Geib, Nils; Boenigk, Silke
A icle — Published Ve sion
Nonp o i alen ec ui men : An online expe imen
on new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen
oppo uni ies
Nonp o i Managemen and Leade ship
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Geib, Nils; Boenigk, Silke (2024) : Nonp o i alen ec ui men : An online
expe imen on new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies, Nonp o i
Managemen and Leade ship, ISSN 1542-7854, Wiley Pe iodicals, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 35, Iss. 2,
pp. 461-490,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/nml.21626
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Nonp o i alen ec ui men : An online
expe imen on new ways o wo king and
leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies
Nils Geib | Silke Boenigk
Facul y o Business, Economics and
Social Sciences, Uni e si ä Hambu g,
Hambu g, Ge many
Co espondence
Nils Geib, Facul y o Business, Economics
and Social Sciences, Uni e si ä
Hambu g, Von-Melle-Pa k 9, D-20146
Hambu g, Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Rec ui ing alen ed employees is challenging o non-
p o i o ganiza ions. This s udy examines he e ec s o
wo possible human esou ce ec ui men p ac ices—
o e ing new ways o wo king and leade ship de elop-
men oppo uni ies—on he in en ion o alen o apply
o a posi ion a a nonp o i o ganiza ion. Building on
he sel -de e mina ion heo y, he au ho s conduc ed
an online su ey expe imen (n=389) wi h aspi ing
employees in Ge many. The esul s show ha , o he
o e ed p ac ices, only “new ways o wo king”signi i-
can ly inc ease indi iduals' in en ion o apply. Rega d-
ing wo k sec o p e e ences, nonp o i s a e in a wa o
alen , as only 13.6% p e e he nonp o i sec o , wi h
mos pa icipan s (47.8%) p e e ing o ind a job wi h a
o -p o i company o in he public sec o (38.6%). As a
key nonp o i managemen implica ion, ec ui e s
should de elop and implemen new ways o wo king o
a ac alen ed employees o he nonp o i sec o .
KEYWORDS
job ad e isemen , leade ship de elopmen , new ways o
wo king, nonp o i human esou ce managemen , online
expe imen , ec ui men , alen managemen
Recei ed: 30 Janua y 2023 Re ised: 20 May 2024 Accep ed: 21 May 2024
DOI: 10.1002/nml.21626
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and
dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Nonp o i Managemen & Leade ship published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC.
Nonp o i Managemen and Leade ship. 2024;35:461–490. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/nml 461
1|INTRODUCTION
Talen ec ui men is c ucial o nonp o i o ganiza ions (Suh, 2018). I is impo an because i
helps o mee u u e needs, boos s human capi al, and ca e s o leade ship and successions
(Ca pen e , 2017; Geib & Boenigk, 2022; Kim, 2017; Ro hwell, 2005). While ec ui ing alen is
essen ial o e e y o ganiza ion (Maie e al., 2022), i is no ably di icul o nonp o i s (Guo
e al., 2011; Hu anandana, 2023). As e idenced by a Eu opean s udy e ealing ha only 5% o
Po uguese g adua es op ed o nonp o i jobs (San inha e al., 2021), hese o ganiza ions ace
s i compe i ion om o -p o i and public sec o s (Ng & McGinnis Johnson, 2020;Walk
e al., 2021). I also con i ms he global “wa o alen ”in he nonp o i sec o (Meaney &
Kelle , 2017).
Al hough he deba e ega ding he e m “ alen ”in human esou ce li e a u e is ongoing
(Lewis & Heckman, 2006; Yildiz & Esme , 2023), we adop he b oad de ini ion by Michaels
e al. (2001, p. 111). They explain ha alen can be de ined as indi iduals' combina ion o “a
sha p s a egic mind, leade ship abili y, emo ional ma u i y, communica ion skills, he abili y
o a ac and inspi e o he alen ed people, en ep eneu ial ins inc s, undamen al skills and
he abili y o deli e esul s.”
E ec i e alen ec ui men in nonp o i s in ol es aligning mission-o ien ed human
esou ce managemen (HRM) p ac ices wi h employee needs, conside ing bo h in insic and
ex insic mo i a ional ac o s (Abzug, 2017; Baluch & Ridde , 2021; Ba ha e & Di ani, 2021).
Exis ing esea ch acknowledges he ole o high public se ice o nonp o i se ice mo i a ion
(Pa k & Wo d, 2012) as an in insic ac o ha posi i ely impac s indi iduals' wo k in a non-
p o i (Einol , 2022; Kim & To neo, 2021; Ng & McGinnis Johnson, 2020; Ri z e al., 2022;
Wo d & Pa k, 2015). Mo eo e , ex e nal mo i a ion is in luenced by ac o s such as compensa-
ion (McGinnis Johnson & Ng, 2016; Walk e al., 2021) and job s abili y (Balla & Rico, 2018).
