nmen al o ganiza ions), o disco e hei pa icula
in e es s, o o m a consul a i e g oup wi h ep esen a-
i es om di e en socie al ac o s, and o conduc a ious
ac i i ies o build us ul ela ionships. Building us ul
ela ionships is essen ial in pa icipa o y esea ch as i c e-
a es a suppo i e en i onmen in which mo he s eel ee
o sha e hei pe spec i es. Recognising and aluing hem
as key holde s o local knowledge abou child ca e and
Pic u es going ac oss Pa icia Kip ono (1,4a), Diba Ta i (2), Lilli Schei e le (3), Sulekha Abdulkadi (4b,6). Raphael Gude e (5)
Fig. 2 Con as ing condi ions be ween he wo s udy si e loca ions o Ngu uni -Ko and Saku
888 P.J.Kip ono e al.
nu i ion os e s mu ual espec and acili a es meaning ul
dialogue and in o ma ion sha ing.
To ancho he collabo a ion wi h mo he s, he esea ch-
e s su eyed exis ing women’s g oups as po en ial esea ch
pa ne s om each o he wo s udy loca ions, because we
wan ed o ins i u ionalise he collabo a ion wi h he soci-
e al ac o s h oughou he p ojec du a ion. These women’s
g oups, wi h 10–60 membe s each, ha e di e en pu poses,
such as p omo ing hei ood and cul u e, able banking
(local sa ing and c edi ), o conduc ing inancial in es men s
oge he as sel -help g oups. O e all 9 women’s g oups we e
selec ed using pu posi e sampling o ensu e ep esen a ion
om he di e en loca ions (Saku and Laisamis) and he
h ee e hnic communi ies (Bo ana, Bu ji, and Rendille).
The inclusion c i e ia we e; women g oups consis ing o
mo he s and ca egi e s (e.g., g andmo he s) o mixed ages
bo h young and olde women wi h child en aged be ween
6 and 60 mon hs li ing in hei household, li ing in u al,
pe i-u ban, o u ban a eas. In Laisamis, g oups we e clas-
si ied as pe i-u ban when si ua ed in close p oximi y o he
ma ke s and o he ameni ies bu o e all he geog aphical
loca ion is conside ed u al. Abou 10–12 membe s om
each g oup ook pa in he g oup discussions. These we e
membe s who we e in e es ed in Na iNu and li ed close o
each o he . The inclusion o women's g oups wi h di e en
cha ac e is ics aimed o include a wide ange o iewpoin s
and insigh s om di e en ca e s. This di e si y was c ucial
in os e ing collabo a i e lea ning bo h wi hin and be ween
g oups, which is a undamen al aspec o ansdisciplina y
app oaches and was emphasised in subsequen s ages o he
collabo a i e esea ch (Kip ono e al., 2024).
Women’s g oups a e e y common in Ma sabi coun y
(A asio e al., 2019), wi h bo h egis e ed and in o mal
g oups exis ing. Membe ship p o ides se e al bene i s,
including access o pooled economic esou ces, oppo uni-
ies o ake loans, and mu ual suppo due o s ong social
cohesion (Cha i y, 2014). This suppo o en empowe s
women, enhancing hei decision-making abili ies and
inc easing hei au onomy (Kenya a, 2023). As a esul ,
women who a e o ganised in g oups may ha e ce ain ad an-
ages o e hose who a e no membe s. Howe e , gi en ha
he majo i y o women in he egion belong o such g oups,
he sample s ill e lec s a ep esen a i e o he wide popu-
la ion. Ne e heless, a ia ions we e obse ed wi hin he
g oups, such as di e ences in weal h, educa ion, and ma i-
al s a us, and hese di e ences mi o hose obse ed in he
popula ion as a whole.
2.3 Da a collec ion andanalysis
Da a we e collec ed using quali a i e me hods o e 10
mon hs be ween Sep embe 2021 and July 2022. The e
was close collabo a ion wi h he local esea ch assis an s
who unde s ood he language and con ex . All pa icipan s
p o ided in o med consen p io o discussions. Wi h he
esponden s’ pe mission, discussions we e audio- eco ded.
The s ep-wise p ocedu e o da a collec ion is summa ised in
Table1. A o al o 18 ocus g oup discussions (FGDs) we e
conduc ed wi h he 6 women’s g oups (s eps 1 o 3), plus 9
FGDs wi h 9 women’s g oups o he p elimina y s ep. The
esea che s de eloped discussion guides o each s ep and
used in e ac i e echniques o unde s and mo he s'c i e ia
o choosing oods o hei child en.
Ini ially, ee-lis ing exe cises we e conduc ed o iden i y
he oods used in child eeding in he s udy a ea. Mo he s in
Saku lis ed 70 oods, while women in he Ngu uni -Ko a ea
lis ed only 35; e lec ing he limi ed access o di e se oods
in he la e a ea. The esea che s conside ed oods ha we e
men ioned epea edly ac oss he g oups o be common child
oods: 35 o he 70 oods in Saku and 25 o he 35 oods
among he Rendille in he Ngu uni -Ko a ea. The oods we e
ei he single oods, such as beans, o combined dishes, such as
iqe, which is a mix u e o maize lou , whea lou o ba ley,
beans, mo inga, and cooking oil o ghee. Pic o ial ood ca ds,
showing a ull pic u e o each ood on a pape ca d, we e
p in ed and used in he subsequen a ing exe cises.
