Climate change perception, adaptation, and constraints in irrigated agriculture in Punjab and Sindh, Pakistan

Mobeen, Muhammad; Kabi , Khondoka H.; Schneide , Uwe A.; Ahmed, Tauqee ;
Sche an, Jü gen
A icle — Published Ve sion
Clima e change pe cep ion, adap a ion, and cons ain s in
i iga ed ag icul u e in Punjab and Sindh, Pakis an
Mi iga ion and Adap a ion S a egies o Global Change
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Mobeen, Muhammad; Kabi , Khondoka H.; Schneide , Uwe A.; Ahmed, Tauqee ;
Sche an, Jü gen (2025) : Clima e change pe cep ion, adap a ion, and cons ain s in i iga ed
ag icul u e in Punjab and Sindh, Pakis an, Mi iga ion and Adap a ion S a egies o Global Change,
ISSN 1573-1596, Sp inge Ne he lands, Do d ech , Vol. 30, Iss. 4,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11027-025-10212-1
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Clima e change pe cep ion, adap a ion, andcons ain s
ini iga ed ag icul u e inPunjab andSindh, Pakis an
MuhammadMobeen1,3,7 · Khondoka H.Kabi 2,4,5 · UweA.Schneide 2 ·
Tauqee Ahmed6 · Jü genSche an1,3
Recei ed: 17 Ap il 2023 / Accep ed: 7 Ma ch 2025 / Published online: 2 Ap il 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
Pakis an’s i iga ed ag icul u e su e s om clima e change due o i s high exposu e o
clima eex eme e en s and he low adap a ion o i s a ming sys ems. Unde s anding he
human aspec s o adap a ion decisions in a ulne able clima ic en i onmen is in eg al
o policymake s who wan o enhance a me s’ adap i e capaci y. This s udy in es iga es
how a me s pe cei e clima e change and wha adap a ion s a egies hey conside . Fu -
he mo e, we assess he enabling and cons aining ac o s in luencing a me s’ adap a ion
decisions. We conduc ed in-pe son in e iews wi h 800 a me s ac oss Pakis an’s i iga ed
dis ic s o he Punjab and Sindh p o inces. We used a s anda dized ques ionnai e o ga he
p ima y c oss-sec ional da a, which we analyzed wi h desc ip i e s a is ics. The esul s
show ha a me s in he Indus Plain ha e no iced changes in clima e ex emes along wi h
longe summe and sho e win e seasons du ing he las en yea s. Mos a me s a e awa e
o adap a ion op ions and ha e al eady applied some measu es. Howe e , he dominan
adap a ion s a egies di e be ween egions. The a me s in Punjab ha e p ima ily adop ed
c op and a m managemen p ac ices, while a me s in Sindh ha e ocused on implemen -
ing i iga ion measu es. In bo h p o inces, a me s ega ded ainwa e ha es ing as he
leas adop ed s a egy due o pe cei ed lowe e ec i eness and p ac ical challenges. The
main cons ain s in he egion a e a lack o inancial esou ces, wa e sca ci y, and poo soil
e ili y. Fa ming decisions a e p ima ily in luenced by he a ailabili y o inancial capi al,
and speci ic challenges such as a iable ain all pa e ns and ising empe a u es. Ou ind-
ings can help policymake s design be e policy ins umen s ha accoun o a me s’ pe -
cep ions, mo i a ions, and cons ain s and a e hus mo e e ec i e in p omo ing sus ainable
a ming p ac ices in Pakis an.
Keywo ds Clima e change pe cep ion· Adap a ion· Cons ain s· I iga ed ag icul u e·
Indus plain· Pakis an
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 2 o 27
1 In oduc ion
Clima e change p esen s a c i ical challenge o ag icul u e in Pakis an, a coun y hea ily
elian on i s ag icul u al sec o , cons i u ing 22.9% o i s GDP and engaging 37.4% o i s
labo o ce as o 2022 (GoP 2023). Despi e he dependenceo ag icul u e on canal i iga-
ion, Pakis an is no ably ulne able o clima e change due o a id condi ions in many pa s
(Abdullah e al. 2023; Adnan e al. 2017; Ahmed e al. 2019; Schilling e al. 2013; Ullah
e al. 2022). This ulne abili y is u he agg a a ed by global clima e change as Pakis an
is he i h mos highly a ec ed coun y om 1999 o 2018 (Ecks ein e al. 2019). These
ci cums ances highligh he u gency o esea ch in clima e change pe cep ion, adap a ion,
cons ain s, and ac o s o adap a ion decisions, pa icula ly in signi ican ood-p oducing
a eas like i iga ed plains o Punjab and Sindh p o inces.