Ou s udy expands upon Wo d and Sowa's (2017) p oposi ion o in es iga ing wo unde -
esea ched job mo i a o s in nonp o i li e a u e: (1) new ways o wo king and (2) leade ship
de elopmen oppo uni ies.
New ways o wo king, such as lexible schedules and emo e wo k, a e inc easingly consid-
e ed o be a i al componen o balancing li e and wo k by (p ospec i e) employees, a end
u he accen ua ed by he COVID-19 pandemic (Ahamad e al., 2022; Ge a ds e al., 2018). In
e ms o he la e , a s udy by Bain and Company (2022, p. 2) no es ha alen eels i necessa y
“ o e hink he balance be ween li e and wo k.”In ou s udy, we add ess his poin and p opose
ha he demand o lexible wo k a angemen s will con inue o be an impo an ac o o al-
en ed ec ui s, including hose employed in he nonp o i sec o .
Ca ee de elopmen oppo uni ies ha e also eme ged as a decisi e ac o o younge
wo ke s when choosing an employe (Deloi e, 2022). HRM nonp o i esea ch s esses his as
well Gazley (2016, p. 96), o example, highligh s ha he oppo uni y o ad ance in one's ca ee
is one o he “p incipal o ganiza ional ac o s ha suppo nonp o i s a ec ui men .”We
ag ee wi h his s a emen and assume ha o e ing leade ship de elopmen as a ca ee ad ance-
men oppo uni y can e ec i ely a ac alen .
To da e, empi ical esea ch on new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen oppo uni-
ies as majo job mo i a o s in nonp o i alen ec ui men is sca ce. Howe e , his s udy
add esses bo h mo i a o s by means o an online expe imen . Speci ically, we manipula e ic i-
ious, ye ealis ic, igne es o a nonp o i job ad e isemen o answe he ollowing esea ch
ques ion: Is o e ing (1)new ways o wo king and (2)leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies e ec-
i e in imp o ing nonp o i alen ec ui men ?
462 GEIB and BOENIGK
Ou s udy ills he esea ch gap ela ed o new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen
oppo uni iesaskeyjobmo i a o sinnonp o i ec ui men , while aiming o de e mine he e ec-
i eness o hese o e ings in a ac ing alen o nonp o i s. Ou con ibu ions include enhancing
he unde s anding o job- ela ed mo i a ional ac o s in nonp o i managemen li e a u e and in o-
ducing an expe imen al design o assess hese speci ic mo i a o s in nonp o i ec ui men . Ou ind-
ings will aid nonp o i human esou ce manage s in de ising success ul alen acquisi ion s a egies.
2|THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES
Figu e 1displays ou concep ual amewo k. I p esen s wo ela ed componen s: (1) Job-
mo i a ional ac o s and (2) in en ion o apply. The o me inco po a es wo subcomponen s,
namely new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies. The amewo k
emphasizes a posi i e in luence o hese wo subcomponen s on he in en ion o apply o a job
in he nonp o i sec o . I heo e ically embeds his in a ec ui men se ing, which is shaped by
he wa o alen among he nonp o i , public, and o -p o i sec o s.
Ou concep ualiza ion d aws on sel -de e mina ion heo y (Deci & Ryan, 2004). The heo y
is, a i s co e, conce ned wi h human mo i a ion (Ryan & Deci, 2017). I concei es mo i a ion's
deg ee o egula ion as a con inuum be ween con olled (ex e nal) and sel -de e mined (in in-
sic) mo i a ion, nex o wo in e media e ypes (Manganelli e al., 2018). The heo y's p edeces-
so s a gue ha o os e an indi idual's in insic mo i a ion owa d a speci ic ac ion, i is c ucial
o sa is y h ee basic needs: au onomy, compe ence, and ela edness (Deci & Ryan, 2004;
Ryan & Deci, 2017). Au onomy e e s o being gi en he oppo uni y o sel -di ec ion; compe-
ence in ol es he expe ience o u ilizing and de eloping skills and expe ise; las ly, ela edness
is abou ha ing meaning ul ela ionships wi h o he s (Vans eenkis e e al., 2020; Vans eenkis e
e al., 2023). Acco ding o Ryan and Deci (2000, p. 68), he h ee needs a e “essen ial o acili-
a ing op imal unc ioning o he na u al p opensi ies o g ow h and in eg a ion, as well as
cons uc i e social de elopmen and pe sonal well-being.”