The i s s ep was o ask mo he s wha ac o s hey con-
side ed when making ood choices o hei child en. Thei
answe s we e consis en wi h he pe sonal ood en i onmen
ac o s o accessibili y, a o dabili y, con enience, heal hi-
ness, and child accep ance, wi h he las wo alling unde
desi abili y. The esea che s sha ed his co espondence wi h
he women so ha hey could unde s and ha hei pe spec-
i es we e consis en wi h he li e a u e and ha he pe sonal
ood en i onmen ac o s could hen be used in subsequen
ac i i ies. The women hen sha ed wi h he esea che s he
con ex ual meaning o hese ac o s and hei impo ance
in child en's ood choices. This p ocess e ealed he local
meanings o he pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s and how
hey migh di e be ween mo he s li ing in di e en loca-
ions in he d ylands.
In he second s ep, he mo he s cha ac e ised he com-
mon oods by a ing hem one by one using a pa icipa o y
pile-so ing echnique. The mo he s a ed each ood i em on
a scale o 1–5 (5 being mos a ou able and 1 being leas
a ou able) ac oss all i e pe sonal ood en i onmen ac-
o s. The pa icipa o y p ocess en ailed g oup discussions o
each a consensus on each a ing. Finally, he women ga e
de ailed explana ions o hei a ings, p o iding insigh s in o
he easons o hei a ings and highligh ing con ex ual ac-
o s ha in luenced hei decisions.
Audio eco dings om he in e iews and discussions we e
ansla ed and ansc ibed om he local languages in o Eng-
lish. The i s and second co-au ho s coded he quali a i e da a
using MAXQDA, and he coding was e iewed by he o he co-
au ho s. The i s wo co-au ho s hen conduc ed con en analysis
889
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding in he d ylands o no he n Kenya
(Maxwell, 2012). Fi s , hey ead all 19 ansc ip s o gain an
o e iew o he in o ma ion. They iden i ied codes om he
discussion guides and li e a u e and no ed hose ha a e mos
use ul o con en analysis, such as ma ke access, ime equi ed
o ood p epa a ion, and ood p e e ences. Each o he i s wo
co-au ho s ead he same ou ansc ip s in de ail using p e-iden-
i ied codes as desc ibed abo e and new codes ha eme ged in
he ansc ip s. They compa ed how hey coded hese ansc ip s
and c ea ed a lis o new codes. The o he co-au ho s e iewed
and ine- uned he lis and c ea ed a ‘ inal’ lis o selec ed codes.
The a ings o each ood i em done by he six women
g oups we e en e ed in o an Excel sp eadshee and a desc ip-
i e analysis was ca ied ou based on he calcula ed means
and medians. The e was li le o no di e ence be ween he
u al and pe i-u ban g oups, hence he a ings we e com-
bined o each e hnic g oup. As he Bo ana and Bu ji com-
muni ies had many simila i ies in hei ankings, hei esul s
we e g ouped o he Saku loca ion and compa ed wi h Ngu-
uni -Ko loca ion, inhabi ed by he Rendille communi y.
3 Resul s
The esul s o his s udy p o ide insigh s in o he decision-
making p ocesses o (ag o)-pas o al women om he d y-
lands o Ma sabi Coun y, no he n Kenya. D awing on
pa icipa o y ocus g oup discussions and ood a ing exe -
cises, he indings highligh he signi icance o he pe sonal
ood en i onmen ac o s (accessibili y, a o dabili y, con-
enience, heal hiness, and child accep ance) by explo ing
wha hese ac o s mean o he women, and how hey in lu-
ence hei ood choices. The esul s also de ail how women
li ing in di e en loca ions cha ac e ise oods based on hese
ac o s. The indings e eal bo h simila i ies and di e ences
in pe cep ions ac oss e hnic g oups and loca ions, e lec -
ing a ia ions in pe sonal ood en i onmen s in luenced by
ac o s such as clima e (e.g. d ough ), en i onmen al and
socio-economic condi ions, and cul u al p ac ices.
3.1 Cha ac e is ics o  hesample
The pa icipan s comp ised 61 women om six di e en
women’s g oups, wi h ages anging om 19 o 84 yea s.