The ag icul u al sec o in Pakis an is al eady acing se e e challenges om ising em-
pe a u es, d ough s, loods, and low c op yields (Abbas 2013; Ahmad e al. 2020; Ahmed
& Schmi z 2011; Mohsin & Adnan 2023; Waseem e al. 2022). The clima e o he egions
is now con on ing an e en mo e signi ican h ea om p ojec ed clima ic a ia ions (Eas -
e ling e al. 2000). These p ojec ions sugges an in ensi ica ion o clima e change e ec s on
he coun y’s ain- ed and i iga ed ag icul u al sys ems. Speci ically, Punjab and Sindh a e
he key whea and ice p oduc ion egions. These egions ha e wi nessed declining c op
yields and ising c op diseases due o clima e ex emes such as loods, d ough s, and hea
wa es (Ish aq e al. 2019). I is es ima ed ha he c op yield can u he decline in p oduc-
i i y unde a ious clima e scena ios (IPCC 2014), necessi a ing examining local adap a-
ion measu es o a oid hese ad e se e ec s.
Cu en esea ch on clima e change pe cep ion and adap a ion o Pakis an’s ag icul u e
has p o ided subs an ial insigh s. Howe e , i o en lacks comp ehensi e co e age ac oss
di e se ag oecological zones, especially he i iga ed plains o Punjab and Sindh (Abid
e al. 2015; Abid e al. 2019; Abid e al. 2016a, b; Ali & Rose 2021; Go s e al. 2018; Sal-
man e al. 2018; Sa gani e al. 2022; Syed e al. 2022). Mos o hese s udies co e smalle
a ming a eas and sample sizes. This limi a ion es ic s he applicabili y o indings and
challenges he de elopmen o e ec i e policies. Fu he mo e, a no able de iciency exis s
in unde s anding how local a me s pe cei e clima e change and i s di ec impac on hei
li elihoods. The in e ac ion be ween en i onmen al d i e s and a me s’ decision-making
p ocesses in hese a eas emains unde explo ed. This s udy, which ecognizes his gap,
ocuses on bo h Punjab and Sindh p o inces, aiming o o e a mo e comp ehensi e iew
o clima e change adap a ion in he i iga ed plains o he Indus. In ligh o he abo e con-
ex , his s udy explo es he adap a ion dynamics in i iga ed zones, emphasizing he spe-
ci ic cons ain s and ac o s a ec ing he a me s’ adap a ion s a egies.
Ou esea ch, aiming o add ess hese issues, encompasses an ex ensi e ield su ey
in he Punjab and Sindh p o inces. This app oach allows a deepe unde s anding o hese
p o inces’ adap a ion s a egies ac oss di e se en i onmen al and socio-economic se ings.
The su ey, wi h a signi ican sample size (n = 800), is designed o cap u e a me s’ pe cep-
ions, adap a ion, cons ain s, and ac o s o adap a ion in he uppe and lowe i iga ed
plains o he Indus basin. We in es iga e he ollowing h ee p incipal esea ch ques ions:
1. How do a me s pe cei e clima e change and i s impac s on i iga ed ag icul u e?
2. Which adap a ion op ions do hey know, and wha is hei adop ion s a us in he s udy
a ea?
3. Wha ac o s and cons ain s in luence a me s’ adap a ion decisions?
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 3 o 27 23
These ques ions a e essen ial o unde s anding he challenges o e ec i e adap a-
ion s a egies in ag icul u al p ac ices, pa icula ly ega ding a me s’ pe cep ions and
beha io s in Punjab and Sindh p o inces.
