Wi zak, Pa ick; He wig, Ma kus
A icle — Published Ve sion
Go e nance o labou ela ions in he pla o m economy.
The coope a ion be ween YouTube s Union and IG Me all
Indus ial Rela ions Jou nal
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Wi zak, Pa ick; He wig, Ma kus (2024) : Go e nance o labou ela ions in he
pla o m economy. The coope a ion be ween YouTube s Union and IG Me all, Indus ial Rela ions
Jou nal, ISSN 1468-2338, Wiley Pe iodicals, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 56, Iss. 1, pp. 75-96,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/i j.12449
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DOI: 10.1111/i j.12449
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Go e nance o labou ela ions in he
pla o m economy. The coope a ion
be ween YouTube s Union and IG Me all
D . Pa ick Wi zak Pos Doc, Chai o he Sociology o Digi al
T ans o ma ion a he Ins i u e o Wo k Science |
P o . D . Ma kus He wig Full P o esso , Chai o he Sociology o
Digi al T ans o ma ion a he Ins i u e o Wo k Science
Ruh Uni e si y Bochum, Bochum,
Ge many
Co espondence
D . Pa ick Wi zak, Pos Doc, Chai o
he Sociology o Digi al T ans o ma ion
a he Ins i u e o Wo k Science, Ruh
Uni e si y Bochum, Bochum, Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
The a icle ocuses on he ac o s ha explain he
eme gence and accomplishmen s o he ‘Fai Tube’
campaign, which was ini ia ed in 2019 by he YouTube s
Union and he Ge man me alwo ke s' union IG Me all,
and was la e es ablished as a o malised Ge man asso-
cia ion (“Ve ein”). While he ini ial ocus o he cam-
paign was on changing he mone isa ion ules, which
YouTube had al e ed e y ab up ly in 2017, he ini ia i e
subsequen ly ocused on imp o ing he wo king condi-
ions o con en c ea o s. Me hodologically, we deploy a
mixed‐me hods design ha lanks media discou se ne -
wo k analysis h ough quali a i e con en analysis o
expe in e iews, which helps o iden i y he in e ac ion
be ween hese es ablished and new ac o s in he go -
e nance and in e es ep esen a ion in he digi al pla -
o m economy. Ou indings e eal a ‘hyb id o m o
go e nance’ ha , by aligning ideologies and combining
sou ces o powe , was able o accomplish mos o
he goals se ou by he campaign (a oiding a bi a y
Ind. Rela . 2025;56:75–96. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/i j
|
75
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion‐NonComme cial‐NoDe i s License, which pe mi s
use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non‐comme cial and no modi ica ions o
adap a ions a e made.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Indus ial Rela ions Jou nal published by B ian Towe s (BRITOW) and John Wiley & Sons L d.
pla o m decisions, inc easing anspa ency and com-
munica ion, secu ing c ea o s' income). We conclude
ha new o ms o collec i e ac ion, i.e. he coali ion
be ween “old”and “new”o ganiza ions, may mi iga e
pa icula nega i e consequences o he pla o m econ-
omy. The s udy seeks o con ibu e o a be e unde -
s anding o pla o m wo k and o he concep s o powe ,
ideas, and in e es s in indus ial ela ions.
1|INTRODUCTION
Pla o ms a e a cen al elemen o he socio‐ echnical in as uc u e o he con empo a y
In e ne . The es ablishmen o online labou ma ke s has been accompanied by changes in he
na u e o wo k and employmen , wi h p o ound implica ions o bo h wo ke s and na ional
egula o y egimes (G aham e al., 2017). In i s mos ypical o m, pla o m wo k is a p eca ious
ype o labou ha o e s nei he a decen income no access o sys ems o social secu i y (Liang
e al., 2022). Much o he exis ing li e a u e highligh s he exploi a ion o pla o m wo k in
un egula ed online labou ma ke s by powe ul pla o m companies o he de imen o he
wo ke s (He wig & Papsdo , 2023).
In his con ex , massi e egula o y gaps a e c i icised (Chenou & Radu, 2019; Schulz, 2018),
while he p o ec ion needs o pla o m wo ke s a e no ye ully add essed by he adi ional
gua dians agains wo ke exploi a ion– he s a e and ade unions. Fi s , pla o m wo ke s,
who a e mos ly independen con ac o s, a e no co e ed by egula ions o dependen
employees. Second, local and emo e pla o m wo k lacks key condi ions o unionisa ion, such
as co‐loca ion and communica ion in he wo kspace, g oup iden i y, o a sha ed pe cep ion o
g ie ances, making collec i e union o ganising di icul (Lehdon i a, 2016; Wood e al., 2018).
Ne e heless, some collec i e ac i i ies in he pla o m economy ha e eme ged in
ecen yea s (S ua e al., 2023;T appmanne al.,2020), o ins ance he Fai C owd Wo k
Campaign.
1
En i ely new o ms o in e es ep esen a ion ha e also been de eloped ou side o
he scope o he es ablished indus ial ela ions sys ems, such as in e ne o ums o echnical
plug‐ins (He wig & Holz, & Lo ig, 2023; I ani & Silbe man, 2013). Al hough he e ha e
al eady been some analyses o hese ini ia i es, he e has as ye been li le esea ch in o he
ci cums ances unde which o ms o in e es ep esen a ion eme ge in he emo e pla o m
economy, hei p ospec s o success and du abili y, and in pa icula , how hese no el o ms
o in e es ep esen a ion in e ac wi h ade unions o go e n socio echnical sys ems as
YouTube.
We explo e how he go e nance –unde s ood he e as collec i e egula ion o social con-
di ions (Mayn z, 2004)–o wo k on pla o ms can be success ul gi en he hu dles ha col-
lec i e e o s in he pla o m economy ace. We use a b oade concep o “go e nance” o go
beyond he s a egies o indi idual ac o s (like ade unions o employe s) and cap u e a wide
1
h p:// ai c owd.wo k, assessed 10 Decembe 2023.
