Winners, Losers, and the Implications of Inequality in Biodiversity Conservation Policies: Insights From European Development Aid to Central Africa

Rasoamanana, Alexand a; K o , Max; Ongolo, Sympho ien
A icle — Published Ve sion
Winne s, Lose s, and he Implica ions o Inequali y in
Biodi e si y Conse a ion Policies: Insigh s F om Eu opean
De elopmen Aid o Cen al A ica
En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rasoamanana, Alexand a; K o , Max; Ongolo, Sympho ien (2025) : Winne s,
Lose s, and he Implica ions o Inequali y in Biodi e si y Conse a ion Policies: Insigh s F om
Eu opean De elopmen Aid o Cen al A ica, En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance, ISSN
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En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance, 2025; 35:839–851
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839
En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
Winne s, Lose s, and he Implica ions o Inequali y in
Biodi e si y Conse a ion Policies: Insigh s F om Eu opean
De elopmen Aid o Cen al A ica
Alexand aRasoamanana1 | MaxK o 1 | Sympho ienOngolo1,2
1Chai o Fo es and Na u e Conse a ion Policy, Uni e si y o Gö ingen, Gö ingen, Ge many | 2SENS/IRD- F ance, Uni e si y o Mon pellie Paul- Valé y
3, Mon pellie ,F ance
Co espondence: Alexand a Rasoamanana (alexand a. asoamanana@uni-goe ingen.de; alexand a. [email protected])
Recei ed: 13 Oc obe 2024 | Re ised: 16 Ap il 2025 | Accep ed: 19 June 2025
Funding: This wo k was suppo ed by Volkswagen Founda ion, A.Z. 96 964 (FOREQUAL).
Keywo ds: aid alloca ion| Cen al A ica| conse a ion policies| powe ela ions| echnical solu ions
ABSTRACT
In e na ional aid o biodi e si y conse a ion is expec ed o p o ide al e na i e li elihoods o o es - dependen communi ies o
o se es ic ions on o es use. This aligns wi h he con empo a y conse a ion discou se ha p omo es p o- poo , human igh s-
based, and sus ainabili y p inciples. We used he Cen al A ica Fo es Ecosys em P og am (ECOFAC), he longes - unning EU-
unded ini ia i e wi h nea ly 200 million eu os in es ed o abou 30 yea s, as a case s udy o analyze how in e na ional aid, has
a emp ed o achie e ai and sus ainable conse a ion p ac ices. Th ough a longi udinal s udy o he design o ECOFAC, we
assessed i s implemen a ion a angemen s, budge dis ibu ion, p io i ized echnical solu ions, and a ge ac o s o iden i y o
whom i has bene i ed he mos (winne s) and o whom i has no been bene icial o e en ha m ul (lose s). Ou indings show
ha he EU biodi e si y conse a ion p og am has p io i ized he ein o cemen o s a e adminis a ions o s eng hen hei coe -
ci e powe in p o ec ed a eas. A co- dependency has de eloped be ween ansna ional ac o s, p e e ed by he EU as implemen -
ing pa ne s, and s a e conse a ion ac o s. This ela ionship has become a ba ie o meaning ul e o m wi hin ECOFAC despi e
decades o policy lea ning. The p o- poo discou se and human igh s conce ns o he EU aid ha e no been e lec ed in he ypes
o ac i i ies unded no in he le el o in es men s aimed a incen i izing o es - dependen communi ies o suppo conse a ion
es ic ions. EU policymake s need o pay mo e a en ion o how hei in e en ions in biodi e si y conse a ion policies c ea e
o ein o ce powe asymme ies and inequali y, especially in Cen al A ica.
1 | In oduc ion
T opical biodi e si y and ecosys ems a e inc easingly ecog-
nized as global public goods (Scales2017), alued no only o
hei c i ical ecosys em se ices (Da gie e al.2017; Law ence
and Vandeca  2015) bu also o hei i al ole in ad ancing
global sus ainabili y (Bonan2008; Law ence e al.2022). This
ecogni ion has led o a ise in in e na ional aid di ec ed owa d
biodi e si y conse a ion in opical o es egions (Mille 2014;
Reed e  al. 2020). Despi e his end, biodi e si y loss and
de o es a ion emain ala mingly high (Mace e  al. 2018). A
he same ime, pe sis en issues o social inequali y and injus-
ice con inue o cha ac e ize many conse a ion ini ia i es
(Kashwan2017; Luoma2022).
Much o he li e a u e on biodi e si y- ela ed in e na ional aid
has ocused on he geog aphical alloca ion o unds o o es -
ich opical coun ies (Qin e al.2022; Wald on e al.2013), as
well as on he e ec s o such aid on de o es a ion a es (Ba e
e  al. 2015) and de elopmen ou comes (Waebe e  al. 2016).
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance published by ERP En i onmen and John Wiley & Sons L d.
840 En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance, 2025
Howe e , ewe s udies ha e analyzed which ac o s bene i he
mos om speci ic echnical solu ions p io i ized wi hin hese
aid- unded policies (Co son2018). This pape add esses his gap
by analyzing how he design o aid- unded conse a ion policies
empowe s ce ain ac o s h ough access o esou ces, enhanced
capabili ies, and inc eased agency o pu sue bo h o mal and in-
o mal in e es s.