All pa icipan s we e ca egi e s o child en unde he age
o 5yea s, he majo i y (77%) being mo he s, while he es
we e g andmo he s. Mos women had no ecei ed any o -
mal educa ion (67%), while a qua e (25%) had eached o
comple ed uppe p ima y educa ion. The median numbe
o child en pe household was 5, anging om 1 o 10. The
median age o he younges child, all o whom we e o e
6mon hs and unde 5yea s, was 24 mon hs. Addi ional
Table 1 S ep-wise da a collec ion p ocedu e
P elimina y s ep: F ee lis ing exe cise (9 g oups, 9 FGD sessions)
The da a collec ion began wi h a ee-lis ing exe cise du ing ocus g oup discussion (FGD) sessions. Women om nine g oups pa icipa ed in
his exe cise o lis a ious oods gi en o child en in he egion, ca ego ized by he child’s age o de elopmen al miles ones
- Saku g oups iden i ied up o 70 oods
- Laisamis (Ngu uni -Ko ) g oups iden i ied up o 35 oods
- Common oods iden i ied by bo h egions we e selec ed o subsequen exe cises: 35 oods om Saku and 25 oods om Ngu uni -Ko
- Food ca ds we e p in ed o all common oods
S ep 1: Unde s anding and de ining ac o s shaping child ood choices 6 g oups; 6 FGD sessions
S ep 1 a: Iden i ying ac o s in luencing child ood choices
- 6 FGDs we e conduc ed in which women sha ed hei pe spec i es on he ac o s hey conside when choosing oods o hei child en. The
ini ial ques ion o he discussion was “Wha ac o s do you conside / ake in o accoun when making decisions on wha oods you will eed
you child?”
- Mo he s'c i e ia ma ched pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s (Tu ne e al., 2018) including accessibili y, a o dabili y, con enience, heal hiness,
and child accep ance, he las alling unde desi abili y. This con o mi y wi h he pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s was sha ed wi h pa ici-
pan s o alida ion and u he discussion
S ep 1b: De ining he pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s
- To unde s and he con ex ual meaning o each ac o , women we e asked o explain wha accessibili y, a o dabili y, con enience, heal hiness,
and accep ance mean o hem and hei impo ance in child ood choices. Explana ions we e sough o each ac o sepa a ely
S ep 2: Cha ac e iza ion o ood i ems agains pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s: (6 g oups, 12 a ing & discussion sessions)
S ep 2a: Ra ing exe cise
- Women engaged in a pa icipa o y e alua ion p ocess o assess ood i ems based on he iden i ied ac o s
- The a ing p ocess was s uc u ed using he Like scale p o ided by he esea che s 1–5 wi h 1 being leas a o able and 5 being mos a o a-
ble. The women conduc ed discussions amongs hemsel es and ag eed on he inal placemen s o he ood i ems on he scales. The pile so ing
echnique was used in he a ing exe cise
S ep 2b: Explaining he a ings
- Women ga e de ailed easoning behind hei a ings o each ac o . Pa icipan s sha ed hei hough s on why speci ic oods we e a ed as 1,
2, 3, 4, o 5 in e ms o accessibili y, a o dabili y, con enience, heal hiness, and child accep ance. Thei p esen a ions we e o en ollowed by
commen s and discussions om o he membe s which led o in-dep h explana ions
890 P.J.Kip ono e al.
socio-demog aphic de ails a e shown in * MERGEFOR-
MAT Table2.
3.2 Meaning o  ac o s anddi e ences inpe sonal
ood en i onmen s o women li ing inlowlands
andhighlands
Following he ood en i onmen amewo k, his sec ion
examines how women in Ma sabi Coun y pe cei e and
in e p e he pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s in hei
con ex .
3.2.1 A ailabili y andaccessibili y
Rendille women pa icipa ing in he esea ch desc ibed he
a ailabili y and accessibili y (Heellin o Liwan in Rendille)
o ood o child en as s ongly a ec ed by seasonali y, pa -
icula ly conce ning he a ailabili y o milk om li es ock
as a co e complemen a y ood o child en. Du ing he ainy
season, lac a ing animals a e kep nea hei homes ead and
milk is o en a ailable adlibi um. Du ing he d y season,
mos animals a e kep in sa elli e camps, which limi s access
o milk in homes eads. A ew lac a ing animals a e usually
kep nea homes eads, bu in imes o ex eme o age sca -
ci y, no animals a e le he e.
“When i ’s we season when li es ock is a home, when
sheep and goa s a e a home because camels don’ s ay
a home we ake a gou d, smoke i and milk some goa s
and gi e he milk o he child en, du ing we season we
don’ ha e p oblem wi h planning and eeding o he
child en, you a e no wo ied wha o gi e o he child
because milk is a ailable.” (Rendille Mo he , FGD).
