Maie , E ik; Ma ael, Alexande
A icle — Published Ve sion
Adbus ing: How ad e ising al e ed by ac i is s a ec s
b ands
Psychology & Ma ke ing
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Maie , E ik; Ma ael, Alexande (2024) : Adbus ing: How ad e ising al e ed by
ac i is s a ec s b ands, Psychology & Ma ke ing, ISSN 1520-6793, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 41, Iss. 4,
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Accep ed: 21 Decembe 2023
DOI: 10.1002/ma .21961
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Adbus ing: How ad e ising al e ed by ac i is s a ec s
b ands
E ik Maie
1
|Alexande Ma ael
2
1
HHL Leipzig G adua e School o
Managemen , Leipzig, Ge many
2
Cen e o Re ailing, S ockholm School o
Economics, S ockholm, Sweden
Co espondence
E ik Maie , HHL Leipzig G adua e School o
Managemen , Jahnallee 59, 04109 Leipzig,
Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
A sub e si e phenomenon is challenging ad e ise s and b and manage s: adbus ing,
a o m o ac i ism ha al e s exis ing b and communica ion (e.g., a billboa d ad) o
p omo e social/poli ical issues (e.g., p o‐en i onmen al beha io ) o denounces he
a ge ed b and (e.g., i s labo s anda ds). We concep ualize he e ec o adbus ing
on consume s and p o ide empi ical e idence ha adbus ing has ambiguous e ec s
on consume s' b and pe cep ion. On he one hand, he incong uency o he message
wi h consume s' exis ing b and schema a aises ad awa eness. On he o he hand,
he e ec o an adbus on subsequen cogni i e and beha io al ou comes depends
on he con en o he adbus : i he b and i sel is a ge ed ( s. a social o poli ical
issue), b and pe cep ion, wo d‐o ‐mou h, and pu chase in en ion a e nega i ely
a ec ed. This nega i e e ec is mi iga ed i he adbus a ge s a social/poli ical issue.
In a mixed‐me hod design, we use a panel o eal‐wo ld adbus s (Pilo S udy) and
ou expe imen al s udies (S udies 1–4) o shed ligh on hese e ec s.
KEYWORDS
ad awa eness, adbus ing, b and pe cep ion, poli ical ac i ism, sub e si e ad e ising,
sub e ising
1|INTRODUCTION
Companies in es in ma ke ing ac i i ies such as ad e ising o build
b and equi y (Rego e al., 2009). To maximize he impac o hese
in es men s, b and manage s aim o in luence b and pe cep ion
s a egically (Eisend & Küs e , 2011). A sub e si e o m o ac i ism is
eme ging, howe e , in which b ands lose con ol o e consume s' b and
pe cep ion: adbus ing.Also e e ed oas“b andalism”o “billboa d
hacking”adbus ing in ol es a hi d pa y (e.g., an ac i is g oup) al e ing
exis ing b and communica ions o p omo e social/poli ical issues o o
a ack he b and (Kozine s & Handelman, 2004), he eby displaying
esis ance agains he b and's ac ions o socie al de elopmen s
(Schmi e al., 2022). Adbus s ypically ake place in he o line space
and in ol e eplacing o al e ing o iginal b and communica ion o
communica e a di e gen claim (see examples in Figu e 1). Subse-
quen ly, adbus s o en ecei e widesp ead a en ion online and in he
p ess, he eby inc easing he adbus s' impac on b ands. While ex an
esea ch has in es iga ed he e ec s o b ands p omo ing hei
p oduc s and image h ough ad oca ing social and poli ical issues
(e.g., C is obal e al., 2022; Eyada, 2020; Mukhe jee & Al huizen, 2020;
Zhou e al., 2023), less a en ion has been di ec ed a cases whe e he
b and is unwillingly he ehicle o ac i is communica ion.
Adbus ing is p e alen in many ma ke s and can ake he o m o
isola ed inciden s o widesp ead campaigns. Fo example, in 2021, a
Psychol Ma k. 2024;41:938–957.938
|
wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/ma
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2024 The Au ho s. Psychology & Ma ke ing published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC.
E ik Maie and Alexande Ma ael con ibu ed equally o his s udy.
UK‐wide campaign a ge ed ad e ising billboa ds and bus s op
pos e s o majo b ands (e.g., Shell, BP, Land Ro e , and EasyJe ) o
c i icize hei in ol emen in ca bon‐in ensi e indus ies (The D um/
O meshe , 2021). No su p isingly, i ms a e conce ned abou
adbus ing because hey ea i nega i ely a ec s consume s' belie s
abou he b and and h ea ens b and sa e y (i.e., he ex en o which
he b and is in con ol o i s public appea ance, Lee e al., 2021),
especially when he adbus c i icizes he b and and mo i a es
consume s o boyco (Klein e al., 2004). Indus y expe s ha e
cau ioned i ms as adbus ing “ e eals a di e en side o a b and—
o en he side he company wan s o keep quie ”and, gi en po en ial
online ampli ica ion o adbus s, ha e asked, “wha impac does his
ha e on b ands and should hey be conce ned?”(Ma ke ingWeek/
Hamme , 2018).
Judging he impac o an adbus is di icul o b ands because i
di e s om o he o ms o hi d‐pa y‐induced ad e ising in which
an en i ely new c ea i e is p oduced, mos ly posi i e o humo ous in
con en , and dissemina ed online aking pa in cul u al con e sa ions
(e.g., spoo s, pa odies, and memes; see Gelb, 1997; Knobel &
Lankshea , 2007). In con as , adbus s al e exis ing ads, aking a
p onounced c i ical s ance, o en owa ds he b and (Fou nie &
A e y, 2011). Thus, he ad e ising b ands need o unde s and he
in luence o adbus s, as a new o m o socio‐poli ical ac i ism a he
ci izen‐b and in e ace (Ko schun e al., 2020). A he same ime,
p o iding a deepe unde s anding o how consume s espond o
adbus s and how cha ac e is ics o he adbus in luence hei
pe cep ions o he b and is necessa y o help companies s a egically
manage he phenomenon (Chisam e al., 2022).
In oducing u he complexi y, examples om eal‐wo ld ad-
bus s illus a e ha he e ec s o adbus ing on b ands migh be mo e
ambiguous han hey i s appea . Speci ically, adbus s ha a ge a
b and ocus on c i icizing he b and o hei ac ions, while social/
poli ical adbus s use he b and's pla o m o communica e a message
bu do no c i icize he b and i sel . Figu e 1illus a es his wi h
examples om eal‐wo ld adbus s: he b and‐ a ge ed adbus s
(bo om le ) c i icize he b and o ood quali y (Mcdonald's),
en i onmen al des uc ion (Bu ge King), o ehicle emissions
(Volkswagen), and can, he e o e, ha m b and pe cep ions. In
con as , social/poli ical adbus s (bo om igh ) use he b and
pla o m o communica e a social o poli ical cause, such as he
dange s o smoking (Ma lbo o), he dange s o igh ‐wing pa ies
(Nu ella), o he depic ion o women in ad e ising (H&M), wi hou
necessa ily c i icizing he b and i sel . These socio‐poli ical adbus s
migh , he e o e, inc ease awa eness o a gi en ad and e en ha e a
posi i e impac on b and pe cep ions. Fo ins ance, in 2018, an
ac i is collec i e “hijacked”a Ge man Coca‐Cola ad e isemen o
p omo e esis ance agains a igh ‐wing pa y. Bo h he media and
consume s dissemina ed he campaign ex ensi ely, c ea ing wide-
sp ead awa eness o bo h he o iginal ad and he adbus , and
subs an ial posi i e wo d‐o ‐mou h (The New Yo k Times/Ka asz,
FIGURE 1 Examples o adbus ing campaigns.
