Hamme , Luisa
Wo king Pape
Wha abou he men, hough? Rela i e wage oppo uni ies
and he pe sis ence o employmen gaps in couples
IAB-Discussion Pape , No. 01/2025
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ins i u e o Employmen Resea ch (IAB)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hamme , Luisa (2025) : Wha abou he men, hough? Rela i e wage
oppo uni ies and he pe sis ence o employmen gaps in couples, IAB-Discussion Pape , No.
01/2025, Ins i u ü A bei sma k - und Be u s o schung (IAB), Nü nbe g,
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IAB-DISCUSSION PAPER
A icles on labou ma ke issues
01|2025 Wha abou he men, hough? Rela i e
wage oppo uni ies and he pe sis ence o
employmen gaps in couples
Luisa Hamme
ISSN 2195‑2663
Wha abou he men, hough? Rela i e wage
oppo uni ies and he pe sis ence o
employmen gaps in couples
Luisa Hamme (IAB und F eie Uni e si ä Be lin)
Mi de Reihe „IAB‑Discussion Pape “ will das Fo schungsins i u de Bundesagen u ü
A bei den Dialog mi de ex e nen Wissenscha in ensi ie en. Du ch die asche Ve b ei ung
on Fo schungse gebnissen übe das In e ne soll noch o D ucklegung K i ik ange eg
und Quali ä gesiche we den.
The “IAB‑Discussion Pape ” is published by he esea ch ins i u e o he Ge man Fede al
Employmen Agency in o de o in ensi y he dialogue wi h he scien i ic communi y. The
p omp publica ion o he la es esea ch esul s ia he in e ne in ends o s imula e
c i icism and o ensu e esea ch quali y a an ea ly s age be o e p in ing.
Con en s
1 In oduc ion...............................................................................6
2 Da a .......................................................................................9
2.1 Samples.................................................................................. 10
3 Backg ound: Gende Inequali y in Ge many......................................... 11
4 Me hods ................................................................................. 14
4.1 Shi ‑sha e app oach ................................................................... 15
4.2 Es ima ion s a egy ..................................................................... 19
5 Resul s .................................................................................. 21
6 Po en ial mechanisms ................................................................. 25
6.1 Household‑specializa ion acco ding o Ga y S. Becke ........................... 25
6.2 Equalizing wages ....................................................................... 27
6.2.1 Household p oduc i i y ....................................................... 27
6.2.2 Gende ‑speci ic p e e ences o he household good .................... 27
6.2.3 Gende ‑speci ic p e e ences and no ms o ma ke wo k ............... 28
7 He e ogenei y Analyses and Robus ness ............................................. 31
7.1 Robus ness .............................................................................. 31
7.2 Which pa e n do he e ec s ollow? ................................................ 32
7.3 Co obo a ion o esul s using obse ed couples’ ela i e incomes ............ 33
7.4 Fu he he e ogenei y analyses....................................................... 33
7.5 Wha abou he singles?............................................................... 34
7.6 Selec ion in o pa ne ship............................................................. 35
8 Conclusion .............................................................................. 35
Re e ences...................................................................................... 37
Appendix .................................................................................... 42
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 3
Abs ac
Gende gaps in employmen ha e na owed bu emain subs an ial, pa icula ly among
couples. To es ima e how imp o ed emale wage oppo uni ies in luence pa ne s’
employmen choices, I exploi demand‑d i en wage changes in job asks and Ge man
adminis a i e da a. Resul s indica e women espond posi i ely, albei a a diminishing
a e, o ela i e wage imp o emen s, while male pa ne s also inc ease hei labo supply in
esponse. Consequen ly, he wo k hou s gap wi hin couples na ows, bu doesn’ close and
e en widens in ce ain g oups. Po en ial explana ions o hese pa e ns building on
Becke ’s household model include compa a i e ad an ages o women, and ela i e income
p e e ences and gende iden i y no ms o men.
Zusammen assung
Die geschlech sspezi ischen Un e schiede bei de Beschä igung haben sich e inge , sind
abe nach wie o be äch lich, insbesonde e inne halb on Paa en. Um abzuschä zen, wie
sich e besse e Lohnmöglichkei en ü F auen au die Beschä igungs‑ en scheidungen de
Pa ne auswi ken, nu ze ich nach ageges eue e Lohn e ände ungen bei A bei sau gaben
und deu sche Ve wal ungsda en. Die E gebnisse deu en da au hin, dass F auen posi i ,
wenn auch mi abnehmende Tendenz, au ela i e Lohn e besse ungen eagie en,
wäh end männliche Pa ne als Reak ion da au eben alls ih A bei sangebo e höhen.
In olgedessen e inge sich die A bei szei lücke inne halb on Paa en, schließ sich abe
nich und e g öße sich in bes imm en G uppen soga . Mögliche E klä ungen ü diese
Mus e , die au Becke s Haushal smodell au bauen, sind kompa a i e Vo eile ü F auen
sowie ela i e Einkommensp ä e enzen und Geschlech siden i ä sno men ü Männe .
JEL
D13, E32, J12, J16, J22
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 4
Keywo ds
Gende pay gap, emale employmen , household specializa ion, s uc u al change
Acknowledgemen s
I would like o hank Alessand a Casa ico, Na alia Danze , Pe e Haan, Nikolaj A. Ha mon,
Ma hias He weck, Jonas Jessen, Ul ich Schneide and Luca S ella o aluable eedback as
well as pa icipan s a he 2022 mee ing o he Socie y o he Economics o he Household
(SEHO), Uni e si y College London; he 2022 Sp ing Mee ing o Young Economis s, O leans;
he Ve eins agung ü Socialpoli ik (V S) annual mee ing 2022, he Wo kshop on
In e ac ions be ween Labo and Ma iage, Aa hus Uni e si y; he 1s Be lin Wo kshop on
Empi ical Public Economics, F eie Uni e si ä Be lin, he BeNA Win e Wo kshop 2023, he
IAB wo kshop ”Social Inequali ies”, he 3 d Wo kshop on Gende and Economics,
Luxembou g Ins i u e o Socio‑Economic Resea ch (LISER), he 3 d In e na ional Wo kshop
on Mig a ion and Family Economics, School o Managemen (IESEG) Pa is, he Family and
Gende Economics S udy G oup (GEFAM) wo kshop 2024 a Inspe Sao Paulo and a he
Eu opean Associa ion o Labo Economis s (EALE) 2024 o ex ensi e commen s and
sugges ions. An ea ly e sion o his pape was p epa ed in collabo a ion wi h As id Pape. I
hank he e y much o he con ibu ion o his p ojec .
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 5
1 In oduc ion
Recen decades ha e seen imp o emen s in emale labo ma ke ou comes and na owing
gende pay gaps, ye dispa i ies pe sis (Blau/Kahn, 2007; Goldin/Ka z, 2002;
Oli e i/Pe ongolo, 2016). Reasons o hese gende di e ences a e mani old. In pa icula ,
he disp opo iona e ewa d o wo king long hou s appea s o be one o he main d i e s o
he pe sis en gende pay gaps (Goldin, 2014). Fu he ac o s a e he a i al o child en
(Kle en/Landais/Søgaa d, 2019), he sca ci y o a o dable subs i u es o household
p oduc ion (Co es/Pan, 2013) o s icky gende oles a i udes (Fo in, 2005). Ge many is
one o he OECD coun ies wi h abo e‑a e age gende wage gaps (Kunze, 2018) and la ge
gende employmen di e ences: On a e age, men wo k 10.7 hou s mo e in he labo
ma ke pe week (32 pe cen ) han women.1 Wi hin couples, he gap is e en la ge wi h 13.5
hou s (39 pe cen ).2 This also ansla es in o e y la ge ea nings di e en ials be ween
pa ne s – Men’s mon hly ne ea nings a e on a e age 1,265 eu o3 (54%) highe han hose
o he emale pa ne .
A leas since he seminal heo y o he amily by Becke (1973, 1981), i is well‑es ablished
ha i is economically a ional o spouses o specialize in he household o in he ma ke
acco ding o hei compa a i e ad an age, which is mainly de e mined by spouses’
(po en ial) labo ma ke ea nings. Thus, in imes when gende wage inequali y is e y high,
( ull) household specializa ion can be u ili y maximizing. Howe e , as women’s wages
ela i e o hose o men inc ease, Becke ’s model p edic s a dec ease o he deg ee o
household specializa ion wi hin pa ne ships, and hence a decline o he gende gap in
ma ke wo king hou s.4
The e is plen y o esea ch showing ha he ela i e economic s a u e o men has su e ed
in ecen yea s. On he one hand, women bene i om ask‑biased echnological change
(Black/Spi z‑Oene , 2010; Beaud y/Lewis, 2014) and om s uc u al changes such as he
expansion o he se ice sec o (Rendall, 2018). Men, on he o he hand, a e penalized mo e
by nega i e labo demand shocks, o example h ough Chinese impo compe i ion
(Au o /Do n/Hanson, 2018), o he deg ee o local obo pene a ion (Anelli/Giun ella/S ella,
2024). This aises he ques ion as o why gende gaps in employmen a e so pe sis en e en
hough women’s ela i e employmen oppo uni ies ha e imp o ed.
Gi en he p edic ions o a Becke ian household model, his s udy aims o in es iga e he
ela ionship be ween male and emale wage po en ials and hei impac on labo supply
1 A e age be ween 2005 and 2019. Sou ce: Ge man Mic ocensus 2005‑2019.
2 Condi ional on employmen , he gende gap in weekly wo k hou s is 9.4 hou s (23 pe cen ) and wi hin
couples 12.3 hou s (26 pe cen ).
3 In p ices o 2015.
4 Assuming ha ela i e household p oduc i i ies a e unchanged.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 6
and gende employmen gaps wi hin couples, wi h a ocus on why gende gaps pe sis
despi e imp o ing emale employmen oppo uni ies. Ge many p esen s an in e es ing
case as i has signi ican egional di e ences in e ms o male and emale employmen
pa e ns, gende a i udes, wages and ea ning po en ials. This is la gely due o he di ision
o Ge many be ween 1949 and 1990, which c ea ed di e en economic incen i es, bu also
opposing ins i u ions and no ma i e alues (Boelmann/Rau e/Schonbe g, 2021;
Campa/Se a inelli, 2019; Lippmann/Geo gie /Senik, 2020). By ocusing on pa ne ed men
and women, one o he g oups wi h he la ges gende gaps, his pape con ibu es o he
unde s anding o he dynamics o gende inequali y in employmen . Since I am in e es ed
in he slowing down o he closing o he gende employmen gaps, I es ima e linea and
quad a ic e ec s o he ela i e emale‑ o‑male wage o cap u e possible non‑linea i ies.