2 MPPACC asa heo e ical amewo k
Se e al s udies ha e in es iga ed he clima e change pe cep ion o a me s and hei
adap a ion ac ions using a a ie y o heo e ical assump ions. Below a e some o he
mos widely used heo ies o unde s anding pe cep ion-based adap a ion ac ions.
These heo ies a e based on he unde s anding o he socio-cogni i e p ocesses o indi-
iduals. Some ele an heo ies a e gi en below.
Ajzen (1985) p oposed he Theo y o Planned Beha io (TPB), which s a es ha
indi idual in en ion can explain indi idual beha io . Indi iduals’ in en ions depend on
hei a i udes, subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed beha io al con ol. The TPB has i s
oo s in he Theo y o Reason Ac ion (TRA), which s a es ha an indi idual’s in en-
ion o engage in a beha io is de e mined by hei a i ude owa d he beha io and
subjec i e no ms (Fishbein & Ajzen 1977). TRA and TPB e ec i ely explain how a i-
udes, subjec i e no ms, and pe cei ed beha io con ol in ended beha io , bu hey
o e look o he in ape sonal ac o s and socio-en i onmen al con ex s. The Values
Belie s No ms Theo y (VBN) ocuses on how pe sonal alues, en i onmen al belie s,
and mo al no ms d i e p o-en i onmen al beha io , unde sco ing he ole o no ma i e
in luences bu neglec ing socio-en i onmen al con ex s (S e n 2000). The P o ec ion
Mo i a ion Theo y (PMT) o Roge s (1983); and Roge s and P en ice-Dunn (2014)
u ges he ole o h ea app aisal and coping app aisal o mo i a e he in en ion o p o-
ec onesel agains pe cei ed h ea s wi hou conside ing he in luence o socio-en i-
onmen al con ex (Floyd e al. 2000). La e , G o hmann and Pa (2005) p oposed he
Model o P i a e P oac i e Adap a ion o Clima e Change (MPPACC), which modi ied
he PMT’s cogni i e p ocesses and supplemen ed socio-en i onmen al ac o s in o he
model o add ess clima e change isk and adap a ion app aisal.
The PMMACC’s ocus on clima e change as a isk, app aisal o adap a ion, and
inclusion o socio-ecological elemen s makes i an ap heo e ical amewo k o he
p esen s udy. This heo y is sui able o analyzing a me ’s clima e change adap a ion
app aisal. The p ocess model o MPPACC co e s how a me s pe cei e clima e change
as a isk and hei abili y o adap , which pe ec ly aligns wi h ou s udy’s ocus. The
model also add esses adap a ion s a egies known o he a me s and he ex en o hei
implemen a ion. The model also conside s he ole o ex e nal cogni i e ac o s and
cons ain s ha challenge a me s’ decision o adap . All hese aspec s a e he ocus o
he p esen s udy. Many s udies employed he PMMACC o unde s and clima e change
pe cep ion, and adap a ion in ag icul u e. We abula e some o hem below in Table1
Table1 summa izes ha a me s’ adap a ion in en ion is signi ican ly in luenced by
hei sel -e icacy and empi ical adap i e capaci y a he han me ely cogni i e pe -
cep ions o isk. Addi ionally, social and poli ical capabili ies, alongside awa eness o
e ec i e measu es, play a c i ical ole in shaping adap a ion beha io s, wi h a no able
impac o social iden i y on clima e isk pe cep ion and mo i a ion.