FIGURE 1 Concep ual amewo k.
GEIB and BOENIGK 463
Following Zhao e al. (2023), sel -de e mina ion heo y is sui able, in ha i desc ibes
oca ion- ela ed dynamics. Schola s obse e, o example, ha when he need o au onomy
and compe ence a e add essed by employe s, in insic mo i a ion o wo k inc eases (Ma escaux
e al., 2012; Pak e al., 2019). Mo eo e , sa is ying employees' basic needs is posi i ely ela ed o
employees' job a i udes and pe o mance (Van den B oeck e al., 2016).
Building on he abo e, his s udy's amewo k (Figu e 1) s esses wo basic needs in a
wo k- ec ui men se ing. I also links he basic need o au onomy o new ways o wo king, and
compe ence o leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies. In he ollowing wo subsec ions, bo h
concep ual connec ions and hei in eg a ion in o he amewo k a e explained in de ail. We
hen p esen he de i ed hypo heses (H1, H2).
2.1 |New ways o wo king
HRM esea che s and p ac i ione s ha e ex ensi ely discussed new ways o wo king (Pe e s
e al., 2014). Howe e , a sha ed unde s anding o wha p ac ices a e ela ed o he e m lacks
consensus. In his s udy, we e e o Ge a ds e al.'s (2018) i e- ace app oach and conside
ace s o new ways o wo king as ollows: he i s ace en ails ha employees a e ela i ely ee
o decide whe e and when o wo k o bes deli e esul s. The second ace unde sco es
employees' abili y o wo k he way ha bes sui s hem o pe o m hei o ganiza ional asks.
The hi d ace accen ua es employees' access o o ganiza ional in o ma ion and social wo k
ela ions ia pe sonal de ices ( able s, sma phones, compu e s). The ou h ace emphasizes
he idea o employe s encou aging he econcilia ion o employees' wo k and p i a e li es.
Finally, he i h ace unde sco es he need o c ea e physical spaces ha a e a ailable o pe -
sonnel a all imes.
We p opose ha hese ace s a ec au onomy, a basic need iden i ied by sel -de e mina ion
heo y (Deci & Ryan, 2004; Ryan & Deci, 2017), de ined as “a sense o choice and sel -
endo semen o one's ac ions”(Rigby & Ryan, 2018, p. 138). P e ious HRM s udies highligh
he posi i e in luence o au onomy on employees' mo i a ion and engagemen (Deci
e al., 2017; Ge a ds e al., 2018; Manganelli e al., 2018). In his s udy, howe e , we p opose
ha nonp o i o ganiza ions signaling au onomy by o e ing new ways o wo king will inc ease
indi iduals' in en o apply o nonp o i jobs. We e e o schola s such as Schmoll and Süß
(2019), who e e ed o sel -de e mina ion heo y and unco e ed how empo al and spa ial job
lexibili y signals in luence posi i e a i udes owa d an employe . This is also consis en wi h
he wo k o Smi and Lawson (2023), and Thompson e al. (2015).
Ou a gumen also d aws om li e a u e emphasizing job- ela ed mo i a ional signals in
os e ing posi i e a i udes owa d an employe (Ahamad e al., 2022; Assebu g e al., 2020;
Linos, 2018; Sie e e al., 2022). As Assebu g e al. (2020, p. 42) illus a e: “[e]mploye s use
job ad e isemen s o send signals abou he acancy o c ea e a o able a i udes on he pa o
job seeke s, who use he ecei ed signals […] and, a bes , o m ini ial in en ions o apply.”
Despi e he knowledge o signals' adian powe in job ad e isemen s (ea ly ec ui men s age),
i s empi ical alida ion o he nonp o i sec o is sca ce. Howe e , in his s udy, we employ a
signal o show he possibili y o new ways o wo king o nonp o i alen ec ui men . We
an icipa e ha i will a ac alen by inc easing hei desi e o apply o jobs. Ou
co esponding and i s hypo hesis is:
H1. Signaling new ways o wo king in nonp o i job ad e isemen s lead o a highe
in en ion o apply.