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WITZAK and HERTWIG
socie al amewo k. Empi ically, we ocus on he YouTube s Union (YTU), which was ounded
in 2018 o ep esen ideo con en c ea o s on YouTube and examine i s collabo a ion wi h IG
Me all (IGM)
2
in Ge many ha began a yea la e in he so‐called ‘Fai Tube campaign’
(campaign wi h i s own p ojec eam). We use he e m ‘con en c ea o s’he e because many
‘YouTube s’do no see hemsel es as wo ke s on he pla o m, bu mos ly as sel ‐employed
ideo p oduce s and c ea i es (Hoose & Rosenbohm, 2024). Being a success ul con en c ea o
on YouTube o en equi es a high le el o skill. Video con en c ea o s do no ecei e di ec ions
om he ideo pla o m bu may ecei e con en guidelines om ex e nal ad e ise s. Simila
o ‘gig wo ke s’o ‘pla o m wo ke s’, he wo k o en akes place o line bu esul s in a digi al
end p oduc . Con en c ea o s a e indi idual eelance s o one‐pe son businesses wi h
i egula wo k schedules (Liang e al., 2022). Thei digi al p oduc s ( ideos) a e essen ial o
YouTube's exis ence and comme cial success.
The YTU‐IGM coope a ion has been ema kable in a leas wo espec s: Fi s , collec i e
ac ion o con en c ea o s is ega ded as unlikely due o hei independen , compe i i e
na u e as sel ‐employed ideo p oduce s in he c ea i e sec o , mos o whom do no mee
o communica e (e.g., Hoose & Rosenbohm, 2024). Thei sel ‐employed s a us, s ong
sel ‐iden i y and solo wo king s yle discou ages solida i y, collec i e ep esen a ion o
unionisa ion. Second, a coope a ion be ween a adi ional union and a pla o m mo emen
was a he unusual and po en ially haza dous o bo h IGM and YTU. Ne e heless, he
coope a ion has been ega ded as success ul as many o he ini ial goals could be eached,
leading o an imp o emen in wo king condi ions o con en c ea o s. While he basic
s uc u es o he YTU ha e al eady been highligh ed (Nieble , 2020), he collabo a ion
wi h IGM and he Fai Tube campaign, as well as he la e associa ion, ha e ecei ed li le
a en ion.
Agains his backg ound, we ask, how can a hyb id egula o y model be ween an es-
ablished ade union and an in e ne social mo emen eme ge and how may i con ibu e
o he go e nance o wo king condi ions on pla o ms? Based on social mo emen esea ch,
union e i alisa ion s udies, esea ch on policy ne wo ks, and he powe esou ce app oach,
he empi ical aspec s ha e been deal wi h in a mixed‐me hods design in ended o acili a e
an analysis o ne wo k coope a ion ha akes in o accoun ideas, in e es s, and sou ces
o powe .
We a gue ha he main ac o acili a ing he coope a ion be ween he YTU and IGM was a
aming o sha ed ideas and concep s. This allowed hei di e ing o ganisa ional logics o be
connec ed wi hou endange ing he o ganisa ions' co e conce ns: o IGM, a ocus on i s a-
di ional cons i uency and membe ship oge he wi h i s ins i u ional in luence on collec i e
ba gaining; o YTU, i s social mo emen cha ac e wi h i s ocus on sel ‐employed c ea i es,
a he eluc an o unions. The success can be a ibu ed o he ac ha while each o he wo
o ganisa ions lacked powe in ce ain ields, by adding hei powe esou ces, hey we e able o
pose an e ec i e h ea o YouTube.
The nex Sec ion (2) ou lines he cu en deba e in he li e a u e, ollowed by (3) he heo-
e ical amewo k o analysis and (4) he me hodology o he s udy. Sec ion 5 p esen s he
empi ical esul s, which a e discussed in Sec ion 6. The inal Sec ion (7) summa ises he esea ch
indings and o e s some e lec ions on he esul s.
2
IG Me all, a ade union wi h some 2.25 million membe s, ep esen s employees in he me alwo king and elec ical
indus ies, as well as in ex iles, and wood and plas ics p ocessing.
GOVERNANCE OF LABOUR RELATIONS IN THE PLATFORM ECONOMY
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77
2|WORK AND LABOUR RELATIONS IN THE
PLATFORM ECONOMY
P o es s and labou un es by wo ke s o he gig and pla o m economy a e a g owing global
phenomenon (Umney e al., 2023). These a e by no means limi ed o one ype o pla o m, bu
can be obse ed on pla o ms ha o e loca ion‐based wo k, like ood deli e y, and emo e
wo k, like C owd lowe o Amazon Mechanical Tu k. Howe e , i is no iceable ha he e is a
pauci y o esea ch ha deals wi h c ea i e o a is ic pla o ms. This is an impo an poin , as
he ideo con en c ea o s wo king he e di e om o he emo e o loca ion‐based pla o m
wo ke s. Video con en c ea o s see hemsel es as independen a is s a he han wo ke s
(Hoose & Rosenbohm, 2024; Pong a z, 2018). Howe e , he na u e o hei wo k in ela ion o
he YouTube pla o m has some simila i ies o emo e pla o m wo ke s and ela ed pla o ms.
Wi h his in mind, we will i s discuss he YouTube pla o m and p o ide basic in o ma ion
abou ideo con en c ea o s and he pla o m. We will hen look a he cu en s a e o esea ch
on he egula ion o pla o ms h ough collec i e ep esen a ion o in e es s and ask o wha
ex en indings om o he pla o ms can be applied o he issue a hand.
2.1 |Pla o m wo k a YouTube
YouTube was se up in Feb ua y 2005 and has g own s eadily since (S okel‐Walke , 2019). By
2019, i had 2 billion egis e ed use s isi ing each mon h wo ldwide, pu ing i in second place
behind Facebook. A majo con ibu o o his business success a e he ideo con en c ea o s
who p oduce and upload ideos o he pla o m. YouTube is p ima ily inanced by ideo
ad e ising. Al hough YouTube claims ha a signi ican po ion o ad e ising e enue goes o
c ea o s, he speci ic dis ibu ion pe cen ages and c i e ia emain undisclosed.
I is known ha a ew la ge c ea o s gene a e signi ican income by mone ising ideos,
selling channel‐ ela ed p oduc s, o secu ing ad e ising deals. Thei income is a iable due o
he unp edic abili y o ideo iews and pla o m compensa ion policies, wi h no ixed sala y o
compensa ion. In gene al, c ea o s' income is di icul o es ima e. While smalle c ea o s
upload ideos spo adically o a modes income, some amous c ea o s ha e become hei own
‘b and’wi h co esponding income oppo uni ies (Du y & Pooley, 2019).