In many o es - ich and aid- dependen coun ies, conse a-
ion policies a e o en designed ia echnoc a ic p ocesses led
by expe s om ansna ional o ganiza ions such as wes e n
consul ancy i ms, ansna ional conse a ion NGOs, and in-
e na ional mul ila e al and de elopmen agencies (Majambu
e  al. 2021; Sa asin 2007). These ac o s a e o en in close
collabo a ion wi h in luen ial bu eauc a s in he ecipien
coun ies o legi imize hei in e en ion in he policy p ocess
(Diallo2012; Eh ens ein2013). These op- down app oaches
o en lack meaning ul democ a ic engagemen and end o
a o ac o s wi h he s a egic capaci y o align wi h dono ex-
pec a ions while bene i ing eli e bu eauc a s in aid ecipien
coun ies (T e on2011).
Using policy design heo y, his pape analyzes he con en and
implica ions o conse a ion policy solu ions o iden i y which
ac o s ha e been ad an aged o disad an aged by implemen-
a ion (Schneide and Ing am1997). By in e oga ing he em-
bedded p e e ences and exclusions wi hin selec ed policies,
he analysis sheds ligh on he powe dynamics a play and en-
ables discussion on he b oade poli ical and social implica ions
o sus ainabili y, po e y alle ia ion, and equi y. This s udy
adop s a Webe ian concep ualiza ion o powe as he abili y o
an ac o o impose hei will despi e esis ance (Webe 1978),
o explo e how conse a ion policy design and implemen a-
ion in aid- dependen se ings e lec unequal ela ionships
among in ol ed and a ec ed ac o s. In hese se ings, ac o s
o en mobilize a ious powe - based ins umen s, such as co-
e cion, economic capi al, poli ical in luence, discu si e ame-
wo ks, symbolic ep esen a ions, and dominan in o ma ion,
o in luence policies in ways ha maximize hei ma e ial and
non- ma e ial gains (Ka sen y and Ongolo2012; Ma ijnen and
Ve weijen2016; Po ee e and Ribo 2011).
Since he la e 1980s, he Eu opean Union (EU) has been a lead-
ing dono in e o s o econcile biodi e si y conse a ion and
de elopmen in Cen al A ica, no ably h ough he Eu opean
De elopmen Fund (EDF) (Landell Mills2022, 5). The EU has
inanced nume ous egional and na ional ini ia i es1 o p o-
mo e biodi e si y conse a ion o bo h local de elopmen and
global sus ainabili y. Among hese, he Cen al A ica Fo es
Ecosys em p og am (ECOFAC) s ands ou as he longes -
unning EU- unded p og am, wi h nea ly 200 million eu os al-
loca ed o e 30 yea s o policy in e en ions. Ac oss i s six phases
(1992–2024), he p og amme has consis en ly aimed o econcile
biodi e si y conse a ion and de elopmen objec i es in selec ed
Cen al A ican coun ies. In a 2022 speech celeb a ing 30 yea s
o he p og am- , Gilbe o Da Piedade Ve issimo, P esiden o
ECCAS (Economic Communi y o Cen al A ican S a es), e-
e ed o ECOFAC as an ini ia i e con ibu ing o he c ea ion
o a “biodi e si y conse a ion economy” (ECOFAC 2022, 4),
emphasizing i s de elopmen al aspi a ions. Using ECOFAC as
a case s udy, his pape analyzes he dis ibu ional e ec s o
in e na ional aid in conse a ion policy o iden i y hose who
ha e bene i ed he mos (winne s) and hose o whom i has no
been bene icial o e en ha m ul (lose s). This analysis p o ides
insigh s in o how biodi e si y conse a ion s a egies unded
by in e na ional aid a e designed and implemen ed in line wi h
p o- poo app oaches, human igh s commi men s, and sus ain-
abili y objec i es.
2 | Theo e ical and Analy ical F amewo k
Policy design heo y posi s ha he delibe a ion p ocess in-
ol ed in o mula ing policy solu ions is socially cons uc ed
(Schneide and Ing am1997). The esul ing echnical choices,
o en e lec he powe dynamics be ween ac o s who s and o
bene i mos (Cai ney2021). Howe e , om he pe spec i e o
de elopmen p ac i ione s wi h signi ican in luence o e pol-
icy design and implemen a ion in aid- dependen coun ies, his
p ocess is ypically seen as a echnical, neu al and an i- poli ics
exe cise (Li2007, 7). In p ac ice, he selec ion o ins umen s o
echnical solu ions is no always ancho ed in knowledge- based
and uly pa icipa o y app oaches (Eh ens ein 2013; Wal e s
e  al. 2021). I o en ails o align goals, ac o s' in e es s and
means owa d long- e m solu ions join ly de ined by all ac o s,
unde mining ai and equi able biodi e si y conse a ion and
de elopmen objec i es (Co son2017).
In aid- dependen con ex s, policy design is o en in luenced
mo e by he p e e ences o powe ul ac o s, such as dono s,
s a e adminis a ion in he ecipien coun ies, and in e na-
ional o ganiza ions, han by he needs o a ec ed communi ies
(Nago2021). As a esul , aid alloca ion and he selec ion o ech-
nical solu ions end o be d i en by s a egic and in e es - based
agendas (Rahman and Giessen2017), a he han by equi able,
needs- based conside a ions (Rasoamanana e al.2023).
2.1 | Policy Design Theo y and he Social
Cons uc ion o an Unequal Conse a ion
Policy Re o m
Cen al A ica s a es a e home o he Congo Basin o es s, he
second la ges opical o es a e he Amazon (Vancu sem
e al.2021). These o es s hos a high le el o biodi e si y, includ-
ing many endemic and cha isma ic species such as go illas, ele-
phan s, lions, okapis, and bonobos (G an ham e al.2020). This
ecological ichness has a ac ed in e na ional dono s and ans-
na ional conse a ion NGOs, which ha e s ongly encou aged
he c ea ion o expansion o s a e- un p o ec ed a eas in he e-
gion (P oces e al.2021). To da e, abou 15% o he Congo Basin
o es s all wi hin p o ec ed a eas, wi h mos es ic ions a ec -
ing o es - dependen land use s (Wal e s and Wa dell2023).