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 4 o 27
Table 1 S udies on he use o MPPACC as a heo e ical amewo k
Au ho S udy a ea Sample App oach S udy’s Insigh
(Yang e al. 2024) China 2230 Quan i a i e Sel -e icacy is a posi i e p edic o o adap i e ac ion
(Mi e e al. 2024) India 20 Quali a i e Fa me s ha e di e se adap a ion in en ions, including inno a i e and con ac i e measu es
(Bagambilana and Rugumamu2023) Tanzania 328 Quan i a i e The adap a ion in en ion o a me s is la gely explained by empi ical adap i e capaci y a he han
cogni i e ac o s
(Zobeidi e al. 2022) I an 250 Quan i a i e Sel -e icacy has a nega i e e ec on adap i e beha io . Pe cei ed suscep ibili y a ec s maladap a-
ion and adap i e beha io
(Mi e e al. 2019) Aus ia 29 Quali a i e Adap a ion in en ions a e only o med i a me s a e awa e o e ec i e adap a ion measu es
(Woods e al. 2017) Denma k 1053 Quan i a i e Fa me s exp essed limi ed conce n abou clima e change impac s bu show a mode a e willingness
o ake adap i e ac ions in he u u e i hey see bene i s a ising om clima e change impac s
(Bu nham and Ma2017) China 483 Quan i a i e Sel -e icacy p edic s he in en ion o adap , while me ely pe cei ing clima e change isks and
impac s does no necessa ily esul in an adap a ion in en ion
(Eakin e al.2016)USA 33 Quan i a i e Linking capabili ies like social and poli ical capi al mo i a es collec i e decisions o ac ion
(F ank e al. 2011) Mexico 318 Quan i a i e Social iden i y shapes a me s’ clima e isk pe cep ion, mo i a ion, and adap a ion
(Ku uppu and Li e man2011) Ki iba i 132 Quan i a i e Sel -e icacy is a d i e o adap a ion in en ion

Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 5 o 27 23
3 Li e a u e e iew
Clima e change is a signi ican challenge o ag icul u e (Smi h & Olesen 2010), and all
a ound he wo ld, people a e asking o adap o he cu en clima e condi ions (Howden
e al. 2007). This u gency o adap is equally p onounced wo ldwide, pa icula ly in Sou h
Asia whe e a majo glacial mel and monsoon changes pose se ious challenges o ag icul-
u e (Mish a e al. 2020). So, his egion is unde na u al and man-made cons ain s (A yal
e al. 2019). These cons aining ac o s a e mo e daun ing o he smallholde s due o hei
low adap a i e capaci y (Ozo e al. 2011). Howe e , highe adap i e capaci y posi i ely
in luences adap a ion p ac ices (Masud e al. 2022; Mobeen e al. 2023). Se e al s udies
ha e epo ed ha he e ec i eness o adap a ion decisions is linked o s onge clima e
change pe cep ion (Ahmad 2021; Elum & Snijde 2023; I eanyi-obi e al. 2023; I ham e al.
2022; P iyan o e al. 2021). The link be ween pe cep ion and adap ion is signi ican as i
shapes he a i ude and willingness o adap as a consequence o clima e change (A buckle
e al. 2013; Zhang e al. 2022). Fu he mo e, he awa eness o clima ic changes among
a me s in luences he choice o hei adap i e ac ions (I eanyi-obi e al. 2023). Howe e ,
he decision-making o adap i e ac ions is no s aigh o wa d a he is cons ained by
se e al ac o s like limi ed esou ces, capabili ies, echnological awa eness, and inancial
esou ces (Kabi e al. 2020; Phương e al. 2017). These cons ain s de e a me s om
adop ing adap i e decision-making o espond e ec i ely o clima e change and u he
complica e he in luence o decision-making ac o s (Tessema 2019). Consequen ly, he
adap a ion s a egies o a a me a e no a simple p ocess o unde s and; a he hey a e a
complex in e play o pe cep ion, adap i e capaci y, and local cons ain s o hei decisions.