464 GEIB and BOENIGK
2.2 |Leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies
HRM esea ch has s a ed associa ing he job- ela ed mo i a ional ac o o ca ee ad ancemen
oppo uni ies wi h he sa is ac ion o he need o compe ence (Land y e al., 2017; Rigby &
Ryan, 2018). As Rigby and Ryan (2018, p. 139) poin ou , in wo k con ex s, “[c]ompe ence is
ou basic need […] o g ow.”The need o compe ence is also ouched upon in nonp o i
employmen discou se. Fo ins ance, Gazley (2016) sugges s ha nonp o i ec ui s alue ca ee
ad ancemen oppo uni ies. Using g adua e panel da a, Kang e al. (2015) also show ha low
sa is ac ion wi h ca ee oppo uni ies can nega i ely a ec nonp o i employee e en ion. Lee
and Wilkins (2011) e eal ha manage s seeking ca ee ad ancemen end o a oid nonp o i
sec o jobs, indica ing ha nonp o i s may unde in es in ( op) employees. Mo eo e , Man-
ganelli e al. (2018, p. 235) a gue ha he need o compe ence can be add essed by allowing
employees o “de elop a a ie y o skills.”
Based on hese ini ial s udies, we conclude ha o e ing a leade ship de elopmen p og am
as an explici ca ee de elopmen oppo uni y is a p omising HRM s a egy, no only o
employee e en ion, bu also o alen ec ui men . Bes -p ac ice examples o leade ship de el-
opmen p og ams, acco ding o Day (2000), include “360-deg ee eedback, execu i e coaching,
men o ing, ne wo king, job assignmen s, and ac ion lea ning”(Mahapa a & Dash, 2022, p. 3).
This s udy ocuses on he ec ui men success b ough on by ad e ising leade ship de elop-
men oppo uni ies, and ou expec a ion ha i will inc ease alen 's in en ion o apply o a
nonp o i job. Ou second hypo hesis is:
H2. Signaling leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies in nonp o i job ad e ise-
men s lead o a highe in en ion o apply.
2.3 |Con ols
Echoing p e ious s udies, ou amewo k includes se e al indi idual-le el con ol a iables in
he concep ualiza ion. We con ol o gende , age, ield o s udy, looking o a job, mo i a ion o
lead, Pe son–O ganiza ion i (P–O i ), and sec o p e e ence. We e lec hese con ols because
hey could a ec po en ial applican s' app ecia ion o human esou ce ec ui men p ac ices,
mani es ed in hei in en ion o apply o a job:
2.3.1 | Gende
Schola s such as Chung (2019) o Shockley and Allen (2007) show ha oppo uni ies o e ing
new ways o wo king can be especially appealing o women, as i enables hem o g ow in hei
ca ee as well as con ibu e o amily and home li e, especially when hey become mo he s.
2.3.2 | Age
Ea ly on, Sal house and Mau e (1996) highligh ed ha signaling leade ship de elopmen
oppo uni ies may be less e ec i e o olde applican s, who a e close o he end o hei
ca ee .
GEIB and BOENIGK 465
2.3.3 | Field o s udy
We a gue ha po en ial applican s' academic discipline ep esen s hei oca ional in e es s and
hus shapes hei employmen conside a ions. This could al e hei in en ions o apply o a
sec o -speci ic job (Pede sen, 2013).
2.3.4 | Looking o a job
The amewo k e ec s could be in luenced by whe he po en ial applican s a e looking o a
(new) job. As Sie e e al. (2022) sugges , ac ual job sea che s may be p one o be gene ally
in e es ed mo e in job o e s, which could impac hei a i udes and beha io .
2.3.5 | Mo i a ion o lead
Chan and D asgow (2001) s essed ha mo i a ion o lead in luences indi iduals' p e e ence o
assume leade ship esponsibili ies. As ou s udy u ilizes signals in a job ad e isemen o a
posi ion wi h manage ial du ies (see Appendix 1), we accoun o i s in luence on he in en ion
o apply.
2.3.6 | P–O i
P–O i (K is o -B own e al., 2005) assesses indi idual and employe cong uence in e ms o
alues, goals, and a ibu es. Resea ch indica es ha i can a ec po en ial applican s' in en ion
o apply (Andela & an de Doe , 2019). Fo schola s like Wei e al. (2016), employe imp es-
sions can d i e job seeke s' iden i ica ion. In heo y, hese imp essions can exis independen ly
o speci ic signals and a ec pe cei ed P–O i .
2.3.7 | Nonp o i sec o p e e ence
Ou s udy deals wi h a sec o -speci ic (nonp o i ) job ad e isemen . Re e ing o schola s such
as Ko and Jun (2015) o Co des and Vogel (2023), po en ial applican s' (nonp o i ) sec o p e e -
ence can also be associa ed wi h hei in en ion o apply.