Despi e inc eased conse a ion unding (Fa ada e  al. 2025),
biodi e si y and o es loss pe sis bo h wi hin and beyond
p o ec ed a eas (Tyuka ina e al.2018). These losses a e o en
linked o he li elihood s a egies o o es dependen land-
use s, which a e in luenced by bo h local needs and global
ma ke demands (Ladewig e al.2024; T e on2023). Depic ions
o ma ginalized, apoli ical o es - dependen communi ies as
p incipal d i e s o de o es a ion and biodi e si y loss (Shapi o
841
e al.2023) con ibu e o hei nega i e po ayal in conse a-
ion discou se and policy (Windey and Van Hecken2019; Wong
e al.2022). This s igma izing social cons uc ion can signi i-
can ly in luence policy decisions, pa icula ly in de e mining
who is conside ed eligible o bene i om a policy and who is
expec ed o bea i s cos s (Schneide and Ing am1993).
In e na ional conse a ion aid in he egion is amed as sup-
po ing echnical solu ions ha a e jus , sus ainable, and inclu-
si e (ECOFAC2022; USAID2022). These in e en ions aim o
add ess conse a ion and de elopmen challenges wi hou exac-
e ba ing po e y o inequali y. Howe e , achie ing conse a ion
ou comes ha a e simul aneously ai , locally bene icial, and
globally sus ainable emains a majo challenge (Ramu sindela
e al.2022). A cen al ques ion is how de elopmen p ac i ione s
a e esponding o hese challenges h ough he b icolage o
echnical solu ions in eg a ed in o aid- unded p og am- s and
p ojec s such as ECOFAC. In his con ex , b icolage e e s o he
use o heo y o change (ToC) app oaches, whe e ime- bound
desi ed ou comes a e pu sued h ough a combina ion o echni-
cal solu ions (Clea e 2012). These solu ions ocus on pa icula
ac o s who, in u n, gain he capaci y o in luence beha io- and
ac ions aligned wi h policy goals. D awing on policy design he-
o y (Schneide and Sidney2009), ou a iables a e pa icula ly
use ul in assessing he dis ibu ional e ec o policy solu ions,
o de ine he winne s and lose s (Table1): (i) implemen a ion
a angemen ; (ii) budge dis ibu ion; (iii) echnical solu ions;
and (i ) a ge ac o s.
2.2 | Me hod o Analysing Inequali y and Policy
Implica ions Wi hin he EU ECOFAC P og amme
This empi ical s udy es s he hypo hesis ha EU- egional aid o
biodi e si y conse a ion has ocused on ein o cing s a e con-
ol o e p o ec ed a eas while pu ing ma ginal in es men in
long- e m solu ions suppo ing o es dependen communi ies.
This hypo hesis d aws on exis ing li e a u es which desc ibes
how he s a e adminis a ions in Cen al A ica coun ies
(Ongolo2015) and elsewhe e (Diallo2015; Ho ning2008), de-
spi e hei nega i e cons uc ions, emain in dominan posi ions
in o es and biodi e si y conse a ion go e nance, cap u ing
he bene i s o in e na ional aid.
To assess his hypo hesis, we employed a longi udinal me hod o
collec bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e da a o e he 30- yea pe-
iod o ECOFAC. We e iewed policy documen s such as inancial
ag eemen s, epo s, and e alua ions (Annex 3), complemen ed by
48 in e iews wi h consul an s, go e nmen o icials, and conse -
a ion NGOs (Annex 4). Snowball sampling allowed us o engage
bo h cu en and o me indi iduals and o ganiza ions in ol ed
in he p og am, o e ing deepe insigh s in o he policy p ocess.
Field obse a ions we e ca ied ou in wo long- suppo ed
ECOFAC p o ec ed a eas: Lopé Na ional Pa k (Gabon, July 2022)
and Dja Faunal Rese e (Came oon, Feb ua y 2023) (Figu e1).
A o al o 68 o es - dependen land- use s pa icipa ed in in e -
iews and ocus g oup discussions wi hin hese p o ec ed a eas.
Ou obse a ions ex ended o egional poli ical a enas by a -
ending he 19 h mee ing o he Congo Basin Fo es Pa ne ship,
held in ea ly July 2022 in Lib e ille, Gabon. All da a we e coded
and analyzed o iden i y pa e ns and shi s in ECOFAC imple-
men a ion a angemen s, unding dis ibu ion, echnical solu-
ions, and a ge ed ac o s ac oss he 30- yea pe iod.
3 | Resul s
3.1 | Endu ing Policy P io i ies Despi e E ol ing
Implemen a ion and Budge Shi s
Analysis o he inancial alloca ion wi hin he ECOFAC p og am
shows an une en dis ibu ion o unding ac oss ou ca ego ies:
(a) he o mula ion o objec i es, (b) he echnical solu ions
TABLE 1 | Va iables o assessing inequali y implica ions in policy solu ion design.
Obse ed a iable Scien i ic ques ioning Desc ip ion
Implemen a ion a angemen Which ac o s decide on budge alloca ion
and which echnical solu ions
a e p io i ized? Who designs and
execu es echnical solu ions?
The bu eauc a ic ules s uc u ing
implemen a ion, cla i ying oles and de e mining
who is in ol ed in designing and execu ing
policy solu ions a a ious s ages (Annex 1).
Budge dis ibu ion How much unding is alloca ed o
each ac o and echnical solu ion?
Wha ules guide alloca ion?
The inancial esou ces alloca ed o echnical
solu ions and ecipien coun ies. Budge
dis ibu ion e eals which ac i i ies and
ac o s ecei e he mos o leas unding.