MAIER and MAFAEL
|
939
2018). This e en c ea ed ollow‐up adbus s (e.g., he Nu ella adbus
in Figu e 1).
To he bes o ou knowledge, his s udy is he i s o in es iga e
he e ec s o adbus ing on consume s and b ands. In doing so, we
ex end he concep ual wo k by Rumbo (2002) and make h ee main
con ibu ions o he li e a u e. Fi s , we de ine adbus ing and
con as i agains es ablished ypes o hi d‐pa y‐induced ad e is-
ing and b ands using ad ocacy in hei ad e ising. Second, we
ex end he li e a u e on he in luence o hi d pa ies on b and
pe cep ion (e.g., Ko schun e al., 2020) by showing how adbus ing
a ec s consume s' ad awa eness and b and pe cep ion and, in u n,
b and in en ions. Thi d, ou mixed me hod app oach combines da a
on eal‐wo ld adbus s wi h expe imen s, allowing o ecologically
alid es ima es o he impac o adbus s on b ands as well as a mo e
ine‐g ained unde s anding o he unde lying consume eac ions ha
in o m hese agg ega e‐le el e ec s. The e o e, we hope o con ib-
u e o a be e unde s anding o how he ac i i ies o poli ical
ac i is s and g oups in luence ma ke ing s a egy (Chisam e al.,
2022; Ko schun e al., 2020) and b and communica ion. Ou empi ical
applica ion highligh s ha adbus ing has consis en and subs an ial
e ec s on b ands ha a e mode a ed by he adbus 's con en ocus
(b and s. social/poli ical). We show ha adbus s c i icizing he b and
ha m b and pe cep ion and, in u n, educe consume s' posi i e wo d
o mou h and pu chase in en ion, while adbus s ha ocus on social/
poli ical issues exe a posi i e e ec .
2|CONCEPTUALIZING ADBUSTING
Ad e ising is conside ed one o he key ins umen s o build b and
image o e ime (Chaudhu i, 2002). Such b and ad e ising ex ends
o poli ical (e.g., o a candida e o pa y; Spenkuch & Tonia i, 2018)
and social cause ad e ising (e.g., o heal hy ea ing: Ska d &
Tho bjø nsen, 2014). In ecen yea s, many b ands ha e ad oca ed
social/poli ical issues as a o m o b and ac i ism (Moo man, 2020;
Mukhe jee & Al huizen, 2020; Sibai e al., 2021; Zhou e al., 2023). A
common ea u e o hese ad e ising ypes is ha b ands and
ins i u ions ini ia e and con ol hem, and he eby in luence
consume s' b and pe cep ions s a egically.
In con as , o he o ms o ad e ising ha e eme ged ha modi y
exis ing ad e ising and media con en o di e en pu poses (see
Table 1). Memes, pa odies, and spoo s use ecognizable elemen s om
exis ing popula cul u e, such as publicly a ailable media, o c ea e
new and o en humo ous and posi i e messages (Gelb, 1997; Sab i &
Michel, 2014). Pa odies, memes, and spoo s a e in e ne phenomena
and o en ha e a known o igina o (e.g., consume s, b ands, o
ins i u ions) ha aims o gene a e awa eness o hemsel es o hei
message (Knobel & Lankshea , 2007). Success ul memes o en inspi e
addi ional memes, esul ing in di e en digi al e sions o he ini ial
con en . Memes a e a ely c i ical o a b and o a social/poli ical issue,
bu o en a posi i e and play ul ea men o exis ing media con en .
Consequen ly, pa odies, memes, and spoo s end o p oduce posi i e
TABLE 1 Adbus ing in compa ison o di e en ypes o ad e ising.
Type B and ac i ism Memes, pa odies, and spoo s Adbus ing
App oach B ands use hei ad e ising o ake a
public s and on social o poli ical
issues
Use and eimagine key elemen s o a
public medium (e.g., a pho o, ideo
sc eensho o an ad)
Ac i is s al e exis ing b and
communica ion, e.g., h ough billboa d
hacking
In en Communica e he b and's s and on
ce ain issues while p omo ing he
b and and i s o e ings
Mock and imi a e speci ic (cul u al)
phenomena o d aw a en ion o
he con en
C i ique o commen on speci ic b and
ac i i ies o d aw a en ion o social/
poli ical issues
Ad e ising
example
Nike akes a s and on ace equali y
ollowing he “Black Li es Ma e ”
p o es s
Gille e uses he #MeToo mo emen o
p omo e e hinking he ole o men
in socie y
Anima ion i m pa odies “Epic Spli ”
Vol o ad wi h Jean Claude an
Damme
Hea ing company memes Be nie
Sande s’2021 inaugu a ion look o
p omo e i s se ices
G eenpeace al e s Shell billboa ds o
c i icize he company o exploi ing he
en i onmen .
Ac i is s al e H&M pos e o c i icize
depic ion o women
O igina o B and Consume s and b ands Nongo e nmen al o ganiza ions, ac i is
g oups, a is s
Iden i y o he
o igina o
Known Known Unknown
Con en ocus Social/Poli ical Issues Di e se C i icism o a b and o social/poli ical issues
Con en New New con en based on o iginal con en Al e ed o iginal con en
Valence Posi i e Typically posi i e Typically nega i e
Media Any Online Typically physical ads
Legali y No legal issues Typically p o ec ed unde ai use laws Illegal
Exempla y
esea ch
Mukhe jee and Al huizen (2020) Gelb (1997) This esea ch
940
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MAIER and MAFAEL
b and‐le el e ec s (Fou nie & A e y, 2011). The e o e, b ands
inc easingly use memes, pa odies, and spoo s: On he one hand,
b ands p oduce “meme‐able”con en o hei b and communica ion
(Fo bes/G eenwald, 2019). Fo example, Vol o's “Epic Spli ”ad
ea u ing Jean‐Claude an Damme spa ked mo e han 100 memes on
YouTube. On he o he hand, b ands a e p oducing hei own memes,
such as a glo e company using an image o he eezing poli ician
Be nie Sande s. Thus, ma ke e s a e less conce ned abou memes'
b and e ec and mo e abou whe he hey should also use memes
hemsel es.
In con as o hese posi i e o ms o ad e ising, ac i is s
inc easingly a ge i m ad e ising o p omo e hei messages. We
e e o his as adbus ing, whe e ac i is s al e exis ing b and
communica ion (e.g., billboa ds: see Figu e 1, op pa ) o con ey an
al e na i e message ha di e ges om he o iginal b and ad e ising
claims (Billboa d Libe a ion F on , 2008; see Figu e 1, bo om pa ).
This o m o ac i ism ejec s ad e ising as a common ma ke p ac ice
by aking communica i e esis ance agains he ad as a ep esen a-
ion o mains eam consume is ideology (Schmi e al., 2022).