In Pakis an, he clima e change pe cep ion and adap a ion is well esea ched. The
p e ious s udies epo di e se indings anging om he nega i e impac s o changing
empe a u e and clima e change o some yield-inc easing case s udies. The pe cep ion
o clima e change and i s e ec s a e well ecognized among he a ming communi y,
compelling hem o adap . The numbe o ci a ions in a pape is a c ucial me ic o
judging he in luence and quali y o esea ch (Wal man 2016). The seman ic schola
compiles ex ensi e da a based on hese ci a ions (Lwoga e al. 2017). He e we men ion
10 highly ci ed (≥ 100 ci a ions) pape s published a e 2015 on clima e change pe -
cep ion and adap a ion in Pakis an’s ag icul u e. Ali e al. (2017) s udied he e ec s o
clima e on Pakis an’s ag icul u e, highligh ing he ulne abili y o whea p oduc ion o
clima e change which has go en mo e han 319 ci a ions so a . They also in es iga ed
he ulne abili y o a me s in Punjab o clima e isks which a e u he agg a a ed by
socioeconomic cons ain s, ci ed 187 imes. Fahad and Wang (2018) explo ed he adap-
i e ac ions o a me s o clima e a iabili y h ough di e si ica ion s a egies, despi e
sys emic hind ances such as labo sho ages and insecu e land enu e.Thei s udy has
been ci ed 260 imes, highligh ing i s signi icance in he ield. The an icipa ed decline
in co on yield due o clima e a iabili y, as p ojec ed by Rahman e al. (2018), and
he impac s o ca bon emissions on a ious sec o s, as in es iga ed by Rehman e al.
(2021), a e no able con ibu ions wi h 161 and 154 ci a ions each. The alignmen o
a me s’ pe cep ions wi h obse ed clima ic ends, as discussed by Abid e al. (2018),
and he demog aphic de e minan s o adap i e p ac ices, as in es iga ed by Khan e al.
(2020), a e c i ical insigh s om wo ks ci ed 131 and 122 imes, espec i ely. Abbas
e al. (2017) add essed he accele a ed phenology o maize, highligh ed adap i e sow-
ing p ac ices as mi iga ion, was ci ed 114 imes. Hussain e al. (2019) concluded he
discou se by assessing clima e change’s b oad impac s on Pakis an’s ag icul u e and
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 6 o 27
economy. Thei s udywasci ed 107 imes. This body o wo k collec i ely unde sco es
he in ica e dynamics o clima e change impac s and adap i e beha io s wi hin Paki-
s an’s ag icul u al sec o . Despi e his ex ensi e body o li e a u e, he e is a gap in he
li e a u e ega ding he dis inc ion be ween adap a ion p ac ices in i iga ed ag icul u e
om ain- ed ag icul u e (To e e al. 2021) which is a as a ea in Pakis an. The adap-
a ion dynamics o i iga ed and ain ed ag icul u e di e (Gopalak ishnan e al. 2019;
Rocks öm, 2003).
4 Da a andme hods
4.1 Resea ch design
We applied a quan i a i e esea ch app oach and de eloped a ques ionnai e o collec
he da a h ough ace- o- ace in e iews wi h a me s om Decembe 2021 o Ap il
2022. We included small a me s wi h landholding up o 16 ac es (Hussain & Thapa
2012) in he i iga ed plains o Punjab and Sindh, Pakis an. We employed a sampling
ame o 800 a me s om 10 dis ic s co e ing 39 Tehsils/Talukas (dis ic ’s subuni s)
wi h 80 samples om each dis ic . Figu e1 illus a es he geog aphic loca ion o ou
su ey. Mo eo e , ou su ey excluded a me s wi h landholdings si ua ed beyond he
canal command a eas wi hin he dis ic s s udied.
Fig. 1 Digi al Ele a ion Model (DEM) o he s udy a ea
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 7 o 27 23
4.2 Desc ip ion o  hes udy a ea
The Indus Basin I iga ion Sys em (IBIS) co e s a o al a ea o 16.85 million hec a es
(Mha). I consis s o he Indus Ri e and i s ibu a ies; Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ra i,
Beas, and Su lej (shown in Fig.1). Fo i iga ion con ol, he IBIS comp ises h ee sig-
ni ican ese oi s, 12 in e - i e link canals, and 44 main canals (Hasan e al. 2021; S een-
be gen e al. 2015). The egion has he wo ld’s mos ex ensi e i iga ion sys em, whe e
almos 80% o he cul i a ed a ea is i iga ed (Muhammad e al. 2016), p oducing 90% o
he coun y’s ha es s (Zhu e al. 2013).