Technical solu ions Wha echnical solu ions suppo
biodi e si y conse a ion and
de elopmen objec i es? How ha e
hese e ol ed o enhance impac ?
Ac i i ies o p ocesses designed o gene a e
speci ic ou pu s expec ed o lead o desi ed
ou comes. These solu ions can be implemen ed
a a ious le els (si e, ac o , scale) (Annex 2).
Ta ge ac o s Who we e he a ge ac o s? Which
ac o s bene i ed mos om he
echnical solu ions and why?
Va ious ac o s played di e en oles in
designing, execu ing and bene i ing om
he selec ed echnical solu ions. The a ge
ac o s may include s a e o ganiza ions,
NGOs, o o es - dependen communi ies.
842 En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance, 2025
suppo ed, (c) he ac o s in cha ge o implemen a ion and (d) he
scales o in e en ions (Figu e2).
When g ouping he echnical solu ions inanced h ough
ECOFAC, he e is a clea p io i iza ion o biodi e si y conse a-
ion o e communi y de elopmen . The la e ecei ed less han
10% o he o al budge (Figu e2a). O e he cou se o h ee de-
cades, he mos equen ly suppo ed echnical app oaches we e
hose ha ein o ced command- and- con ol mechanisms o s a e
adminis a ions in cha ge o p o ec ed a eas, especially h ough
inancing ope a ional managemen cos s (Figu e2b). Rega ding
implemen a ion a angemen s, ansna ional non- s a e ac o s
ha e consis en ly been a o ed as di ec ecipien s o EU unding
(Figu e2c). The alloca ion o unds ac oss Cen al A ican coun-
ies has a ied signi ican ly ac oss ECOFAC phases, shaped
la gely by poli ical and diploma ic ela ions be ween na ional
go e nmen s and he EU (Figu e 2d). Fo ins ance, al hough
he Democ a ic Republic o Congo ( o me ly Zaï e) has been in-
cluded in he p og am since he ea ly 1990s, poli ical ins abili y
dis up ed ECOFAC implemen a ion. Equa o ial Guinea was e-
mo ed om he lis o bene icia y coun ies a e 2011, ollowing
i s eclassi ica ion unde he Co onou Ag eemen in 2008.
Al hough implemen a ion a angemen s and budge alloca-
ions ha e e ol ed o e ime, hese changes la gely e lec
unde lying poli ical powe dynamics among ac o s in ol ed
in he p og am. Despi e hese shi s, he con inued eliance
on coe ci e- based conse a ion measu es has kep o es de-
penden land- use s in a ma ginal posi ion, pa icula ly when
compa ed o he consis en suppo di ec ed owa d s a e ad-
minis a ions and he ansna ional non- s a e ac o s leading
ECOFAC implemen a ion.
FIGURE 1 | Map o p o ec ed a eas in Cen al A ica Membe S a es highligh ing p o ec ed a eas bene i ing om ECOFAC and non- ECOFAC
phase 6 and p o ec ed a eas o ECOFAC obse ed (da abase OFAC- COMIFAC2022 and UNEP- WCMC and IUCN2022).

843
3.2 | Na iga ing Dual Allegiances: The Poli ical
S a egies o T ansna ional Ac o s in Shaping Policy
P io i ies
ECOFAC began as a cen alized p og am bu g adually adop ed
a polycen ic model in ol ing a wide ange o ac o s. Th ee
ac o s in luenced i s design and p io i ies by shaping echni-
cal solu ions and unding decisions (Annex 5). Fi s we e he
signa o ies o inancial ag eemen s comp omising EU o icials
( om he Commission and delega ions) and eli e bu eauc a s
om Cen al A ican s a es. Second we e he o ganiza ions con-
ac ed by he EU mainly Wes e n consul ancy i ms and ans-
na ional conse a ion NGOs o design echnical solu ions p io
o he signa o y o he inancial ag eemen s (EU2016, 16–32).
Thi d we e he implemen ing bodies, including ansna ional
ac o s, na ional adminis a ions, and local ci il socie y o gani-
za ions egis e ed in Cen al A ica.
F om 1992 o 2010, ECOFAC ollowed a cen alized model, wi h
Wes e n consul ancy i ms collabo a ing closely wi h na ional
adminis a ions o p o ec ed a eas. Du ing he 1990s, hese ac-
o s amed conse a ion issues in Cen al A ica as esul ing
om ins i u ional weaknesses, a guing ha : “While conse a-
ion policies ha e been implemen ed o se e al decades in a ious
pa s o A ica, i mus be acknowledged ha Cen al A ica's ex-
pe ience in his a ea is mo e limi ed. O en highly cen alized and
d ama ically lacking in esou ces, he adminis a ions in cha ge
o p o ec ed a eas ha e had ew oppo uni ies o implemen con-
se a ion p og am.” (AGRECO1996, 12). This aming jus i ied
e o ms aimed a s eng hening s a e s uc u es, eac i a ing
he managemen o p o ec ed a eas es ablished du ing he co-
lonial e a (e.g., Dja ese e, Odzala NP and Lopé NP) and c e-
a ing new ones (e.g., Obo NP). Consul ancy i ms we e g an ed
conside able lexibili y o de elop echnical esponses ailo ed
o s a e adminis a ion needs (AGRECO1996, 12–14). EU bu-
eauc a s, na ional bu eauc a s, and consul ancy expe s collab-
o a ed closely, pa icula ly in se ing p io i ies. As one o me
expe obse ed: “ he powe o se p io i ies was in he hands o
hose who managed he und. I was abou buying expensi e ma-
e ials ab oad, p o iding sophis ica ed moni o ing ma e ial o
equip he o es adminis a ion o ca y he su eillance o p o-
ec ed a eas. The e was no much le o do p ope communi y
de elopmen .” (I25, o me expe om non- s a e o ganiza ion).