Adbus ing, hus, poses a challenge o adi ional ad e ising. B ands,
he e o e, a e he objec and no he o igina o o ac i is con en
(Sibai e al., 2021). While adbus s a e simila o memes and spoo s in
ha hey al e exis ing b and communica ion, hey di e in hei
in en . Spoo ad e ising o en has a posi i e conno a ion (Be hon &
Pi , 2012) and usually pi o s on exis ing ad e ising claims (Tho a &
Villa eal, 2020). In con as , adbus ing is usually c i ical and nega i e,
as he unde lying in en is o oice c i icism, ela ed o ei he he
b and i sel o a social/poli ical issue.
Adbus s he eby “challenge he ole ad e ising plays in p omo -
ing …consume ism”(The Con e sa ion/Dekeyse , 2015) o eclaim
public (ad) spaces (Rumbo, 2002). Adbus s ypically occu in physical
spaces (e.g., billboa ds) and a e subsequen ly sha ed online (e.g.,
h ough pho os). The o igina o s behind an adbus le e age he ac
ha well‐known b ands ha e a dis inc and ecognizable communi-
ca ion s yle; o example, H&M's ed logo, Coca‐Cola's cu si e on ,
and he McDonald's “M”a e easily iden i iable pa s o b and iden i y.
Using exis ing colo schemes, on s, and e en he communica ion
s yle employed by a b and makes i di icul o consume s o
dis inguish adbus s om ac ual ad e ising. This elemen di e en i-
a es adbus s om memes, which use he heme o an ad o image and
al e he la e in an ob ious manne .
In summa y, adbus s a e a o m o ac i ism ha di e s om
b and ad e ising and hi d‐pa y‐o igina ed ad e ising in he
ollowing i e ways: They (1) al e exis ing b and communica ion
wi hou p io consen ( s. using ecognizable elemen s o c ea e
some hing new), (2) ypically occu in a physical (i.e., o line) se ing
(al hough hey migh be sha ed online), (3) di ec ly a ge a b and o a
ela ed social o poli ical issue ( s. simply con ey humo ), (4) do so in
a nega i e and c i ical ( s. a posi i e and p omo ing) manne , and (5)
a e ocused on he message a he han he o igina o , wi h he la e
o en emaining unknown. Thus, adbus ing is a no el o m o
ad e ising, and i s e ec on a ge ed b ands equi es sys ema ic
empi ical in es iga ion (see Table 1 o an o e iew).
2.1 |How adbus ing di e s in con en ocus
Adbus ing can ake di e en o ms, depending on he main in en
mo i a ing he adbus , he con en o he adbus , and how i oices
c i icism. We dis inguish wo main o ms o adbus ing depending on
he con en ocus o he adbus : hose whe e he adbus c i icizes he
b and (Figu e 1, bo om le ) and hose whe e he adbus sheds ligh
on social o poli ical issues wi hou c i icizing he b and (Figu e 1,
bo om igh ). When he ocus is on c i icizing he b and, he main
in en behind he adbus is o oice c i icism o he b and's ac ions,
p oduc s, o ad e ising s a egies. The con en ypically modi ies
exis ing b and messaging o highligh and sa i ize he b and's
messaging, d awing a en ion o he (p esumed) p oblema ic beha -
io . The con en o he adbus can e e o di e en hemes bu
o en imes ocuses on socie al issues whe e he b and is pe cei ed o
be a pa o he issue. Fo example, an adbus oicing c i icism o a
as ashion b and's exploi a ion o na u al esou ces c i icizes he
b and's ac ions by a ge ing he (social) issue o esou ce exploi a ion.
Al e na i ely, he adbus migh no a ge he b and i sel bu
a he be di ec ed owa d a social o poli ical issue (e.g., clima e
change, gun iolence) o aise public awa eness and change
pe cep ions o he issue wi hou c i icizing he b and (Nomai,
2008). He e, he p ima y in en is o d aw a en ion o b oade
socie al o poli ical conce ns, a he han c i iquing he b and i sel ,
by u ilizing he b and's communica ion as a ehicle. As a esul , he
message ad oca es o socie al awa eness o hese issues.
In summa y, he adbus 's con en ocus cap u es he main a ge
o he adbus , ha is, whe he i is di ec ed a c i icizing a b and o
whe he i aims o p omo e a en ion o a social/poli ical issue.
3|THE INFLUENCE OF ADBUSTING ON
BRANDS AND CONSUMERS
Since adbus s use he communica ion means o exis ing b ands o
p omo e hei message, se e al ques ions a ise: How do adbus s
a ec ad awa eness and b and pe cep ions o he ocal b and? Do
adbus s exe a posi i e o a nega i e e ec on b and pe cep ions
and does his ansla e o b and in en ions, such as posi i e wo d‐o ‐
mou h o pu chase in en ion? Does he con en o he adbus
mode a e consume s' esponse?
In in es iga ing he impac o adbus s on ad awa eness, b and
pe cep ions, and subsequen b and in en ions, we u n o he
Hie a chy o E ec s (HOE) model as ou concep ual amewo k
(La idge & S eine , 1961). Roo ed in a sys ema ic p og ession o
ad e ising e ec s on consume s (Smi h e al., 2008), he HOE
delinea es a sequence encompassing cogni ion (e.g., a en ion and
awa eness), a ec (e.g., b and pe cep ion), and in en ions (e.g., wo d‐
o ‐mou h, pu chase in en ions). The HOE model o e s dis inc
ad an ages in un a eling he nuanced dynamics o ad e ising impac
ha go beyond mo e g anula heo ies o pe suasion.
One cen al ad an age lies in he HOE model's sys ema ic
app oach, enabling he iden i ica ion and explo a ion o key
MAIER and MAFAEL
|
941
componen s o ad e ising p ocessing sequen ially and empi ically
(Ba y, 2002). This sequen iali y aligns wi h ou esea ch objec i e,
acili a ing a nuanced examina ion o adbus e ec s ac oss a ious
s ages o consume esponse. The HOE model's s uc u ed ame-
wo k allows o he sys ema ic s udy o ela ionships be ween
cogni ion, a ec , and in en ions, p o iding a comp ehensi e unde -
s anding o how adbus ing in luences consume s' pe cep ions.
Mo eo e , he lexibili y inhe en in he HOE model pe mi s he
inclusion o addi ional mode a o s, o e ing a nuanced and adap able
analy ical ool (Ba y, 2002). This lexibili y is pa icula ly ad an a-
geous in he con ex o s udying adbus ing, whe e he con en o he
adbus may ac as a po en ial mode a o o consume esponse. By
inco po a ing addi ional mode a o s, he HOE model accommoda es
he complexi y o eal‐wo ld ad e ising scena ios, enhancing he
obus ness o ou in es iga ion.
In essence, he HOE model's sys ema ic p og ession and
lexibili y dis inguish i om mo e g anula heo ies o pe sua-
sion, making i an in aluable amewo k o dissec ing he
mul i ace ed e ec s o adbus ing on consume esponses o
ad e ising.
Figu e 2summa izes ou concep ual amewo k. When an adbus
occu s, i i s needs o gene a e ad awa eness o in o m consume s'
esponse o he adbus . Speci ically, we a gue ha when an adbus
occu s, i inc eases ad awa eness h ough inc eased elabo a ion,
since consume s need o econcile he adbus wi h hei expec a ions
owa ds he ocal b and's ad e ising. Second, he adbus in luences
consume 's b and pe cep ion h ough inc eased awa eness. Whe he
he adbus has a s onge ( s. weake ) nega i e e ec on b and
pe cep ion depends on he con en o he adbus (b and s. social/
poli ical issue). Thi d, depending on consume s' b and pe cep ion,
hey will adap whe he hey will sha e posi i e o nega i e wo d‐o ‐
mou h wi h o he consume s and whe he hey in end o pu chase
he b and's p oduc s.
