Mili a u, E a; C is escu, Amalia; Vasilescu, Ma ia Denisa; S anila, La isa
A icle
Mic osimula ion analysis o COVID-19 and in la ion e ec s
on Romanian household income dynamics
Economies
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Mili a u, E a; C is escu, Amalia; Vasilescu, Ma ia Denisa; S anila, La isa (2024) :
Mic osimula ion analysis o COVID-19 and in la ion e ec s on Romanian household income
dynamics, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 12, Iss. 12, pp. 1-19,
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Ci a ion: Mili a u, E a, Amalia
C is escu, Ma ia Denisa Vasilescu, and
La isa S anila. 2024. Mic osimula ion
Analysis o COVID-19 and In la ion
E ec s on Romanian Household
Income Dynamics. Economies 12: 344.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies12120344
Academic Edi o : Fabio Clemen i
Recei ed: 16 Oc obe 2024
Re ised: 11 Decembe 2024
Accep ed: 13 Decembe 2024
Published: 16 Decembe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
A icle
Mic osimula ion Analysis o COVID-19 and In la ion E ec s on
Romanian Household Income Dynamics
E a Mili a u 1, Amalia C is escu 1,2,*, Ma ia Denisa Vasilescu 1,3 and La isa S anila 1
1
Na ional Scien i ic Resea ch Ins i u e o Labou and Social P o ec ion, 6-8 Po e nei S ee , 010643 Bucha es ,
Romania; [email p o ec ed]o (E.M.); [email p o ec ed] (M.D.V.);
[email p o ec ed] (L.S.)
2The Facul y o Theo e ical and Applied Economics, The Bucha es Uni e si y o Economic S udies,
15-17 Do oban i S ee , Sec o 1, 010552 Bucha es , Romania
3Facul y o Economic Cybe ne ics, S a is ics and In o ma ics, The Bucha es Uni e si y o Economic S udies,
15-17 Do oban i S ee , Sec o 1, 010552 Bucha es , Romania
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]o
Abs ac : In ecen yea s, EU membe s a es ha e aced wo signi ican c ises: he COVID-19 pandemic
and high in la ion, exace ba ed by geopoli ical ins abili y. These e en s ha e led o a decline in
household pu chasing powe . Ou s udy aims o quan i y he impac o hese c ises on household
income dynamics in Romania, using da a om he EU Su ey on Income and Li ing Condi ions and
he EUROMOD ax-bene i mic osimula ion model. We analyze income changes ac oss demog aphic
segmen s om 2019 o 2021 (COVID-19 pe iod) and 2021 o 2023 (in la ion c isis), ocusing on
household cha ac e is ics such as he p esence and numbe o child en, he gende o he household
head, and he p esence o elde ly membe s. Ou indings e eal ha while disposable income
inc eased om 2019 o 2021, he poo es 10% expe ienced he smalles gains. In 2022–2023, in la ion
e oded hese inc eases, and he lowe hal o he income dis ibu ion s uggled wi h educed ea nings
and pensions. Despi e his, he Gini coe icien o disposable income dec eased om 2019 o 2023,
indica ing a educed inequali y. Ou s udy highligh ed ha a ge ed public policy in e en ions a e
essen ial o suppo ulne able households and mi iga e he e ec s o economic shocks.
Keywo ds: dis ibu ional impac ; policy in e en ions; mic osimula ion model; COVID-19; in la ion;
income inequali y
1. In oduc ion
E e y coun y in he wo ld aced challenges in 2020, wi h some mo e a ec ed han
o he s ega ding social ca ego ies. Young, low-educa ed, low-income wo ke s we e mo e
exposed o income and employmen isk (Pouliakas and B anka 2020) and, he e o e, we e
once again mo e ulne able (Michálek 2023). Many indi iduals in hese ulne able g oups
ound hemsel es a he beginning o he pandemic unable o cope wi h he loss o income.
A ha momen , go e nmen s ied o p o ec he mos ulne able h ough disc e-
iona y measu es ( ax eba es, income subsidies), au oma ic s abiliza ion (unemploymen
bene i s o hose who los hei jobs, o example), and go e nmen suppo o companies.
In Romania, he go e nmen also ied o suppo employmen , imposing ax measu es
and bene i s o hose employees wi h employmen con ac s suspended due o pandemic
con ainmen measu es. Technical unemploymen was also conside ed a p o ec ion measu e.
Also, indi iduals bene i ed om pos poning he paymen o ins allmen s o bank loans.
A e he i s yea o he pandemic, Eu opean Union membe s a es we e con on ed
wi h high in la ion. Ini ially gene a ed by he economic dis up ions associa ed wi h he
COVID-19 pandemic, his in la iona y su ge was u he exace ba ed by he geopoli ical
ins abili y and economic consequences s emming om he wa in Uk aine (which s a ed
in 2022), esul ing in se e e p ice escala ion. In la ion in luences household income by
Economies 2024,12, 344. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12120344 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/economies
Economies 2024,12, 344 2 o 19
educing eal pu chasing powe , wo sening income inequali y, and inc easing bo owing
cos s. I can also e ode sa ings, dep ess consume con idence, and pu p essu e on go -
e nmen budge s. O e ime, hese ac o s can s i le economic g ow h and des abilize he
b oade economy, ad e sely a ec ing ulne able popula ions.
In esponse o he ex a p essu es on household wel a e, go e nmen s needed o ind
and implemen a new ange o policies o mi iga e he e ec s o soa ing ene gy p ices
and in la ion. The e a e wo main ca ego ies o measu es impac ing households: non-
a ge ed p ice suppo (p ice measu es) and means- es ed measu es ( ans e s measu es)
o highe p ice p o ec ion. In Romania, he go e nmen ied o con ain ene gy p ice
inc eases and in la ion by adop ing he ollowing measu es: educing ene gy ax and e ail
p ice egula ion and ans e s o ulne able g oups, business suppo , axes, and egula o y
measu es on p o i s (Ba dazzi e al. 2024). Simila measu es ha e been adop ed in Bulga ia,
Denma k, Ge many, and Poland.