3|METHODS
3.1 |Resea ch design, da a collec ion, and p ocedu e
We conduc ed a su ey expe imen in Ge many on job applican s and employed a be ween-
subjec s online design (n=389). In he expe imen , pa icipan s we e andomly assigned o
one o h ee s imulus condi ions ( wo ea men s and one con ol condi ion) o a job ad e ise-
men o become a nonp o i manage in he ic i ious Founda ion o Ge man Acciden Aid
(S i ung Deu sche Un allhil e). We manipula ed his ad e isemen so ha i con ained (a) new
466 GEIB and BOENIGK
ways o wo king and (b) leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies in only one o he wo ea men
condi ions. E e y hing else was held equal, and he s imulus in he con ol condi ion did no
include ei he new ways o wo king o leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies. Appendix 1p o-
ides an o e iew o ou h ee condi ions. All pa icipan s ul ima ely s a ed whe he hey
in ended o apply o he job.
Figu e 2ou lines ou expe imen al p ocedu e. Da a collec ion ook place in Ge many du ing
Sep embe and Oc obe , 2022. We ec ui ed he pa icipan s h ough he online panel p o ide ,
Bilendi.
In ou Ge man-language expe imen , pa icipan s i s ead ins uc ions and consen ed o
da a usage. We assu ed hem ha he e will be comple e da a anonymi y. They hen comple ed
a ques ionnai e assessing hei mo i a ion o lead (Fel e e al., 2012), hei (nonp o i ) sec o
p e e ences, and hei sala y expec a ions. Pa icipan s we e hen andomly assigned o one o
h ee expe imen al condi ions. Those in he i s g oup ead a nonp o i job ad e isemen
emphasizing new ways o wo king, he second g oup saw he same ad e isemen , bu wi h
leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies, and he hi d g oup saw he ad e isemen wi hou
ei he aspec . We hen gauged pa icipan s' in en o apply o he ad e ised job, eminding
hem i was a hypo he ical scena io. Las ly, hey p o ided sociodemog aphic and o he de ails,
such as hei ield o s udy and whe he hey we e cu en ly looking o a job. To p e en mis-
unde s andings, we cla i ied ha he job ad e isemen and o ganiza ion we e ic i ious and
di ec ed pa icipan s o a eal nonp o i job pla o m (www.nachhal igejobs.de) and an ini ia i e
o po en ial job oppo uni ies wi h an in eg a ed leade ship p og am (www.onpu pose.o g).
3.2 |P e es
In he p e es , we conduc ed a ial wi h 150 s uden s. A e analyzing he esul s, we we e con-
iden ha ou expe imen would wo k as in ended, wi h sligh modi ica ions. Fo ins ance, o
FIGURE 2 Expe imen al p ocedu e.
GEIB and BOENIGK 467
make he i ems clea e o he pa icipan s, we added example o ganiza ions (such as associa-
ions, public companies, and so on; see Appendix 2) o he espec i e s a emen s on sec o
p e e ences.
3.3 |Measu es
To measu e he cons uc s, we elied on ope a ionaliza ions om p e ious s udies and used al-
ida ed psychome ic ins umen s whene e applicable. I necessa y, we ansla ed English i ems
in o Ge man (some scales had Ge man e sions a ailable). We sligh ly modi ied he wo ding o
he i ems o he p ac ical use o ou ques ionnai e. We hen back- ansla ed hem in o English
o ensu e hei eliabili y and con en accu acy (Mullen, 1995). Appendix 2p esen s a quali y
epo o ou main measu es, and Appendix 3desc ibes he supplemen a y measu es.
3.4 |Dependen a iable
3.4.1 | In en ion o apply
Job applica ion in en ions can be gauged in di e en ways, such as yes–no ques ions (Swide
e al., 2015) o Like scales (Gomes & Ne es, 2011; Sie e e al., 2022; Sil a & Dias, 2022;
Wang, 2013). We op ed o a Like scale—as pe Gomes and Ne es (2011)— o his s udy, due
o wo easons: I dis inguishes in en ion om ac ion and p e en s da a loss om dicho omiza-
ion (Cohen, 1983; MacCallum e al., 2002). On a 5-poin Like scale, anging om 1 ( o ally
disag ee) o5( o ally ag ee), we included h ee i ems. Pa icipan s we e asked o a e hei
ag eemen wi h s a emen s, including, “I I we e looking o a job, I would mos likely apply o
his job”o “I I we e looking o a job, I could e y well imagine mysel wo king in his job.”