The Rendille buy all o he ood in shops; he accessi-
bili y o which depends on he dis ance o he homes ead
om small cen es o owns coupled wi h hei inancial
si ua ion. Supplie s b ing ood o he shops once a week
o e e y wo weeks, some imes also close o he illages,
o sell i om hei ehicles on he oadsides. In he Ren-
dille se lemen s, households ha e access o small mobile
shops (women mainly sell ce eals om hei homes, which
hey sou ce om he owns). Bigge shops wi h mo e oods
such as esh ege ables and ui s a e only ound in he
own cen es (Ngu uni and Ko ). The accessibili y o ood
Table 2 Socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he s udy popula ions
To al
(n = 61)
Ngu uni -Ko (Rendille)
(n = 20)
Saku (Bu ji and Bo ana)
(n = 41)
Child's cha ac e is ics
Median age in mon hs [min,max] 24.0 [8.00, 60.0] 24.0 [8.00, 60.0] 24.0 [8.00, 59.0]
Mo he 's/ Ca egi e 's cha ac e is ics
Median age in yea s [min, max] 36.0 [19.0, 84.0] 39.0 [23.0, 84.0] 35 [19.0, 72.0]
Median numbe o child en [min, max] 5.00 [1.00, 10.0] 6.00 [1.00, 10.0] 5.00 [2.00, 10.0]
Ma i al s a us, n (%):
Single 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Ma ied 53 (87%) 19 (95%) 34 (83%)
Sepa a ed 1 (2%) 0 (0%) 1 (2%)
Di o ced 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Widowed 7 (11%) 1 (5%) 6 (15%)
Ha e co-wi es, n (%) 11 (18%) 9 (45%) 2 (5%)
Fo mal educa ion le el, n (%):
None 41 (67.0%) 19 (95%) 22 (54%)
Lowe P ima y 3 (5%) 0 (0%) 3 (7%)
P ima y 15 (25%) 1 (5%) 14 (34%)
Seconda y 1 (2%) 0 (0%) 14 (34%)
Te ia y 1 (2%) 0 (0%) 1 (2%)
Main income sou ces, n (%):
Li es ock 21 (34%) 20 (100%) 1 (2%)
C op a ming 6 (10%) 0 (0%) 6 (15%)
Fo mal employmen 1 (2%) 0 (0%) 1 (2%)
Casual wo ke 20 (33%) 0 (0%) 20 (49%)
Sel -employed 11 (18%) 0 (0%) 11 (27%)
897
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding in he d ylands o no he n Kenya
oods. Rendille women a ed eggs low because hey did no
adi ionally ea eggs and we e now ying o include hem
in hei child en’s die s. Eggs ha e also been shown no o
be an easily accep ed ood in o he pa s o Ma sabi Coun y
(Ca holic Relie Se ices (CRS) and USAID Nawi i, 2021;
FAO, 2020; Pel o, 2015) and in o he pa s o Kenya whe e
i is seen as a sou ce o income (Kimiywe e al., 2022). How-
e e , ou s udy showed a g adual inc ease in he use o eggs
in child en’s die . Foods ha a e cul u ally accep able will
in luence mo he s'choices and, he e o e, child en's accep -
ance (E asmus e al., 2022). In addi ion o esponding o hei
child en’s p e e ences, women also conside he needs o o he
household membe s when making choices (Flax e al., 2021;
Mon e osa e al., 2012; Pine os-Leano e al., 2019; Wanjohi
e al., 2023). This is pa icula ly ele an when child en s a
o ea amily oods om he age o 2–3 yea s.
Women in he di e en loca ions in Ma sabi Coun y p e-
pa ed simila oods o child en such as po idge, bu wi h
a ia ions in p epa a ion, ing edien s, and addi i es. These di -
e ences de e mine he ex u e and as e o he ood. Women in
he h ee communi ies modi ied he ood o inc ease accep -
ance by using addi i es o se ing i in combina ion wi h o he
oods o make i as ie and adding o he oods o imp o e
ex u e. Mos indigenous ege ables, such as mo inga and ama-
an hs, ha e a bi e as e, and a e no easily consumed by all
popula ions, especially child en (Gewa e al., 2019). Mo inga
was he e o e added o o he oods in a mixed dish, such as iqe
o mask i s bi e ness. The ex u e o he ood changes as he
child g ows, s a ing wi h liquids, so oods, less so oods,
and some chunks o in eg a ion in o amily oods. The e o e,
a pa icula ood ex u e can also de e mine he a oidance
(Duong e al., 2023) o comple e elimina ion o a ce ain ood
om a small child’s die (de B uyn e al., 2021). Fiqe in pa -
icula was conside ed a d y and ough ood, bu ghee was
added o make i so and pala able o he child.
Food choice is also in luenced by he social en i onmen
(Wanjohi e al., 2023) whe e women lea n abou di e en
oods and how o p epa e hem om hei pee s h ough
in e ac ion and cul u al exchange (Pine os-Leano e al.,
2019). This was e iden among he di e en e hnic g oups
in Ma sabi Coun y, whe e in he pas , some oods ha we e
consumed p edominan ly by a speci ic e hnic g oup a e now
being consumed by o he g oups. Fo example, mo inga is
known o be a Bu ji ood, and Bo ana li ing in he same
a ea ha e now lea n o consume his ege able. Con inuous
lea ning and modi ica ion can be obse ed and buil upon o
imp o e child en’s eeding and nu i ion.
4.5 Heal hiness
Heal hiness was de ined in e ms o he heal h ou comes
o he child. The ing edien s and ecipes o a ood i em
we e key ac o s in de e mining he heal hiness o a dish.