In p inciple, con en c ea o s ac as independen en ep eneu s o solo sel ‐employed; his
s a us is codi ied in YouTube's e ms and condi ions, bu i also co esponds o he sel ‐image
and iden i y o many YouTube s, who clea ly di e om adi ional employees in e ms o hei
wo k iden i y. As independen c ea o s, hey ha e a high deg ee o au onomy. As a esul , he e
is no gua an ee ha he cos s o ideo p oduc ion will be co e ed and ha a su icien (side)
income will be gene a ed. The sys em equi es c ea o s o de elop a s ong en ep eneu ial
mind‐se o be success ul (Kenney e al., 2019).
Despi e he in e dependence, he e is a clea imbalance o powe in a ou o he pla o m,
as YouTube is able o se he ules and hus he paymen e ms. YouTube exploi s his powe :
ideos a e some imes classi ied as ‘no sui able o ad e ising’(‘demone ised’), censo ed, o
dele ed wi hou p io no ice. E en hough his o m o algo i hmic con ol and a bi a y
pla o m decisions is no hing new o he pla o m economy in gene al (Wood and
G aham, 2019; Wood and Lehdon i a, 2023), a YouTube, he si ua ion culmina ed in Ma ch
2017 in he so‐called Adpocalypse, which ul ima ely led o massi e e enue losses o many
c ea o s (Kuma , 2019; Nieble , 2020). The s a ing poin was a scandal ha a ose when se e al
78
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WITZAK and HERTWIG
co po a e ad e isemen s we e placed in an i‐Semi ic o acis ideos. As a esul o he sub-
sequen ad cancella ions, YouTube los a signi ican amoun o ad e ising e enue and decided
o igh en i s ideo con ols. This new ype o e iew, which was la gely opaque o c ea o s,
in ol ed indi ec con en mode a ion ha di ec ly a ec ed a ideo's success and led o massi e
e enue losses o e en channel shu downs o c ea o s (Kuma , 2019; Nieble , 2020). A emp s
by c ea o s o con ac YouTube, o example o ob ain a e iew o he blanke channel shu -
down exclusions, we e unsuccess ul. This Adpocalypse was he ca alys o he o ming o he
YTU on Facebook.
2.2 |Go e nance o pla o ms h ough collec i e ep esen a ion
o in e es s
O e all, wo undamen al dimensions o pla o m labou s uggle a e eme ging in he pla o m
economy. Fi s , egula o y p o es s, which end o in ol e adi ional ade unions, and second,
dis ibu ion p o es s, which end o in ol e g ass oo s p o es s and ela ed o ms o o ganisa-
ion (Umney e al., 2023). Howe e , he e a e p oblema ic aspec s ha hinde he mobilisa ion
o bo h o ms. Cu en esea ch shows ha i is di icul o o ganise pla o m wo ke s col-
lec i ely in associa ions o ade unions (Lehdon i a, 2016; Wood e al., 2018). This is because
ypical condi ions o he eme gence o solida i y and collec i e ep esen a ion o in e es s do
no exis in he pla o m economy. Fo ins ance, a wo kplace o ganisa ion is missing, in which
wo ke s in e ac in a socio‐spa ial and pe manen way and expe ience hemsel es e e y day as
a‘g oup’ ha is collec i ely a ec ed by p oblems. Such spa ial sepa a ion also exis s on You-
Tube. P o essional o occupa ional iden i ies a e also weak. Many pla o m wo ke s do no see
ade unions as an app op ia e o m o ep esen a ion (Al‐Ani & S umpp, 2016).
On he o he hand, ecen esea ch shows ha he e is indeed a pla o m ade union
mo emen , cha ac e ised by i s eliance on he powe o associa ions a he han s uc u al
powe esou ces, i s p io i isa ion o legal enac men o e collec i e ba gaining, and i s lack
o wo kplace unionism (Joyce e al., 2023). The e a e some examples o o ms o p o es and
collec i e ep esen a ion in pla o m wo k. Fi s , he e a e cases whe e pla o m wo ke s ha e
es ablished classical in e es ep esen a ion s uc u es; his includes, o example, he es-
ablishmen o wo ks councils in ood deli e y companies, some imes in coope a ion wi h
adi ional ade unions (Tassina i & Macca one, 2017). Howe e , his o m o ep esen a-
ion is only a ailable o pla o m wo ke s i hey a e employed by an employe , which is
usually no he case in emo e wo k. Second, ade unions ha e ex ended hei ad ocacy
se ices o pla o m wo k, as in he case o Ge many's se ice sec o union e .di, which uns
asel ‐employmen ad ice se ice, o IGM's Fai C owd Wo k p ojec (Haipe e &
Hoose, 2019).Pa o heini ia i eis ocommi hepla o ms oa‘code o conduc ’ ha
codi ies ce ain s anda ds o beha iou . The e is also an a bi a ion boa d ha can be used in
case o dispu es. These ini ia i es p o ide basic suppo o pla o m wo ke s bu ha e been
li le used so a . Thi d, comple ely new o ms o in e es ep esen a ion ha e eme ged
in ecen yea s ha go beyond he es ablished s uc u es and ins i u ions o na ional sys ems
o in e es ep esen a ion (Umney e al., 2023). A p ominen example a e o ums o so‐called
plug‐ins, which s eng hen communica ion amongs pla o m wo ke s, enable moni o ing
o pla o ms and clien s, and a e in ended o educe he powe de ici o pla o m wo ke s, a
leas osomeex en (I ani&Silbe man,2013). Howe e , no uni o m end o wo ke ep-
esen a ion is isible so a .
GOVERNANCE OF LABOUR RELATIONS IN THE PLATFORM ECONOMY
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79
3|POWER, FRAMES, AND IDEAS IN THE GOVERNANCE
OF PLATFORMS
In his sec ion, we conside ade unions and social mo emen s ha could se e as d i e s o a
coun e ‐mo emen (Polanyi, 2001) o go e n a socio‐ echnical sys em such as a pla o m by
aligning ideas, as well as by pooling and complemen ing hei powe esou ces.