As wages a e only obse ed o a selec ed subse o pe sons who a e employed, I cons uc
an exogenous measu e o po en ial wages o all men and women using a Ba ik‑ ype
ins umen (Aize , 2010; Be and/Kamenica/Pan, 2015; Shenha , 2021). T adi ionally, his
combines he di e en ial wage g ow h ac oss indus ies wi h he egional seg ega ion o
men and women in di e en segmen s o he labo ma ke . Addi ionally, I exploi ha
ask‑biased echnological change a o s women, leading o highe wage g ow h in
emale‑domina ed asks (Black/Spi z‑Oene , 2010). I he e o e make a me hodological
con ibu ion o he shi ‑sha e app oach and accoun o he ole o asks wi hin indus ies. I
show ha he e is subs an ial a ia ion in he wage g ow h by ask le el wi hin indus ies
and ha women and men specialize in di e en asks wi hin indus ies. The cons uc ed
ela i e po en ial wage hen se es as an indica o o women’s wage oppo uni ies ela i e
o hose o men in a s anda d ull‑ ime employmen . I also show ha p edic ing gende
wages exploi ing he indus y composi ion only yields e y simila p edic ions o men and
women, and hus a ela i e wage close o 100 pe cen since i neglec s an impo an pa o
he wi hin‑indus y a ia ion in wages. A u he ad an age o my pape is ha I use
high‑quali y Ge man adminis a i e da a o he wage measu es.
The esul s show ha o women who li e in a pa ne ship, an inc ease o hei ea nings
po en ial ela i e o hose o he pa ne by one pe cen age poin inc eases hei hou s o
paid wo k condi ional on employmen on a e age by 0.17 hou s, i.e. by 10 minu es. The
posi i e e ec becomes, howe e , signi ican ly smalle , he highe he le el o he ela i e
po en ial wage. This sugges s ha while imp o ing emale ea ning po en ials may
incen i ize g ea e labo o ce pa icipa ion among women, he impac becomes less
p onounced a highe le els o ela i e wage equali y. In e es ingly, men also inc ease hei
labo supply in esponse o ela i e imp o emen s o hei pa ne ’s ea ning po en ials,
pa icula ly when pa ne ed wi h highly educa ed women. The quad a ic decomposi ion
sugges s, howe e , ha a low le els o he ela i e wage men’s wo k hou s dec ease, bu
he nega i e e ec anishes a highe le els o he ela i e wage. Gi en bo h adjus men s,
he wi hin‑couple employmen gap na ows, bu again a a diminishing a e. On a e age,
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 7
he gap emains una ec ed, and he e o e does no close. In some g oups, i e en widens
signi ican ly. So e en i a woman could po en ially con ibu e a high income o he amily,
he wi hin‑couple gap in wo king hou s does no close u he . S ill, women’s incomes ise
sligh ly, whe eas men’s incomes a e una ec ed (despi e hei inc ease in wo k hou s). Ye ,
he sha e a woman con ibu es o he couple’s income inc eases only a a diminishing a e,
which is, again, on a e age insigni ican . The e o e, also he sha e o couples in which he
woman is he seconda y ea ne does no decline.
Al oge he , he indings sugges ha he mo e ad anced women’s in eg a ion in o he labo
ma ke is, he lowe he elas ici y o emale labo supply o changes in he ela i e wage, a
leas on he in ensi e ma gin. Men, on he o he hand, appea o coun e ac hei emale
pa ne ’s imp o ing ea ning oppo uni ies. Unde s anding hese mechanisms is
pa icula ly ele an o policy and axa ion since i implies ha public policies ocusing on
labo ma ke e u ns only ha e li le scope o inc ease emale labo supply u he and o
educe gende employmen and ea ning gaps.
The indings on diminishing e ec s align well wi h p edic ions om a Becke ian household
model. The e e sal o he e ec s a high le els o gende wage inequali y, in pa icula o
men, can only be econciled wi h he model i p e e ences o he own ea nings a e
endogenously o med and depend on he ela i e wage wi hin couples as was
acknowledged o ins ance by Be and (2020), Lundbe g (2023) o Co és/Pan (2023). Such
p e e ences a ise, and can in pa icula change, because o a wish o comply wi h social
ca ego ies (Ake lo /K an on, 2000) such as a ” adi ional” di ision o ma ke and household
wo k in a couple.
In sum, I con ibu e o he li e a u e s udying he link be ween ela i e emale labo ma ke
oppo uni ies (e.g., Au o /Do n/Hanson, 2018; Kea ney/Wilson, 2018;
Anelli/Giun ella/S ella, 2024), especially o he ela i e emale wage (e.g Sha e , 2011), and
emale employmen . Close o my app oach is Shenha (2021) who es ima es he e ec s o
he ela i e emale wage on ma iage and o al emale employmen . I add o his by
speci ically in es iga ing whe he he e ec s o imp o ing ela i e emale wage
oppo uni ies a e non‑linea , and hus mo e ele an in e y gende unequal socie ies, and
by ocusing on he g oup o pa ne ed men and women – he g oup wi h he highes gende
gaps in employmen . Al eady Hube /Winkle (2019) and Halla/Schmiede /Webe (2020)
showed ha aking in o accoun he household pe spec i e has impo an implica ions
when es ima ing he e ec s o labo ma ke shocks. My discussion on po en ial
mechanisms u he con ibu es o he li e a u e in es iga ing he impac o gende no ms
on beha io wi hin couples, especially wi h espec o he male main‑ea ne no m which
a ec s ma i al s abili y and employmen choices in couples (e.g., Be and/Kamenica/Pan,
2015; Lippmann/Geo gie /Senik, 2020; Wes /Zimme man, 1987).
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 8
4.1 Shi -sha e app oach
I de ine he local labo ma ke by s a e s17 and educa ion le el o each pa ne ep
18, and yea
. The obse ed ela i e wage in each local labo ma ke is likely co ela ed wi h s a e‑ o
educa ion‑speci ic cha ac e is ics and he ou come a iables hemsel es. Ano he p oblem
is ha i is only obse ed o wo king pe sons. The e o e, I use a Ba ik (1991) ype
shi ‑sha e app oach, which exploi s labo demand changes ac oss di e en labo ma ke
segmen s and gende seg ega ion in he labo ma ke , o p edic emale and male wages in
a local labo ma ke . This app oach is a popula ool o he es ima ion o gende ‑speci ic
wages o e lec gende ‑speci ic labo demand changes and no o he po en ially
endogenous cha ac e is ics (Aize , 2010; Be and/Kamenica/Pan, 2015; Ka z/Mu phy,
1992). I exploi s ha , his o ically, men and women end o wo k in di e en indus ies and
ha he gende ‑speci ic indus y composi ion di e s by s a e. The local gende ‑speci ic
employmen sha e in indus y j19 (sha e) in a su icien ly lagged base yea 0 is hen
mul iplied wi h na ional wage changes by indus y (shi ). As base yea I pool he yea s 1995
and 1996 in he Mic ocensus. I choose a base yea 0 ha is su icien ly dis an o he
es ima ion pe iod 2005 o 2019 bu which is also no oo close o he d as ic economic
es uc u ing a e Ge man euni ica ion (Hun , 2001). The wage shi s a e measu ed in he
SIAB as he na ional a e age excluding he s a e in which he indi idual esides wj ,−s. This
alle ia es conce ns o ini e sample bias which a ises i one included he own local
obse a ions (Goldsmi h‑Pinkham/So kin/Swi , 2020). A na ion‑wide change in
indus y‑speci ic wages hence impac s egions e y di e en ly, depending on he his o ical
gende ‑speci ic indus y employmen . Figu e A4 in he Appendix illus a es he indus y
composi ion in he base yea s 1995 and 1996 by gende . The e is, o example, a
subs an ially highe sha e o men wo king in he p oduc ion sec o . Women, on he o he
hand, a e concen a ed in he sec o s e ail, educa ion and heal h.
Gi en he obse ed labo demand changes, he p edic ed wage is, hus, a measu e o he
po en ial wage in a s anda d ull‑ ime employmen . The po en ial wage wˆesg pe gende g
and educa ion g oup e in s a e s in yea is hen gi en as:
∑ Ejesg, 0
wˆesg = × wj ,−s (1)
j Eesg, 0
17 I g oup he 16 Ge man s a es in o 13 s a es o accoun o small popula ion size (Schleswig‑Hols ein &
Hambu g, Lowe Saxony & B emen, No h‑Rhine‑Wes phalia, Hesse, Rhineland‑Pala ina e & Saa land,
Baden‑Wue embe g, Ba a ia, Be lin, B andenbu g, Mecklenbu g‑Vo pomme n, Saxony, Saxony‑Anhal ,
and Thu ingia). Un o una ely, he SUF o he Mic ocensus does no p o ide egional da a on a mo e
g anula le el.
18 I dis inguish h ee educa ion ca ego ies: no e ia y educa ion, oca ional aining, and academic
educa ion. Fo he desc ip ion o he shi ‑sha e me hod, I will abb e ia e ep as e.
19 I dis inguish 13 indus ies based on Klassi ika ion de Wi scha szweige (WZ 93) displayed in Table A2.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 15
I hen calcula e he ela i e wage as he a io be ween he p edic ed emale wage and he
p edic ed male wage.
Figu e 1: Gende Seg ega ion by Task wi hin Indus ies
Women Men
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
O he public / p i a e se ices
Heal h
Educa ion
Public se ice
Real es a e, housing, econ. se
Finance and insu ance
In o ma ion / communica ion
Hospi ali y
Re ail, main enance, epai
Cons uc ion
Ene gy / wa e supply
P oduc ion
Ag icul u e, o es y, ishing,
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1
O he public / p i a e se ices
Heal h
Educa ion
Public se ice
Real es a e, housing, econ. se
Finance and insu ance
In o ma ion / communica ion
Hospi ali y
Re ail, main enance, epai
Cons uc ion
Ene gy / wa e supply
P oduc ion
Ag icul u e, o es y, ishing,
No es: This igu e shows he main ask composi ion wi hin indus ies by gen‑
de in he base yea s 1995 and 1996.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 and BIBB 1998/99.
Accoun ing o he ole o asks
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 16
Agg ega e
wage
g ow h
does
no
only
a y
by
indus y,
bu
i
also
a ies
subs an ially
wi hin
indus ies
by
ask
le el
and
hei
di e en
exposu e
o
echnological
change.
Acco ding
o
he
hypo hesis
o
ask‑biased
echnological
change,
non‑ ou ine
asks
a e
no
easy
o
eplace
by
mode n
echnology
and
bene i
om
abo e‑a e age
wage
g ow h.
Fo
Ge many,
Black/Spi z‑Oene
(2010)
show
ha
men
and
women
we e
di e en ially
a ec ed
by
hese
adjus men s.
As
women
a e
o e ‑ ep esen ed
in
non‑ ou ine
analy ical
and
in e ac i e
asks,
ask‑biased
echnological
change
bene i ed
women,
which
e en ually
suppo ed
he
ca ching‑up
o
emale
wages.
In
o de
o
cap u e
his
a ia ion,
I
iden i y
he
main
ask
pe
occupa ion
code
KLDB
1988
using
he
Quali ica ion
and
Ca ee
Su ey
ca ied
ou
by
he
Ge man Fede al Ins i u e o Voca ional T aining (compa e 2). The da ase includes
in o ma ion
on
he
ac i i ies
egula ly
pe o med
by
employees
on
he
job.
I
use
da a
om
he
su ey
ca ied
ou
in
1998
and
1999
which
co e s
30,000
esponden s.
In
line
wi h
Black/Spi z‑Oene
(2010),
I
assign
each
ac i i y
o
one
o
i e
ca ego ies
(non‑ ou ine
analy ical,
non‑ ou ine
in e ac i e,
ou ine
cogni i e,
ou ine
manual,
and
non‑ ou ine
manual) as de ined in Table A3
and calcula e he main ask o each occupa ion. This
classi ica ion
is
hen
added
o
bo h
he
Ge man
Mic ocensus
and
he
SIAB
which
allows
he
cons uc ion
o
indus y‑ ask
cells.