3.1 |The e ec o adbus ing on ad awa eness
To concep ualize how adbus s in luence consume s, we de i e ou
o mal expec a ions om schema heo y and he li e a u e on
ad e ising p ocessing. Adbus s cons i u e an unexpec ed (i.e.,
schema‐incong uen ) s imulus, “a skip on a eco d ha he needle
passes o e wi h a mino in e up ion”(Gilman‐Opalsky, 2013, p. 3).
The eby, he adbus inc eases awa eness, de ined as consume s'
ecall o b anded ad e ising (Hea h & Nai n, 2005), and in luences
subsequen downs eam consequences associa ed wi h b and ads
(e.g., ecall, wo d‐o ‐mou h).
Schema heo y sugges s ha memo y is o ganized in knowledge
s uc u es known as schema a ha se e as a e e ence ame o
indi idual judgmen (A onson e al., 2012). Fo example, empi ical and
concep ual esea ch on b anding equen ly concep ualizes b and
knowledge as a schema ha ad e ising messages ein o ce (Pa k
e al., 1986).
In o ma ion acqui ed om ex e nal s imuli can ei he be
cong uen o incong uen wi h exis ing schema a. Schema
incong ui y occu s when incoming in o ma ion is no compa ible
wi h exis ing knowledge and expec a ions (Fiske, 1982). P io
esea ch sugges s ha incong uen ads mo i a e mo e ex ensi e
cogni i e p ocessing and s onge e alua i e judgmen s han cong u-
en ad e isemen s (Goods ein, 1993) because schema a e lec
consume s' expec a ions o b ands' ad e ising communica ion (Loe ,
2002). Building on his a gumen , we p opose ha when consume s
obse e adbus s, hey ac i a e addi ional elabo a i e esou ces o
econcile he incong uen s imulus wi h hei b and schema.
Speci ically, he use o an exis ing b and's ecognizable communica-
ion cues a amilia schema, while he al e a ion (i.e., he adbus )
p o ides an unexpec ed e en ha equi es econcilia ion (Alden
e al., 2000). The inc eased elabo a ion o he incong uen s imulus
acili a es ad awa eness (Smi h e al., 2008). This ini ial awa eness
FIGURE 2 Concep ual amewo k and s udies. Do ed lines ma k main e ec s, hypo hesized o be mode a ed by he adbus a ge .
942
|
MAIER and MAFAEL
o ien s consume s' cogni i e esou ces owa d p ocessing he adbus
and econciling he exis ing incong uence (Halkias & Kokkinaki,
2014). Schema incong ui y, indica i e o p onounced misalignmen
be ween incoming in o ma ion and es ablished schemas, igge s
heigh ened cogni i e dis up ion and demands inc eased p ocessing
e o s o esol e he incong ui y (Mandle , 1982). An adbus
cons i u es an incong ui y ha akes e o o esol e (Jhang e al.,
2012) and should be ha de o esol e han seeing a (schema‐
cong uen ) egula ad e isemen . An adbus equi es consume s o
upda e hei schema based on he in o ma ion communica ed in he
adbus and, he e o e, is di ec ly ela ed o an inc eased numbe o
cogni i e s eps o achie e esolu ion (Alden e al., 2000). Due o
hese easons, we expec ha , compa ed o a egula b and
ad e isemen , an adbus will inc ease ad awa eness.
H1. Adbus ing ( s. b and ad e ising) inc eases ad awa eness
h ough highe elabo a ion.
3.2 |The e ec o adbus ing on b and pe cep ion
and he mode a ing ole o con en ocus
Being exposed o an adbus will no only inc ease awa eness o he
ad bu also lead consume s o adap hei pe cep ion o he b and
depending on he in o ma ion con eyed in he adbus . When an
ad e isemen does no ma ch an exis ing b and schema, consume s
a e likely o e alua e he claims made in he ad and ee alua e hei
pe cep ions o he b and (Yoon, 2013). We a gue ha his e‐
e alua ion depends on he con en ocus. Adbus s usually ei he
c i icize he b and o use he b and's ad e ising o d aw a en ion o
a social/poli ical issue. Fo example, c i icizing a ashion e aile o
he labo condi ions in i s p oduc ion acili ies di ec ly a ge s he
b and (e.g., Figu e 1: Volkswagen “D i e cleane . O jus p e end o.”),
while commen ing on he un ealis ic look o models in ashion ads
d aws a en ion o a nonb and‐ ela ed social/poli ical issue (e.g.,
Figu e 1: H&M).
When he adbus c i icizes he b and's ac i i ies, his nega-
i ely in luences b and pe cep ion as he consume 's b and schema
equi es econcilia ion wi h he nega i e in o ma ion. Howe e , i
he adbus uses he b and's communica ion as a ehicle o p omo e
a social/poli ical issue independen o he b and, he adbus may
ha e a less nega i e impac on b and pe cep ions. Speci ically,
when he b and's communica ion is simply used o p omo e
awa eness o a wide social/poli ical issue (e.g., sexism in
ad e ising) he unexpec ed message con ained in he adbus is
easie o econcile wi h an exis ing b and schema, as he message
does no a ack he b and. Consequen ly, i should be easie o
consume s o econcile he b and's es ablished image and
ad ocacy o a social/poli ical issue. In addi ion, esol ing he
incong uency is easie because no speci ic upda ing o he b and
schema is necessa y, as consume s' p ocessing can in o m hei
assessmen ha he ocus o he adbus is on p omo ing a social/
poli ical issue (Mukhe jee & Al huizen, 2020).
We a gue ha adbus s ha ocus on a social/poli ical issue a e
less likely o ha m b and pe cep ion, ye , one could a gue ha hese
adbus s also ha e he po en ial o ha m he b and. Mo e speci ically,
adbus s a e pe de ini ion no unde he con ol o he b and. This
implies ha ac i is s who le e age he b and's communica ion o
p omo e a social/poli ical issue migh ocus on issues ha do no
align wi h he b and's es ablished alues, po en ially causing
con usion and disco d among consume s who iden i y wi h he
b and (Chauhan & Saga , 2021). Simila ly, consume s may pe cei e
he associa ion o he b and wi h a social/poli ical issue as misaligned
wi h hei alues, causing pola iza ion in b and pe cep ions
(Mukhe jee & Al huizen, 2020). Fo example, when Nike ook a
s and suppo ing he Black Li es Ma e mo emen , many consume s
el aliena ed and dis anced hemsel es om he b and (Hsu, 2020).
Howe e , we eason ha he incong uency esul ing om he adbus
will igge inc eased elabo a ion, which should help consume s
de ach he b and om he social/poli ical issue, and he eby mi iga e
hese po en ial nega i e consequences.
In summa y, we p opose ha he ex en o which he adbus
exe s a nega i e in luence on b and pe cep ion depends on i s
con en ocus: An adbus a ge ing a b and ( s. a social/poli ical issue)
is mo e di icul (easie ) o esol e (Halkias & Kokkinaki, 2014), o e s
nega i e (no nega i e) in o ma ion abou he b and and, he e o e,
esul s in a mo e (less) nega i e esponse.