3
To analyse
his, we use a b oad no ion o go e nance acco ding o Mayn z (2004). Go e nance is unde -
s ood he e as he o ali y o di e en ypes o collec i e egula ion o social condi ions, esul ing
in di e en ways om he in e ac ion o p i a e and/o s a e ac o s, as well as om he
ins i u ionalised sel ‐ egula ion o ci il socie y (Mayn z, 2004).
Two ac o s in a possible coun e ‐mo emen in he go e nance p ocess a e ade unions and
social mo emen s. Fo es ablished ade unions, he pla o m economy o e s bo h challenges
and oppo uni ies. Faced wi h s uc u al economic change, ade unions ha e long had o
con end wi h a loss no only o in luence bu also legi imacy, exp essed in declining mem-
be ships and sh inking collec i e ba gaining co e age which os e ed s a egies o ‘o ganising’,
oge he wi h he scope o ‘union e i alisa ion’(Voss & She man, 2000). In his con ex , F ege
and Kelly (2003) a gue ha he consolida ion and expansion o ade union in luence can be
success ul i unions di e en ia e hei s a egies, o example by ocusing on new g oups o
wo ke s and adap ing pa icipa o y and c ea i e app oaches o social mo emen s. The accu-
mula ion o powe esou ces is o en a he cen e o he deba e, wi h ne wo k embeddedness
and na a i e esou ces being emphasised as impo an elemen s, amongs o he s (Lé esque &
Mu ay, 2010). This p ocess also en ails new o ms o o ganising such as campaigns.
The Fai Tube campaign by IGM and he YTU can also be in e p e ed as such a de elop-
men . The coope a ion wi h a (web‐based) social mo emen p omises o ex end IGM's in lu-
ence in o new ‘digi al’sec o s o he economy. Gi en ha wo ke s in he pla o m economy
ep esen an un apped po en ial o ‘mobilisable’wo ke s, ade unions s and o gain om
in ensi ying hei e o s in ela ion o his social g oup and he b anch hey ope a e in. A he
same ime, gaining access o his new g oup o wo ke s and winning hei suppo (and
ul ima ely hei membe ship) poses conside able challenges.
Resea ch on social mo emen s has gene ally d awn a dis inc ion be ween loose, luid
‘coali ions’and o ganised ‘social mo emen s’when conside ing in e ne ‐based o ms o mo-
bilisa ion (Dola a & Sch ape, 2018). Fo Kelly (1998), he key o mobilisa ion lies in iden i ying
g ie ances a wo k and aming hese as ‘injus ice’and collec i e p oblems; ac o s who a e held
esponsible o injus ices ( ypically employe s); p ospec s o change and powe o achie e
changes; as well as leade ship e o s. Conce ning globally sca e ed and he e ogeneous pla -
o m wo ke s, his poses he ques ion as o unde wha ci cums ances indi idual wo k‐ ela ed
g ie ances migh be pe cei ed as injus ices ha call o , and a e amenable o, a collec i e
esponse.
While cogni i e o pe cep ual aspec s, o ins ance aming p ocesses, a e ega ded as he
cen al basis o social mo emen s o eme ge and ac , indus ial ela ions esea ch has poin ed o
he impo ance o powe esou ces. An essen ial mo i a ion o o ganisa ional coope a ion in
he ield o indus ial ela ions can be he s eng hening o asse i eness by bundling o powe ,
which we will link o he abo e conside a ions in he ollowing.
3
An addi ional d i e would be he s a e ha could use legisla i e means o egula e wo king and employmen
condi ions.
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WITZAK and HERTWIG
3.1 |Powe esou ces
Powe and esou ces ha e long se ed as cen al ca ego ies o analysis in indus ial ela ions
esea ch. Fo ou s udy, we d aw on heo ies o powe esou ces and dis inguish ou majo
o ms o powe and h ee sub ypes (Schmalz e al., 2018). S uc u al powe lows om he
ma ke powe ha wo ke s possess due o ac o s such as hei posi ion on he labou ma ke
(sca ci y and deg ee o dependence) and hei capaci y o dis up economic ac i i y by i ue o
hei ole in he p oduc ion p ocess. C ucially, s uc u al powe needs o be ac i a ed by
wo ke s (e.g., in he o m o a s ike) o become e ec i e (Schmalz e al., 2018). Associa ional
powe a ises when wo ke s o ganise hemsel es and o m a collec i e, mos e iden ly wi h he
es ablishmen o ade unions bu also he se ing up o he YTU. Ins i u ional powe ela es o
s a u o y igh s o wo kplace and boa d‐le el code e mina ion, collec i e ba gaining o labou
law p o ec ions ha ha e been won h ough he exe cise o o ganisa ional powe o e he
cou se o ime. Socie al powe encompasses an ac o 's capaci y o win allies ou side i s
immedia e o ganisa ional bounda ies. Coali ional powe is a sub ype o socie al powe ha
becomes ac i a ed when o he ac o s, such as poli ical pa ies o ci il socie y o ganisa ions, a e
d awn in. Discu si e powe is a u he sub ype and is accumula ed h ough in luencing public
deba es o exposing misdeeds (ibid.). This aligns wi h ecen concep ions o idea ional powe
which e e s o ‘ideas, pa adigms, and policy p oposals; ideology, no ma i e alues, and deeply
held belie s and assump ions abou he way he wo ld wo ks; and he discou ses u ilised o
legi ima e o esis ideas’(McLaughlin & W igh , 2024, p. 98). E ec i ely o eg ounded ideas
ely on a sha ed na a i e ha allows ac o s o claim he mo al high g ound in a discou se
while accusing hei opponen s o ailing o ul il hei mo al obliga ions (P eminge , 2020;
W igh & McLaughlin, 2021).
Howe e , e en hough discu si e o idea ional powe e e o ideas, i is impo an o no e he
analy ical dis inc ion be ween cul u al‐cogni i e elemen s (i.e., ideas, wo ld‐ iews, aming) and
powe esou ces, which is impo an he e. While he la e e e s o he ques ion which esou ces
ac o s (can) deploy o asse hei in e es s in social exchange (Webe , 1978 [1921]), he i s e e s
o he social cons uc ion o ideas, belie s, and in e es s hey wish o asse using powe .