The COVID-19 pandemic c isis, he ene gy p ice c isis and high, double-digi in la ion—
all on he backg ound o de ici s ha le he s a e wi h a na ow space o in e en ion—
comp ise he con ex in which he cos o li ing has isen apidly in he las 3 yea s in
Romania, changing consume beha io and eshaping household budge s. The luc ua ion
o ood cos s has had he s onges dis o ing e ec on Romanian budge s in he las h ee
yea s, wi h ood spending ha ing he la ges sha e in o al consump ion spending, a o e
30%. In la ion in he las 3 yea s had a nega i e impac on all he households in Romania,
bu his impac di e ed signi ican ly o low-income households compa ed o high-income
households because o he s uc u e o expendi u es and hei abili y o abso b inc eases in
he cos o li ing h ough sa ings o loans (Caisl e al. 2023).
Low-income households we e acing d ama ic inc eases in he p ices o cu en con-
sume goods, which e en led o he inabili y o some people o ensu e no mal li ing
condi ions, eaching a s a e o ma e ial dep i a ion. The s uc u e o household expen-
di u es and consump ion baske s a ies depending on income g oups, wi h low-income
households spending much mo e on essen ial p oduc s. Acco ding o he Romanian Na-
ional Ins i u e o S a is ics, consump ion expendi u es ep esen 61.5% o o al household
expendi u es. S ill, o he households wi h he lowes incomes, i accoun s o app oxi-
ma ely 90% o o al expendi u es. In con as , o he households wi h he highes income,
consump ion expendi u es ep esen app oxima ely 50% o he o al (Na ional Ins i u e o
S a is ics 2024).
Economically disad an aged households also ha e he lowes capaci y o cope wi h
sudden inc eases in he cos o li ing by using sa ings because hey a e mo e o en aced
wi h liquidi y cons ain s and a e no e y success ul in sa ing. Acco ding o he Romanian
Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics, he lowes -income g oup households in Romania managed
o sa e only 0.1% o hei o al income in 2023, while he highes -income g oup households
sa ed, on a e age, o e 18.0% o hei o al income (Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics 2020).
The au ho i ies ha e adop ed measu es o mode a e he inc ease in in la ion and o educe
he impac o in la ion on he popula ion. S ill, hese measu es we e no su icien . O he
measu es a e also needed, especially o low-income households, o ensu e hey a e no
u he ulne able o he isk o po e y and social exclusion caused by in la ion.
Wi hin his amewo k, ou s udy aims o add ess he ollowing esea ch ques ion:
how ha e di e en ypes o households been impac ed by he COVID-19 pandemic and
he subsequen p ice inc ease c isis, and o wha ex en ha e he measu es implemen ed
o mi iga e hei e ec s alle ia ed economic p essu es ac oss di e se demog aphic and
socioeconomic g oups? Speci ically, we seek o unde s and how di e ences in income
dis ibu ion by deciles, income s uc u e by sou ces, and household composi ion in luence
he challenges aced, he bene i s ecei ed, and he e ec i eness o hese measu es in
add essing he needs o ulne able households.
Ou esea ch o e s aluable insigh s in o he changes in income dis ibu ion esul ing
om ecen yea s’ c isis. While income inequali y in Romania has been examined o e
ime, including he e ec s o he co ona i us c isis, o he bes o ou knowledge, he
Economies 2024,12, 344 3 o 19
impac o ising in la ion in he mo e ecen pe iod has ye o be ho oughly e alua ed.
This pape aims o ill his gap by p o iding a de ailed quan i ica ion o how ising p ices,
alongside he COVID-19 pandemic, ha e eshaped he income dynamics ac oss di e en
household ypes in Romania. This objec i e is pu sued by u ilizing he EU Su ey on
Income and Li ing Condi ions (EU-SILC) da ase , in conjunc ion wi h he EUROMOD
ax-bene i mic osimula ion model, enabling a nuanced analysis o he socioeconomic
implica ions ac oss di e se demog aphic g oups. By ocusing on he in e play be ween
in la ion and pandemic- ela ed economic shi s, his s udy o e s a comp ehensi e and
unique assessmen o Romania’s changing landscape o income inequali y.
This pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2 e iews he ele an li e a u e and
Sec ion 3
delinea es he me hodology and da ase s used in he s udy, while Sec ion 4
p esen s a de ailed analysis o he esul s. Sec ion 5o e s he concluding ema ks, syn he-
sizing he insigh s de i ed om he esea ch.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Ex ensi e li e a u e explo es he impac o he COVID-19 pandemic on a ious income,
ulne able g oups, and income inequali y, wi h many s udies elying on mic osimula ion
analyses conduc ed using he EUROMOD model.
Rega ding he impac on income, Gasio e al. (2024), u ilizing he EUROMOD ax-
bene i mic osimula ion model, highligh ed he he e ogenei y ac oss Eu opean coun ies
in he e ec s o he co ona i us c isis on household incomes and he ex en o which
a ious ax-bene i policies mi iga ed income losses. In I eland, au oma ic s abilize s had
he s onges impac , con ibu ing up o 6% o changes in he mean disposable income,
while he COVID-19 speci ic ax and bene i changes inc eased household income by 4%.
Angelo and Waldens öm (2021) used Swedish da a and showed ha measu es aken by
he go e nmen helped keep he decline in o e all ea nings below 5–7%, a guing ha in he
absence o his suppo , he dec ease would ha e been almos wice as la ge. Fo he UK,
US, and Ge many, Adams-P assl e al. (2020) poin ed ou ha a he bo om o he ea nings
dis ibu ion, he ini ial income loss was a ound 35% in he UK and US and a ound 20%
in Ge many. Wha helped Ge man people o su e less om income educ ion was hei
sho - ime wo k (STW) schemes, which only needed o be adjus ed so he eligibili y c i e ia
o STW we e less s ingen , a decision made a he e y beginning o he pandemic.
Using mic osimula ion me hods o analyze he UK policy esponse o COVID-19 in
Ap il and May 2020, B ewe and Tasse a (2021) showed ha households los an a e age o
7% o hei ne income. B onka e al. (2020) used he UKMOD ax-bene i model o assess
he dis ibu ional and budge a y e ec s o he pandemic c isis in he UK, compa ing he
impac o he ini ial shock wi h and wi hou eme gency measu es, deducing ha policy
in e en ions educed he decline in a e age household disposable income om 3% o 1%.