H2. The con en ocus o an adbus mode a es he e ec o
an adbus on b and pe cep ion, such ha he e ec o an
adbus on b and pe cep ion is less nega i e i he adbus
con en ocuses on social/poli ical issues han when i a ge s
he b and.
3.3 |The e ec o adbus ing on b and in en ions
and he mode a ing ole o con en ocus
Depending on consume s' pe cep ion o he ocal b and hey will
adap hei beha io al in en ions owa ds he b and. In he con ex o
his esea ch, we concep ualize consume s' b and in en ions as
engaging in mo e posi i e ( s. mo e nega i e) wo d‐o ‐mou h abou
he b and and hei in en ions o pu chase om he b and. Following
ou p e ious a gumen , we p opose ha he con en ocus o he
adbus mode a es i s e ec on b and in en ions.
3.3.1 |Wo d‐o ‐mou h
Schema incong ui y may s imula e con e sa ions abou he b and
due o inc eased awa eness o he b and's communica ion e o s
(Dahlén & Lange, 2004). Fo example, Be ge and Milkman (2012)
s udy he likelihood ha eade s email news a icles o o he s and
ind ha su p ising con en is mo e likely o be sha ed. Con en is
pe cei ed as su p ising when i con ains elemen s ha a e
unexpec ed in he con ex o he message (Ma ael e al., 2021), such
MAIER and MAFAEL
|
943
as when an adbus con ains unexpec ed claims ha a e incong uen
wi h he b and's ypical communica ion. In u n, he alence o wo d‐
o ‐mou h depends on he emo ions and opinions elici ed by he
adbus 's con en (Be ge , 2011). When he adbus a ge s he b and's
ac ions, his highligh s nega i e aspec s o he b and and, he e o e,
inc eases he likelihood ha consume s would sha e ha nega i e
sen imen wi h o he s. In con as , when he adbus con en ocuses
on a social/poli ical issue, i me ely uses he b and's ad e ising as a
pla o m o p omo e he issue. As a esul , consume s a e less likely
o associa e nega i e emo ions wi h he b and and migh e en
engage in posi i e wo d‐o ‐mou h because hey may pe cei e he
b and as engaging wi h he issue (Kim e al., 2015).
3.3.2 |Pu chase in en ion
Theimpac o adbus ingonconsume sismani oldandi se ec on
consume s' b and pe cep ions and beha io alin en ionsislikely o
depend on he con en ocus o he adbus . Ad e ising messages
in luence consume s' pu chase in en ions in pa h ough hei e ec on
b and pe cep ions (Pechmann & S ewa , 1990). C i ically, ad e ising is
mo e likely o enhance pu chase in en ions when i p omo es a o able
b and pe cep ions, while i is mo e likely o dec ease pu chase in en ions
when i leads o nega i e pe cep ions o he b and o i s ac i i ies (Spea s
&Singh,2004). Thus, in cases whe e he adbus a ge s he b and and
highligh s nega i e aspec s o he b and, he adbus nega i ely a ec s
b and pe cep ions and, in u n, dec eases pu chase in en ions. In con as ,
when he adbus highligh s a social/poli ical issue using he b and's
ad e ising as a ehicle, i may exe a less nega i e e ec on b and
pe cep ions and, in u n, pu chase in en ion. In summa y, we de i e he
ollowing hypo hesis:
H3. The con en ocus o an adbus mode a es he e ec o
adbus ing on (a) wo d‐o ‐mou h and (b) pu chase in en ion,
such ha he nega i e e ec o adbus ing is mi iga ed ( s.
ampli ied) when he adbus con en ocuses on a social/
poli ical issue ( s. he b and).
4|OVERVIEW OF STUDIES
A pilo and ou expe imen al s udies p o ide empi ical e idence o he
e ec s o adbus ing. Table 2p o ides an o e iew o all s udies, he
co esponding hypo heses, and he main indings. Speci ically, in ou Pilo
S udy, we explo e he in luence o eal‐wo ld adbus ing e en s on ad
awa eness, b and pe cep ions, wo d‐o ‐mou h, and pu chase in en o
29 adbus s o p o ide ini ial e idence o he ele ance o his
phenomenon. In S udy 1 (expe imen ), we eplica e he e ec o
adbus ing on ad awa eness by p o iding e idence ha consume s exhibi
inc eased elabo a i e p ocessing when seeing an adbus . S udy 2
(expe imen ) de ails he inc eased elabo a ion p ocess, highligh ing ha
adbus s lead o a highe pe cep ion o schema incong ui y and lowe ease
o esolu ion. In S udy 3 (expe imen ), we in es iga e he in luence o
adbus ing on b and pe cep ions and wo d‐o ‐mou h in en ions. Finally, in
S udy 4 (expe imen ), we s udy he e ec o adbus ing on wo d‐o ‐mou h
and pu chase in en ions.
5|PILOT STUDY: EVIDENCE FROM
REAL‐WORLD ADBUSTS
5.1 |Da a and measu es
We collec ed da a on 46 adbus ing e en s ha occu ed in F ance,
Ge many, and he UK be ween 2015 and 2019. Fo mo e de ails on
he da a collec ion, modeling, and esul s, see Suppo ing In o ma ion
S1: Web Appendix A.
Fo dependen a iables, we elied on da a om he ma ke
esea ch i m YouGo . YouGo moni o s abou 1500 b ands by
su eying mo e han 4000 consume s daily; esponden s a e
andomly d awn om a panel o up o 2 million adul s (Luo e al.,
2013). Fo each b and and coun y, we used indica o s o ad
awa eness, b and imp ession (as a p oxy o b and pe cep ion),
posi i e wo d‐o ‐mou h, and pu chase in en as ou dependen
a iables (Hewe e al., 2016). As he ocal mode a o , we assessed
he con en ocus o he adbus as ei he a social/poli ical issue o he
b and i sel . We excluded cases o b ands o ins i u ions whe e no
b and me ics we e a ailable om YouGo , e aining 29 adbus s. Fo
each o he adbus s, wo code s independen ly classi ied he con en
ocus o he adbus as ei he “social/poli ical”o “b and”(κ= 0.85,
cases econciled a e discussion).
As ad e ising e ec s a e subjec o he in luence o a la ge numbe
o unobse ables (e.g., o e all ad e ising olume) and demand e ec s
(e.g., be o e Ch is mas), we conduc ed a di e ence‐in‐di e ence analysis
whe e we analyzed he dependen a iables ela i e o he ocal b and's
main compe i o in he ma ke whe e he adbus happened (Liaukony e
e al., 2015; iden i ied in a sepa a e p e‐s udy [n=16]). All subsequen
analyses we e based on di e enced da a (absolu e di e ences) o 60
days be o e and a e he adbus (we de e mined he da e o he adbus
based on he i s [social] media men ion; see Suppo ing In o ma ion S1:
Web Appendix A,TableA.3 o non‐di e enced esul s). This esul ed in a
sample size o 29 (adbus s) × 60 (days) × 2 (p e s. pos adbus ) = 3480
obse a ions.
5.2 |Resul s
Model‐ ee e idence suppo s ou asse ion ha adbus s exe a b and
e ec (see Figu e 3). Compa ing he mon h be o e o he mon h a e he
adbus shows ha ad awa eness o he “bus ed”b ands inc eases
ela i e o hei main compe i o , bu mo e s ongly i he adbus a ge s a
social/poli ical issue (+21%), compa ed o when i a ge s he b and (+9%).