As al eady men ioned, s eng hening he abili y o asse onesel by pooling powe esou ces is
a key mo i a ion o o ganisa ional coope a ion. While he abo e ema ks on powe esou ces
illus a e he di e en esou ces ha exis , a heo e ical app oach is also needed ha is capable o
cap u ing he ac o s, hei coali ions and hei aming p ocesses. To explain he eme gen in e es
ep esen a ion p ac ices o he ac o s, we also need o conside cul u al ideas and ames as he
basis o coope a ion be ween he wo o ganisa ions. Only h ough his coope a ion can su icien
sou ces o powe be gene a ed o a icula e and success ully asse demands agains he pla o m.
3.2 |Ad ocacy coali ion amewo ks and ames
As al eady indica ed, s udies in he ield o ‘union e i alisa ion s udies’sugges ha he
consolida ion and expansion o union in luence may be success ul i unions di e en ia e hei
s a egies (F ege & Kelly, 2003). One speci ic poin he e ela es o c ea i e app oaches ha , o
example, esemble he app oach o social mo emen s o he o ging o new coali ions. This
p ocess is an on‐going nego ia ion p ocess be ween a necessa y enewal and ‘old’s uc u es, in
line wi h he espec i e ade union iden i y and objec i es o a ade union. The coope a ion
be ween IGM and he YouTube Union in he Fai Tube campaign analysed he e can also be
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in e p e ed as such a de elopmen . The coope a ion be ween a ade union and a social
mo emen p omises o ex end he in luence o IGM o new, ‘digi al’economic segmen s, bu
also equi es a enewal o he union's ac i ism.
To analyse hese new coali ions, a heo e ical app oach is needed ha can explici ly ocus
on coali ions based on ideas, while a he same ime being open o he in eg a ion o aming
app oaches om social mo emen esea ch. In combina ion wi h he abo e‐men ioned powe
esou ces, his allows o an in‐dep h analysis.
We use he ‘Ad ocacy Coali ion F amewo ks’(ACF) app oach p oposed by Paul Saba ie
(1988). ACF has been inc easingly adop ed in ecen yea s in s udies o p o ound poli ical
change as well as in discou se esea ch (Bandelow, 2015; Jenkins‐Smi h e al., 2017;
Lei eld, 2013). This app oach allows p ocesses o meaning a ibu ion and sha ed e e ences o
be unea hed h ough an analysis o ideas. The co e assump ion is ha coali ions and ins ances
o coope a ion a e buil on sha ed belie sys ems. Ideas, ac o s, and he social p ac ices o
aming cons i u e an in e connec ed complex. This app oach allows a mo e p ecise iden i i-
ca ion o he co e hema ic e e ences o a mo emen o a campaign oge he wi h ideas ha a e
sha ed–o no sha ed–be ween he ac o s in ol ed. When analysing new coali ions in a ield, as
be ween IGM and YTU, i is use ul o ocus on how such belie sys ems eme ge and a e
implemen ed o cap u e he ideas ha o m a coali ion's ounda ion.
F om he ou se , YTU saw i sel as a social (in e ne ) mo emen ac ing p ima ily ia social
media (Facebook). I add essed a se o igh ly de ined p oblems, in ha i in e p e ed and
amed e en s such as he Adpocalypse as i s sou ce o g ie ance. Such aming, unde s ood as
sha ed in e p e a i e ames ha ep esen phenomena as un a ou able o p oblema ic, is a key
concep in social mo emen esea ch (Della Po a & Diani, 2006). Social mo emen s engage
inac i e and unconnec ed ac o s h ough sha ed belie s. Di e en mo emen s use di e en
aming p ac ices o es ablish sha ed belie s. These p ac ices ans o m issues iden i ied by he
mo emen in o g ie ances, making hem ecognisable and acknowledged.
F aming p ocesses exhibi a numbe o cha ac e is ic ea u es. Fi s , a mo emen 's col-
lec i e ac ion ames will ypically ela e o a mas e ame (Snow e al., 1986) consis ing o
socie ally accep ed ideas o alues such as (un) ai ness, (in)equali y, o democ acy. F ame
alignmen hen es ablishes plausible linkages o such mas e ames. F aming ac ics, o
a ious kinds, enable social mo emen s o sol e he p oblem o inducing indi iduals o
iden i y wi h hei aims and engage in (collec i e) ac ion. F ame b idging is a p ocess h ough
which ac o s cons uc cogni i e links be ween hei a ious objec i es, such as building a
b idge be ween ac o s o o ganisa ions wi h cong uen in e es s. Social mo emen esea ch
gene ally p oceeds on he assump ion ha he success o a campaign will a y in ela ion o
he success o hese b idging e o s. This is cap u ed in he concep o ame esonance ha
o e s an indica o o how well ame alignmen is con e ed in o collec i e ac ion h ough
he impac o a ame on po en ial ac o s.
O e all, he heo e ical amewo k used he e is based on mac o‐ heo e ical amewo ks
(Mayn z, 2004; Polanyi, 2001) and wo cen al heo e ical pilla s (Powe Resou ces App oach
and Ad ocacy Coali ion F amewo k), which a e linked by app oaches om esea ch on ade
union e i alisa ion and esea ch on social mo emen s. To unde s and how he go e nance o
labou on YouTube can be success ul in he ace o exis ing obs acles, we ame he esea ch
objec o he YTU's coope a ion wi h he IGM (Fai ube) as a coun e ‐mo emen in he sense o
Polanyi (2001) ha has he po en ial o ad ance he go e nance o socio‐ echnical sys ems
(Mayn z, 2004). Ac o s can achie e his go e nance by ha monising hei ideas and pooling
hei esou ces.