Figu e 2: Wage G ow h by Task in he Two La ges Indus ies
P oduc ion Re ail, main enance
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
No es: This igu e plo s he a e age impu ed obse ed wage by ask wi hin he
wo la ges indus ies. In p ices o 2015.
Sou ce:
Own
calcula ions
based
on
SIAB
1995–2016
and
BIBB
1998/99.
∑
E
jesg,
0 ∑
E
ojesg,
0
wˆ
esg
= × × w
oj ,−s
(2)
j
E
esg,
0
o
E
jesg,
0
whe e
E
measu es he o al employmen pe g oup
jesg
in base yea
0
.
20
In he Appendix in Figu e A5, I plo wages by ask o all indus ies.
21
Shenha (2021) expanded he o iginal app oach by Be and/Kamenica/Pan (2015) and included
occupa ions wi hin indus ies as an addi ional laye . As was shown by Black/Spi z‑Oene (2010), in
pa icula he ole o job asks explain a subs an ial sha e o he closing o he gende gap. The e o e, I ocus
on he main asks pe o med pe occupa ion wi hin indus y ins ead.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 17
Figu e 1
isualizes how he dis ibu ion o main asks a ies by gende wi hin he 13
indus ies.
Fo
women,
he
sha e
o
non‑ ou ine
in e ac i e
asks
is
subs an ially
highe .
This
alone,
howe e ,
does
no
make
my
app oach
supe io
o
using
indus y
a ia ion
only.
I addi ionally equi es ha a e age wages a y by ask wi hin indus ies. In Figu e 2, I show
ha
wage
g ow h
di e s
s ongly
by
asks
wi hin
he
wo
la ges
indus ies.
In
p oduc ion,
he
mos
impo an
indus y
o
men,
women
a e
o e ‑ ep esen ed
in
he
mos
p oduc i e
asks
–
non‑ ou ine
analy ical
and
non‑ ou ine
in e ac i e.
In
he
e ail
sec o ,
he
pic u e
is
simila
as
women
he e
disp opo ionally
bene i
om
he
high
wages
in
non‑ ou ine
analy ical
asks.
The
s anda d
app oach
uses
only
he
indus y‑wide
a e age
wages,
neglec ing
wage
dispe sion
by
ask.
I,
on
he
o he
hand,
exploi
wage
shi s
by
occupa ion
ask
o
wi hin
indus ies
j
and
also
conside
he
ini ial
indus y‑ ask
employmen
composi ions.
The
po en ial
wage
is
hen
gi en
as
21
20
The i s sum cap u es he be ween‑indus y exposu e, he second sum cap u es he
wi hin‑indus y exposu e gene a ed h ough he ask composi ion wi hin indus ies in he
base yea .
Fo men and women, I p edic hei po en ial wage based on educa ion g oup, s a e and
yea . The ela i e wage is hen gi en by he a io be ween he emale and he male
p edic ion. As a esul , p edic ed ela i e wages a y o e he 13 s a es s, 3 emale
educa ion g oups ew, 3 male educa ion g oups em and yea :
wˆews , em
= (3)RP W
em,ew,s, wˆems ,men
Iden i ying assump ions
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 18
In his se ‑up, he a ia ion in he shi ‑sha e wages comes om he employmen sha es pe
indus y‑ ask combina ion which a y by gende , egion, and educa ion g oup. In e ac ed
wi h na ional wage shi s, his gene a es a di e en ial exposu e o a common wage shock –
implying ha di e en ial exposu e leads o di e en ial changes in he ou come. To be e
unde s and whe e he a ia ion in he iden i ica ion s a egy s ems om, I calcula e he
annual Ro embe g weigh s pe indus y‑ ask cell as sugges ed in
Goldsmi h‑Pinkham/So kin/Swi (2020). The au ho s show ha he Ba ik es ima o
essen ially implies using local employmen sha es as ins umen s, and so he exclusion
es ic ion should be in e p e ed in e ms o he sha es. The Ro embe g weigh s
(Ro embe g, 1983) measu e he impo ance o each indus y‑ ask employmen sha e as an
ins umen in he o e all shi ‑sha e es ima o . E en hough I do no use he p edic ed
Ba ik wages in an ins umen al a iable es ima ion, I ollow he a gumen a ion o
Goldsmi h‑Pinkham/So kin/Swi (2020) and in es iga e he exogenei y condi ions in e ms
I plo he p edic ed ela i e wage in Figu e A6 in he Appendix by educa ion‑ma ch g oup o
he es ima ion pe iod (2005‑2019). The o e all pa e n ollows he upwa d end o he
obse ed ela i e wage. As I am only conside ing he a ia ion induced h ough he changes
in labo demand o he o al a ia ion in male and emale wages, he p edic ed ela i e
wage is highe han he obse ed ela i e wage. Using my ask‑indus y shi ‑sha e
ins umen he p edic ed ela i e wage on a e age amoun s o 98.3 pe cen . When I p edic
he ela i e wage exploi ing only he indus y seg ega ion he a e age size is 99.9 pe cen .
Using he indus y a ia ion only p edic s p e y simila wages o men and women as a
c ucial pa o he wage a ia ion wi hin indus ies is neglec ed (compa e Figu e 2). O e all,
he co ela ion be ween he p edic ed daily wage using he ask‑indus y shi ‑sha e ( he
indus y shi ‑sha e) and he obse ed ne incomes in he Mic ocensus da a amoun s o he
emale wage o 27 pe cen (16 pe cen ) , o he male wage o 27 pe cen (12 pe cen ), and
o he ela i e wage o 10 pe cen (10 pe cen ).
4.2 Es ima ion s a egy
The goal o he s udy is o es how a ising ela i e po en ial wage a ec s pa ne ’s
employmen . Speci ically, I in es iga e whe he i a ec s hem linea ly, o whe he he
e ec s become smalle o la ge a a highe le el o he ela i e wage. The ou comes o
in e es can be g ouped in o wo main ca ego ies: (1) employmen ou comes o emale
pa ne s and hei male pa ne and (2) wi hin‑couple employmen di e ences. (1)
comp ises an indica o o employmen pa icipa ion, he numbe o weekly wo king hou s
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 19
Addi ionally, I es o signi ican p e‑ ends in able A5. To do so, I eplica e he eg essions
ou lined in chap e 4.2 o he main ou comes measu ed in he yea s 1997 o 2004. As as a
measu e o exposu e o he g ow h in he ela i e wage, I use he di e ence in he p edic ed
ela i e wage be ween 2019 and 2005. Fo women and he impo an wo k hou s ou comes,
he es ima es a e all insigni ican . Only o he employmen o male pa ne s, he esul s
sugges ha male pa ne s ha we e exposed o highe g ow h a es o he ela i e wages in
he 2000s had lowe employmen a es in he yea s 1997 o 2004. Bu he esul s poin o no
signi ican p e ends.
o he sha es, bu ocus he a en ion o hose sha es wi h he la ges Ro embe g weigh s. I
ind ha o e he es ima ion pe iod he mos impo an indus y‑ ask combina ions a e
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e asks in he eal es a e, p oduc ion and heal h sec o s o women and
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e asks in he educa ion and p oduc ion indus y as well as ou ine
cogni i e asks in he p oduc ion sec o o men. I would be wo isome i he es ima ed
e ec s only e lec ha ime‑ ends we e e y di e en in hese indus y‑ ask cells. In a
obus ness check, I he e o e show ha he esul s emain essen ially unchanged when I
exclude hese indus y‑ ask combina ions, and when con olling o speci ic ime ends
ac oss a eas wi h di e en ini ial employmen sha es in he indus y‑ ask cells wi h la ges
Ro embe g weigh s as sugges ed in Anelli/Giun ella/S ella (2024). I assess whe he he
employmen sha es co ela e wi h o he a iables in he base yea which could a ec he
ou comes di ec ly, and i espec i e o he shi s. The e o e, I analyze he co ela ion o he
indus y‑ ask sha es wi h he sha e o pe sons wi h non‑Ge man ci izenship, he emale
sha e, he le el o u baniza ion, and he a e age age pe educa ion‑s a e‑cell. I show in
Table A4 o he h ee indus y‑ ask combina ions wi h he la ges Ro embe g weigh s ha
some o hese cha ac e is ics and he employmen sha es a e indeed co ela ed, especially
o men. Howe e once I include educa ion and s a e ixed e ec s, almos all co a ia es
become insigni ican . Ne e heless, I decide o no only use a wide se o ixed e ec s in he
inal eg essions, which should abso b pa ly hese co ela ions, bu I also add he
co ela ed a iables as ime‑ a ying con ol a iables.
and weekly wo king hou s condi ional on employmen .22 The o me measu e o wo king
hou s codes wo king hou s in case o non‑pa icipa ion as ze os and hence combines
pa icipa ion ma gin and in ensi e ma gin, whe eas condi ional wo king hou s measu e
only he pu e in ensi e ma gin. (2) measu es he di e ence be ween he man’s and he
woman’s wo k hou s and he pe cen age gap. The gaps a e es ima ed o all couples as well
as o dual‑ea ne couples, only.
Yi = α1 + β1 RP W
em,ew
,s, + δ1, + ϵ1,s + ζ1,s× + η1,em×ew + θ1,em×ew
×s + ι1,iscw +
(4)
κ1,iscm + λ1,aw + µ1,am + ν1,agegap + π1,gap×ma ch ype + ρ1,q + σ1Xi + ω1,i
2
RP W Yi = α2 + β2 RP W
em,ew,s, + γ
em,ew,s, + δ2, + ϵ2,s + ζ2,s× + η2,em×ew + θ2,em×ew×s
+ι2,iscw + κ2,iscm + λ2,aw + µ2,am + ν2,agegap + π2,gap×ma ch ype + ρ2,q + σ1Xi + ω2,i
(5)
The coe icien o in e es β1 measu es he a e age e ec o an inc ease o he ela i e
po en ial wage by one pe cen age poin (pp). Coe icien s β2 and γ do ins ead cons i u e he
o al ma ginal e ec o he ela i e po en ial wage de ined as
d
d Yi = β2 + 2 γ
(6)
RP W
em,ew
,s,
RP W
em,ew,s,
22 Wo king hou s a e measu ed as he con ac ually ag eed wo king hou s.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 20
Apa om ha I con ol o a numbe o ixed e ec s o abso b unobse ed ixed
di e ences, namely by yea (δ ), in e iew qua e (ρq), s a e (ϵs), s a e‑by‑yea (ζs× ),
θem×ew
×s o hese educa ion‑ma ch‑s a e‑cells.
I is impo an o no e ha he educa ion‑ma ch‑s a e‑cells which a e used in he shi ‑sha e
app oach may no only ha e di e en composi ions o he local labo ma ke s in o
indus ies and asks, bu migh also di e in unobse ed cha ac e is ics. To ensu e ha
such unobse ed di e ences a e no alsely a ibu ed o he p edic ed po en ial wages, I
include ixed e ec s
Hence, he ma ginal e ec in Equa ion 6 depends on he size o , and,
depending on he size and sign o γ, implies inc easing, null o dec easing ma ginal
e ec s.