Mean sco es we e calcula ed o analysis ( o all la en cons uc s). Acco ding o Geo ge and
Malle y's ule o humb (2019, p. 240), ou measu emen alls wi hin he ange o “excellen ”
in e nal consis ency; wi h a C onbach's alpha alue o 0.94 o he single-cons uc o in en ion
o apply.
3.5 |Independen a iable
The expe imen al manipula ion, ou independen a iable, was embedded in a job ad e ise-
men o a ic i ious social se ice nonp o i —chosen because o he p ominence o his ield in
Ge many. Appendix 2shows he ex o ou ea men condi ions.
3.6 |Pa icipan s
We sou ced pa icipan s o ou s udy om he Bilendi online pla o m. The p o ide inan-
cially incen i ized pa icipan s o hei pa icipa ion. To ec ui he pa icipan s, we se he ol-
lowing wo undamen al sample equi emen s: All he pa icipan s had o be wo king in
Ge many and hey had o be be ween 20 and 45 yea s old. We chose his o each ou o al-
en ed po en ial employees on he Ge man labo ma ke . Ini ially, 450 po en ial pa icipan s
468 GEIB and BOENIGK
deg ee, ou Model III's esul s e en indica e no o ely on po en ial ec ui s' in e es in wo king
in he sec o , pe se, when placing a job ad e isemen ; no leas conside ing he in asec o al
aspec o compe i ion o alen ed wo k o ce. Rec ui men success could ins ead be e en mo e
con ingen on signaling alignmen o alues and displaying employee-o ien ed policies
(Cable & Edwa ds, 2004; Liu & Xie, 2023), suppo ing he inding o he appeal o new ways o
wo king. I should be no ed ha ou s udy exposed pa ial loading issues o in en ion o apply
and P–O i (see Appendix 6). This could be because P–O i can be iden i ied as one p econdi-
ion o a i udes and beha io (Celani & Singh, 2011; Ho man & Woeh , 2006; Ve que
e al., 2003). As such, i di e s concep ually om he in en ion o apply cons uc , as demon-
s a ed empi ically by HTMT a ios (0.85). The la e con i med ha bo h we e s a is ically
disc iminan .
Highligh ing ou esul s ega ding pa icipan s' gene al p e e ences o new ways o wo king
and leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies (Appendix 3), hese imply ha g an ing new ways o
wo king is especially appealing o women. This is in line wi h o me esea ch. Fo example,
schola s con inuously emphasize ha mos domes ic asks a e s ill main ained by women
(A kinson & Hall, 2009; Lo , 2020). As s udies, oo, poin ou ha women end o eques mo e
wo k schedule con ol han men (Chung, 2019), a commonly sha ed assump ion among
esea che s is ha lexible wo k a angemen policies do suppo women, pa icula ly hose
wi h g ea e amily esponsibili ies (Shockley & Allen, 2007). This is no o say ha adi ional
gende composi ions a wo k may no be e o ming ecen ly (Kuma e al., 2023). In addi ion,
ou indings ac oss g oups poin owa d leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies being mo e com-
pelling o pa icipan s who s udied business adminis a ion, social sciences, o bo h.
To sum up ou key (expe imen al) esul s, we conclude ha indeed he basic need o au on-
omy (sel -de e mina ion heo y) (Deci & Ryan, 2004) can be igge ed and sa is ied by signaling
new ways o wo king ace s in he ea ly nonp o i ec ui men phase (Schmoll & Süß, 2019).
Building on his, we nex p o ide h ee implica ions o nonp o i HRM p ac ice:
1. De eloping and implemen ing new ways o wo king. Based on ou expe imen al esul s, we
ecommend ha nonp o i HRM p o essionals acknowledge he cu en and u u e needs o
employees (as well as olun ee s) ega ding new ways o wo king. New ways o wo king
mean a ac ing mo e po en ial alen ed applican s o he espec i e o ganiza ion. Mo e-
o e , he li e a u e indica es ha lexible wo king can be posi i ely associa ed wi h non-
p o i /public se ice mo i a ion (Caillie , 2016). Fo nonp o i manage s and leade s, his
inc eases he likelihood o building up and deploying human capi al in a ge ed manne s
(such as p ojec manage s, eam lead acancies, and so on).
As no “one size i s all”solu ion exis s, p o essionals should, i s , conduc needs ana-
lyses. Employee su eys on lexible wo k a angemen needs a e a good place o s a . Non-
p o i managemen p ac i ione s could use he esea ch i ems by Ge a ds e al. (2018)asa
guide and, o example, ask employees i i is impo an o hem o be able o (1) de e mine
hei wo king hou s, (2) decide whe e hey wo k (o ice, home o ice, wo kca ion, and so
on), (3) access wo k- ela ed in o ma ion ia hei own compu e and mobile, (4) access hei
wo kplace a all imes, o (5) adap hei wo kload o hei cu en si ua ion (such as ega d-
ing amily esponsibili ies, heal h issues, ad anced age, and so on.). Howe e , nonp o i
leade s should also assess which needs a e easible o he ope a ion o he o ganiza ion. In
addi ion, leade s should e alua e hei exis ing o e s in annual e iews wi h employees.