Communi y de elopmen was u he sidelined due o he ab-
sence o in e disciplina y eams in decision- making oles. An
independen e alua ion epo s a ed ha : “The academic p o-
iles and expe ise o he componen manage s, who a e gene -
ally mo e specialized in biology han in sociology o communi y
de elopmen , ha e had a decisi e in luence on he p io i ies es-
ablished.” (Ea h2003, 29).
A shi occu ed du ing phase 5 (2011–2015), when he EU del-
ega ed implemen a ion esponsibili ies o egional bodies such
as ECCAS and RAPAC2. ECCAS led s a e- d i en policy coo di-
na ion, while RAPAC ope a ed as a egional NGO o p o ec ed
a ea managemen . Despi e hese s uc u al changes, Wes e n
consul ancy i ms e ained con ol o e echnical design and
he selec ion o implemen ing pa ne s (AGRECO2011). These
e o ms aimed o align ECOFAC wi h egional amewo ks,
including he 1999 Yaoundé Decla a ion and he COMIFAC
Con e gence Plan (2005–2015). Howe e , implemen a ion
was hinde ed by igid unding s uc u es and con inued eli-
ance on in e na ional consul an s, which limi ed ins i u ional
capaci y- building as impending owne ship (Geo es and Pa icip
GmbH2015, 20–21). The expansion o he p og am ac oss he
egion was no ma ched by p opo ional unding, leading o lim-
i ed suppo o communi y ini ia i es: “The le el o in es men
o income- gene a ing ac i i ies o local communi ies (1.5 million
FIGURE 2 | Ma ching pe cen age o unds alloca ed h ough ECOFAC since 1992 un il he mid- e m e alua ion epo in 2021 based on objec-
i es (a), ac i i ies (b), implemen ing ac o s (c) and scales (d).
844 En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance, 2025
eu os) is la gely insu icien o a la ge- scale p og amme such as
ECOFAC 5.” (Geo es and Pa icip GmbH2015, 14). The ongo-
ing eliance on Wes e n consul ancies pe pe ua ed a pa e n o
epe i i e echnical solu ions and main ained inequali ies es ab-
lished in ea lie phases.
Phase 6 (2017–2024) in oduced a polycen ic unding s uc u e
(EU2016, 9), in which g an s we e p o ided di ec ly o p i a e
and non- p o i o ganiza ions wo king unde o mal ag eemen s
wi h na ional adminis a ions. These ag eemen s ook he o m
o delega ed managemen a angemen s las ing 10–25 yea s,
co- managemen o up o 10 yea s, o sho - e m echnical as-
sis ance con ac s las ing 1–5 yea s (BRL ingénie ie2021, 13).
Gabon was a no able excep ion. The go e nmen ejec ed he
model in ol ing in e media y o ganiza ions and ecei ed di-
ec unding om he EU, channeled h ough he na ional pa k
agency (ANPN) wi hou pa icipa ion by ex e nal non- s a e ac-
o s. In con as , o he coun ies in Cen al A ica aced signi i-
can p essu e om dono s o adop go e nance models based on
delega ion o p i a e o non- go e nmen al ac o s. As no ed in a
p og am e alua ion: “ he way in which ECOFAC e ol ed du ing
his phase 6 can be misunde s ood locally. Indeed, he p og am
mo ed om a a ionale o di ec suppo o public adminis a ions
o one o suppo ing ope a o s who, in p inciple, ac on behal o
and unde manda e om hese public adminis a ions. Howe e ,
in Sao Tomé and P incipe, he selec ed ope a o , Bi dLi e and i s
pa ne s, does no bene i om o al managemen delega ion, as is
he case o o he ope a o s o he p og am. I s con ac ual ame-
wo k o in e en ion wi h he na ional au ho i ies is based on he
echnical assis ance model and consis s o h ee memo andums o
unde s anding (wi h he Minis y o Ag icul u e and he Minis y
o he En i onmen o Sao Tomé, and wi h he Au onomous
Region o P incipe) which de ine Bi dLi e's manda e in a a he
b oad way, which can be a sou ce o di e gen in e p e a ions.”
(BRL ingénie ie 2021, 32).
Despi e shi s in unding s uc u es and ins i u ional ac o s,
ansna ional o ganiza ions ha e consis en ly e ained he man-
da e o design echnical componen s (see Figu e2c). Gabon's
abili y o secu e di ec EU unding highligh s how powe dy-
namics enable ce ain s a es o bypass in e media ies. Mos
Cen al A ican go e nmen s lacked his le e age, unde sco ing
how ansna ional ac o s s a egically na iga e hei dual alle-
giance o bo h EU ins i u ions and domes ic bu eauc acies (I11,
ci il se an , o es adminis a ion). This dual alignmen has al-
lowed hem o secu e p i ileged access o unding and shape he
design o he p og am.
3.3 | Coe ci e- Based Technical Solu ions o
Rein o ce S a e Adminis a ion Au ho i y O e
P o ec ed A eas
Biodi e si y conse a ion e o s in Cen al A ica h ough
ECOFAC ha e la gely elied on wo in e linked s a egies: he ex-
pansion o s a e- un p o ec ed a eas and he ein o cemen o hei
ope a ional capaci ies h ough echnical and ma e ial suppo .