R
P W
em,ew
,s,
RP W
em,ew
,s,
RP W
em,ew
,s,
2
RP W
em,ew
,s,
I es ima e wo eg essions: In Equa ion 4, I eg ess ou come Yi on he ela i e po en ial
wage . In Equa ion 5, I eg ess ou come Yi o each couple i on he ela i e
po en ial wage and he squa e o he ela i e po en ial wage .
5 Resul s
In my p e e ed speci ica ion, I add a ec o Xi which con ains indi idual and couple con ol
a iables: being bo n in Wes Ge many, pa ne being bo n in Wes Ge many, being ma ied,
Ge man na ionali y, pa ne has Ge man na ionali y, li ing in an u ban a ea, an indica o o
ha ing child en aged 0 o 3 / 4 o 6 / 7 o 18 yea s li ing in he household, he o al numbe
o child en unde 18. Since he Mic ocensus da ase consis s o epea ed c oss‑sec ions, I
canno include couple ixed e ec s. S anda d e o s ωi a e clus e ed by s a e.
Employmen o emale pa ne s
I ind no signi ican e ec s o he ela i e po en ial wage on he pa icipa ion ma gin o he
emale pa ne s in panel A o Table 3, on a e age. The quad a ic speci ica ion in column (2)
shows, howe e , ha he p obabili y ha emale pa ne s a e employed inc eases
signi ican ly as hei ela i e po en ial wage ises. Ye , his is o se by a educ ion o he
posi i e e ec a highe le els o he ela i e wage. The o al a e age e ec as measu ed in
column (1) is he e o e a null e ec . The same pa e n is con i med o wo king hou s in
column (3) and (4). He e, howe e , he o al a e age e ec is posi i e and signi ican a he 5
pe cen signi icance le el. Condi ional on employmen o he woman, he a e age linea
e ec on wo king hou s is s a is ically signi ican a he 1 pe cen le el and posi i e: a ise o
he ela i e po en ial wage by 1 pe cen age poin (pp) aises he emale pa ne ’s wo k
hou s by 0.17 hou s, i.e. 10 minu es. Applying he quad a ic speci ica ion sugges s again
ha he e ec o a highe emale‑ o‑male po en ial wage is posi i e, bu ha i dec eases
23 In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Educa ion 97 (ISCED‑97)
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 21
I begin by es ima ing Equa ion 4 and 5 o analyze he employmen beha io o men and
women who li e in a cohabi ing pa ne ship.
(ηem×ew ) o he woman
(ιiscw ) and o he man
(κiscm )
(λaw )
(µam )
educa ion‑ma ch , educa ion indica o 23
, age o he woman , and o he man , an indica o (νagegap) o whe he he
woman is mo e han 3 yea s olde han he man, he man is mo e han 3 yea s olde han
he woman, o ha hey a e oughly o he same age. I also allow o he age gap e ec s o
di e by educa ion ma ch (πgap×ma ch ype). Fo example, couples in which he woman has a
highe le el o o mal educa ion, and is also olde han he man, migh espond e y
di e en ly o he ela i e wage han ”s anda d” couples in which he man is a leas as
educa ed as he women and is a leas a ound he same age.
Table 3: Employmen ou comes o pa ne ed women and men
Employed Wo king hou s1 Cond. wo king hou s2
Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic
(1) (2) (2) (4) (5) (6)
Panel A: Female pa ne s
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.001 0.037*** 0.189** 1.396*** 0.173*** 0.912**
(0.003) (0.011) (0.089) (0.405) (0.044) (0.406)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.006*** ‑0.003*
(0.000) (0.002) (0.002)
Mean o he Dependen Va . 0.76 22.21 28.89
S anda d De ia ion 0.42 16.33 12.44
R2 0.17 0.17 0.26 0.26 0.23 0.23
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987
Panel B: Male pa ne s
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.006*** ‑0.009 0.380*** ‑0.730 0.144*** ‑0.410
(0.001) (0.013) (0.082) (0.682) (0.033) (0.295)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage 0.000 0.005 0.003*
(0.000) (0.003) (0.001)
Mean o he Dependen Va . 0.92 38.34 41.4
S anda d De ia ion 0.25 13.72 8.86
R2 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.05 0.05
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024
No es: Reg essions based on Equa ion 4 and 5. The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male
pa ne s aged 24‑57 yea s wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an a iables in he yea s 2005‑
2019. S anda d e o s clus e ed by s a e in pa en heses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01. 1 In case
o non‑employmen , wo king hou s coded as ze o. 2 Condi ional on employmen .
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB
1998/99.
signi ican ly as he ela i e wage ises. This unde lines ha looking a he insigni ican
linea coe icien as in column (1) only can be misleading since i neglec s wha is happening
along he dis ibu ion o ela i e wages.
Employmen o male pa ne s
I hen in es iga e he employmen beha io o he male pa ne s in panel B o Table 3. The
es ima ions show ha a highe emale‑ o‑male wage po en ial also has signi ican e ec s
on he employmen o he male pa ne s. An inc ease o he ela i e po en ial wage by 1 pp
signi ican ly inc eases he employmen p obabili y by 0.6 pp. The quad a ic speci ica ion
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 22
does no ind signi ican e ec s. The ela i e wage also has a highly signi ican posi i e
e ec on he wo king hou s o he male pa ne s. This also holds when es ic ing on
employed men, only. When decomposing he adjus men s in o a linea and a quad a ic
adjus men s, he es ima ions sugges ha a low le els o he ela i e wage, he male
pa ne s educe hei wo k hou s i hey a e employed. A highe le els o he ela i e wage,
hei wo k hou s do, howe e , on a e age ise. The posi i e adjus men o men’s wo k hou s
a high le els o he ela i e wage is signi ican a he 10 pe cen signi icance le el. This
posi i e adjus men appea o ou weigh he educ ion so ha on a e age male wo k hou s
ise as he emale pa ne ’s ea nings po en ial inc eases ela i e o ha o he man..
Female s. male e ec s
Figu e 3: A e age ma ginal e ec s on wo k hou s
Women Men
No es: This igu e shows he a e age ma ginal e ec s o di e en le els o he ela i e po en ial wage as de‑
ined in Eq. 6 using he quad a ic speci ica ion om Eq. 5. The dependen a iable measu es he wo k hou s
condi ional on employmen . Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–
2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 23
Figu e 3
plo s he a e age ma ginal e ec s de ined in Eq.
6
along he dis ibu ion o ela i e
wages.
They a e ob ained using he quad a ic eg ession om Eq. 5. I illus a es ha he
ma ginal
e ec
o
he
ela i e
wage
on
wo k
hou s
o
women
s ays
signi ican ly
posi i e
as
long
as
he
ela i e
wage
lies
below
120
pe cen .
Fo
male
pa ne s,
a
low
le els
o
he
ela i e
wage,
he
ma ginal
e ec
is
no
signi ican ly
di e en
om
ze o.
Bu
as
soon,
as
i
exceeds
100
pe cen
he
e ec
u ns
signi ican ly
posi i e.
These
pa e ns
sugges
ha
women
a
”low”
le els
o
he
ela i e
wage
on
a e age
inc ease
hei
wo k
hou s,
bu
ha
he
e ec s
becomes
inc easingly
smalle .
Men,
on
he
o he
hand,
only
s a
o
eac
o
he
ela i e
po en ial
wage
when
i
becomes
” oo
la ge”.
Employmen di e ences wi hin pa ne ships
Finally, I wan o unde s and whe he hese indi idual employmen pa e ns a ec he
deg ee o household specializa ion wi hin couples. The e o e, I es ima e he e ec o a
ising ela i e wage on he absolu e di e ences be ween he wo king hou s o he man and
he woman in a pa ne ship, and he hou s di e ence ela i e o he male pa ne ’s wo king
hou , ha is he hou s gap in pe cen . In columns 1 o 4 o Table 4, I include all couples and
in columns 5 o 8 only hose couples in which bo h pa ne s a e employed.
Table 4: Employmen di e ences wi hin pa ne ships
Hou s di .1 Hou s gap (%) Cond. hou s di .1 Cond. hou s gap1 (%)
Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.191* ‑2.126*** 0.000 ‑0.068*** ‑0.049 ‑1.499*** 0.001 ‑0.072***
(0.100) (0.677) (0.003) (0.016) (0.058) (0.434) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage 0.011*** 0.000*** 0.007*** 0.000***
(0.003) (0.000) (0.002) (0.000)
Mean o he Dep. Va . 16.1 0.41 12.8 0.24
S anda d De ia ion 20.2 0.67 14.9 0.67
R2 0.17 0.17 0.11 0.11 0.21 0.21 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646 726,646 726,646
The esul s show ha he ela ionship be ween he ela i e wage and he wi hin‑couple
wo king hou s di e ences / gaps is highly non‑mono onic. The wi hin‑couple di e ence in
wo king hou s declines signi ican ly as he ela i e wage ises, bu a a dec easing a e. The
o e all, a e age e ec in column (1) sugges s ha as he po en ial wage o women ela i e
o men inc eases by 1 pp, he wi hin‑couple hou s di e ence widens by 0.19 hou s. Taking
in o conside a ion adjus men s on he pa icipa ion ma gin, he hou s di e ence and
pe cen age gap in dual‑ea ne couples a e on a e age no a ec ed (columns (5) and (7)). Ye
again, he quad a ic speci ica ions show ha indeed a lowe le els o he ela i e wage he
gap sh inks, bu his nega i e e ec becomes smalle as he ela i e wage ises, and in sum
adds up o a null e ec . The same pa e n is ound o he pe cen age hou s gap. This means
ha in dual‑ea ne couples on a e age he hou s gap does inc ease by 0.5 pp as he ela i e
wage ises by 1 pp.
Al oge he , he es ima ions show ha bo h pa ne s appea o eac non‑linea ly o he
ela i e po en ial wage. Su p isingly, he e ec s seem o be e y impo an o he male
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 24
No es: Reg essions based on Equa ion 4 and 5
o
all
women
who
li e
wi h
hei
pa ne
in
he
same
household.
The
sample
includes
women
aged
22
o
55
and
male
pa ne s
aged
24‑57
yea s
wi h
non‑missing
in o ma ion
on
he
ele an
a iables in he yea s 2005‑2019. S anda d e o s clus e ed by s a e in pa en heses. *
p < 0.10, ** p < 1
0.05, *** p < 0.01.
Di e ence
=
a e age
hou s
o
he
male
pa ne
minus
a e age
hou s
o
he
emale
pa ne ;
2
Condi ional
on
employmen
o bo h pa ne s.
Sou ce:
Own
calcula ions
based
on
Mic ocensus
1995/96
&
2005–2019,
SIAB
2005–2019
and
BIBB
1998/99.