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inequali ies o powe and dependence, he comme cial o ien a ion o he pla o ms, and he
ac ha p o ec i e egula ions p o ided by na ional employmen law a e inapplicable. The
second ela es o speci ic g ie ances o e he asymme y o powe be ween in e ne com-
panies and wo ke s in he pla o m economy, in gene al, and he conduc o YouTube, in
pa icula . These add esses p oblems o au oma ic con en con ol, disc imina ion agains
small c ea o s, and he pla o m's p e e ences gi en o ad e ise ‐ iendly con en (Wood
e al., 2018). Those g ie ances we e amed as collec i e issues and a ibu ed o a esponsible
ac o , ha is, YouTube (Kelly, 1998). A hi d pa e n o in e p e a ion is he sel ‐ e lexi e
de ini ion o ac o s' own coope a ion in he Fai Tube campaign which e lec s ecen calls o
new s a egies o collec i e wo ke ep esen a ion in he digi al economy. IGM and YTU
emphasised ha i was impo an o ac collec i ely and s essed he bene i s o coope a ion.
This di ec ly add essed he logic o ade union o ganisa ion–employees s anding oge he in
acollec i e–bu also one ha is e lec ed in he YTU as a (in e ne ) social mo emen .
O e all, he e we e ew di e gences o pe spec i e be ween IGM and YTU. The aming o
wo k on YouTube appea ed o be he cen al poin o e e ence ha bo h pa icipa ing o gani-
sa ions ag eed on and which he e o e se ed as a means o in eg a ion in he Fai Tube p ojec .
(b) Demands and objec i es
Ano he ac o ha enabled coope a ion was ha YTU and IGM pu sued, ye no
always simila , bu a leas compa ible goals (Table 2). Bo h ac o s called on YouTube o
change i s beha iou , p incipally a ound he concep s o ‘ anspa ency’,‘ ai ness’, and
‘communica ion’. The call o g ea e anspa ency on mone isa ion o he ules o
‘pe mi ed’mone isable con en we e he co e demands ela ed o he ini ial p oblem, he
Adpocalypse. This was also connec ed o he demand o a ‘ ai ’conduc owa ds c ea o s
ha was ela ed bo h o anspa ency and also o app op ia e mone isa ion p inciples.
This also included c i icism o he cul u e o communica ion as he lack o anspa ency
was addi ionally e lec ed in poo communica ion be ween YouTube and mos c ea o s.
Fo example, i YouTube blocked a c ea o 's channel wi hou gi ing any easons o e-
e ing o gene ic ules o he pla o m (lack o anspa ency), his was also accompanied
by blocking hei pe sonal accoun (E02_y u). Should his happen, a c ea o would ha e
no means o con ac ing YouTube (lack o means o communica ion) and he e o e also no
oppo uni y o ha e an inco ec decision by he YouTube algo i hm e iewed.
Howe e , i was e iden ha some demands had a g ea e signi icance o IGM han o
YTU and ice e sa which is due o he di e en o ganisa ional logics. Whe eas IGM
called o ‘nego ia ions’in line wi h he logic o a ade union, he YTU eques ed ‘ alks’.
Fo YTU he issue was no o secu e a collec i e ag eemen o ai employmen con ac s
as c ea o s alue hei s a us as sel ‐employed. Ra he , c ea o s wan ed an equi able
‘business ela ionship’wi h YouTube, co esponding o hei s a us as independen con-
ac o s. Fu he mo e, whe he discussions be ween YouTube and IGM, YTU, o Fai Tube
cons i u e ‘nego ia ions’o simply ‘p elimina y alks’(be o e he eal ‘nego ia ions’) has
no been en i ely cla i ied by he pa ies.
The e a e also di e ences conce ning some o he demands. IGM, ou o a ade union
logic, ega ded an a bi a ion p ocedu e (‘Ombudsman’) o concilia ion in he e en o a
dispu e o ‘code e mina ion on an ad iso y boa d’as impo an elemen s. Howe e , hose
demands we e less impo an o YTU. Con e sely, he issue o censo ship (‘mode a ion’)
was cen al o YTU as his de e mined he scope o mone ising ideos (E02_y u).
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E en ually, ideas and concep s ha buil he ounda ion o he coope a ion emained
gene ic and o li le binding na u e. The somewha ague e minology–p eca i y, powe
asymme y in he digi al economy, collec i e coope a ion as a aluable means–e en ually
helped o blu he la en con adic ions be ween he unde lying objec i es o he wo
o ganisa ions and so acili a ed hei coope a ion. This is illus a ed in he concep s o
‘ anspa ency’and ‘ ai ness’, each o which a e qui e gene ic ca ego ies ha lea e sub-
s an ial scope o in e p e a ion. This la i ude can be help ul in p omo ing coope a ion,
howe e , as he b oadly accep ed alues hey ensh ine allow adi ional unde s andings
(IGM) o connec wi h he p oblems o he new digi al wo ld o wo k (YTU). As long as
he ac o s e ain om p oposing conc e e ac i i ies o success c i e ia, wha hese e ms
mean and wha would cons i u e ‘success’can con inue o be a ma e o in e p e a ion
(Ma ch & Simon, 1958).
Acco dingly, he coope a ion be ween YTU and IGM can be ega ded as a s a egy o
‘loose coupling’(Weick, 2006 [1985]). Th ough loosely coupling o ganisa ional uni s and
h ough o ganisa ional di e en ia ion (as in he Fai Tube e.V.), pa icipan s can mobilise
esou ces wi hou a ec ing hei o ganisa ional co e, neglec ing adi ional asks and
membe in e es s. The e o e, any se backs o losses in he engagemen will only pa ially
a ec he o ganisa ion as a whole. They do no lead o a loss o esou ces and legi imacy
ha could a ec adi ional a eas o ac i i y, which would ha e been ha m ul o bo h IGM
and YTU.
(c) Fo ms o powe
A bene i o he coope a ion be ween YTU and IGM was he pooling and ac i a ion o o h-
e wise dispe sed powe esou ces (see Table 2). The s uc u al, associa ional, and ins i u-
ional o ms o powe ha IGM can ac i a e in i s classic domain– he Ge man manu-
ac u ing sec o –we e o li le use in he pla o m economy. Only YTU was in a posi ion o
mobilise he s uc u al and associa ional powe ha lows om wo ke s' posi ion in he
p oduc ion p ocess and om i s access o i s social base, he c ea o s. This consequen ly
c ea ed he ounda ion o collec i e ac ions such as ‘shi s o ms’and a c ea o s' s ike.