The Co ona i us Job Re en ion Scheme and inc eases in bene i s helped mi iga e income
losses. Almeida e al. (2020) s udied he impac o he pandemic on household income and
he e ec s o policy measu es in he Eu opean Union. Wi hou in e en ion, household
income in he EU would ha e d opped by 5.9% in 2020, bu wi h policy measu es, he
decline was educed o 3.6%. These policies signi ican ly p o ec ed households om income
losses and mi iga ed he eg essi e e ec s o he c isis.
Howe e , he pandemic did no ha e uni o m e ec s, wi h some indi iduals being
mo e se e ely a ec ed han o he s. B ewe and Ga dine (2020) showed ha in he UK, he
labo ma ke shock has disp opo iona ely a ec ed lowe -income wo ke s, bu he s eng h-
ened social secu i y sys em has helped so en he impac on incomes. They a gue ha
lowe -income households we e mo e likely o ha e aken on deb , bo owed, o educed
sa ings, e lec ing hei limi ed abili y o cu spending compa ed o highe -income g oups.
On he con a y, B ewe and Tasse a (2021) demons a ed ha highe -income amilies
expe ienced he g ea es impac om ea nings losses du ing he pandemic. Hacıo˘glu-Hoke
e al. (2021), using spending, ea nings, and income da a o he UK, disco e ed ha he
op income qua ile accoun ed o nea ly hal o he consump ion decline, wi h spending
Economies 2024,12, 344 4 o 19
d opping signi ican ly mo e han income. Bu , he bo om qua ile expe ienced smalle
spending cu s and la ge ea nings d ops, bu o e all income emained mo e s able due o
inc eased go e nmen bene i s. Thus, he weal hy we e mo e a ec ed in e ms o consump-
ion, while he poo su e ed mo e om declines in labo income, being pa ially p o ec ed
by go e nmen suppo . In F ance, Ge many, I aly, and Spain, Cla k e al. (2021) poin ed
ou ha income-suppo policies ocused mo e on lowe -income g oups han on equal
compensa ion o all. Fu he mo e, hey concluded ha he sel -employed we e ha des
hi by he pandemic. Howe e , in I aly, he new policies adop ed o p o ec low-income
g oups du ing he pandemic compensa ed only pa ially o he 30% loss in ma ke income
(Figa i and Fio io 2020).
The e ec s o he pandemic on income inequali y ha e also been a subjec o in es iga-
ion. Using he EU-SILC da abase o I eland in conjunc ion wi h he EUROMOD model
o pe o m a mic osimula ion o he dis ibu ional impac o he COVID-19 pandemic,
O’Donoghue e al. (2021) deduced ha despi e inc easing ma ke income inequali y, dis-
posable income inequali y dec eased, p ima ily due o c isis-d i en policy measu es and
he ax-bene i sys em. The la ges dec ease occu ed du ing he i s wa e o COVID-19
bu dec eased as he bene i s became mo e a ge ed. Also, using da a om F ance, Ge -
many, I aly, and Spain, Cla k e al. (2021) showed a dec ease in ela i e inequali y be ween
Janua y 2020 and Janua y 2021. Al hough inequali y appea ed o ise un il May 2020, i ell
below p e-pandemic le els by Sep embe , wi h F ance’s decline being slowe . The absolu e
household income inequali y also dec eased. On he o he hand, he esul s om Figa i and
Fio io (2020) indica ed ha he pandemic led o inc eased inequali y and isk o po e y
in I aly. Fo Sweden, Angelo and Waldens öm (2021) demons a ed ha go e nmen
measu es o mi iga e he e ec s o he pandemic also add essed income inequali y, wi h
es ima es sugges ing ha , in he absence o hese measu es, he ise in inequali y could
ha e been up o h ee imes highe .
Du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, household incomes we e also a ec ed as a esul
o ising unemploymen . Ju anek e al. (2020) demons a ed ha he labo ma ke s o
all he coun ies we e se e ely hi by he pandemic, al hough Sweden pe o med sligh ly
be e han i s neighbo s. This analysis indica es ha he lockdown comes a a cos in
e ms o labo ma ke pe o mance, a leas in he sho un. Masik (2022) iden i ied he
dimensions o esilience unde aken in he li e a u e, cha ac e is ics desc ibing esilien
sys ems, and spa ial scales in he con ex o which esilience esea ch and s a egic planning
a e ca ied ou . This esea ch is ele an o ou analysis because s eng hening social and
ins i u ional esilience is pe o med by he communi y and agen s and se es, among
o he s, s eng hening ulne able g oups and inc easing ins i u ional e iciency. These
aspec s a e also use ul in he de elopmen o economic and social policies.
The measu es imposed o con ain he e ec s o he COVID-19 pandemic a ec ed
he economic sec o s and, implici ly, he ca ego ies o employees di e en ly. As a esul ,
he ca ego ies o households expe ienced a ying impac s on hei income. Ebbinghaus
and Lehne (2022) examined a ious wel a e egimes and concluded ha he Con inen al,
Medi e anean, and Libe al models p io i ized main aining employmen ela ionships mo e
han hose in No dic, Cen al, and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies. In his con ex , go e nmen
suppo o i ms was bene icial (Almeida e al. 2021), in i s absence, many jobs would ha e
been los . Ciołek (2021) showed ha he inc ease in unemploymen was s ongly in luenced
by he sha e o employmen in se ices, especially in less knowledge-in ensi e se ices
such as ade, accommoda ion, and gas onomy. Mo eo e , i u ns ou ha a highe sha e
o women wo king in se ices was associa ed wi h a highe inc ease in unemploymen
han in he case o men wo king in se ices.
Rega ding in la ion and i s dis ibu ional e ec s, highe in la ion usually impac s he
poo es , who do no ely on sa ings o suppo hei consump ion in ime. Fu he mo e,
indi iduals ace di e en in la ion a es acco ding o hei consump ion pa e ns, and
low-income households o en ace highe in la ion a es. Fo example, Cha alambakis e al.
(2022) obse ed ha he ecen inc ease in in la ion has a ec ed low- and high-income
Economies 2024,12, 344 5 o 19
households in he eu o a ea di e en ly, wi h he gap be ween hei e ec i e in la ion
a es a i s wides since 2006. Low-income households a e disp opo iona ely a ec ed
due o hei highe spending on essen ials such as ood and ene gy, limi ed sa ings, and
g ea e liquidi y cons ain s. In con as , high-income households ha e mo e lexibili y o
subs i u e expensi e goods and abso b cos inc eases h ough sa ings. The in la ion gap is
mainly d i en by ising ood and ene gy p ices, which ha e a ha she impac on poo e
households.