7 He e ogenei y Analyses and
Robus ness
7.1 Robus ness
Fi s , I epo he es ima ion esul s o speci ica ions using di e en se s o ixed e ec s in
able A9. The signs o he es ima ed coe icien s i signi ican do no a y. In pa icula he
esul s o he male pa ne s and he couple gaps do no change upon using addi ional ixed
e ec s. The es ima ions o he emale pa ne ’s in ensi e ma gin a e sligh ly mo e
sensi i e. Then, I conduc mul iple obus ness checks o in es iga e he alidi y o he
empi ical app oach and epo esul s in Table A10. Fi s , I es he sensi i i y o he esul s
o di e en model speci ica ions. In panel B, I add indica o s whe he he emale and male
pa ne s we e employed in he p e ious yea and whe he hei main ”occupa ion” was
housewi e / man o ake in o accoun pa h dependencies o he cu en decisions. The
indi idual employmen his o y has a high explana o y powe . Bu he coe icien s o he
ela i e wage and hei le els o signi icance is i ually unchanged. In panel c, I exclude he
indi idual con ol a iables such as child en, o eign na ionali y, and being bo n in Wes
Ge many. S ill, he main esul s emain obus . In panel D, I add dummies o he local
annual decile o he ela i e ea ned household income o see whe he economic necessi y
could explain he e ec s. Ye , he esul s emain i ually unchanged. Mo eo e , since he
es ima ion esul s could be d i en by he he sec o s wi h he la ges Ro embe g weigh s,27 I
es whe he he exclusion o hese ask‑indus y cells a ec s he esul s in Panel E. The
quali a i e esul s emain he same. Only, o women he exclusion o hese ask‑indus y
cells seems o make a di e ence since wi hou hem he quad a ic speci ica ion o wo k
hou s condi ional on employmen is now highly signi ican . Addi ionally, o u he
in es iga e he sensi i i y o he shi ‑sha e wage, I add ime‑ ends ha di e ac oss a eas
wi h di e en deg ees o ini ial employmen sha es o hese indus y‑ ask combina ions.28
Quali a i e indings emain obus , ye , he le el o signi icance inc eases. In he baseline
es ima ion I use he cu en ela i e po en ial wage as explana o y a iable. Since i is
possible ha he ela i e wage akes some ime o a ec pa ne ’s employmen decisions,
in panel G, I show he esul s o using he ela i e wage lagged by one yea as main
explana o y a iable. Fo he emale pa ne s, he lagged ela i e wage es ima es ha he
le el o signi icance o he quad a ic e ec s on he wo k hou s condi ional on employmen
dec eases. Fo he male pa ne s, on he o he hand, he le el o signi icance o he
quad a ic e ec s on wo king hou s inc eases so ha he linea as well as he coe icien a e
27 Compa e sec ion 4.1.
28 I cons uc he di e en ial ime ends by in e ac ing yea dummies wi h qua iles o he sha e o
employmen in hese indus y‑ ask combina ions in he base yea .
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 31
signi ican a he 10 pe cen and 5 pe cen le el espec i ely. Also, i inds ha he
wi hin‑couple gaps widen o all couples as well as in dual‑ea ne couples signi ican ly. In
panel H, I addi ionally add he ela i e po en ial wage lagged by i e yea s. The inclusion
does no a ec he es ima ed e ec s o he cu en ela i e wage e y much. Howe e ,
especially o he emale pa ne s he ela i e wage lagged by i e yea s is an impo an
explana o y ac o , oo. The es ima ed e ec s ca y he same signs as hose o he cu en
ela i e wage. Fo men ha ea lie ela i e wage does no play a signi ican ole. This poin s
o he possibili y ha pa h dependencies play an impo an ole o employmen
decisions.
Reassu ingly, he esul s emain obus o he a ious obus ness analyses. My esul s
p o ide obus e idence ha he e ec o an inc easing ela i e emale wage on
employmen choices in couples depends on he le el o local gende equali y in po en ial
ea nings.
7.2 Which pa e n do he e ec s ollow?
In my baseline es ima ions, I in es iga e whe he employmen choices o pa ne s eac in a
quad a ic pa e ns owa ds changes in he ela i e po en ial wage. Now, I inspec u he
non‑linea speci ica ions in able A11. When I measu e he ela i e wage in logs in panel I, I
ind a signi ican posi i e e ec s o emale wo k hou s condi ional on employmen . Also he
e ec s on he employmen o male pa ne s a e signi ican ly posi i e. The loga i hmic
speci ica ion hus sugges s a posi i e bu dec easing e ec on male employmen . I is ha d
o econcile his esul wi h economic heo y. Also i seems a he o cap u e he same o al
a e age e ec which is being es ima e using he linea speci ica ion. Using a cubic ins ead
o a linea o quad a ic speci ica ion almos ne e yields signi ican esul s. An impo an
excep ion a e he wo king hou s o he male pa ne s condi ional on employmen . He e, he
linea coe icien is signi ican ly nega i e, he quad a ic coe icien is posi i e, and he cubic
coe icien is again nega i e. This sugges s ha male pa ne s a he ails o he dis ibu ion
again eac di e en ly.
To inspec his mo e closely, I also un es ima ions in es iga ing esponses a di e en
poin s o he ela i e wage in able A12. Fi s , I check whe he he esponse o he ela i e
wage di e s depending on whe he he ela i e wage lies abo e he equal‑ea ning‑po en ial
(compa e sec ion 6.2.3). Fo women, his makes no di e ence. Fo men, howe e , his poin
ma e s. I he ela i e po en ial wage amoun s o a leas 100 pe cen , male pa ne ’s
likelihood o be employed and wo k hou s inc ease signi ican ly. Fo hose below, he e is
no e ec . As a esul , he wi hin‑couple hou s gap also only widens in couples wi h a
ela i e wage abo e 100 pe cen . Fo hese o he s, i closes signi ican ly.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 32
7.3 Co obo a ion o esul s using obse ed couples' ela i e
incomes
So a , all es ima ions used he p edic ed a ios be ween emale and male po en ial
ea nings as a measu e o ela i e income oppo uni ies in couples. Now, I wan o
co obo a e he esul s using he obse ed ela i e incomes in couples in able A13. Fo he
whole sample, he e ec s o he ela i e incomes in he couples is highly signi ican o all
ou comes and all speci ica ions. Fo women, all coe icien s ha e he same signs as he
eg essions using he ela i e po en ial wage – he e is a posi i e bu diminishing e ec o
he ela i e income. Fo men, he es ima ions ind ha a highe ela i e emale income is
associa ed wi h ewe wo king hou s. The e o e, on a e age, also he wi hin‑couple hou s
gap is lowe in couples wi h highe ela i e incomes.
The posi i e, diminishing e ec s o he ela i e income on emale pa ne ’s employmen
and nega i e, bu diminishing e ec s on male pa ne ’s employmen align well wi h my
main esul s. They do, howe e , ha e se e al limi a ions. Fi s o all, he ela i e income is a
mo e meaning ul measu e in couples in which a leas one pa ne , o ideally bo h a e
wo king. Mo eo e , he coe icien s a e e y ha d o in e p e since he ou come a iable,
wo king hou s, is also implici ly pa o he a iable o in e es . Wo king hou s cons i u e
he labo ma ke income. Las ly, he ealized labo ma ke incomes a e d i en by many
o he selec ion p ocesses ha a e no add essed he e and canno be ully abso bed by he
ixed e ec s. So hese es ima es simply measu e associa ions, bu a e likely o also ca y
pa o he unde lying s o y.
7.4 Fu he he e ogenei y analyses
Gene ally, one o he mos impo an de e minan s o emale labo supply is mo he hood.
Female and male employmen pa e ns and ea nings suddenly s a o di e ge signi ican ly
a e he bi h o he i s child (Kle en/Landais/Søgaa d, 2019; Jessen, 2021). I is plausible
ha mo he s a e mo e esponsi e o changes in hei ela i e ea nings oppo uni ies,
pa icula ly gi en hei low baseline employmen . Childless women, on he o he hand, a e
less es ic ed in hei labo supply and, hus, likely o ha e al eady adjus ed o hei
indi idual op imal employmen . To in es iga e whe he he ela i e wage is mo e ele an
in he p esence o child en, I pe o m a he e ogenei y analysis in Table A17. The esul s
show ha indeed i is only mo he s who expe ience a signi ican posi i e bu diminishing
e ec o he ela i e wage. Howe e , o hei male pa ne s he pic u e is e e sed. Fa he s
eac s ongly linea ly on imp o ing emale wage oppo uni ies h ough longe wo k hou s.
Childless men, on he o he hand, eac in a con ex pa e n. As a esul only he hou s gap in
couples wi h child en widen.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 33
7.5 Wha abou he singles?
Becke ’s heo y o he household only p edic s adjus men o pa ne s in a ma iage (o
cohabi ing pa ne ship). In able A22, I in es iga e whe he single women’s and men’s
employmen choices eac o he ela i e po en ial wage29. And indeed, single women eac
simila ly as pa ne ed women wi h a posi i e bu diminishing e ec on imp o ing ela i e
wage oppo uni ies. Also hei labo incomes ise, on a e age, as hei ela i e ea nings
oppo uni ies imp o e. Single men’s employmen choices, on he o he hand, a e no
a ec ed by he ela i e po en ial wage. In e es ingly, howe e , hei a e age labo incomes
dec eases signi ican ly as ela i e emale‑ o‑male wage oppo uni ies imp o e. Tha single
women only ” eluc an ly” inc ease hei wo k hou s could be d i en by a desi e o signal
a ac i eness as in Bu sz yn/Fujiwa a/Pallais (2017).
29 I measu e he ela i e wage as he a e age ela i e wage gi en he own educa ion le el.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 34
I now wan o see whe he couples di e depending on whe he hei ma ch is mo e
s anda d o no . The e o e, I i s look a couples who di e by he ype o educa ion ma ch
in able A20: couples in which he man has he highe le el o o mal educa ion, bo h ha e
he same le el, o he woman has he highe le el. The conca e eac ion o he emale wo k
hou s a e no ele an o any o he g oups. Fo he male pa ne s, he signi ican con ex
esponse is d i en by mo e common ypes o ma chings, i.e. by cases in which he man is
ei he mo e o equally educa ed as he woman. Also, male wo k hou s inc ease signi ican ly
only in couples in which he woman is ei he equally o highe quali ied han he male
pa ne . This ela es e y well o he esul s o emale pa ne s wi h a uni e si y deg ee in
able A18 since among emale pa ne s who ha e a uni e si y deg ee (17 pe cen ) mo e
han a hi d (36 pe cen ) has a highe le el o o mal educa ion han he pa ne .
Besides he di e ences in cul u e be ween Eas and Wes Ge many in es iga ed in Table A6
(in Sec ion 6), couples migh also di e in hei esponses o ela i e ea nings oppo uni ies
gi en hei le el o educa ion. In able A18 he esul s o a he e ogenei y analysis by le el o
educa ion o he emale pa ne a e displayed. Fo he woman’s employmen , ela i e
ea nings oppo uni ies only ma e o women wi h no e ia y deg ee. And in his case i
inc ease labo supply on he ex ensi e and in ensi e ma gin. Fo hei male pa ne s, i is
especially he pa ne s o e y highly educa ed women ha inc ease hei only labo supply
i he woman’s ela i e ea nings oppo uni ies imp o e. This is also he only g oup in which
he wi hin‑couple hou s gap condi ional on employmen widens signi ican ly. Fo he
educa ional le el o he male pa ne , he di e ences a e no so p onounced (compa e able
A19).