The i s s a egy ocused on enla ging he ne wo k o p o-
ec ed a eas whe e s ic egula ions on access and esou ce
use we e en o ced. By 2017, he conse a ion a eas ecei ing
managemen unding unde ECOFAC had inc eased wel e-
old om 1,586,000 ha in 1992 o 20,109,800 ha (Figu e3). This
expansion was suppo ed by inancial esou ces and echnical
expe ise, acili a ing he c ea ion o new na ional pa ks such as
Mon e Alen Na ional Pa k (NP) in Equa o ial Guinea, Obo NP in
Sao omé P incipe NP, Mbaé é Bodingué NP in Cen al A ican
Republic in 2007 (Ea h2003, 172) and he con es ed3 c ea ion
o Messok Dja NP in he Republic o Congo. Exis ing pa ks we e
ex ended. Fo ins ance, Odzala- Kokoua NP in he Republic o
Congo g ew om 28,300 ha in 1935 o 1,354,600 ha in 2001, a
45% inc ease (Ea h2003, 171). P og am ac o s emphasized ha
“ECOFAC is he i s egional o eign aid in he o es sec o o
e i e he managemen o o me na ional pa ks and ese es im-
plemen ed du ing he colonial pe iod in he Congo Basin and o
expand hem o mee he land equi emen s o la ge iconic species
such as he elephan and go illa o h i e.” (I2, ci il se an om
a o es adminis a ion). Despi e long- s anding ensions wi h
o es - dependen communi ies, ECOFAC played a pi o al ole in
suppo ing s a e- managed p o ec ed a eas (AGRECO2002, i).
In e nal assessmen s claimed he p og am con ibu ed o he
managemen cos s o 40% o p o ec ed a eas in Cen al A ica
and acili a ed he legal designa ion o bounda y expansion o
15% (ECOFAC2022, 12).
The second s a egy cen ed on s eng hening he ope a ional
capaci ies o p o ec ed a ea managemen uni s. This en ailed
equipping eco- gua ds and manage s wi h he necessa y ools
and in as uc u e o en o ce access es ic ions. Financial,
echnical, and ma e ial inpu s deli e ed ac oss successi e
p og am phases enabled he cons uc ion and main enance
o access oads, li e base camps, and eco- gua d pos s (e.g., in.
AGRECO1996, 11; Ea h2003, 172–173; Landell Mills2021, 4).
Su eillance equipmen such as all- e ain ehicles, GPS uni s,
and came a aps u he enhanced moni o ing capabili ies (e.g.,
in AGRECO1996, 15; BRL ingénie ie 2021, 61).
T aining ini ia i es a ge ed p ima ily on eco- gua ds and go -
e nmen o icials, co e ing law en o cemen , spa ial analysis,
and species moni o ing (e.g., in AGRECO1996, 20; BRL ingén-
ie ie 2010, 8; Landell Mills2021, 4). Knowledge p oduc ion was
also suppo ed, pa icula ly in ela ion o species assessmen s
and pa ol sys em de elopmen . Howe e , his esea ch was c i -
icized o being “mo e undamen al han applied,” bene i ing
he esea ch ins i u ions mo e han on- he- g ound pa k man-
agemen (Ea h2003 171). Much o his da a was cen alized
wi hin he Cen al A ica Fo es Obse a o y (OFAC) o a chi e
policy documen s and g ey li e a u e o suppo egional ac o s.
Beyond ield- based in e en ions, ECOFAC con ibu ed o
biodi e si y- ela ed policy e o m a bo h na ional and egional
le els, p ima ily h ough unding expe consul ancy se ices.
Fo example, du ing he 2007–2010 phase, he lead implemen -
ing agency, suppo ed he d a ing o a leas 12 implemen ing
dec ees o NPs in Gabon (BRL ingénie ie 2010, 9). A he e-
gional le el, 11 policy decisions we e endo sed by ECCAS in
2015, including decla a ions agains poaching4 and in suppo
o he g een economy5 (Geo es and Pa icip GmbH2015, 22).
These legal e o ms emphasized es ic i e measu es o en-
o ce conse a ion h ough my iad s a u o y ools. As one ci il
se an no ed, he p og am aimed o equip go e nmen s wi h
legal mechanisms o asse con ol o e o es esou ces: “In
845
he 1990s and ea ly 2000s, ECOFAC, al hough concei ed as a e-
gional p og am, ocused on he le el o p o ec ed a eas in he di -
e en coun ies. I wo ked on he adop ion o legal means such as
he p o ec ed a ea code, es ic ion on wildli e consump ion and
comme cialisa ion. These egula ions we e mainly based on he
idea o s eng hening s a e con ol o e he use o o es esou ces
h ough legal means. In 2015, ECCAS played a key ins i u ional
ole in ans o ming his na ional ocus on egional policy e o m
ha was expec ed o be easily adop ed and ansla ed in o coun y
law.” (I9, ci il se an om s a e o ganiza ion).
E alua ion epo s, na a i e accoun s, in e iews wi h ac o s,
and ield obse a ions e eal ha ECOFAC in es ed conside -
able e o in legi imizing and ins i u ionalizing he coe ci e
au ho i y o s a e bu eauc acies and hei non- s a e pa ne s
in p o ec ed a ea managemen . As Figu es2 and 3 illus a e,
he majo i y o unding suppo ed “ ence and ine” s a egies,
whe eby land use and se lemen con lic s we e p ima ily ad-
d essed h ough es ic i e egula ions. Acco ding o a o me
p ac i ione in ECOFAC: “P o ec ed a ea could no ge ou o he
pape pa k p oblem wi hou he esou ces p o ided by ECOFAC.
Many o he in es men s o ECOFAC 1 o 3 ha e been he basis o
ha ing an ope a ional uni o i s own o he managemen o he
pa k. In as uc u e was buil , such as a li e base camp, oads and
pa ol acks. Financial esou ces ha e been gi en o suppo s a
h ough pe diems and bonuses because you know ha sala ies
in adminis a ion canno co e e en you basic mon hly needs.”