Simila ly, he issue‐ ocusedadbus esul edinamo e a o ableb and
imp ession (+31%) compa ed o he b and‐ a ge ed adbus (+13%).
Posi i e wo d‐o ‐mou h inc eased o bo h adbus con en ypes (+31%
and +28%). Pu chase in en , howe e , was nega i ely a ec ed i an
944
|
MAIER and MAFAEL
adbus 's con en a ge ed a b and (−33%), bu posi i ely a ec ed i he
adbus ocused on a social/poli ical issue (+36%). The esul s o a se ies o
andom‐e ec s models p o ide empi ical suppo o ou hypo heses. Fo
mo e de ails on he modeling esul s, see Suppo ing In o ma ion S1:
Web Appendix Aand Table A.2.
In summa y, an in es iga ion o eal‐wo ld adbus s p o ides
ini ial e idence o he e ec o adbus s on b and awa eness (H1),
b and pe cep ions (H2), and, in u n, b and in en ions (H3) mode a ed
by he con en ocus o an adbus (social/poli ical s. b and‐ a ge ed).
Impo an ly, he pilo ield s udy p o ides an agg ega e ( s. an
indi idual) pe spec i e, whe e he o e all e ec o an adbus on a
b and migh be mo e posi i e compa ed o he indi idual‐le el e ec .
Speci ically, inc eased ad awa eness and buzz a ound a b and a e
likely o c ea e e en mo e ad awa eness among consume s—which in
u n is going o inc ease ad awa eness u he and, in u n, may
imp o e b and pe cep ion. The ield s udy, hus, does no con adic
ou hypo hesized e ec . The subsequen ou s udies, howe e ,
employ an indi idual‐le el expe imen al app oach o in es iga e he
unde lying consume p ocess o being con on ed wi h adbus s.
6|STUDY 1: THE EFFECT OF
ADBUSTINGONADAWARENESS
S udy 1 es ablishes he awa eness e ec o adbus ing in an
ad e ising se ing wi h di e en ads. Speci ically, pa icipan s saw
he a ge ad and he co esponding adbus as pa o a se ies o
o he ad e isemen s because ad e isemen s ypically a e em-
bedded in a con ex o mul iple ads which may in luence consume
p ocessing.
6.1 |Pa icipan s, me hod, and design
As ocal s imuli, we de eloped adbus s based on se e al o iginal ads
om well‐known consume b ands (e.g., Apple, McDonalds, S a -
bucks, and Unde A mou ; see Suppo ing In o ma ion S1: Web
Appendix B o de ails on he s imuli). Fo each b and, we c ea ed
wo ad e sions: he o iginal b and ad and he adbus . Two adbus s
a ge ed he b and and wo ocused on a social/poli ical issue.
We selec ed he ou ad s imuli used in he main s udy om a se
o eigh b ands (and adbus s) based on a p e es (N= 161, M
age
= 37.9
yea s, 44.9% emale): The manipula ion wo ked as in ended, as he
b and adbus s had lowe pe cei ed a o ableness o he claim o he
ocal b and (Unde A mou : M
adbus , b and
= 3.42 s. M
o iginal
= 5.27,
p< 0.001; S a bucks: M
adbus , b and
= 3.55 s. M
o iginal
= 5.77, p< 0.001
o de ails on he i ems, see Suppo ing In o ma ion S1: Web
Appendix B, Table B.1), while he social/poli ical adbus s did no
(McDonald's: M
adbus , social/poli ical
= 3.95 s. M
o iginal
= 4.53, p= 0.18;
Apple: M
adbus , social/poli ical
= 4.95 s. M
o iginal
= 5.59, p= 0.15). Fu he ,
pa icipan s co ec ly ecognized he social/poli ical ( s. b and) issues
in he wo social/poli ical adbus s (e.g., “exploi a ion o labo ” o
Apple M= 5.85 s. o he social issues M= 2.38; “animal wel a e” o
McDonald's M= 5.71 s. 2.37). Responden s co ec ly iden i ied
TABLE 2 O e iew o empi ical s udies.
S udy Pilo 1 2 3 4
Focus Adbus ing e ec in ac ual
cases (ex e nal
alidi y)
E ec o adbus ing on ad
awa eness
E ec o adbus ing on ad
awa eness
E ec o adbus ing on
b and pe cep ion and
b and in en ions
E ec o adbus ing on
b and pe cep ion
and b and
in en ions
Type Field s udy Expe imen Expe imen Expe imen Expe imen
Da a and
design
n= 3820
29 (adbus s) × 60
(days) × 2 (p e
s. pos )
Di e enced o main
compe i o
n= 192
3 adbus (yes: social/
poli ical issue s. yes:
b and a ge s. no:
o iginal ad, be ween)
4 b ands and 11 ille ads
n= 279
3 adbus (yes: social/
poli ical issue s. yes:
b and a ge s. no:
o iginal ad, be ween)
1 b and and 4 ille ads
n= 141
2 adbus (yes s. no/
o iginal, wi hin) × 2
adbus a ge (b and
a ge s. social/
poli ical, be ween)
1 b and
n= 321
3 adbus (yes: social/
poli ical issue s.
yes: b and a ge
s. no: o iginal,
be ween)
2 b ands (be ween)
Coun y F ance, Ge many, UK Uni ed S a es Uni ed S a es Ge many Uni ed S a es
Dependen
a iables
Ad awa eness
B and pe cep ion
Wo d‐o ‐mou h
Pu chase in en ion
Elabo a ion in ensi y
Recall
Ease o esolu ion
Recall
B and pe cep ion
B and pe cep ion
Wo d‐o ‐mou h
B and pe cep ion
Wo d‐o ‐mou h
Pu chase in en ion
Hypo heses H1: ✓
H2: ✓
H3: ✓
H1: ✓H1: ✓
H2: ✓
H2: ✓
H3: ✓
H2: ✓
H3: ✓
H3: ✓
MAIER and MAFAEL
|
945
10 |GENERAL DISCUSSION
This esea ch de elops a concep ual amewo k and co esponding
p edic ions abou he e ec o adbus ing on consume s and b ands
h ough ad awa eness, b and pe cep ion, and b and in en ions (he e:
posi i e wo d‐o ‐mou h and pu chase in en ). We p o ide empi ical
e idence in suppo o ou p edic ions using bo h ield da a (Pilo
S udy) and expe imen al da a (S udies 1–4). No ably, ou esea ch
does no in es iga e he legal and e hical issues associa ed wi h
adbus ing bu ea s i as an exogenous challenge o b ands'
communica ion p ac ices.
10.1 |Theo e ical implica ions
Ad e ising is a key componen o e ec i e b and building. In
pa icula , many success ul b ands de elop a igh ly con olled
ad e ising iden i y ha consume s can ecognize e e ywhe e. Ye ,
es ablishing a s ong b and schema h ough ad e ising opens up he
po en ial o hi d‐pa y ac o s o le e age b and ad e ising o
p omo e hei agenda—a phenomenon we e e o as adbus ing. In
con as o ela ed wo k ha conside s se ings whe e he b and
i sel is he ad oca e o social/poli ical issues (e.g., b and ac i ism,
Mukhe jee & Al huizen, 2020), we s udy a se ing whe e he b and is
no in con ol o i s ad e ising e o s. In doing so, we con ibu e o
he li e a u e by explo ing adbus ing and i s consequences o b ands
in h ee main ways.