S a egies o enhance heal hiness include en iching dishes
wi h o he ood i ems such as milk o combining hem
wi h heal hie oods. Ag o-pas o al women in Wes Poko
(Kimiywe e al., 2022) and Ma sabi Coun y (Pel o e al.,
2013) ha e also been shown o en ich hei oods such as
po idge wi h milk bu hei modi ica ion s a egies a e
limi ed (Kimiywe e al., 2022). Women in bo h loca ions
indica ed ha , a child needs o be gi en a a ie y o oods
o a heal hy die and ha mono ony should be a oided.
Thus, women a e awa e ha he heal hiness o single
ood i ems is no o pa amoun impo ance bu a he
ha die a y di e si y ma e s, which was also obse ed by
o he women in Kenya and Uganda (Mu uku e al., 2020;
Nabuuma e al., 2021). Obse ing hygiene when handling
oods p omo es he p e en ion o illnesses and hus p o-
ec s child en's heal h and nu i ional s a us (Kimiywe
e al., 2022; No dhagen e al., 2022). Women in Ma sa-
bi and Isiolo coun ies also highligh ed he impo ance
o hygiene in child eeding p ac ices. They exp essed
eluc ance o eed e men ed milk o p ese ed mea o
younge child en, ea ing ha hese oods cause heal h
p oblems such as dia hoea. As a esul , such oods we e
o en ese ed o adul s and olde child en o minimise
pe cei ed heal h isks (Ca holic Relie Se ices (CRS)
and USAID Nawi i, 2021).
Women in all h ee communi ies obse ed he ou -
come o ce ain oods in hei child en in e ms o g ow h,
s eng h, and immuni y o illness. This was also epo ed
by a s udy a ge ing women in Isiolo and Ma sabi coun-
ies (Ca holic Relie Se ices (CRS) and USAID Nawi i,
2021). Fo example, mo inga was associa ed wi h boos -
ing immuni y, and milk was associa ed wi h p omo ing
g ow h. Women conside he heal h o hei child en when
making decisions abou which oods o o e (Fa is e al.,
2020; Flax e al., 2021; Pine os-Leano e al., 2019) and
eel eassu ed when hey ha e heal hy child en (Spence
e al., 2016). This shows he women’s inhe en in e es in
p o iding hei child en wi h good nu i ion. Women also
obse e hei child en’s beha iou al and physical changes
in ela ion o ood i ems o e ime (E asmus e al., 2022).
Mo he s'obse a ions o hei child en's heal h and die a y
habi s highligh he c i ical ole o nu ien u ilisa ion in
p omo ing g ow h and nu i ional s a us. This knowledge
can be used in e o s o imp o e child nu i ion h ough
he use o locally a ailable oods. While hei knowledge
o he e ec s o oods on child en is based on hei own
expe iences o ha o hei pee s, hei knowledge o he
nu ien s in oods is likely o ha e been gained h ough he
heal h and nu i ion educa ion sessions p o ided by com-
muni y heal h wo ke s om he Kenyan Minis y o Heal h
in local clinics and communi ies.

898 P.J.Kip ono e al.
4.6 Linking accessibili y oo he pe sonal
ood en i onmen ac o s: a o dabili y,
con enience, heal hiness andchild accep ance
Accessibili y in luences o he ac o s such as a o dabil-
i y, con enience, accep ance by child en, and heal hiness.
A o dabili y was closely linked o accessibili y, as oods
ha we e accessible in he homes eads and om neigh-
bou s we e mos a o dable. Women also conside ed he
con enience o a ood i em depending on i s sou ce: i
hey had i in hei household o could ge i om hei
a m o a nea by ma ke . Ease o access (p oximi y) a ec s
he ime a mo he will ake o access ood and p epa e i
(Duong e al., 2023; Kimiywe e al., 2022).
The esul s o his s udy show ha di e ences in ood
accessibili y shape child en’s ood p e e ences. Rendille
child en ha e a low accep ance o mos ui s due o hei
limi ed exposu e because ui s a e usually no accessi-
ble due o he lack o nea by ma ke s and hei high pe -
ishabili y. Al hough cow’s milk was no easily accessi-
ble o Bu ji and Rendille, he women a ed i as highly
accep ed by hei child en. Howe e , he mos p e e ed
milk among he Rendille was camel milk and cow milk
among he Bo ana, e lec ing he main li es ock species
kep by hese espec i e g oups and, hus, he ype o milk
ha is mo e accessible. The in luence o ood accessibili y
on child en’s ood accep ance was also demons a ed in a
Senegalese s udy showing di e ences be ween child en
li ing in u al and pe i-u ban a eas (Zob is e al., 2018).
Simila ly, accessibili y in luences he pe cei ed heal h
o ood. Fo example, Rendille women a ed all ui s as
less heal hy, whe eas Bo ana and Bu ji women a ed hem
as he heal hies . These ui s we e no accessible in he
a id lowlands, and some women we e e en unawa e o
some o he ui s. Among he ou oods classi ied as
heal hy by all communi ies, he pas o alis communi y
(Rendille) had access o only po idge. Hence, while Ren-
dille women also desi ed o pu chase oods known o be
heal hy, hei poo access o hese oods limi ed hei abil-
i y o ob ain hem.