GEIB and BOENIGK 475
2. Highligh ing new ways o wo king in job desc ip ions. Nonp o i s should p ominen ly ea u e
implemen ed new ways o wo king in job desc ip ions, as po en ial employees sc u inize
hese ho oughly (Kuenzi e al., 2021). Howe e , nonp o i s should a oid o e -p omising, as
“ eali y shocks”can diminish se ice mo i a ion and commi men , and inc ease u no e
(Dean e al., 1984; Hu & Bae, 2021; Mille -Mo -A ias & Vigoda-Gado , 2022; Scho
e al., 2019).
3. O e ing leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies whe e hey a e e ec i e by e idence. We ecom-
mend ha nonp o i manage s a oid o e ing e e y hing possible when pos ing jobs o
a ac alen . This helps sa e o ganiza ional cos s. In his ega d, ou expe imen al da a does
no hin e idence on whe he ad e ising leade ship de elopmen p og ams in he ea ly
ec ui men phase (pos ing job ads) is e ec i e. Since ca ee de elopmen o e s, such as
leade ship de elopmen , howe e , a e ound o be impo an o employees (Kang
e al., 2015), hei in luence could be appa en in, o example, la e nonp o i ec ui ing
(such as job in e iews, sala y nego ia ions, and so on) o e en ion s ages (such as being pa
o indi idual ca ee de elopmen plans).
6|LIMITATIONS, FUTURE RESEARCH, AND
CONCLUSION
Fi s , ou scena io-based expe imen can only be compa ed o eal job sea ches o a ce ain
ex en . Only a po ion o ou pa icipan s we e ac i ely looking o a job, which is a common
limi a ion in s udies ha use simila app oaches (Sie e e al., 2022). Mo eo e , he job ad e -
isemen and applica ion si ua ion we e ic i ious, which migh ha e in luenced pa icipan s'
esponses (Le i & Lis , 2007). To add ess hese issues, ield expe imen s in which po en ial
applican s iew eal job ad e isemen s should be pe o med, o obse e ac ual applica ion
beha io .
Second, al hough schola s indica e a posi i e link be ween P–O i and applica ion in en-
ions (such as Wei e al., 2016), we mus in e p e ou co esponding con ol esul s wi h some
cau ion. This is because a ac o analysis exposed ac o s wi h loading issues in some cases (see
Appendix 6). Howe e , consul ing HTMT a ios (<0.85) demons a es ha , P–O i and in en-
ion o apply a e no only heo e ically, bu also s a is ically disc iminan cons uc s.
Thi d, ou esul s a e no ep esen a i e o oca ional alen in Ge many; a he , hey ep e-
sen a cu en snapsho ha equi es u he ex e nal alida ion. In addi ion o enhancing i s
gene alizabili y mo e comp ehensi ely, u u e esea ch should explo e which new ways o
wo king and leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies a e e ec i e in ce ain nonp o i ields
o wo k, and wi h ec ui men g oups such as olun ee s. In e ms o he o me , a compa a i e
s udy (such as heal h subsec o s. cul u al subsec o ) may be a s a ing poin . Rega ding he
la e , one can assume ha olun ee s se di e en condi ions han ull- ime employees, which
could e en mean including and es ing addi ional job-mo i a ional ac o s.
Fou h, he da a collec ion o his s udy ook place in coope a ion wi h an ex e nal panel
se ice p o ide . As he pa icipan s we e ec ui ed om he p o ide 's con ac pool and hei
pa icipa ion was mone a ily incen i ized, da a quali y is mode a e. To ob ain e en mo e eli-
able da a on alen , accessing al e na i e sou ces is necessa y. Fo ins ance, scien is s should
aim o ap in o alen pools h ough schola ship ounda ions and gene a e a sample o up-
and-coming young p o essionals o he job ma ke .
476 GEIB and BOENIGK
Finally, ou s udy ocuses exclusi ely on nonp o i ec ui men p ocesses. To ully assess he
mo i a ional po en ial o new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies,
ela ed s udies on employee e en ion, linked o pe cei ed o ganiza ional suppo li e a u e
(Knapp e al., 2017; Rhoades & Eisenbe ge , 2002), could p o ide a mo e comp ehensi e iew.