Claeys and Gue a-Jean enaud (2022) ob ained simila esul s. In es iga ing in la ion’s
impac in Belgium, F ance, and I aly, hey ound ha he lowes income ca ego ies ( he
lowes -ea ning i h o households in F ance and I aly and he lowes -ea ning qua e in
Belgium) had o deal wi h a highe ac ual a e o in la ion compa ed o he a e o in la ion
expe ienced by he highes income ca ego ies. Ba dazzi e al. (2024) analyzed he e ec s
o he 2021–2023 p ice inc eases on I alian household spending using a mic osimula ion
model o highligh he dis ibu ional changes. Thei s udy poin ed ou he une en impac
o in la ion ac oss di e en households and showed ha he a ge ed measu es signi ican ly
educed he eg essi e impac o in la ion. In addi ion, he policies implemen ed helped
s abilize household budge s by compensa ing o nea ly hal o he in la ion-d i en inc ease
in expenses. Simila esul s we e ob ained by Bon a i and Gia da (2024): he eg essi e
impac o in la ion was mi iga ed by iscal measu es. Al hough key policies we e designed
o p o ec low-income households and i ms in ene gy-in ensi e indus ies (Va ga e al.
2022), he a ying design and na u e o hese measu es ha e con ibu ed o di e ing
impac s ac oss households and i ms.
Sologon e al. (2023) explained ha he la ge a ia ions in in la ion ha exis ac oss
Eu opean coun ies a e due o he speci ic combina ion o goods wi h p ice inc eases
and hei sha e in he household budge . In poo e coun ies, he budge sha es o ood,
domes ic uels, o elec ici y a e highe han in mo e p ospe ous coun ies.
In an ex ensi e s udy co e ing se e al coun ies ac oss di e en egions o he globe
(namely he Czech Republic, Denma k, Ge many, F ance, I aly, Spain, he Uni ed Kingdom,
Japan, Mexico, and he Uni ed S a es), Causa e al. (2022) quan i ied he impac o ising
p ices on household wel a e using na ional mic o-based household budge su eys and
CPI da a o he pe iod Augus 2021 o Augus 2022. Thei esul s indica ed a decline in
household pu chasing powe anging om 3% in Japan o 18% in he Czech Republic. The
decline was d i en by ene gy p ices in mos coun ies, al hough in he Czech Republic o
he Uni ed S a es, in la ion is mo e b oad-based. Howe e , he common esul u ned ou o
be he ac ha in la ion impac s ela i ely mo e low-income households han high-income
households.
3. Me hodology
We used he Eu opean Union Su ey on Income and Li ing Condi ions (EU-SILC)
o Romania, co e ing he yea s 2020 and 2022. The EU-SILC p o ides a ep esen a i e
sample o he popula ion a he household le el, wi h sociodemog aphic in o ma ion on
household composi ion and income by main income sou ces. Based on his in o ma ion
and using he EUROMOD ax-bene i mic osimula ion model, we can calcula e se e al
income concep s used in he analysis, such as o iginal income (ea nings, income om
p ope y owne ship, income om in es men s, e c.), social ans e s (sum o all social
bene i s wi h means- es ing o no ), di ec axes (social con ibu ions, income axes minus
ax allowances), and disposable income (as o iginal income plus social ans e s minus
di ec axes).
EUROMOD is a ax-bene i mic osimula ion model used o compa a i e policy analy-
sis ac oss he Eu opean Union (EU), and i can assess he impac o policy changes bo h a
coun y and EU le el. I can gi e insigh s in o he e ec s o social bene i s and iscal policies
on income dis ibu ion, income inequali y, po e y, and wo k incen i es. The model can be
used o e alua e exis ing policies o simula e hypo he ical ones, and also o es ima e he
budge a y e ec s. In addi ion, he e ec s o policies can be acked along di e en socio-
Economies 2024,12, 344 6 o 19
demog aphic g oups; he winne s and lose s o he measu es can be iden i ied. EUROMOD
inco po a es he policy ules o income axa ion (pe sonal income ax, social insu ance
con ibu ions), indi ec axa ion (VAT, excises) and social bene i s (means- es ed bene i s,
non-means- es ed bene i s) in each EU coun y, on an annual basis.
This model is based on he household ep esen a i e da a collec ed annually h ough
he Eu opean Union Su ey on Income and Li ing Condi ions (EU-SILC). In he case o
Romania, he EU-SILC su ey is conduc ed by he Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics using an
in eg a ed design wi h a o a ional sampling app oach. This sample is di ided in o ou
sub-samples, each equal in size and design and ep esen a i e o he en i e popula ion.
Annually, h ee sub-samples a e e ained while one is eplaced wi h a new sub-sample,
ensu ing ha bo h c oss-sec ional and longi udinal s a is ics a e de i ed om he same
se o sample obse a ions. The sample size is a ound 7000–7500 households, comp ising
a ound 15,000–16,000 indi iduals aged o e 16 yea s.
Be o e being used as en y da a o EUROMOD, he su ey da ase unde wen a
p ocess o checking and co ec ing he inconsis encies be ween a iables, mos ly conce ning
he co ela ion be ween income sou ces and labo ma ke ac i i y, amily ela ions, non-
esponden indi iduals, and child en bo n a e he income e e ence pe iod. Se e al
income componen s we e impu ed om agg ega ed amoun s based on bene i ules. The
income e e ence pe iod was he calenda yea be o e he yea o da a collec ion. Upda ing
ac o s we e applied o adjus he mone a y a iables o ime inconsis encies be ween
he inpu da ase and he policy yea . Howe e , no ime econcilia ion was pe o med o
socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics and labo ma ke a iables, which emained unchanged
om hei o iginal alues. These upda ing ac o s a e ypically de i ed om indexa ion
ules o , when such ules a e una ailable, om changes in he a e age alue o an income
componen be ween he da a yea and he policy yea .