Women’s cha ac e iza ion o ood i ems compa ed o
hei pe sonal ood en i onmen ac o s shows high con-
sis ency wi hin one loca ion and di e s ma kedly be ween
loca ions. In Saku, he women ga e simila a ings o he
oods in e ms o a o dabili y (79% o all oods), accep -
ance by child en (82%), heal h and con enience (86%),
and accessibili y (89%). This e lec s he simila i ies in he
con ex ual condi ions be ween he g oups. Simila a ings
e ealed consis ency in he pe cep ion and knowledge o
women wi hin a speci ic e hnic g oup in he same loca-
ion. A ecen s udy conduc ed by Adongo, Ma o a i, &
Mbu hia (2024) in Ma sabi , ound di e ences in die a y
di e si y due o many ac o s including dis ance o he
ma ke wi h he highes consump ion o mea eco ded in
Bubisa, and he highes consump ion o ege ables and
ui s in Ma sabi Cen al. This also shows he di e ences
be ween loca ions in Ma sabi Coun y. The di e ences
be ween Saku and Laisamis e eal how a ied he ood
en i onmen s a e despi e being in he same coun y, which
many mis akenly conside as he same kind o d yland
a ea.
4.7 S eng hs andlimi a ions o  hes udy
The ansdisciplina y app oach o he p ojec allowed
esea che s and socie al ac o s o collabo a e a eye-le el.
The pa icipa o y and open in e iew me hods used ga e
mo he s he oppo uni y o eely sha e hei pe spec i es
and expe iences wi h con idence and au hen ici y. The
s udy was conduc ed among a ma ginalised popula ion
whose pe cep ions, in e es s and knowledge a e usually
gi en limi ed a en ion.
Wi hin he o e all ou -yea collabo a ion wi h he
women’s g oups in he Na iNu p ojec , he mo he s
gained mo e in luence o e he esea ch ac i i ies, posi-
ioning hem as co- esea che s. The inclusion o women’s
g oups om di e en loca ions and e hnic g oups, and he
di e si y wi hin he g oups, in e ms o age and ca egi ing
expe ience, enhanced he indings by inco po a ing a ied
iewpoin s.
I is impo an ha we also sha e some o he limi a ions
o he s udy and how we o e came some o he challenges.
In ansdisciplina y esea ch, i is good p ac ice o ins i u-
ionalise collabo a ion wi h socie al ac o s, which esul ed
in a ela i ely small numbe o sampled g oups. The use
o pu posi e sampling, a non-p obabili y echnique, limi s
gene alisabili y. While his app oach acili a ed mul iple
in e ac ions and in-dep h discussions, a la ge sample size
and indi idual in e iews would ha e p o ided oppo uni-
ies o compa e a ings aking in o accoun indi idual and
household cha ac e is ics. Al hough many women in he a ea
belong o g oups, wo king exclusi ely wi h g oup membe s
may ha e in oduced bias by no including women who do
no belong o g oups (possibly he mos ma ginalised). How-
e e , he consis ency obse ed in he esul s wi hin a loca-
ion, coupled wi h he ma ked di e ences be ween loca ions,
sugges s ha he indings p o ide a alid ep esen a ion o
mo he s'pe spec i es as in luenced by hei con ex ual con-
di ions. As con ex ual condi ions in luence ood en i on-
men s and ca egi e ood choices, u he esea ch should
be conduc ed o compa e di e en ASAL egions in Kenya
and sub-Saha an A ica, which may e eal addi ional a i-
a ions in ood en i onmen s and ma e nal decision making.
The s udy was conduc ed du ing a se e e d ough , he
e ec s o which we e e en mo e se e e in he lowlands o
Laisamis. These ex eme condi ions may ha e in luenced
899
Na iga ing ood en i onmen s o complemen a y eeding in he d ylands o no he n Kenya
pa icipan s’ pe spec i es, despi e e o s o ocus discus-
sions on hei usual p ac ices. I will be impo an o conduc
u he esea ch ha includes seasonal analysis, which would
p o ide insigh s in o how he si ua ion changes o e ime,
e lec ing he a iabili y o ood secu i y challenges.
Nex o challenges ypical o emo e a eas, he e we e
se e e ins ances o local con lic s and insecu i y in he
egion du ing he s udy pe iods, which occasionally dis-
up ed he esea ch p ocess. Wo king wi h women's sched-
ules and a ailabili y p o ed essen ial o main aining hei
mo i a ion and ensu e consis en a endance a sessions.
Despi e hese challenges, he da a collec ed p o ided ich,
con ex -speci ic insigh s in o ma e nal decision-making and
ood choices in esou ce-cons ained en i onmen s such as
he d ylands o no he n Kenya. The indings he e o e p o-
ide a basis o designing con ex -speci ic in e en ions o
imp o e ood secu i y and child nu i ion in simila se ings.