None heless, IGM's coali ional powe esou ces played a key ole. Fo example, IGM
spen se e al mon hs mobilising i s con ac s in he poli ical sys ems o Ge many and he
Eu opean Union o e he issue o whe he he e had been a b each o Eu opean da a
p o ec ion law, he GDPR, o whe he YouTube migh be legally liable o using bogus sel ‐
employmen , c ea ing a se ious and c edible h ea o cou ac ion. Such powe esou ces
we e no a ailable o YTU.
These di e ences in access o sou ces o powe e iden ly o med he basis o a di ision o
labou be ween IGM and YTU. YTU's p oximi y o c ea o s allowed i o unc ion as an
immedia e poin o con ac o ‘ he wo ke s’. As an ou come o associa ional powe , dis-
cussions wi h YouTube o e changes o i s e ms o se ice we e conduc ed wi h YTU and
indi idual c ea o s. The s ike and shi s o m we e also ini ia ed by YTU.
Wha is no iceable is he absence o ‘ins i u ional’powe esou ces (Table 2). This si -
ua ion no only denies he mo emen access o legally gua an eed powe and is ha d o
ec i y. This is a no ewo hy s a e‐o ‐a ai s as much o IGM's p ac ices in he ield o in e es
ep esen a ion in i s co e domain es on ins i u ional and associa ional powe esou ces,
like he igh o collec i e ba gaining and a high deg ee o unionisa ion.
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6|DISCUSSION
In he digi al economy, wo ke s gene ally su e om he powe imbalance ha gi es pla o ms
he oppo uni y o shape he ules o digi al ma ke places, which hey o en use in a ou o
cus ome s, consume s, o he company ha uns he pla o m i sel . YouTube c ea o s' loss in
income igge ed a mo emen ha cons i u ed a collec i e uphea al agains he YouTube
pla o m. Compa ed o o he ade union mo emen s in he digi al economy (Umney
e al., 2023), he Fai Tube case is special in wo espec s. I conce ns bo h dis ibu ion and
egula o y p o es s: he i s e e s o he emune a ion issues ha igge ed he p o es ,
he second e e s o he c ea o s' discon en wi h YouTube's p ac ice o communica ion,
anspa ency o ules, and dealing wi h a bi a ion (see also Nieble & Ke n, 2020). Ano he
speci ic is he in ol emen o bo h a adi ional ade union and a g ass oo s p o es wi h he
campaign as i s ini ial o m o o ganisa ion.
Ou s udy shows ha e en in he ield o digi al pla o m wo k, whe e collec i e oice is
unlikely, endu ing ep esen a ional o ms can be es ablished ha each beyond ad hoc o em-
po al mo emen s. The s udy sheds ligh on o he ques ion o how i was possible o o e come he
hu dles, ha is, lack o powe and engagemen as well as agmen a ion o he ( emo e) wo ke s
and he e ogenei y conce ning iden i ies and in e es s (e.g., Lehdon i a, 2016;Woode al.,2018).
We a gue ha collec i e ac ion, on he one hand, was possible due o a combina ion o ac o s
ha a e highligh ed by mobilisa ion heo y (Kelly, 1998), o example, success ul aming o
g ie ances as injus ice and a ibu ing hem o a liable ac o , ha is, he pla o m company
YouTube; p ospec s o success o he collec i e endea ou ; and engaged ac o s, ha is, he
ounde o he YTU who commi ed much ime and esou ces.
On he o he hand, howe e , ou s udy poin s o addi ional ac o s ha appea ele an and
exceed p e ious accoun s o collec i e ac ion on digi al labou ma ke s.
(1) Complemen a y powe esou ces
The i s ac o is ha he lack o powe esou ces can be success ully compensa ed by
coali ion building whe e each pa ne con ibu es complemen a y powe esou ces. In his
espec , ou s udy pa ly de ia es om accoun s which s a e ha he pla o m union
mo emen is cha ac e ised by eliance on he powe o associa ions and i s p io i isa ion o
legal enac men o e collec i e ba gaining (e.g., Joyce e al., 2023). In he Fai Tube case,
coali ional powe appea s o be a he cen e o a success ul mo emen because i was he
p e equisi e o he ac i a ion o o he ele an powe esou ces. Howe e , his only holds
ue when he coali ion pa ne s b ing powe esou ces o he able ha p o e ele an in
he espec i e con ex . In he Fai Tube mo emen , IGM's ins i u ional powe s we e a he
i ele an compa ed o he coali ional esou ces and legi imacy ha allowed hem o build
a c edible h ea . This was complemen ed by associa ional powe o he YTU. Fai Tube
eached i s goals no by legal ac ion (e en hough ha was a h ea ), whe e cou s decide
o e a bi a ion (e.g., Joyce e al., 2023), bu h ough a o m o dialogue o ba gaining ha
has been ega ded la gely i ele an in he pla o m economy (ibid.). Only la e , wi h he
o malisa ion o he Fai Tube e.V. associa ion, dialogue and legal measu es (lawsui s in
case o a bi a ion) seem o go hand in hand.
(2) B idging gaps h ough aming o complemen a y in e es s
While agmen a ion o he wo k o ce was o e come by aming he issues wi h You-
Tube as a collec i e and se e e ma e (Adpocalypse) o which YouTube was o blame, a
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challenge lay in building he ounda ion o a coope a ion be ween IGM and YTU. The
pooling o powe esou ces equi ed a ‘belie sys em’, ha is, he aming o sha ed
in e p e a ions conce ning dep i a ions and liabili y, common goals and sui able s a egies
(Kelly, 1998). This was a necessa y condi ion because he coali ion pa ne s s a kly di e ed
conce ning hei o ganisa ional logics. This was ele an mos ly o IGM, o which he
engagemen wi h he YTU mean a de ia ion om i s adi ional domain o egula em-
ploymen in he manu ac u ing sec o .