7|CONCLUSION
This s udy examined he e ec s o o e ing new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen
oppo uni ies du ing he ea ly ec ui men s age—speci ically in a nonp o i job ad e isemen
se ing. I heo e ically expanded on po en ial job- ela ed mo i a ional ac o s in nonp o i s.
Building on sel -de e mina ion heo y, we conduc ed an online igne e expe imen wi h po en-
ial job alen s in Ge many. The esul s e ealed ha only new ways o wo king signi ican ly
inc eased indi iduals' in en ion o apply o he ad e ised nonp o i job. Despi e he limi a ions
o his s udy, he indings highligh ha nonp o i manage s and ec ui e s should enable and
o e lexible wo king op ions o a ac mo e alen ed wo ke s o he sec o . The hope is ha
his can help o keep he nonp o i sec o compe i i e.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable om he co esponding au ho
upon easonable eques .
ORCID
Nils Geib h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-2122-5677
Silke Boenigk h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-5214-2452
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Nils Geib is a PhD Candida e and Resea ch Assis an a Uni e si ä Hambu g. His esea ch
in e es s a e in he a eas o o ganiza ional p o essionaliza ion, especially nonp o i HRM
and leade ship.
Silke Boenigk is a P o esso o Nonp o i Managemen a Uni e si ä Hambu g. He
esea ch in e es s a e in he a eas o cha i able gi ing, nonp o i ela ionship managemen ,
and und aising.
How o ci e his a icle: Geib, N., & Boenigk, S. (2024). Nonp o i alen ec ui men :
An online expe imen on new ways o wo king and leade ship de elopmen
oppo uni ies. Nonp o i Managemen and Leade ship,35(2), 461–490. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1002/nml.21626
482 GEIB and BOENIGK
APPENDIX 1: FICTIVE JOB ADVERTISEMENTS
G oup 1: New ways o wo king condi ion
G oup 2: Leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies
condi ion
G oup 3: Con ol condi ion
GEIB and BOENIGK 483
APPENDIX 2: MEASUREMENT QUALITY REPORT
Va iable
Mean
(SD)
C onbach's
alpha
Dependen a iable
In en ion o apply (Gomes & Ne es, 2011)
a
0.944
I I we e looking o a job, I would mos likely apply o his job. 2.9 (1.26)
I I we e looking o a job, applying o his job would be e y appealing o
me.
2.9 (1.25)
I I we e looking o a job, I could e y well imagine mysel wo king in his
job.
3.0 (1.25)
Independen a iable (expe imen al condi ions)
Condi ion 1 (new ways o wo king)
We o e you mode n new ways o wo king! We o e you unique new ways o wo king in which you can
lexibly and indi idually design you wo k. This includes sel -de e mined wo king hou s, a close i be ween
you wo kload and phase o li e, wo k-li e balance, he abili y o e ie e all wo k- ela ed con en ia you
own compu e / able /sma phone, and he op ion o wo k om home.
Condi ion 2 (leade ship de elopmen oppo uni ies)
We o e you a mode n leade ship p og am! We o e you a unique leade ship p og am in which you can
ain o highe managemen posi ions. This includes p ac ical ( eam) exe cises on leade ship si ua ions,
coaching by managemen and boa d membe s, men o ing suppo and 360-deg ee eedback, good
ne wo king oppo uni ies wi h pee s, and a leade ship ce i ica e.
Con ol a iables
Gende
You a e…? (Please selec emale, male, o non-bina y.)
Age
How old a e you? (Speci y in digi s in he blank ield.) 32.1 (4.88)
Field o s udy
A e you cu en ly s udying in o ha e a deg ee in any o he ollowing ields?
(Please selec social sciences, business adminis a ion, o bo h as an
in e disciplina y p og am.)
Looking o a job (job sea ch s a us)
A e you cu en ly looking o jobs? (Please selec yes o no.)
Mo i a ion o lead (Elp ana e al., 2015)
a
0.940
I do enjoy pe o ming execu i e unc ions. 3.4 (1.10)
I like o ake o e a leading ole. 3.3 (1.16)
I like aking o e he leade ship unc ion be e han wo king in a suppo ing
ole o o he s.
3.0 (1.17)
When I can gi e guidance o o he s, I am in my elemen . 3.2 (1.13)
I like o assume esponsibili y o o he s. 3.4 (1.13)
I no mally wan o lead he g oup in which I am wo king. 3.1 (1.14)
484 GEIB and BOENIGK