5 Conclusion
Mo he s’ decision-making ega ding complemen a y eeding
is highly in luenced by he espec i e local con ex comp is-
ing clima ic, ecological, socio-economic, and cul u al condi-
ions ha shape he espec i e ood en i onmen s o (ag o)
pas o al households. Signi ican a ia ions exis be ween
e hnic g oups and loca ions wi hin Ma sabi Coun y, leading
o no able di e ences in mo he s’ e alua ion o ood i ems
and dishes ac oss he ac o s- accessibili y, a o dabili y,
con enience, heal hiness, and child accep ance.
Women’s cha ac e iza ion o ood i ems also e ealed
hei local knowledge and pe cep ions. Fo ins ance, when
explaining which oods hey conside heal hy and linking
hem o obse ed heal h ou comes in hei child en. These
e alua ions we e shaped by hei daily expe iences, e lec -
ing li ing condi ions such as access o wa e and i ewood,
he dis ances equi ed o ob ain hese esou ces, seasonal
a ia ions, and ecipes. Pa icipa o y app oaches p o ed
in aluable in unco e ing hese nuanced pe cep ions. These
indings highligh he ole o con ex , oppo uni ies, and
challenges in shaping ma e nal decision-making. I illus-
a es he in ica e ela ionship be ween a ious ac o s
including loca ion, li elihoods, seasonali y, in as uc u e,
household dynamics, ecipes, and cul u al in luences.
Fu he mo e, his s udy demons a es he di e si y o
pe sonal ood en i onmen s wi hin he d ylands o no h-
e n Kenya and he in e dependence o he di e en ac o s
wi hin he pe sonal domain. These ac o s in e ac dynami-
cally wi hin speci ic loca ions, highligh ing he impo ance
o adop ing an in eg a i e app oach. Such an app oach is
c ucial o unde s anding and add essing ood secu i y chal-
lenges and con ibu es o he de elopmen o ac ionable,
con ex ualised s a egies o imp o e ood and nu i ion secu-
i y, locally and globally.
5.1 Implica ions and ecommenda ions
The in-dep h insigh s on mo he s’ ood choices in com-
plemen a y eeding can p o ide suppo o he designing
o ailo ed in e en ions aimed a imp o ing child nu i-
ion ac oss di e se con ex s and condi ions. Fo example,
in he lowlands in Ma sabi coun y, imp o ing ma ke
access h ough enhanced in as uc u e and s o age acili-
ies would be c i ical o imp o ing child nu i ion as lim-
i ed accessibili y o pe ishable oods emains a signi ican
challenge in he a ea. Designing in e en ions ha espec
and inco po a e cul u al p ac ices is equally i al o ensu e
communi y accep ance and sus ainabili y.
Es ablishing communi y pla o ms o knowledge
exchange could u he enhance e o s o imp o e pe -
sonal ood en i onmen s. These pla o ms would allow
communi ies o sha e and adop p ac ical s a egies, such
as enhancing he heal hiness and accep ance o oods by
child en h ough local modi ica ions. Addi ionally, p o-
mo ing he use o local and indigenous oods can also
imp o e child en’s die a y in ake. Such ini ia i es would
le e age exis ing cul u al knowledge while add essing
gaps in nu i ion.
A he policy le el, his s udy con ibu es o global
e o s o add ess ood and nu i ion secu i y by empha-
sising he impo ance o in eg a ing local knowledge in o
he design o in e en ions. This s udy is aligned wi h he
global Sus ainable De elopmen Goals, pa icula ly Goal
2 (Ze o Hunge ), and emphasises Kenya's cons i u ional
commi men o ensu ing access o adequa e ood as a basic
human igh . Fu he mo e, hese indings unde sco e he
b oade applicabili y o con ex -speci ic and cul u ally
sensi i e app oaches in enhancing he ood and nu i ion
secu i y o households and child en in o he esou ce-
cons ained and a id egions globally.
Acknowledgemen s We a e pa icula ly g a e ul o he women o he
Ji u Dansa, Adha Jabeza, Bi u, Jalalo, Saqake, S a , Hjinda Aaman,
Namunyak and Nalokoile women’s g oups in Ma sabi Coun y who
pa icipa ed in he esea ch, o hei con inued collabo a ion h ough-
ou he s udy. We would also like o hank he esea ch eam consis ing
o he Rendille; Raphael Gude e and Regina Jalle, he Bo ana; Diba
Ta i, Zulekha Abdulkadi , and he Bu ji; Es he Hage, who buil close
ela ionships wi h he women and pa icipa ed in he da a collec ion
p ocess. We a e also g a e ul o he nume ous indi iduals who ha e
p o ided hei suppo ; D . Ann Wa e s-Baye and D . Ma ga e a Lelea.
The au ho s would like o hank The Ge man Fede al Minis y o Food
and Ag icul u e (BMEL) who made his esea ch possible h ough hei
unding p o ision.