Ou s udy ocused on he i iga ed egions wi hin he Punjab and Sindh p o inces,
encompassing all he majo i e s (excluding he Kabul Ri e ), e e y link canal, and a o al
o 39 main canals.. Ou o 16.85 Mha, 7.8 Mha o Punjab is i iga ed wi h he help o 25
canals, wo ese oi s, and se en ba ages, while 5.3 million hec a es o Sindh a e i iga ed
wi h he help o h ee ba ages and 14 canals. We selec ed his s udy a ea o wo easons;
i s , i con ibu es conside ably o he coun y’s ag icul u al ou pu and is ulne able o cli-
ma ic change. The a ea sha es bo de s wi h neighbo ing India om he eas and he Khybe
Pakh unkhwa (KPK) and Baluchis an p o inces om he wes . I is app oxima ely 40% o
he o al a ea o Pakis an, whe e 74% o he coun y’s o al popula ion li es.
The soil o hese plains comp ises allu ium deposi s accumula ed by he i e ac ions
o he Indus Ri e and i s associa ed ibu a ies in he geological pas . This soil p ope y
makes he a ea e ile o ag icul u al pu poses. Pakis an is among he wo ld’s op en p o-
duce s o co on, suga cane, whea , mango, da es, and Kinnow (ci us). Majo c ops ( ice,
co on, whea , and suga cane) alone con ibu e 4.9% o Pakis an’s economy (AARI 2024;
FAO 2023). Howe e , wa e esou ces in he egion a e highly s essed, whe he judged by
pe capi a wa e a ailabili y o by he a io o wi hd awals o uno (A che e al. 2010).
The mean a e age empe a u e in Punjab anges om − 2° o 45 °C, and excep ionally
eaches 50°C in summe and d ops down o − 8°C in win e . In Sindh, empe a u es ise
abo e 46°C om May o Augus and d op o 2°C in win e . The in e io o lowe Sindh
expe ienced up o 53.5°C in 2010, he ou h-highes eading e e eco ded in Asia (Abbas
e al. 2018; Hube & Gulledge 2011). Recen calcula ions in 2021 es ima e a dec easing
p ecipi a ion end all a ound Pakis an wi h − 1.11mm/yea (Ali e al. 2021). Mos o he
egions in Punjab p o ince ecei e mode a e o high ain all anging om ~ 275 o 830mm/
yea , while Sindh p o ince ecei es ~ 150 o 180mm/yea . The amoun o ain declines i
we app oach om no h o sou h.
The ele a ion o he Indus plains a ies om 300m in no he n Punjab o 75m nea
he sou he n bo de o Punjab, down o he A abian Sea. In he plains, he slope all a e is
0.3m pe 1.6km (Khan 2016). The lowe Indus Plain is pa o Sindh p o ince, he second
la ges p o ince in popula ion. Figu e1 shows he Digi al Ele a ion Map o he a ea whe e
we conduc ed ou ieldwo k. The a ea o bo h p o inces is mainly ag icul u al, which is
unde s ess due o he egion’s lack o ain and dese i ica ion ends.
4.3 Popula ion andsampling
Small a me s (wi h landholdings ≤ 16 ac es) cul i a ing i iga ed a eas o Punjab and
Sindh we e he popula ion unde s udy. In Pakis an, 80% o a me s own 28% o cul i able
land. The e a e 7.4 million smallholde s in Pakis an who hold less han 12 ac es o land (5
hec a es) (ASF 2021; GoP 2010; Khan 2022). We chose small a me s because hey a e
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 8 o 27
impo an o Pakis an’s ag icul u e o se e al easons. Fi s ly, mos o hem li e in u al
a eas and make hei li ing h ough ag icul u e. Secondly, small landholdings a e so com-
mon h oughou he coun y. The e o e, hey a e so impo an o a coun y’s ood secu i y.