(I10, ci il se an om s a e o ganiza ion). Howe e , his coe -
ci e and esou ce- in ensi e model p o ed inancially unsus ain-
able (AGRECO2005, i ; Ea h2003, 181; Landell Mills2018,
39). A dependency on ECOFAC unding was es ablished, and
he expe ience o hose wo king in hese p o ec ed a eas was:
“E e y ime ECOFAC is in ansi ion om one phase o ano he ,
he si e simply s ops. We no longe ha e an ope a ing budge o
con inue wo k p ope ly, such as pa ols, due o lack o uel. Bu
he wo s is ha he eco- gua ds a e le wi hou pe diems which
a e o many hei o icial sala y as hey we e ec ui ed unde
he ECOFAC p ojec .” (I26, o me expe om non- s a e o ga-
niza ion). This s a emen was con i med by he independen
e alua ion ca ied in 2006: “The cessa ion o slowing down o
ield ac ions on ECOFAC si es in each coun y in 2003 has led
o a de e io a ion in essen ial managemen s uc u es (in as uc-
u e, buildings, equipmen , means o anspo , adminis a i e
s uc u es, e c.)” (DRN e al.2006, 133). Al hough each imple-
men a ion phase o ECOFAC has exposed he limi a ions o an
o e - eliance on coe ci e en o cemen , his app oach con inues
o unde pin dominan conse a ion p ac ices.
3.4 | Ma ginaliza ion o In es men in
Incen i e- Based Measu es o Fo es - Dependen
Land- Use s
In 1992, o es dependen land- use s began con es ing he
p esence o he ECOFAC wi hin p o ec ed a eas, as s a ed
by a epo : “Fu he mo e, he implemen a ion o ECOFAC a
p o ec ed a ea le el has also encoun e ed nume ous p oblems
o misunde s anding wi h local popula ions, who o en li e
in e y p eca ious condi ions, ake li le in e es in conse a-
ion impe a i es and a e essen ially looking o a ma e ial im-
p o emen in hei li ing condi ions.” (AGRECO1996, 12). In
esponse, ECOFAC implemen ed a communi y de elopmen
app oach in ended o os e accep ance o land- use es ic-
ions among o es dependen communi ies and demons a e
o s a e adminis a ions he economic alue o main aining
p o ec ed a eas. Th ee s a egies we e de eloped depending
on he ecological and social con ex o each p o ec ed a ea, as
well as on he p ima y h ea s o biodi e si y. These in ol ed
p omo ing ou ism based on na u al a ac ions, de eloping
income- gene a ing ac i i ies as al e na i es o adi ional
p ac ices, and building o eno a ing in as uc u e in neigh-
bo ing illages.
Be ween 1992 and 2005, eco ou ism was p omo ed in p o-
ec ed a eas such as Odzala NP in he Republic o he
Congo, Obo NP in São Tomé and P íncipe, Mon e Alén NP
in Equa o ial Guinea, and Lopé NP in Gabon. Howe e , he
limi ed economic impac a bo h local and na ional le els led
FIGURE 3 | E olu ion o a ea co e ed by he ECOFAC p og amme and und alloca ed o he p o ec ed a eas.
846 En i onmen al Policy and Go e nance, 2025
o skep icism among local communi ies and s a e au ho i ies.
Misunde s andings a ose o e expec ed inancial bene i s.
“[…] expec a ions ega ding he bene i s o ou ism de elop-
men : mos o he ime, e enues and p o i s a e con used, and
e en he adminis a ions in cha ge hink ha as soon as he e
a e e enues, hey mus be edis ibu ed o he S a e and he
local popula ion. Howe e , hey don' always ealize he in es -
men s and cos s in ol ed in ou ism de elopmen ope a ions
in e y di icul access condi ions.” (AGRECO2002, 155). The
essen ial condi ions o eco ou ism de elopmen we e lacking
in many p o ec ed a eas suppo ed by ECOFAC such as es-
sen ial in as uc u e, poli ical s abili y, and a o dabili y: “In
e ms o ou ism de elopmen , he aim was o consolida e he
po en ial o he Mon e Alén, Odzala and Lopé si es, and o a
lesse ex en Sao Tomé, and o en us he managemen o hese
ac i i ies o p i a e ope a o s. Un o una ely, his objec i e was
only pa ially achie ed, o a a ie y o easons: socio- poli ical
un es and he Ebola epidemic (Odzala), insu icien esou ces
(di ec ed o each p o ec ed a ea o p omo e eco ou ism), lack o
poli ical will o esponse (Lopé) o p i a iza ion p ocedu es o
ou ism managemen , e c.” (AGRECO2005, ii). Despi e he
unsuccess ul a emp o s imula e h i ing eco ou ism in he
ea ly phases o ECOFAC, his ac i i y emained suppo ed in
la e phases (Geo es and Pa icip GmbH 2015, 15; Landell
Mills2021, 44). Whe e eco ou ism succeeded, i emained ac-
cessible only o eli e isi o s6. Fo example, in Odzala NP, a 7-
day isi including a go illa ek cos a ound 13,000 eu os pe
pe son. Despi e he acclaimed success o Odzala NP7, he a-
gili y o eco ou ism as a eliable income sou ce was e iden :
“In he wake o he COVID- 19 pandemic, he hal o ou is ac-
i i y has had an impac on business, as a pe cen age o he 5%
ax le ied on ou is s is paid in o he communi y de elopmen
und (FDC). This und has no been supplied since he closu e o
he bo de s and he lockdown dec eed in Ap il 2020 in Congo,
and al hough mos con ol measu es ha e been elaxed by he
go e nmen , he pa k emains closed o ou is s o his day.”