One o he key ac o s enabling he coope a ion be ween IGM and YTU was hei
e e ence o widely sha ed and gene ally accep ed alues. Fai Tube highligh ed he chal-
lenges o digi al wo k, linking hem o widely discussed na a i es in he con ex o ‘digi al
ans o ma ion issues’such as he powe o majo socio‐ echnical in e ne companies and
p eca ious wo k (e.g., Dola a & Sch ape, 2018; Wood e al., 2018). This aming unde pins
collabo a ion and con en alignmen , wi h a pa icula ocus on he p eca iousness dis-
cou se, which esona es wi h bo h wide social issues and ea u es o he pla o m econ-
omy. This ela ion o gene al ideas as ame b idging (Snow e al., 1986)–connec ing wi h
exis ing socially accep ed ames such as un egula ed and un ai wo k in he digi al
economy – o med he concep ual ounda ion o he coope a ion and se ed as an
impo an in eg a ing ac o .
Choosing he o ganisa ional o m o a campaign and o ganisa ional di e en ia ion was
ano he means o enable coope a ion be ween o he wise di e en pa ne s wi hou isk o
losing c edibili y and legi imacy om each pa ne s' cons i uency. A campaign exhibi s a
low le el o o malisa ion and is cha ac e ised by ‘loose coupling’(Weick, 2006 [1985]),
which o ganisa ions pu sue o a oid in e nal dis up ion. IGM could no engage oo
in ensi ely in ac i i ies ha lie ou side i s co e domain (mainly collec i e ba gaining in
Ge man manu ac u ing) and ha do no di ec ly conce n i s social base ( ade union
membe s in he adi ional b anches o he Ge man manu ac u ing indus y). Fo i s pa ,
YTU would ha e un in o se ious c edibili y p oblems i i had ied o ac as a sec ion o a
adi ional indus ial union ha was ying o s ee he digi al economy in o he o malised
pa hs o ins i u ionalised employmen egula ion. In con as , a ‘campaign’is a ime‐bound
o ganisa ional o m o collabo a ion ha equi es minimal esou ce in es men . I allows
he c ea ion o an ‘a en ion economy’wi hou changing he co e iden i y o he pa ici-
pa ing o ganisa ions.
7|CONCLUSION
Digi alisa ion and new o ms o employmen ha e all p omp ed eac ions and newly eme ging
pa e ns o social go e nance (Polanyi, 2001). The s a ing poin o hese de elopmen s a e
always he egula o y de iciencies o an exis ing sys em, gi en dynamics o digi alisa ion and
eme ging company s a egies (e.g., G aham e al., 2017; Liang e al., 2022). Such o ms o
in e es a icula ion ha combine exis ing p ac ices and esou ces om di e en domains,
he eby cons uc ing endu ing s uc u es, can be ega ded as ‘hyb id’ o ms o in e es ep e-
sen a ion. YTU and he Fai Tube campaign ep esen an ins ance o such an eme gen o de
ha is capable o egula ing a leas pa s o issues ha a ise in a new socio‐ echnical sys em.
The empi ical e idence shown in he Fai Tube case sugges s ha a hyb id model – ha is,
coope a ion be ween adi ional and new ac o s –is a p omising s a egy o gi e wo ke s a
oice e en i ins i u ional igh s a e a e in he digi al economy. The eason is ha hyb id
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models allow he pooling o powe esou ces and he ans e o legi imacy h ough ac i a ing
legi imacy o es ablished ac o s while ge ing a oo in he doo o he new g oups, hei
p oblems and p e e ences ega ding he (collec i e) ep esen a ion o in e es s.
I emains an open ques ion whe he he hyb id egula o y model be ween an es ablished
ade union and an (in e ne ) social mo emen is exempla y o ends o social change wi hin
ansna ional employmen sys ems. Ob iously, i equi es commi ed ac o s and leade ship on
bo h sides (Kelly, 1998). S ill, coope a ion is no easy o achie e, gi en he he e ogenei y o he
ac o s in ol ed. In con as o p e ious esea ch (Nieble & Ke n, 2020; Schmalz e al., 2018), ou
s udy highligh s he c ucial ole o cul u al belie sys ems and he dis inc powe esou ces ha
a e b ough o bea h ough collabo a ion. This add esses a conce n aised by many c i ics o
powe esou ce app oaches (Re slund & A nhol z, 2022). The Fai Tube case shows ha powe
esou ces do no ans o m in o success ul collec i e ac ion wi hou ideological ounda ions. I
also sheds ligh on he in e ela ion be ween di e en ypes o powe . In ou case, coali ional
powe can be ega ded as an an eceden necessa y o o he powe esou ces o become e ec i e.
Howe e , he s udy also e eals he agili y o his a angemen which ende s u u e
success unce ain and lea es i an open ques ion, whe he he chosen o ganisa ional o ms will
p e ail and be e ec i e in he long un. The ans o ma ion o he Fai Tube campaign in o a
o malised associa ion a he headqua e s o he IGM is a no ewo hy ou come o a social
mo emen ha usually is only e ec i e o e a ce ain pe iod o ime (Snow e al., 1986)asi is
ha dly possible o main ain a high a en ion le el in he long un. The Fai Tube e.V. associa ion
is an o ganisa ional o m ha has been se up o add ess a bi a ion and he conce ns o
c ea o s in a sus ainable way, e en i i does no achie e he publici y o a p o es mo emen .
A limi a ion o he s udy is ha i was no possible o conduc in e iews wi h ep esen a i es
o he pa icipa ing companies. Ou s udy p o ides only a ‘snapsho ’a his s age and should be
complemen ed by u he esea ch in o he u u e de elopmen o Fai Tube e.V., i s po en ial o
e ec i e ad ocacy, and analysis o o he ad ocacy ac i i ies in he digi al economy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This s udy was no unded by hi d pa ies. We hank Pe e Bu ges o linguis ic commen s on
he ex and Michelle Mülle o he help in edi ing he quo a ions. Open Access unding
enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The e a e no ele an inancial o non inancial compe ing in e es s be ween he au ho s and
he ac o s being esea ched.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The non eac i e da a unde lying he discou se ne wo k analysis indings o his s udy, as well
as he ansc ip s o he publicly a ailable YouTube ideos, a e a ailable upon easonable
eques om he co esponding au ho , Pa ick Wi zak. Please no e ha he ull audio acks o
he in e iew da a and non eac i e da a, which we e p o ided o us in con idence by he
expe s, a e no publicly a ailable as hey con ain in o ma ion ha could comp omise he
p i acy o he esea ch pa icipan s.
ORCID
Pa ick Wi zak h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-6131-188X
Ma kus He wig h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-1627-8405
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