Fi s , we ela e adbus ing ac i ism o es ablished ypes o
ad e ising and b and ac i ism o imp o e ou unde s anding o he
in e ac ion be ween poli ical ac i i y and ma ke ing s a egy (Chisam
e al., 2022). To he bes o ou knowledge, his s udy is he i s
a emp o in es iga e he e ec s o adbus ing on b ands. Ou esul s
highligh ha adbus ing p o ides an in e es ing challenge o b ands:
When he adbus c i icizes he b and, i can h ea en consume s'
b and pe cep ion and subsequen b and in en ions, e en hough i
also heigh ens awa eness o he b and. In u n, when he adbus
me ely d aws a en ion o a social/poli ical issue, b ands may ecei e
mo e a en ion, which is a common goal o ma ke e s. These indings
ela e o exis ing esea ch ha s udies how b and ad ocacy h ough
ad e ising impac s consume s (e.g., C is obal e al., 2022; Mukhe jee
& Al huizen, 2020) and unde sco es he impo ance o b ands o
TABLE 3 Reg ession esul s o S udy 3.
B and
pe cep ion
Wo d‐o ‐mou h ac i i y
Nega i e Posi i e
(1) (2b) (3a)
Adbus (0 = o iginal,
1 = adbus )
−0.34*** 1.29** −1.40***
(0.06) (0.47) (0.40)
Social/poli ical issue
(0 = b and, 1 =
social)
−0.21 −0.19 0.43
(0.17) (0.55) (0.38)
Adbus × Social/
Poli ical issue
0.30** −1.17
†
0.93
†
(0.09) (0.68) (0.53)
A i ude owa d social/
poli ical issues
0.04 0.24 0.16
(0.11) (0.27) (0.19)
A i ude owa d
ad e ising
0.47*** −0.03 −0.10
(0.10) (0.24) (0.17)
In e cep 2.98*** −2.85*−0.19
(0.50) (1.33) (0.87)
N282 282 282
Numbe o pa icipan s 141 141 141
R
2
0.88 0.38 0.22
No e: Fixed e ec s model wi h subjec ixed e ec s. Non‐s anda dized
coe icien s and s anda d e o s.
†
p< 0.1.
*p< 0.05; **p< 0.01; ***p< 0.001.
FIGURE 7 Empi ical esul s o S udy 4.
952
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MAIER and MAFAEL
conside he s a egic implica ions o ad ocacy o social/poli ical
issues, e en when hei communica ions a e used by ac i is g oups.
Second, we d aw on schema heo y and he li e a u e on ad e ising
p ocessing o de ise a nuanced unde s anding o he impac o adbus ing,
he eby con ibu ing o he li e a u e on b and managemen . Speci ically,
we p o ide empi ical e idence in suppo o an HOE amewo k and
illus a e how adbus ing a ec s consume s' awa eness, b and pe cep ion,
and subsequen b and in en ions. Ou empi ical applica ion shows ha
adbus ing exhibi s consis en and subs an ial e ec s on b ands. In
pa icula , i posi i ely in luences consume s' b and awa eness on an
indi idual le el (i.e., h ough mo e elabo a ion and ecall), as well as ac oss
consume s h ough social media sha ing o an adbus . We explain his
inc eased awa eness h ough inc eased ad p ocessing om highe
schema incong ui y and lowe ease o esolu ion o he adbus (S udies
1 and 2). This p o ides u he e idence ha no only b and‐ini ia ed
con e sa ions can suppo b and de elopmen , bu also communica ion
om hi d pa ies (Ko schun e al., 2020).
Thi d, e en hough examples o ac i is s al e ing b and commu-
nica ions abound, and b and p o ec ion agencies a e acking such
ac i i ies o help b ands unde s and hei e ec s (Hesseldahl, 2007),
empi ical insigh is limi ed (Tho a, 2021). We no only in es iga e he
e ec o adbus ing pe se, bu es ablish he adbus 's con en ocus as
an impo an mode a ing in luence. Speci ically, he e ec o
adbus ing on consume s' b and pe cep ions and downs eam b and
in en ions is nega i e when he adbus c i icizes he b and, bu his
nega i e e ec is mi iga ed when he adbus p omo es social/
poli ical issues (e.g., clima e change). The eby, ou indings p o ide a
de ailed unde s anding o he impac o di e en con en oci o
adbus s on consume s and b ands and open up his opic o u u e
esea ch.
10.2 |Manage ial implica ions
I is commonly assumed ha adbus s pose a h ea o b and
pe cep ion (CNN/Monks, 2018). In con as o ini ial ea s ha b and
manage s should “bewa e”o adbus ing as “ he smalles ac can be
massi ely ampli ied online”(Ma ke ingWeek/Hamme , 2018), we
ind ha digi al ampli ica ion could cons i u e an oppo uni y o
b and manage s because hei e ec is no uni o m bu depends on
he con en ocus o he adbus .
On an agg ega e le el, ou Pilo S udy shows ha ad awa eness
(+16%), b and pe cep ion (+23%), and posi i e wo d‐o ‐mou h
(+26%) inc ease a e an adbus ing inciden ela i e o ha b and's
main compe i o , bu he posi i e e ec is conside ably s onge i
he b and is no a ge ed i sel , bu a social/poli ical issue is in ocus.
TABLE 4 Reg ession esul s o S udy 4.
B and pe cep ion
(di e ence) Wo d‐o ‐mou h in en ion Pu chase in en ion
(1) (2a) (2b) (3a) (3b)
Adbus −0.56*** −0.41 −0.28 −0.38 −0.11
(0.15) (0.26) (0.26) (0.25) (0.24)
Adbus × Social/Poli ical Issue
a
0.31*0.49
†
0.42 0.44
†
0.29
(0.15) (0.26) (0.25) (0.24) (0.23)
A i ude owa d Social/Poli ical issues −0.10
†
0.04 0.07 0.13 0.18*
(0.05) (0.09) (0.09) (0.09) (0.08)
A i ude owa d ad e ising 0.07
†
0.67*** 0.66*** 0.45*** 0.42***
(0.04) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06) (0.06)
B and pe cep ion ――0.23*―0.49***
(0.10) (0.09)
B and 2 Dummy 0.17 −0.15 −0.19 0.67** 0.58**
(0.12) (0.21) (0.21) (0.20) (0.19)
In e cep 0.29 0.37 0.31 1.57*** 1.43***
(0.33) (0.56) (0.55) (0.53) (0.51)
N321 321 321 321 321
R
2
0.06 0.30 0.31 0.19 0.27
No e: Nons anda dized coe icien s and s anda d e o s.
†
p< 0.1.
*p< 0.05; **p< 0.01; ***p< 0.001.
a
No main e ec s epo ed due o mul icollinea i y.
MAIER and MAFAEL
|
953
Pu chase in en e en declines a e a b and is c i icized, while he
pu chase in en inc eases i he con en ocus o an adbus is social.