We calcula ed he equi alen income a he household le el using he modi ied OECD
equi alence scale. We used household membe ship and age in o ma ion o iden i y he
households wi h child en and he numbe o child en. Also, o dis inguish be ween he
households led by women and he households led by men, we used, as a p oxy, he
household esponden , which was he pe son esponsible o he dwelling. We c ea ed
se e al household ypologies, which we in es iga ed o assess he e ec s on hei incomes
in wo consecu i e pe iods, 2019–2021 and 2021–2023, e lec ing he impac o COVID-19
and he in la ion c isis. In addi ion, income had been de la ed by in la ion, so we e e ed
o changes in eal income.
The s uc u e o he households based on he chosen ypologies is p esen ed in Table 1.
We no e ha wo- hi ds o he households did no ha e child en, whe eas, among he
households wi h child en, hose wi h one o wo child en we e he as majo i y. Families
wi h h ee o mo e child en accoun ed o less han 5%, as well single-pa en amilies. One
hi d o he households we e led by a women (she is esponsible o he accommoda ion,
acco ding o he su ey da a collec ion ules). Almos 40% we e households wi h elde ly
membe s (65 yea s and olde ).
Conce ning he da a, we should men ion se e al limi a ions. The sample size was
ela i ely small, so cau ion is ad ised when analyzing and in e p e ing esul s o smalle
subg oups. Each da abase inco po a ed income o he p eceding yea . Fo subsequen
yea s, he mone a y a iables we e adjus ed using income-speci ic up a ing ac o s, while
he sociodemog aphic and labo ma ke cha ac e is ics we e kep unchanged om hei
o iginal alues. Ce ain ypes o ma ke income, such as en al o in es men income, we e
no ully cap u ed, whe eas he employmen income was sligh ly o e es ima ed in he
da ase . In addi ion, he da abase did no adequa ely cap u e high-income households.
Th ough he EUROMOD ax-bene i mic osimula ion model o Romania (Mili a u
e al. 2024), we simula ed he en i lemen o social bene i s and he social con ibu ions
and income axes due by indi iduals. Fo means- es ed bene i s, he e was gene ally o e
simula ion, o en because he asse es could no be accu a ely simula ed o due o he
issue o bene i non- ake-up. Excep o he gua an eed minimum income, whe e some
Economies 2024,12, 344 7 o 19
adjus men s we e made, 100% bene i ake-up was assumed. The childca e allowance o
small child en unde 2 yea s o age (ou o wo k) and he child incen i e (in wo k) we e
unde -simula ed because o he poo ep esen a ion o small child en in he da abase. Also,
ull ax compliance was assumed, excep o hose who we e sel -employed in ag icul u e,
li ing in u al a eas wi h income below he a e age g oss wage o whom some adjus men s
we e made.
Table 1. Household ypologies, % o o al households.
Types o Households 2020 2022
Families wi h child en 31.1 31.2
Families wi hou child en 68.9 68.8
Single pa en s 4.9 4.5
Families wi h 1 o 2 child en 27.8 28.0
Families wi h h ee plus child en 3.3 3.2
Families wi h young adul s (<25 yea s) 16.2 16.5
Female head o he house 30.7 31.0
Male head o he house 69.3 69.0
Families wi h elde ly pe sons in ca e 38.3 38.4
Sou ce: au ho s’ calcula ions using he EU-SILC da abase o 2020 and 2022.
Rega ding income- ela ed ulne abili ies, se e al key aspec s dese e a en ion and
di e en ia e Romania om o he EU coun ies. Romania has he highes and mos pe sis-
en a - isk-o -po e y a e among child en in he Eu opean Union, wi h 29.6% o child en
li ing below he 60% median disposable equi alen income h eshold in 2023, acco ding
o Eu os a da a. This igu e highligh s a signi ican and ongoing challenge in add essing
child po e y compa ed o o he EU membe s a es.
In addi ion o child po e y, Romania’s o e all a - isk-o -po e y a e anks he hi d
highes in he EU, eaching 21.1% in 2023, as epo ed by Eu os a . These s a is ics show he
widesp ead na u e o mone a y ulne abili y in he coun y. Families wi h h ee o mo e
child en ace he mos se e e challenges, wi h an a - isk-o -po e y a e o 63.3% in 2023,
signi ican ly highe han he EU a e age o 27.8%. In-wo k po e y is also no ably high in
Romania, wi h 21.6% o employed indi iduals li ing in po e y in 2023, compa ed o he
EU a e age o 11.6%. This highligh s signi ican ulne abili ies wi hin he Romanian labo
ma ke , pa icula ly a ec ing he sel -employed, who ace impo an economic challenges
despi e being employed. These ac s poin o a p essing need o mo e a ge ed social
policies and in e en ions aimed a suppo ing he mos ulne able.
Income inequali y in Romania, measu ed by he Gini coe icien , has been among he
highes in he EU bu has seen a signi ican educ ion in ecen yea s, despi e he challenges
o he COVID-19 pandemic and he in la ion c isis. Be ween 2019 and 2023, Romania
eco ded a 3.8-poin d op in he Gini coe icien , he la ges dec ease in he EU.
Ou objec i e was o conduc a comp ehensi e analysis o how a ious ypes o
households ha e been a ec ed by he COVID-19 pandemic and he subsequen p ice
inc ease c isis in Romania, while also conside ing he measu es implemen ed o mi iga e
hei e ec s. This analysis sough o unde s and how c ises and subsequen in e en ions
ha e alle ia ed economic p essu es ac oss di e se demog aphic and socioeconomic g oups.
By examining he di e ences in income dis ibu ion by deciles and income s uc u e by
income sou ces, and household composi ion, we aimed o iden i y which segmen s o he
popula ion bene i ed he mos , which aced pe sis en challenges, and how e ec i ely he
measu es add essed he speci ic needs o ulne able households. This insigh will help in
e alua ing he o e all equi y and e iciency o he policies and in shaping mo e a ge ed
s a egies o u u e c ises.
Economies 2024,12, 344 8 o 19
4. Resul s
4.1. How Was he O e all Popula ion A ec ed?
The i s no able end du ing he COVID-19 pandemic was a signi ican inc ease
in wages, pa icula ly in he sec o s ha saw g ow h due o a combina ion o inc eased
demand, cos -cu ing measu es, and go e nmen suppo . We men ion in o ma ion and
communica ion, wholesale and ade, ene gy and wa e p oduc ion, and ag icul u e and
ishing. Be ween 2019 and 2021, eal wages inc eased by an a e age o 6%. Fu he mo e,
he sel -employmen income ose by mo e han 13%, e lec ing a eco e y om he ini ial
decline in 2020 when he pandemic began. Wi h highe ea nings, he e was an inc ease in
ax e enues and social con ibu ions.