7.6 Selec ion in o pa ne ship
8 Conclusion
O e he pas decades, emale employmen ou comes ha e imp o ed and gende gaps in
e ms o ea nings and employmen na owed. Howe e , he con e gence seems o ha e
s alled, despi e echnological ad ances which end o a o he skill se o women
(Goldin/Ka z, 2002). In his pape I analyze he e ec o a highe ela i e emale‑ o‑male
po en ial wage in Ge many using di e en da ase s om adminis a i e sou ces.
Taking in o accoun he imp o ing wage oppo uni ies o women ela i e o men due o
echnological change, I ind ha he ela ionship be ween he ela i e wage and household
specializa ion is non‑mono onic. While a highe ela i e wage inc eases emale labo
supply, he e ec is diminishing as he ela i e wage ises and, on a e age, insigni ican .
Men, on he o he hand, inc ease hei labo supply on a e age, e en hough a low le els o
he ela i e wage hey dec ease hei wo k hou s. In sum, his leads o a s agna ion o e en
widening o he hou s gap in couples as he ela i e wage ises, and also he p obabili y ha
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 35
Las ly, selec ion in o cohabi ing pa ne ships may pose a p oblem o he es ima ion
s a egy since in ha case I would no use a andom sample. The e o e, I in es iga e he
e ec o he ela i e po en ial wage on he likelihood ha a woman o a man is li ing in a
cohabi ing pa ne ship in able A23. Fo women, a highe ela i e wage is signi ican ly
co ela ed wi h a highe likelihood o be li ing in a cohabi ing ela ionship in he p esence.
Fo men only he p obabili y o be ma ied is signi ican ly bu nega i ely co ela ed o he
ela i e wage. I is impo an o no e, howe e , ha he ela i e wage is measu ed in he
cu en pe iod, bu he decision o mo e oge he wi h a pa ne was likely o med and
ealized yea s ago. This limi s he meaning ulness o hese esul s. Table A24 displays he
cha ac e is ics o men and women by pa ne ship s a us. No su p isingly, women who do
no li e in a cohabi ing pa ne ship a e younge , ha e less child en, a e mo e educa ed, a e
mo e ac i e in he labo ma ke and ea n highe incomes han hose women who a e in
cohabi ing pa ne ships. Men who do no li e in a cohabi ing pa ne ship a e also younge .
Bu he selec ion on employmen seems o wo k in he opposi e di ec ion o hose o
women: ”single” men a e less ac i e on he labo ma ke , ea n lowe incomes and a e less
educa ed han pa ne ed men. Hence, he sample o pa ne ed men and women is no
gene alizable o he o e all popula ion o men and women. S ill, he es ima ions measu e
he e ec s o a ising ela i e po en ial emale‑ o‑male wage in cohabi ing couples gi en
hei selec ion in o a cohabi ing pa ne ship.
a woman is no he seconda y does no inc ease signi ican ly. So emale wage oppo uni ies
ma e o women’s employmen decision. Bu hey also ma e o men, so ha he gaps do
no close.
This is pa icula ly ele an o public policy aiming o imp o e emale labo ma ke
ou comes by ocusing on labo ma ke e u n only. E ec s o women wi h child en appea
o be limi ed a he by o he ac o s, such as es ic ions o a o dable child ca e o lexibili y
a he wo kplace. Men, on he o he hand, seem o coun e ac emale wage gains by
inc easing hei own labo supply, possibly due o an idea ha a man should be he main
ea ne . Ye , his beha io hu s he o e all amily (income).
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 36
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IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 40
Wage g ow h by indus y‑ ask combina ion con .
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
In o ma ion & communica ion
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
Finance & insu ance
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
Real es a e & housing, p o ision o econ. se ices
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
Public se ice
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
Educa ion
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
Heal h
No es: These igu es plo he a e age impu ed obse ed wage by ask wi hin
indus ies. In p ices o 2015.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on SIAB 1995–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 47
Wage g ow h by indus y‑ ask combina ion con .
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Daily wage (€)
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Non- ou . analy ical Non- ou . in e ac i e
Rou . cogni i e Rou . manual
Non- ou . manual Indus y a e age
P o ision o o he public & p i a e se ices
No es: These igu es plo he a e age obse ed wage by ask wi hin indus ies.
In p ices o 2015.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on SIAB 1995–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
Figu e A6: P edic ed ela i e wage
.7
.8
.9
1
1.1
1.2
P edic ed ela i e wage
2005 2010 2015 2020
W No, M No
W No, M Voc
W No, M Uni
W Voc, M No
W Voc, M Voc
W Voc, M Uni
W Uni, M No
W Uni, M Voc
W Uni, M Uni
No es: This igu e plo s he a e age p edic ed ela i e wage based on eq. (2)
sepa a ely by educa ion‑ma ch g oups. No = no e ia y deg ee, Voc = oca‑
ional deg ee, Uni = Academic Deg ee; W = woman, M = man.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96, SIAB 2005–2019 and
BIBB 1998/99.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 48
Table A1: Desc ip i e s a is ics
Mean Minimum Maximum s.d.
Female pa ne s
Age in yea s 40.56 22.00 55.00 8.61
No e ia y deg ee 0.14 0.00 1.00 0.35
Voca ional deg ee 0.69 0.00 1.00 0.46
Academic deg ee 0.17 0.00 1.00 0.37
Employed 0.77 0.00 1.00 0.42
Numbe o hou s wo king (no mally) 22.21 0.00 98.00 16.34
Employed in he p e ious yea 0.70 0.00 1.00 0.46
Housewi e in he p e ious yea 0.16 0.00 1.00 0.36
Real income 1118.17 0.00 2, 0881.67 1035.64
Obse a ions 995,586
Male pa ne s
Age in yea s 43.14 24.00 57.00 8.54
No e ia y deg ee 0.10 0.00 1.00 0.30
Voca ional deg ee 0.69 0.00 1.00 0.46
Academic deg ee 0.21 0.00 1.00 0.41
Employed 0.93 0.00 1.00 0.26
Numbe o hou s wo king (no mally) 38.35 0.00 98.00 13.72
Employed in he p e ious yea 0.86 0.00 1.00 0.35
Houseman in he p e ious yea 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.07
Real income 2,479.47 0.00 20881.67 1814.75
Obse a ions 995,586
Couple households
Age di e ence (man ‑ woman) 2.58 ‑30.00 34.00 4.25
Bo h a ound same age (+/‑3) 0.60 0.00 1.00 0.49
Man a leas 4 yea s olde 0.35 0.00 1.00 0.48
Man a leas 4 yea s younge 0.05 0.00 1.00 0.22
Bo h ha e same le el o educa ion 0.73 0.00 1.00 0.44
Man has highe deg ee o educa ion 0.17 0.00 1.00 0.38
Woman has highe deg ee o educa ion 0.10 0.00 1.00 0.29
A leas 1 child aged 0‑3 li ing in household 0.18 0.00 1.00 0.38
A leas 1 child aged 4‑6 li ing in household 0.09 0.00 1.00 0.29
A leas 1 child aged 7‑18 li ing in household 0.31 0.00 1.00 0.46
Numbe o child en in household 0.99 0.00 12.00 1.04
Ma ied 0.82 0.00 1.00 0.38
Wes Ge many 0.81 0.00 1.00 0.39
Real household income 3,604.10 0.00 20881.67 2260.60
Obse a ions 995,586
No es: The sample includes pa ne ed women be ween 22‑55 yea s and wi h non‑missing in‑
o ma ion on he ele an a iables (educa ion, s a e, pa ne in o). Male pa ne s a e aged
24‑57 yea s. The means o he bina y a iables e e o he sha es. Incomes in p ices o 2015
( e).
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 2005–2019.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 49
Table A2: De ini ion o indus ies
Indus y name WZ 93 code
Ag icul u e, o es y, ishe y & mining 011‑051, 101‑145
P oduc ion 151‑372
Ene gy & wa e supply 401‑410
Cons uc ion 451‑455
T ade, main enance, epai 501‑527
Hospi ali y 551‑555
In o ma ion & communica ion 601‑642
Finance & insu ance 651‑672
Real es a e & housing, p o ision o economic se ices 701‑748
Public se ice 751‑753, 990
Educa ion 801‑804
Heal h 851‑853
P o ision o o he public & p i a e se ices 900‑930, 950
No es: Indus y classi ica ion based on Klassi ika ion de Wi scha ‑
szweige 93 (WZ 93).
Sou ce: Klassi ika ion de Wi scha szweige 93.
Table A3: De ini ion o asks
Task measu e Ac i i ies
Non‑ ou ine analy ical Resea ching, analysing, designing, ske ching
Non‑ ou ine in e ac i e Nego ia ing, lobbying, coo dina ing, o ganising, eaching,
aining, selling, buying, ad ising cus ome s, ad e ising
Rou ine cogni i e Calcula ing, bookkeeping, measu ing leng h/weigh / empe a u e
Rou ine manual Ope a ing o con olling machines, equipping machines
Non‑ ou ine manual Repai ing o eno a ing houses/machines/ ehicles,
es o ing a /monumen s, se ing o accommoda ing
No es: Task classi ica ion ollowing Black/Spi z‑Oene (2010) based on he Quali ica ion and
Ca ee Su ey.
Sou ce: BIBB 1998/99
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 50
Table A4: Co ela ion be ween indus y‑ ask sha es and cha ac e is ics
Female indus y‑ ask cells wi h la ges Ro embe g weigh s
Real es a e /
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e
P oduc ion /
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e
Heal h /
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e
Non‑Ge man na . 0.0003 ‑0.0013* ‑0.0007
(0.0004) (0.0007) (0.0007)
Female sha e ‑0.0008*** 0.0001 ‑0.0012**
(0.0003) (0.0005) (0.0005)
A e age age 0.0030 0.0013 0.0084***
(0.0018) (0.0031) (0.0031)
U ban sha e ‑0.0001* 0.0002* ‑0.0000
(0.0001) (0.0001) (0.0001)
R2 0.23 0.16 0.45
Obse a ions 78 78 78
Male indus y‑ ask cells wi h la ges Ro embe g weigh s
Educa ion /
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e
P oduc ion /
non‑ ou ine in e ac i e
P oduc ion /
ou ine cogni i e
Non‑Ge man na . 0.0054*** 0.0008* ‑0.0041**
(0.0008) (0.0004) (0.0016)
Female sha e ‑0.0057*** ‑0.0015*** 0.0026**
(0.0006) (0.0003) (0.0012)
A e age age 0.0138*** 0.0061*** 0.0034
(0.0039) (0.0018) (0.0075)
U ban sha e 0.0002 0.0002** 0.0009***
(0.0001) (0.0001) (0.0003)
R2 0.63 0.52 0.24
Obse a ions 78 78 78
No es: This able epo s he co ela ion be ween he sha es o di e en indus y‑ ask combina‑
ions in 1995 and 1996 wi h o he cha ac e is ics in he same yea s. Non‑Ge man na .: sha e o
pe sons wi h non‑Ge man ci izenship, U ban: sha e dis ic size >= 100, 000 inhabi an s. Each
column uses as dependen a iable he employmen sha e o he indica ed indus y‑ ask cell.*
p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB
1998/99.