The expe imen al s udies con i m ha he e ec o an adbus
depends on i s con en ocus: on an indi idual le el, adbus s ha
a ge he b and nega i ely a ec b and pe cep ions, wo d‐o ‐mou h,
and pu chase in en ions. This e ec is pa ially o ully o se i he
adbus ocuses on a social/poli ical issue. Thus, ou esea ch speci ies
poli ical scien is s' sugges ion ha “spo adic sub e ising canno jam
a cul u e o cons an accumula ion”(Gilman‐Opalsky, 2013, p. 1),
showing ha adbus s can e en suppo b ands in hei ma ke ing
e o s, as long as he b and is no he a ge .
B and manage s, he e o e, a e well‐ad ised o closely e alua e
speci ic adbus ing inciden s be o e hey eac . Ou indings sugges
ha b and manage s should wo y abou hei b and pe cep ions
when he adbus di ec ly c i icizes he b and and is likely o ecei e a
la ge audience. In con as , adbus s ha c i icize a social/poli ical
issue o e he oppo uni y o “ ee”inc eased ad awa eness, while
he nega i e e ec o he abdus on b and pe cep ion is mi iga ed.
This addi ional awa eness is especially a ac i e in an en i onmen
whe e ad e ise s ind i inc easingly di icul o ele a e hei
messages abo e he clu e o ad messages (Nelson‐Field e al.,
2013). In such a si ua ion, i may e en be bene icial o he i m o
endo se he adbus h ough i s online channels o each a la ge
audience and inc ease b and buzz (Hewe e al., 2016). The
a o emen ioned example o a Coca‐Cola ad ha was al e ed o
p omo e a social/poli ical issue highligh s his: Because he adbus
did no a ge he b and bu a igh ‐wing poli ical pa y, he company
e en decided o endo se i —which u he ampli ied he media
eac ion o he adbus ing inciden . Howe e , b ands need o be
mo ally compe en o hei ac ions o ha e a posi i e e ec (Sibai
e al., 2021).
10.3 |Limi a ions and u he esea ch
The e a e limi a ions o ou app oach ha may in o m u he e o s
in his domain and con ibu e o a deepe unde s anding o
adbus ing.
Fi s , ou se o s udies highligh s condi ions ha explain he
ambiguous e ec o adbus s. Fu u e esea ch could in es iga e how a
company can e ec i ely espond when con on ed wi h adbus s. Fo
ins ance, a company migh simply inc ease i s ma ke ing spending o
“ epai ”damages o he b and pe cep ion, simila o si ua ions when i
needs o o e come a nega i e publici y e en (Gao e al., 2015).
Addi ionally, companies migh also ela e o he adbus , ei he by
esponding (e.g., by a coun e campaign) o e en by endo sing he adbus
i he la e a ge s a social phenomenon and no he b and (e.g., Coca‐
Cola's endo semen o an adbus agains a a ‐ igh pa y). This p o ides
an oppo uni y o ake a s ance o o dis ance he b and om any social
o poli ical issues (e.g., V edenbu g e al., 2020) and would illumina e an
impo an gap in he cu en li e a u e (Siano e al., 2022).
Second, ou empi ical s udies ocus on o line adbus s. We do so
because p ess eleases abou adbus s ypically e e o o line
occu ences o adbus ing, mi o ing ac i is s' aim o “ eclaim public
spaces”. Thus, he adbus occu s o line bu is quickly dissemina ed
online o inc ease each and impac . Ye , his does no p eclude
ac i is g oups om inc easingly pos ing al e ed b and communica-
ion online o le e age b ands as a pla o m o hei messages,
simila o he o ic sub e isemen o b and ad e ising on social
media (Middle on e al., 2022). While ou esea ch in es iga es
consume s' in en ions o sha e posi i e o nega i e sen imen s abou
adbus s, we do no s udy how hey do so (i.e., whe he hey ad oca e
he adbus o dis ance hemsel es om he message) and wi h how
many people hey would sha e such con en . Fu u e esea ch could
s udy hese ques ions o p o ide a mo e nuanced pe spec i e on he
dynamics o social media ac i i y a e an adbus occu s.
Thi d, he e ec o an adbus migh also depend on he
in e ac ion o he cha ac e is ics o he adbus wi h hose o he
iewe . Ou manipula ions used widely accep ed social/poli ical
issues (e.g., gun iolence, en i onmen al des uc ion, s e eo ypical
depic ion o women), bu e en hese a e likely o in e ac wi h
consume s' own opinions (e.g., some consume s deny clima e
change). Resea ch on biased assimila ion o opinions sugges s ha
he e may be an in e ac i e e ec o consume s' exis ing opinions
and he in luence o speci ic message claims on hei b and
e alua ion because exis ing opinions in luence he pe suasi eness
o con adic ing claims (Ma ael e al., 2016). Resea ch on b and
ac i ism shows ha audience alignmen wi h ad oca ed issues
de e mines consume s' esponse o b and ac i ism (Mukhe jee &
Al huizen, 2020). Fu he s udies could sys ema ically in es iga e
whe he simila e ec s eme ge in he con ex o adbus ing and
whe he such alignmen e ec s a e—a leas in pa — esponsible o
he e ec s obse ed in ou empi ical s udies. In his, s udying
consume emo ions o adbus s ha a e in (non‐)alignmen wi h he
b and and/o consume s' exis ing op ion migh help u he explain
consume eac ions.
Fou h, ou concep ual amewo k builds on he HOE model and
ocuses on consume s' cogni i e p ocessing in esponse o adbus ing.
Ye , o he ac o s may be impo an in unde s anding he impac o
adbus ing, such as a ec i e p ocesses ha in o m consume s'
esponse o he adbus 's message. Mo e speci ically, and depa ing
om ou esul ha adbus s ha c i icize he b and a ec consume s
di e en ly han adbus s ha me ely d aw a en ion o a social/
poli ical issue, i would be aluable o unde s and whe he he wo
con en oci o adbus ing in o m di e en emo ional esponses. Fo
example, esea ch on schema incong ui y sugges s po en ial ways in
which emo ions may de e mine esponses o adbus s (Smi h &
DeCos e , 2000; Yoon, 2013). Ini ial emo ional esponses, such as
ange o su p ise, may esul om incong ui y be ween he adbus
and exis ing b and schema a and acili a e subsequen cogni i e
p ocessing o he ad (e.g., h ough heigh ened awa eness). He e, i
would be in e es ing o s udy whe he he con en ocus o he
adbus leads o di e en emo ional esponses and o wha ex en
hese esponses d i e subsequen p ocessing. Finally, u u e esea ch
could explo e implica ions o adbus ing o laws a ound pa ody,
in ellec ual p ope y, eedom o speech, among o he s.
954
|
MAIER and MAFAEL
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We hank YouGo , especially Sascha Rai hel, who gene ously
p o ided access o da a om he YouGo B andIndex syndica ed
b and acking s udy. Ka ha ina Lohmann and Lau ence Lahaye we e
in aluable in hei suppo in compiling he adbus ing da abase. We
a e g a e ul o Flo ian Dos and Cha les R. Taylo who p o ided
help ul eedback on ea lie e sions o his pape . Open Access
unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable om
YouGo . Res ic ions apply o he a ailabili y o hese da a, which
we e used unde license o his s udy. Da a a e a ailable om he
au ho (s) wi h he pe mission o YouGo .
ORCID
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Alexande Ma ael h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0708-9795
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SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Addi ional suppo ing in o ma ion can be ound online in he
Suppo ing In o ma ion sec ion a he end o his a icle.
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