On a e age, household disposable income inc eased by 25%, u he suppo ed by
mo e gene ous social bene i s. The dis ibu ional impac was no homogeneous, showing
signi ican inc eases o all he households, beginning wi h he second decile (Figu e 1). The
leas inc eases we e no ed o he poo es 10% o he popula ion, and he mos signi ican
o households om he second o he six h decile. In he case o he poo es households,
hey lacked esou ces as ea nings; hus, e en wi h he suppo o mo e gene ous social
bene i s (uni e sal child allowance, in-wo k incen i e o pa en s, means- es ed educa ional
allowance, e c.), hey canno expe ience disposable income inc eases o he same ex en
as be e -o households. I should be no ed ha due o he la a e o income axes and
social con ibu ions, highe o iginal income inc eases a e accompanied by highe axes.
O iginal income includes mainly ea nings (mo e han 95%) and o he income sou ces, such
as income om p ope y and o he in es men s.
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 19
4. Resul s
4.1. How Was he O e all Popula ion Affec ed?
The i s no able end du ing he COVID-19 pandemic was a signi ican inc ease in
wages, pa icula ly in he sec o s ha saw g ow h due o a combina ion o inc eased de-
mand, cos -cu ing measu es, and go e nmen suppo . We men ion in o ma ion and
communica ion, wholesale and ade, ene gy and wa e p oduc ion, and ag icul u e and
ishing. Be ween 2019 and 2021, eal wages inc eased by an a e age o 6%. Fu he mo e,
he sel -employmen income ose by mo e han 13%, e lec ing a eco e y om he ini ial
decline in 2020 when he pandemic began. Wi h highe ea nings, he e was an inc ease in
ax e enues and social con ibu ions.
On a e age, household disposable income inc eased by 25%, u he suppo ed by
mo e gene ous social bene i s. The dis ibu ional impac was no homogeneous, showing
signi ican inc eases o all he households, beginning wi h he second decile (Figu e 1).
The leas inc eases we e no ed o he poo es 10% o he popula ion, and he mos signi -
ican o households om he second o he six h decile. In he case o he poo es house-
holds, hey lacked esou ces as ea nings; hus, e en wi h he suppo o mo e gene ous
social bene i s (uni e sal child allowance, in-wo k incen i e o pa en s, means- es ed ed-
uca ional allowance, e c.), hey canno expe ience disposable income inc eases o he same
ex en as be e -off households. I should be no ed ha due o he la a e o income axes
and social con ibu ions, highe o iginal income inc eases a e accompanied by highe
axes. O iginal income includes mainly ea nings (mo e han 95%) and o he income
sou ces, such as income om p ope y and o he in es men s.
Figu e 1. Change in eal household disposable income 2019–2021, by income componen s, %. No e:
Pe cen age change in mean equi alized household disposable income by income sou ce and income
decile g oup. Income decile g oups a e calcula ed based on household disposable income, equi al-
ized using he modi ied OECD equi alence scale. Sou ce: au ho s’ calcula ions using he EU-SILC
da abase and he EUROMOD model.
The second ema k conce ns he yea s ollowing he pandemic, 2022 and 2023, con-
on ed wi h high in la ion, affec ing households’ income. Now, he si ua ion looks com-
ple ely diffe en (Figu e 2), and i is clea ha he go e nmen , h ough social assis ance
Figu e 1. Change in eal household disposable income 2019–2021, by income componen s, %.
No e: Pe cen age change in mean equi alized household disposable income by income sou ce and
income decile g oup. Income decile g oups a e calcula ed based on household disposable income,
equi alized using he modi ied OECD equi alence scale. Sou ce: au ho s’ calcula ions using he
EU-SILC da abase and he EUROMOD model.
The second ema k conce ns he yea s ollowing he pandemic, 2022 and 2023, con-
on ed wi h high in la ion, a ec ing households’ income. Now, he si ua ion looks com-
ple ely di e en (Figu e 2), and i is clea ha he go e nmen , h ough social assis ance
Economies 2024,12, 344 15 o 19
The o e all end in income g ow h e ealed a decline as one mo ed om lowe o
highe income deciles o bo h male- and emale-headed households, excep o some
a ia ions in he i s and las deciles. Speci ically, in he lowe income b acke s, women-led
households end o expe ience mo e a o able income g ow h, indica ing some p og ess
in na owing gende dispa i ies a he bo om o he economic spec um. Ye , his end
changes as income le els ise and male-headed households begin o show g ea e g ow h,
pa icula ly in highe deciles. This dispa i y becomes e iden a he op end o he income
dis ibu ion, highligh ing ha gende -based income inequali y pe sis s, especially among
he weal hies households.
Following 2021, he disposable income was declining ac oss all he income deciles o
bo h he emale-headed and he male-headed households (Figu e 7). The pa e n e ealed
some a ia ion: while income g ow h was s ill obse ed in he i s decile o bo h gende s,
he income began o decline om he second decile onwa d.
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 19
Figu e 6. The 2019–2021 change in eal household disposable income, by income deciles and gende
o household head, %. No e: pe cen age change in mean equi alized household disposable income
by income sou ce and income decile g oup. Income decile g oups a e calcula ed based on household
disposable income, equi alized using he modi ied OECD equi alence scale. Sou ce: au ho s’ calcu-
la ions using he EU-SILC da abase and he EUROMOD model.
Figu e 7. The 2021–2023 change in eal household disposable income, by income deciles and gende
o household head, %. No e: pe cen age change in mean equi alized household disposable income
by income sou ce and income decile g oup. Income decile g oups a e calcula ed based on household
disposable income, equi alized using he modi ied OECD equi alence scale. Sou ce: au ho s’ calcu-
la ions using he EU-SILC da abase and he EUROMOD model.