Table A5: In es iga ing p e‑ ends
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Rela i e wage exposu e 0.019 ‑0.202 ‑0.027* 0.357 0.018 0.026
(0.021) (0.676) (0.014) (0.387) (0.084) (0.082)
R2 0.00 ‑0.01 0.03 ‑0.00 ‑0.01 ‑0.01
Obse a ions 144 144 144 144 144 144
No es: The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male pa ne s aged 24‑57 yea s wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an
a iables in he yea s 1997–2004. The a iable ela i e wage exposu e measu es he change in p edic ed ela i e wages om 2005 o
2019. S anda d e o s clus e ed by s a e in pa en heses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 1997–2004 , SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 51
Table A6: He e ogeneous e ec s by Eas s. Wes Ge many
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Eas Ge many
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.013*** 0.101* 0.358*** 0.223 0.016*** 0.050 0.239*** 0.782 ‑0.016*** ‑0.092* ‑0.009** ‑0.027
(0.002) (0.050) (0.072) (0.632) (0.002) (0.053) (0.075) (0.452) (0.005) (0.049) (0.004) (0.059)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000* 0.001 ‑0.000 ‑0.002 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.003) (0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.000)
Wes Ge many
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.004 0.032*** 0.118** 1.123* 0.004*** ‑0.018** 0.134*** ‑0.658** 0.005* ‑0.077*** 0.004** ‑0.091***
(0.003) (0.010) (0.055) (0.611) (0.001) (0.008) (0.031) (0.274) (0.003) (0.015) (0.002) (0.018)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.005 0.000** 0.004*** 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.003) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Mean Wes 0.69 28.61 0.89 40.9 0.45 0.31
Mean Eas 0.72 33.61 0.82 40.35 0.28 0.17
R2 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
Obse a ions 995,586 995,586 765,990 765,990 995,586 995,586 923,027 923,027 923,027 923,027 726,649 726,649
Table A7: Pa ne s’ ealized labo income
A e age ne incomes Income sha es: all couples Income sha es: dual‑ea ne couples
Woman’s labo income Man’s labo income Household income Woman’s income sha e Woman ea ns mo e1 Woman’s income sha e Woman ea ns mo e
Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic Linea Quad a ic
Rel. Po en ial Wage 10.331** ‑34.427 ‑4.108 ‑44.119 0.660 ‑5.075 ‑0.001 0.021*** 0.000 0.015 0.000 0.018*** 0.001 0.021*
(3.662) (39.421) (8.201) (45.891) (15.193) (84.532) (0.001) (0.006) (0.001) (0.010) (0.001) (0.005) (0.001) (0.011)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage 0.206 0.184 0.026 ‑0.000*** ‑0.000 ‑0.000*** ‑0.000*
(0.177) (0.198) (0.332) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Maximum 83.7 119.9 96.2 101.8 112.1 110.3 115.2
R2 0.23 0.23 0.09 0.09 0.21 0.21 0.08 0.08 0.22 0.22 0.26 0.26 0.24 0.24
Obse a ions 947,791 947,791 947,791 947,791 827,032 827,032 827,032 827,032 965,445 965,445 953,162 953,162 995,583 995,583
Mean 1118.17 2479.47 3604.09 0.32 0.14 0.35 0.15
Table A8: E ec s o gende ‑speci ic po en ial wages
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Female po en ial wage ‑0.003* 0.015*** 0.068* 0.686*** 0.001 0.009*** 0.033** 0.258*** 0.002 ‑0.020*** 0.001 ‑0.017***
(0.002) (0.005) (0.035) (0.117) (0.001) (0.002) (0.014) (0.059) (0.001) (0.005) (0.001) (0.006)
Male po en ial wage 0.001 ‑0.011** ‑0.007 ‑0.206 ‑0.006*** 0.002 ‑0.121*** 0.350*** ‑0.003 0.028*** ‑0.005*** 0.026***
(0.001) (0.005) (0.044) (0.118) (0.001) (0.004) (0.018) (0.115) (0.002) (0.005) (0.002) (0.005)
Fem. wage × em. wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.002*** ‑0.000*** ‑0.001*** 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Male wage × male wage 0.000** 0.001 ‑0.000** ‑0.001*** ‑0.000*** ‑0.000***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 52
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male pa ne s aged 24‑57 yea s wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an
a iables
in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
The
e ec s
pe
g oup
a e
measu ed
by
in e ac ing
a
g oup
dummy
wi h
he
ela i e
wage.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5 o all women who li e wi h hei pa ne in he same household. The sample includes women aged 22 and 51 wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an
a iables
in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
A e age
ne
labo
ma ke
incomes
( eal
2015
alue).
Woman’s
sha e
o
o al
couple’s
ne
income.
1
Woman
ea ns
mo e
han
50%
o
o al
couple’s
household
labo
income.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. The p edic ed wages a e lagged by one yea . The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male pa ne s aged 24‑57 yea s
wi h
non‑missing
in o ma ion
on
he
ele an
a iables
in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
Table A9: Fixed e ec s speci ica ions
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Yea , s a e, yea × s a e
Rel. Wage 0.006*** 0.020*** 0.179*** ‑0.146 ‑0.000*** ‑0.006* ‑0.058*** ‑0.624*** ‑0.010*** 0.001 ‑0.007*** 0.012*
(0.001) (0.004) (0.015) (0.116) (0.000) (0.003) (0.004) (0.059) (0.001) (0.003) (0.000) (0.006)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** 0.002** 0.000* 0.003*** ‑0.000*** ‑0.000***
(0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.14 0.14 0.19 0.19 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.09 0.05 0.05
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
Yea , s a e, yea × s a e, educa ion‑ma ch, educa ion‑ma ch × s a e
Rel. Wage 0.000 0.028** 0.187*** 0.647 0.006*** ‑0.002 0.122*** ‑0.081 ‑0.003 ‑0.034** ‑0.002 ‑0.038
(0.002) (0.012) (0.040) (0.401) (0.001) (0.013) (0.035) (0.284) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.023)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000** ‑0.002 0.000 0.001 0.000* 0.000
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.20 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.09 0.06 0.06
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
Yea , s a e, yea × s a e, educa ion‑ma ch, educa ion‑ma ch × s a e, emale age, male age
Rel. Wage 0.000 0.033** 0.180*** 0.825* 0.006*** ‑0.000 0.122*** ‑0.081 ‑0.003 ‑0.039** ‑0.002 ‑0.042*
(0.002) (0.012) (0.048) (0.413) (0.001) (0.013) (0.033) (0.284) (0.003) (0.017) (0.002) (0.023)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003 0.000 0.001 0.000* 0.000
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.16 0.16 0.21 0.21 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.10 0.06 0.06
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
Yea , s a e, yea × s a e, educa ion‑ma ch, educa ion‑ma ch × s a e, emale age, male age, emale ISCED, male ISCED
Rel. Wage ‑0.001 0.037*** 0.175*** 0.922** 0.006*** ‑0.010 0.144*** ‑0.418 0.000 ‑0.069*** 0.001 ‑0.073***
(0.003) (0.011) (0.044) (0.402) (0.001) (0.013) (0.033) (0.295) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003* 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,586 995,583 765,990 765,987 995,586 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,649 726,646
Yea , s a e, yea × s a e, educa ion‑ma ch, educa ion‑ma ch × s a e, emale age, male age, emale ISCED, male ISCED, emale age × male age
Rel. Wage ‑0.001 0.037*** 0.175*** 0.881* 0.006*** ‑0.009 0.146*** ‑0.400 0.000 ‑0.067*** 0.001 ‑0.071***
(0.003) (0.011) (0.044) (0.419) (0.001) (0.013) (0.033) (0.300) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
Yea , s a e, yea × s a e, educa ion‑ma ch, educa ion‑ma ch × s a e, emale age, male age, emale ISCED, male ISCED, age gap ca ego y , age gap ca ego y × educa ion gap
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.001 0.037*** 0.173*** 0.912** 0.006*** ‑0.009 0.144*** ‑0.410 0.000 ‑0.068*** 0.001 ‑0.072***
(0.003) (0.011) (0.044) (0.406) (0.001) (0.013) (0.033) (0.295) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003* 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. Each eg ession also includes ixed e ec s o qua e o in e iew. The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male pa ne s
aged 24‑57 yea s wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an a iables in he yea s 2005‑2019. S anda d e o s clus e ed by s a e in pa en heses. * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05,
*** p < 0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 53
Table A10: Robus ness checks
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
A. Baseline
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.001 0.037*** 0.173*** 0.912** 0.006*** ‑0.009 0.144*** ‑0.410 0.000 ‑0.068*** 0.001 ‑0.072***
(0.003) (0.011) (0.044) (0.406) (0.001) (0.013) (0.033) (0.295) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003* 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
B. Employmen his o y
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.001 0.033*** 0.168*** 0.979** 0.004*** 0.005 0.146*** ‑0.321 ‑0.001 ‑0.057*** 0.001 ‑0.067***
(0.001) (0.008) (0.049) (0.376) (0.001) (0.009) (0.032) (0.293) (0.002) (0.016) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.004** ‑0.000 0.002 0.000*** 0.000**
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.55 0.55 0.25 0.25 0.32 0.32 0.06 0.06 0.21 0.21 0.10 0.10
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
C. No co a ia es
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.001 0.038*** 0.161** 0.842 0.007*** ‑0.008 0.152*** ‑0.409 0.001 ‑0.071*** 0.001 ‑0.070***
(0.003) (0.012) (0.061) (0.515) (0.001) (0.013) (0.032) (0.297) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04
Obse a ions 995,586 995,586 765,990 765,990 995,586 995,586 923,027 923,027 923,027 923,027 726,649 726,649
D. Con ol o household income
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.002 0.043*** 0.173*** 1.071** 0.005** ‑0.006 0.148*** ‑0.342 0.000 ‑0.074*** 0.001 ‑0.073***
(0.003) (0.010) (0.057) (0.455) (0.002) (0.013) (0.029) (0.263) (0.003) (0.017) (0.002) (0.022)
Rel. wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.004* 0.000 0.002* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.21 0.21 0.25 0.25 0.14 0.14 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
N 995583 995583 765987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
E. Wi hou op‑3 Ro embe g weigh indus y‑ ask cells
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.003* 0.041*** 0.052 0.501 ‑0.001 ‑0.013* ‑0.029 ‑0.335 ‑0.000 ‑0.056*** ‑0.003** ‑0.048***
(0.001) (0.005) (0.044) (0.386) (0.000) (0.007) (0.019) (0.215) (0.001) (0.013) (0.001) (0.015)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.002 0.000* 0.001 0.000*** 0.000**
(0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,586 995,586 765,990 765,990 995,586 995,586 923,027 923,027 923,027 923,027 726,649 726,649
F. Ro embe g weigh ime‑ end
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.003 0.058*** 0.107 1.137** 0.008*** ‑0.020* 0.126*** ‑0.669** 0.002 ‑0.095*** 0.002 ‑0.087***
(0.003) (0.010) (0.067) (0.488) (0.002) (0.011) (0.038) (0.249) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.023)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.005** 0.000** 0.004*** 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Obse a ions 995,586 995,586 765,990 765,990 995,586 995,586 923,027 923,027 923,027 923,027 726,649 726,649
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
G. Rela i e wage lagged by one yea
Lagged Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.002 0.027* ‑0.004 0.332 0.005*** ‑0.010 0.100*** ‑0.496* 0.005* ‑0.042*** 0.005* ‑0.047***
(0.002) (0.013) (0.045) (0.247) (0.002) (0.013) (0.027) (0.270) (0.003) (0.011) (0.003) (0.015)
Lag Rel. Wage × Lag Rel. Wage ‑0.000** ‑0.002 0.000 0.003** 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
H. Add lag o ela i e wage by 5 yea s
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.000 0.040*** 0.119 0.652 0.008*** 0.000 0.192*** ‑0.218 0.002 ‑0.060*** 0.004 ‑0.059**
(0.003) (0.011) (0.072) (0.405) (0.002) (0.015) (0.029) (0.302) (0.004) (0.017) (0.003) (0.024)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.002 0.000 0.002 0.000*** 0.000**
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Lag 5: Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.002 0.047*** ‑0.118* 0.375 0.005** 0.002 0.105*** 0.304 0.004* ‑0.040** 0.007*** ‑0.022
(0.002) (0.012) (0.057) (0.328) (0.002) (0.008) (0.030) (0.229) (0.002) (0.017) (0.002) (0.016)
Lag 5: Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.002 0.000 ‑0.001 0.000** 0.000
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646
R2 0.17 0.17 0.23 0.23 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.07
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 54
No es:
Reg essions
based
on
eq.