(BRL ingénie ie 2021, 22).
In addi ion o eco ou ism, al e na i e li elihood ini ia i es
we e de eloped in esponse o he speci ic needs and p es-
su es o each p o ec ed a ea. These ini ia i es aimed o o e
o es use s new o ms o employmen and o p omo e p ac-
ices compa ible wi h biodi e si y conse a ion. Based on
documen e iew and ieldwo k, app oxima ely 11 ypes o
employmen no p e iously a ailable in he a ea we e in o-
duced. These jobs included posi ions such as eco- gua d, eco-
guide, ield esea ch assis an , housekeepe , luggage po e ,
empo a y in ensi e labo o in as uc u e cons uc ion
o eno a ion, u al anima o , ield gua dian, g oce , c a s-
man ca pen e and b ickmake . Howe e , access o hese jobs
o en equi ed basic educa ion o speci ic compe encies, such
as li e acy, knowledge o o he languages, o physical endu -
ance. Fo ins ance, in Mbaé é Bodingué NP (Ngo o Fo es
complex) in Cen al A ican Republic: “ he impac in e ms
o employmen o he ECOFAC ins alla ion on he in e en ion
sec o was qui e low due o he lack o quali ied local labo .”
(AGRECO 1996, 121). E en when skills we e p esen , job
a ailabili y emained insu icien . Fo example, in Lopé NP
in Gabon: “25 eco- gua ds had hei sala y and aining paid
by he ECOFAC p og amme” in 2017 (BRL ingénie ie 2021, 16)
compa ed o he numbe o po en ial applican s among he
1214 o es - dependen land use s iden i ied8 in 2002 as li ing
a ound he pa k. In o he wo ds, he numbe o jobs o e ed by
ECOFAC in he case o Lopé NP p o ided only abou 2% o he
local inhabi an s wi h an employmen oppo uni y. In Mbaé é
Bodingué NP in Cen al A ican Republic: “18 eco- gua ds we e
ained bu only 4 we e ec ui ed in he si e.” (AGRECO1996,
110). Fu he mo e, as hese oles we e unded h ough em-
po a y p ojec budge s, employmen oppo uni ies luc ua ed.
Jobs would o en disappea , eappea , o change in alignmen
wi h ECOFAC p io i ies and unding. An example o his
si ua ion was epo ed in he case o Mbaé é Bodingué NP
(Ngo o Fo es complex): “In 1995, he ECOFAC eam ec ui ed
and ained 6 local u al anima o s. In heo y, hese anima o s
we e o ac as a link be ween he ECOFAC eam and illage s.
Un o una ely, his aining led he anima o s o belie e ha
hey would be hi ed pe manen ly by he ECOFAC eam, which
was ne e he case. This misunde s anding led o a hos o sub-
sequen p oblems. In 1998, he anima o eam was s eng hened
o 10 people, bu he ecu ing p oblem o hi ing emained un-
esol ed. This highligh ed he ac ha he people chosen by he
ECOFAC eam o be he eal “d i e s” o de elopmen we e in
ac only in e es ed in becoming employees.” (AGRECO2005,
200). Beyond job secu i y, di e en condi ions equi ed o de-
cen wo k we e also ques ionable in e ms o isk o p o en
si ua ions o un ai ness and inequi y: “One day, I was hi by a
bu alo, and I was p egnan a ha ime. I had o be hospi al-
ised. I did no ask o a medical ce i ica e a he hospi al as I
was a aid o lose my job by complaining abou he si ua ion.”
(I20, o es - dependen land use ).
Va ious ini ia i es in ag icul u e, animal husband y, and
ha es ing o non- imbe o es p oduc s (NTPF) we e in-
oduced o each a b oade g oup o o es use s. In 2020, a
compensa ion scheme o c op losses caused by wildli e was
also in oduced in Odzala NP. These p ojec s aimed o e-
duce eliance on hun ing by in oducing ish a ming, poul y
ea ing, beekeeping, and goa husband y, o discou age slash-
and- bu n ag icul u e h ough he p omo ion o cash and sub-
sis ence c ops, and o link small- scale p oduce s o ma ke s
(Geo es and Pa icip GmbH2015, 15; BRL ingénie ie 2021,
26). The limi ed success o hese ac i i ies was linked o h ee
issues. Fi s , he al e na i e p omo ed was poo ly designed o
ma ch o es - dependen land use s' p io i ies, as o example
in Mon e Alen NP in Equa o ial Guinea: “Li es ock ac i i ies
we e also ini ia ed (g asscu e s, snails, goa s, e c.), bu hese
p ac ices did no i wi h he local socio- cul u al con ex , hey
did no gain he suppo o he local popula ion. The ac i i ies
we e soon abandoned by he people esponsible o hem. The
ECOFAC p ojec also ied o e i alize ag icul u e by o e ing
o subsidize a uck o ake p oduc ion o Ba a. In mos cases,
he uck made he jou ney emp y, and he expe imen was
s opped.” (AGRECO2002, 126). Second, he sho - e m sup-
po p o ided by he p ojec ailed o conside he long- e m
assis ance needed o ensu e he adop ion o he al e na i e
p ac ices: “Du ing he 5 yea s o ECOFAC, he e ha e been only
wo cycles o calls o p ojec s o communi y de elopmen . All
hese p ojec s ha e a maximum du a ion o 2 yea s. I is highly
doub ul ha his ype o unding can p oduce sus ainable e-
sul s. No p ojec p omo e (excep APN in Odzala- Kokoua) has
been able o p o ide long- e m suppo o communi ies in de el-
oping hese income- gene a ing ac i i ies.” (Geo es and Pa icip