The assessmen o he le els and ends in income inequali y be ween he wo g oups
can be conduc ed by decomposing he Gini coefficien using Pya ’s (1976) me hod. In
2019, income inequali y was no ably highe among emale-headed households compa ed
o male-headed households. Be ween 2019 and 2023, he o e all inequali y among emale-
headed households dec eased signi ican ly (by 0.057 poin s), indica ing an imp o emen
in income dis ibu ion o hese households (see Table 4). In con as , male-headed house-
holds expe ienced only modes imp o emen s.
Figu e 7. The 2021–2023 change in eal household disposable income, by income deciles and gende
o household head, %. No e: pe cen age change in mean equi alized household disposable income
by income sou ce and income decile g oup. Income decile g oups a e calcula ed based on household
disposable income, equi alized using he modi ied OECD equi alence scale. Sou ce: au ho s’
calcula ions using he EU-SILC da abase and he EUROMOD model.
In pa icula , only male-headed households in he poo es wo deciles expe ienced
signi ican income g ow h compa ed o hei emale-headed coun e pa s, indica ing a
dispa i y a he lowes income le els. Also, as be o e 2021, he emale-headed households
appea ed o be acing signi ican ulne abili y a he op ends o he income spec um.
These esul s sugges ha women-led households in he ex eme income g oups—bo h he
poo es and he weal hies —a e mo e exposed o economic isks o ha e ewe esou ces
a ailable o mi iga e he impac o income loss. This dispa i y poin s o he b oade
challenges aced by women-led households in na iga ing economic ins abili y, especially
compa ed o male-headed households ha seem be e posi ioned o sus ain g ow h o
bu e agains declines in disposable income.
The assessmen o he le els and ends in income inequali y be ween he wo g oups
can be conduc ed by decomposing he Gini coe icien using Pya ’s (1976) me hod. In
2019, income inequali y was no ably highe among emale-headed households compa ed
o male-headed households. Be ween 2019 and 2023, he o e all inequali y among emale-
headed households dec eased signi ican ly (by 0.057 poin s), indica ing an imp o emen in
income dis ibu ion o hese households (see Table 4). In con as , male-headed households
expe ienced only modes imp o emen s.
Economies 2024,12, 344 16 o 19
Table 4. Decomposi ion o he Gini coe icien , by gende o household head, %.
Inequali y
(Gini Coe icien )
O e all
Inequali y Wi hin-G oup Be ween-G oup O e lap
2019
Change o 2023
2019
Change o 2023
2019
Change o 2023
2019
Change o 2023
Female-headed
households
0.347
−0.057
0.211
−0.017
0.019
−0.006
0.094
−0.003
Male-headed
households
0.316
−0.017
Sou ce: au ho s’ own simula ions using EUROMOD ax-bene i simula ion model and he EU-SILC da abase.
The decline in inequali y o bo h g oups indica es ha he changes in income dis i-
bu ion a o ed he poo e popula ion, sugges ing ha income suppo p og ams ha e been
e ec i e o hose a he lowe end o he income dis ibu ion.
The Gini coe icien o income inequali y wi hin each g oup also declined, by 0.017 poin s,
bu s ill accoun s o app oxima ely 65% o he o al inequali y. The inequali y be ween he wo
g oups, ini ially a ound 5% o he o al, declined o 4% (a nominal dec ease o 0.006 poin s),
indica ing a educ ion in he dispa i y be ween emale-headed and male-headed households.
The o e lap componen , which e lec ed he deg ee o which he income dis ibu ions o
he wo g oups in e sec , accoun ed o 29–30% o he o al inequali y. The sligh educ-
ion (0.003 poin s) in his componen sugges s ha he o e lap be ween he emale-headed
and male-headed households changed only ma ginally, implying minimal changes in he
in e sec ion o hei income dis ibu ions.
5. Conclusions
Ou pape analyzes he household income dynamics in Romania using da a om
he Eu opean Union Su ey on Income and Li ing Condi ions (EU-SILC) o 2020 and
2022 and using, o he simula ion o social ans e s and axes, he EUROMOD ax-bene i
mic osimula ion model. We e alua ed household income changes ac oss 2019–2021 (du ing
COVID-19) and 2021–2023 (amids he in la ion c isis). We ca ego ized he households
by se e al ypologies, such as he p esence and numbe o child en, he gende o he
household head, and whe he elde ly membe s we e p esen . The s uc u e o he house-
holds indica es ha wo- hi ds o he households analyzed did no ha e child en, and
mos amilies had one o wo child en. Female-headed households make up oughly
one- hi d o he households, and nea ly 40% o he households included elde ly membe s.
The analysis highligh s a ia ions in he income changes in Romania ac oss household
ypes and deciles, he impo ance o social bene i s in mi iga ing income inequali y, and
gende -speci ic ulne abili ies.
The e olu ion o he gene al con ex in Romania indica es, be ween 2019 and 2021, a
highe disposable income o he popula ion, mainly because eal wages g ew by 6% and
sel -employmen income inc eased by mo e han 13%. Howe e , he gains we e une enly
dis ibu ed, wi h he poo es 10% o households seeing he leas inc ease. Unlike in o he
coun ies (Cla k e al. 2021) whe e pandemic policies we e ailo ed o suppo lowe -income
g oups, Romania adop ed a uni o m policy app oach o he whole popula ion. As a esul ,
he poo e households we e disp opo iona ely a ec ed, acing mo e signi ican changes
in hei labo ma ke s a us. Also, con a y o he ends obse ed in coun ies such as
he UK, Ge many, and Sweden (B onka e al. 2020;Adams-P assl e al. 2020;Angelo and
Waldens öm 2021), disposable income inc eased in Romania du ing he pandemic.
In 2022–2023, in la ion e oded p e ious income gains, al hough a ge ed go e nmen
measu es helped he mos ulne able g oups, pa icula ly low-income households wi h
child en and elde ly membe s. Despi e hese in e en ions, he lowe hal o he income
dis ibu ion s uggled o ully o se he losses om educed ea nings and pensions. These
esul s o ou analysis align wi h simila esea ch (Cha alambakis e al. 2022;Claeys and
Gue a-Jean enaud 2022), which ound ha in la ion a ec s households di e en ly, wi h
Economies 2024,12, 344 17 o 19
low-income households being he mos impac ed due o highe sha es o essen ial goods
and less lexibili y in consump ion.