4 and 5.
The
sample
includes
women
aged
22
and
51
wi h
non‑missing
in o ma ion
on
he
ele an
a iables
in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019.
Table A11: Non‑linea speci ica ions
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Log o ela i e wage
Log Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.014 20.278*** 0.604*** 13.681*** ‑0.140 ‑0.082
(0.268) (4.949) (0.167) (3.789) (0.281) (0.192)
Obse a ions 995,583 765,987 995,583 923,024 923,024 726,646
R2 0.17 0.23 0.08 0.05 0.11 0.07
Cubic speci ica ion
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.017 1.348 ‑0.145 ‑4.295** ‑0.192 ‑0.324*
(0.090) (4.395) (0.093) (1.952) (0.148) (0.167)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage 0.000 ‑0.008 0.001 0.041** 0.002 0.003
(0.001) (0.042) (0.001) (0.019) (0.001) (0.002)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage× Rel. Wage ‑0.000 0.000 ‑0.000 ‑0.000* ‑0.000 ‑0.000
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.17 0.23 0.08 0.05 0.11 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 765,987 995,583 923,024 923,024 726,646
Table A12: Reac ions along he wage dis ibu ion
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.000 0.008** 0.007 0.247*** 0.367** 0.688*** 0.002* 0.001 ‑0.006 0.062 ‑0.018 0.136 ‑0.004 ‑0.016*** ‑0.021*** ‑0.006** ‑0.018*** ‑0.028***
(0.003) (0.003) (0.006) (0.050) (0.146) (0.174) (0.001) (0.003) (0.006) (0.037) (0.077) (0.200) (0.003) (0.004) (0.004) (0.003) (0.004) (0.007)
In e ac ion wi h indica o o ela i e wage ≥ 100%
RW ≥ 100% × Rel. Wage ‑0.000 ‑0.082* 0.005*** 0.096** 0.005 0.008**
(0.002) (0.046) (0.001) (0.042) (0.003) (0.003)
In e ac ion wi h indica o o quan iles jus a ound ela i e wage o 100%
RW 90‑98% × Rel. Wage ‑0.008** ‑0.123 0.002 0.088*** 0.010** 0.010**
(0.004) (0.155) (0.002) (0.028) (0.005) (0.004)
RW 98.1‑102% × Rel. Wage ‑0.007* ‑0.012 0.001 0.117 0.006 0.003
(0.004) (0.124) (0.004) (0.091) (0.005) (0.006)
RW 102.1‑125% × Rel. Wage ‑0.009*** ‑0.210 0.005* 0.150** 0.017*** 0.019***
(0.003) (0.125) (0.003) (0.060) (0.005) (0.005)
In e ac ion wi h indica o o 5% in e als o ela i e wage
RW 85.1‑90% × Rel. Wage 0.001 ‑0.374 0.010* ‑0.121 0.008 0.014
(0.008) (0.218) (0.005) (0.192) (0.007) (0.009)
RW 90.1‑95% × Rel. Wage ‑0.019** ‑0.824** 0.011 ‑0.169 0.024*** 0.024***
(0.007) (0.332) (0.008) (0.217) (0.007) (0.007)
RW 95.1‑100% × Rel. Wage ‑0.002 ‑0.367* 0.010* ‑0.028 0.014** 0.022**
(0.006) (0.198) (0.005) (0.189) (0.005) (0.007)
RW 100.1‑105% × Rel. Wage 0.004 ‑0.369* 0.020*** 0.127 0.011*** 0.024***
(0.006) (0.186) (0.004) (0.191) (0.003) (0.005)
RW 105.1‑110% × Rel. Wage ‑0.009 ‑0.663*** 0.012* ‑0.041 0.028*** 0.036***
(0.007) (0.190) (0.006) (0.202) (0.005) (0.006)
RW 110.1‑125% × Rel. Wage ‑0.008 ‑0.478** 0.013** ‑0.004 0.020*** 0.024***
(0.006) (0.185) (0.006) (0.175) (0.006) (0.007)
R2 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.07
Obse a ions 995,583 995,583 995,583 765,987 765,987 765,987 995,583 995,583 995,583 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 923,024 726,646 726,646 726,646
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 55
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. The sample includes women aged 22 and 51 wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an a iables in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male pa ne s aged 24‑57 yea s wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an a iables in he yea s 2005‑2019. S anda d e o s clus e ed by s a e in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
The
e ec s
pe
g oup
a e
measu ed
by
in e ac ing
a
g oup
dummy
wi h
he
ela i e
wage.
The
ela i e
po en ial
wages
ange
om
75‑125%.
The
e e ence
g oup
is
always
he
g oup
wi h
he
lowes
ela i e
wages.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
Table A13: Employmen eg essions using obse ed couple’s wage in o ma ion only
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
Rela i e income in couple
Rela i e Income 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.008*** 0.014*** ‑0.000*** ‑0.000*** ‑0.006*** ‑0.011*** ‑0.001*** ‑0.002*** ‑0.001*** ‑0.002***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.001) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Rel. inc. × Rel. inc. ‑0.000*** ‑0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Obse a ions 938,589 938,589 721,880 721,880 938,589 938,589 878,836 878,836 878,836 878,836 692,409 692,409
R2 0.18 0.19 0.26 0.27 0.10 0.11 0.07 0.07 0.19 0.22 0.14 0.17
Table A14: He e ogeneous e ec s by ha ing child aged 0‑3 yea s
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
No child aged 0‑3 yea s
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.002 0.047*** 0.155* 0.879 0.007*** ‑0.002 0.116*** ‑0.565 0.003 ‑0.074*** 0.002 ‑0.069***
(0.002) (0.008) (0.074) (0.620) (0.002) (0.011) (0.034) (0.365) (0.003) (0.016) (0.002) (0.023)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.003 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000***
(0.000) (0.003) (0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.000)
A leas one child aged 0‑3 yea s
Rel. Po en ial Wage 0.007 0.030 0.305** 0.881 0.005* ‑0.037 0.291*** 0.112 ‑0.013* ‑0.061 ‑0.008 ‑0.079
(0.005) (0.038) (0.116) (0.794) (0.003) (0.027) (0.038) (0.314) (0.007) (0.040) (0.008) (0.054)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000 ‑0.003 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.004) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05
Obse a ions 995,586 995,586 765,990 765,990 995,586 995,586 923,027 923,027 923,027 923,027 726,649 726,649
Table A15: He e ogeneous e ec s by ha ing a child aged 4‑6 yea s
Female pa ne s Male pa ne s Couples
Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Employmen Cond. Wo k hou s Hou s gap Cond. Hou s gap
No child aged 4‑6 yea s
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.001 0.033** 0.188*** 0.988* 0.007*** ‑0.006 0.159*** ‑0.427 0.001 ‑0.068*** 0.001 ‑0.071**
(0.003) (0.012) (0.064) (0.563) (0.001) (0.013) (0.033) (0.298) (0.004) (0.020) (0.003) (0.028)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000*** ‑0.004 0.000 0.003* 0.000*** 0.000**
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.001) (0.000) (0.000)
A leas one child aged 4‑6 yea s
Rel. Po en ial Wage ‑0.000 0.080** ‑0.002 0.506 0.005 ‑0.029 0.087 ‑0.138 ‑0.001 ‑0.093 0.002 ‑0.084
(0.006) (0.029) (0.082) (0.433) (0.003) (0.021) (0.056) (0.841) (0.009) (0.057) (0.010) (0.074)
Rel. Wage × Rel. Wage ‑0.000** ‑0.002 0.000* 0.001 0.000 0.000
(0.000) (0.002) (0.000) (0.004) (0.000) (0.000)
R2 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05
Obse a ions 995,586 995,586 765,990 765,990 995,586 995,586 923,027 923,027 923,027 923,027 726,649 726,649
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 56
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. The sample includes women aged 22 and 51 wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he ele an a iables in he yea s 2005‑2019.
The
ela i e
income
is
measu ed
as
he
a io
be ween
he
emale
and
he
male
ne
mon hly
income
in
a
couple.
Also
ze o
incomes
a e
included.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 2005‑2019.
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5.
The
sample
includes
women
aged
22
o
55
and
male
pa ne s
aged
24‑57
yea s
wi h
non‑missing
in o ma ion
on
he
ele an
a iables
in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
The
e ec s
pe
g oup
a e
measu ed
by
in e ac ing
a
g oup
dummy
wi h
he
ela i e
wage.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
No es: Reg essions based on eq. 4 and 5. The sample includes women aged 22 o 55 and male pa ne s aged 24‑57 yea s wi h non‑missing in o ma ion on he
ele an
a iables
in
he
yea s
2005‑2019.
S anda d
e o s
clus e ed
by
s a e
in
pa en heses.
*
p <
0.10,
**
p <
0.05,
***
p <
0.01.
The
e ec s
pe
g oup
a e
measu ed
by
in e ac ing
a
g oup
dummy
wi h
he
ela i e
wage.
Sou ce: Own calcula ions based on Mic ocensus 1995/96 & 2005–2019, SIAB 2005–2019 and BIBB 1998/99.
IAB‑Discussion Pape 01|2025 63
...........
.............................................
...........................
...............................................
............................................
..............................
...........................
57
58
59
60
61
Table A16: He e ogeneous e ec s by mo he hood o child aged 7‑18 yea s
Table A17: He e ogeneous e ec s by mo he hood o child ............................... 57
Table A18: Educa ional le el o emale pa ne
Table A20: He e ogeneous e ec s by ype o educa ion‑ma ch
Table A22: E ec s o ela i e wage o singles
Table A24: Cha ac e is ics by pa ne ship s a us
Table A19: Educa ional le el o male pa ne ............................................... 58
Table A21: He e ogeneous e ec s by ype o age di e ence 59
Table A23: Likelihood o be li ing in a cohabi ing pa ne ship 60
Imp in
IAB-Discussion Pape 01|2025
Publica ion Da e
Janua y 27, 2025
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o he Fede al Employmen Agency
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ISSN
2195-2663
DOI
10.48720/IAB.DP.2501
Co esponding au ho
Luisa Hamme
0911 1773004l
E-Mail luisa.hamme @iab.de