Au ho con ibu ions PK and BK designed he s udy. Wi h guidance
om HW, PK and JK collec ed da a wi h he suppo o esea ch assis-
an s. PK w o e he manusc ip . BK and HW e iewed and suppo ed
900 P.J.Kip ono e al.
he da a analysis, p o ided eedback o imp o emen s, and e iewed
and edi ed he manusc ip . WAH con ibu ed o he in e p e a ion o he
wo k and e iew o he manusc ip . All au ho s e iewed and app o ed
he inal e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek
DEAL. This esea ch was unded by The Ge man Fede al Minis y o
Food and Ag icul u e (BMEL), G an Numbe 2820 FENV01.
Da a A ailabili y The da a ha suppo s indings o his s udy a e a ail-
able upon easonable eques om he co esponding au ho .
Decla a ions
Con lic o in e es The au ho (s) decla e no con lic o in e es wi h
espec o he esea ch, au ho ship and/o publica ion o his a icle.
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Publishe 's No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o
ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Pa icia Kip ono is a PhD candi-
da e in Ag icul u al Sciences a
he Ge man Ins i u e o T opical
and Sub-T opical Ag icul u e
(DITSL), Ge many. He esea ch
employs a ansdisciplina y
app oach o in es iga e women's
inno a ions in child nu i ion
among (ag o)-pas o alis s in
Kenya d ylands. Wi h an aca-
demic backg ound in nu i ion,
global heal h, and humani a ian
ope a ions he wo k has spanned
ac oss humani a ian, esea ch,
and de elopmen sec o s since
2016. She has an in e es in
ma e nal and child nu i ion, ood secu i y, ag inu i ion, pa icipa o y
me hods, pee lea ning, knowledge co-c ea ion, and p ac i ione inno-
a ions. He esea ch aims o con ibu e o he de elopmen o con ex -
speci ic in e en ions ha imp o e he heal h ou comes o ulne able
popula ions.
904 P.J.Kip ono e al.
Jenni e Kaise holds a Bachelo ’s
deg ee in nu i ional, ood and
consume sciences om Uni e -
si y o applied sciences, Fulda
and MSc. Sus ainable In e na-
ional Ag icul u e - Ag ibusiness
om Geo g-Augus -Uni e si y
Goe ingen and Uni e si y o
Kassel. A he Ge man Ins i u e
o T opical and sub- opical
Ag icul u e, DITSL, h ough
Na iNu p ojec , she wo ked
wi h pas o al and ag o-pas o al
women in no he n Kenya o
unde s and hei ood en i on-
men s and child eeding p ac-
ices. She is cu en ly wo king in he Minis y o Food, Ru al A ai s
and Consume P o ec ion in Ge many.
Hussein Tadicha Wa io is a
esea che wi h o e 15 yea s o
expe ience in esea ch and de el-
opmen wo k among pas o al
communi ies in Eas e n A ica. He
holds a PhD in Ag icul u al Sci-
ences om he Uni e si y o Kas-
sel, Ge many and MSc. Na u al
Resou ce Managemen and Sus-
ainable Ag icul u e. D . Wa io is
he Execu i e Di ec o o he Cen-
e o Resea ch and De elopmen
in D ylands (CRDD), Kenya. He
leads he implemen a ion o ans-
disciplina y esea ch ini ia i es
including enhancing women's
agency in changing ood en i onmen s, op imizing angeland-based li e-
s ock alue chains wi h machine lea ning and digi al echnologies and
explo ing esilience amids ch onic unce ain y. His expe ise encompasses
pas o al land-use sys ems, socio-ecological esea ch and local
knowledge.
Waliou Amoussa Hounkpa in P o-
esso o Human Nu i ion a he
Uni e si y o Abomey-Cala i,
specializes in in an and young
child eeding (IYCF), local
esou ce u iliza ion o die a y
enhancemen , ood consump ion
s udies, and assessing he impac
o local ag o-biodi e si y on
in an die s. He designs and e al-
ua es educa ional ideos o
enhance eeding p ac ices and
u ilizes iso opic me hods o
assess s un ing educ ion p o-
g am e ec i eness in Benin.
Recen ly, his esea ch has
ocused on imp o ing i on bioa ailabili y in school meals. P o . D .
Hounkpa in emains dedica ed o con ibu ing o women empowe men
in u al ood en i onmen s o enhanced child nu i ion h ough a ans-
disciplina y app oach.
B igi e A. Kau mann is P o esso
o Social Ecology o T opical
and Sub opical Land Use Sys-
ems a he Uni e si y o Hohen-
heim and Scien i ic Di ec o o
he Ge man Ins i u e o T opical
and Sub opical Ag icul u e
(DITSL). She has mo e han 30
yea s o esea ch expe ience in
pas o al and ag o-pas o al sys-
ems in Eas , Wes and Sou he n
A ica. S a ing om p oduc ion
heo y, he app oach shi ed o
sys ems heo y and second-o de
cybe ne ics as a means o unde -
s anding pas o al sys ems. He
cu en ocus is on ansdisciplina y esea ch and collabo a i e lea ning
in he a eas o ood secu i y, esou ce managemen , alue chains and
ood sys ems.