In gene al, he Gini coe icien o disposable income dec eased om 2019 o 2023,
wi h a peak in 2020, sugges ing educed inequali y o e all. The ise in income inequali ies
du ing he i s wa e o he pandemic was obse ed in o he coun ies as well, including
F ance, Ge many, I aly, and Spain (Cla k e al. 2021;Figa i and Fio io 2020).
The main con ibu ion o his pape lies in he de ailed examina ion o how a ious
household ca ego ies we e impac ed by he pandemic and he subsequen in la iona y
pe iod, add essing a signi ican gap in he li e a u e on Romania. Addi ionally, such
in-dep h analysis is a e, e en in s udies ocused on o he coun ies. Ou esul s show
ha du ing he COVID-19 pe iod, he amilies wi hou child en and he male-headed
households in Romania expe ienced highe gains compa ed o single-pa en amilies
and hose wi h h ee o mo e child en, who aced educed ea nings due o ca egi ing
esponsibili ies du ing he pandemic. Inc eased pension bene i s p o ided c ucial suppo
o elde ly households. Du ing 2021–2023, all he amilies expe ienced a decline in eal
disposable income due o in la ion. Howe e , la ge amilies ( h ee o mo e child en) we e
less a ec ed, hanks o gene ous social bene i s and ax deduc ions.
The dis ibu ional e ec s measu ed as he a e age eal income g ow h by deciles
cons uc ed based on household equi alized disposable income indica e ha he amilies
wi h h ee o mo e child en showed high a iabili y in hei disposable income g ow h
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic in Romania, especially in lowe income deciles, while
single-pa en amilies expe ienced minimal inc eases, hus indica ing ha mo e a ge ed
suppo would p obably ha e been mo e e ec i e.
Du ing 2021–2023, in la ion had a widesp ead nega i e e ec in Romania, pa icula ly
on middle-income amilies. Ta ge ed suppo measu es o ulne able amilies p o ided
some elie o lowe income g oups, bu we e insu icien o o he s. Inequali ies declined
o all he household g oups, especially o he amilies wi h h ee o mo e child en and
single-pa en amilies, showing ha a ge ed suppo , especially du ing he in la iona y
pe iod, was c ucial o hem. As highligh ed in simila s udies o o he coun ies (Ba dazzi
e al. 2024;Bon a i and Gia da 2024), public measu es aimed a cushioning he e ec s o
in la ion we e highly e ec i e in Romania as well, pa icula ly o low-income households
and he mos ulne able g oups.
Conce ning he ypology based on he gende o he household head, he esul s show
ha in he COVID-19 pe iod, emale-headed households expe ienced be e income g ow h
in he lowe deciles compa ed o male-headed households, bu males saw a highe g ow h
a he highe income le els. Subsequen ly, be ween 2021 and 2023, bo h he male- and
emale-headed households aced declines in hei eal disposable income. The emale-
headed households, pa icula ly in he ex eme income g oups, we e mo e ulne able o
income losses, highligh ing gende dispa i ies. We obse ed a na owing o he dispa i ies
be ween he wo g oups o households, as shown by he e olu ion o he componen s o
he Gini coe icien . In his con ex , i would ha e been aluable o u he explo e he
composi ion o male- e sus emale-headed households o gain a deepe unde s anding
o he indings. Howe e , due o da a limi a ions, pa icula ly he small sample size o
ce ain g oups, a mo e de ailed analysis was no easible.
Ou esul s show ha in he Romanian social and economic con ex , a ge ed public
policy in e en ions we e c ucial o e ec i ely suppo ulne able households, pa icula ly
hose wi h child en, single pa en s, and emale-headed amilies, o mi iga e income inequal-
i y and cushion he impac o economic shocks like in la ion and pandemics. Findings also
highligh he c i ical ole o social bene i s and ax deduc ions in s abilizing incomes o
la ge amilies and low-income households and policies should ocus on op imizing he
design and deli e y o such measu es o ensu e equi able suppo . Conside ing ha he
emale-headed households, pa icula ly in he ex eme income g oups, aced inc eased
ulne abili y du ing c ises, i is essen ial o adop gende -sensi i e policies o add ess
income dispa i ies and p omo e esilience among emale-led amilies.
Economies 2024,12, 344 18 o 19
Limi a ions o he esea ch p ima ily conce n he da a used, which include a ela i ely
small sample size and challenges in accu a ely cap u ing ce ain ypes o income (p ope y,
in es men ), an o e -es ima ion o employmen income, and he unde ep esen a ion o
households wi h he highes income.
Fu u e wo k should add ess hese limi a ions by conduc ing he same analysis on
la ge da ase s ha p o ide a be e ep esen a ion o a ious household ca ego ies. These
simula ions assume ull ax compliance and comple e up ake o all he eligible bene i s ha
could in luence he esul s o some ex en . Howe e , due o he lack o eliable ex e nal
da a, hese assump ions canno be adjus ed.
Fu he esea ch should ocus on a de ailed analysis o social bene i s and ax policies
o assess he ele ance and e ec i eness o each on he well-being o households and
he educ ion in income inequali ies. Ex ending he analysis o e a longe pe iod could
cap u e he long- e m impac s o economic shocks and policy measu es, p o iding a
deepe unde s anding o income dynamics and esilience. In addi ion, explo ing he
in e sec ionali y o household cha ac e is ics (e.g., gende , income, p esence o child en)
would p o ide a nuanced unde s anding o ulne abili y and in o m mo e inclusi e and
a ge ed policy design.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, E.M., M.D.V., A.C. and L.S.; me hodology, E.M.; alida ion,
E.M, M.D.V. and A.C.; o mal analysis, E.M., M.D.V., A.C, and L.S.; esou ces, E.M. and L.S.; w i ing—
o iginal d a p epa a ion, E.M., M.D.V., A.C. and L.S.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, M.D.V., A.C,
and L.S.; supe ision, E.M.; p ojec adminis a ion, A.C.; unding acquisi ion, A.C. All au ho s ha e
ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: Pa o his wo k was suppo ed by he NUCLEU P og am unded by he Romanian
Minis y o Resea ch, Inno a ion, and Digi aliza ion, P ojec PN 22100104 and P ojec PN 22100201.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The mic oda a used was p o ided by Eu os a only based on a esea ch
p oposal and can be sha ed only wi h he esea che s nomina ed in he esea ch p oposal. The da a
canno be made a ailable o open access.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