Thi dly, small a me s a e o en he ones mos a ec ed by economic shocks and na u al
disas e s because hey don’ ha e he money o c edi ha comme cial a me s do. The e-
o e, small a me s a e impo an o p omo ing sus ainable a ming p ac ices because hey
depend mo e on na u al esou ces and ha e mo e a s ake in keeping hem a ound o u u e
gene a ions. These small a me s a e dis ibu ed in he en i e IBIS o Punjab and Sindh
p o ince, which ha e 66 (36 + 30) dis ic s. We used a mul is age spa ial clus e sampling
s a egy o selec he esponden s om hese dis ic s. Table1 con ains he dis ibu ion o
ou in e iewees in ou selec ed loca ions.
In he i s s age, we chose an equal numbe o dis ic s om bo h p o inces. We
selec ed i e dis ic s om Punjab and i e om Sindh based on he physiog aphic and i i-
ga ion con ol o he p o inces. We used he Punjab and Sindh physiog aphic and i iga ion
maps o selec dis ic s. Punjab plains a e di ided in o ou in e lu es, while Sindh has
ela i ely uni o m physiog aphy. In Punjab, Te bela and Mangal ese oi s p o ide wa e
o i iga ion. In Sindh, Guddu, Sukku , and Ko i Ba age i iga e i s ag icul u al land.
In Punjab, we andomly selec ed a leas one dis ic om each in e lu e. We selec ed
Bhakka om Saga doab, Veha i om Ba i doab, Sa godha om Chaj doab, Guj anwala
om Rachna doab, and Rajanpu om he lowe mos pa o Punjab. Te bela ese oi
con ols he i iga ion o Bhakka , Veha i, and Rajanpu , while Mangal con ols he i iga-
ion o he Sa godha dis ic .
Sindh p o ince has no had much physiog aphic he e ogenei y in i s i iga ed a eas.
The e o e, in Sindh, we selec ed dis ic s based on i iga ion-con olling s uc u es. We
selec ed Shika pu om he Guddu ba age, Badin om he Ko i ba age, and La kana,
Naushah o Fe oze, and Shaheed Benazi abad om he Sukku ba age.
In s age wo, we co e ed all Tehsils and Talukas (Sub-uni o he dis ic ) in e e y dis-
ic and isi ed a o al o 39 Tehsils. In s age h ee, we andomly selec ed mauzas ( he
smalles e enue-collec ing uni in Pakis an) based on he bes spa ial co e age o he
Tehsil. In he las s age, we selec ed a mland and he esponden s o he in e iew based
on ou con enien oad connec i i y o each any a me . O e all, 800 and p ecisely 80
a me s om each dis ic we e in e iewed. We in e iewed a minimum o 10 and a maxi-
mum o 35 a me s om each Tehsil, bu ou a ge o each dis ic was 80 in e iews. The
numbe o Tehsils in each dis ic is di e en , and he numbe o in e iews in each Tehsil
is a ied. Table1 shows he alid samples in e e y dis ic and ehsils which we included
in he s udy.
4.4 De elopmen o ques ionnai e andda a collec ion
Simila o p e ious s udies (Bhale ao e al. 2022, 2021), we de eloped a s anda dized ques-
ionnai e comp ising 51 ques ions o s udy ou esea ch ques ion. We di ided pe cep ion
in o 16 ques ions, adap a ion in o 18 ques ions, cons ain s in o eigh ques ions, and deci-
sion-making a iables in o nine s a emen s.
We subdi ided he pe cep ion pa in o he ollowing ca ego ies: Pe cep ion abou
clima ic indica o s (CI), Pe cep ion abou soil (SO), Pe cep ion abou clima ic haza ds
(CH), Pe cep ion abou a ming (FA), and Pe cep ion abou wa e (WA). We ca ego ized
adap a ion in o h ee ca ego ies; C op managemen (CM), Fa m managemen (FM), and
I iga ion managemen (IM). We adap ed hese ca ego ies om he adap a ion pa adigm
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 15 o 27 23
could ansla e hese changes o hei c opping calenda . Finally, ega ding clima e change’s
e ec s on wa e quali y, we ound ha 73% belie ed g oundwa e quali y has de e io a ed.
In compa ison, 72% o he esponden s’ i iga ion wa e quali y has declined o e he las
en yea s.
5.3 Adap a ion measu es and hei implemen a ion
Ou esul s show ha mos a me s (60%) ha e adap ed o changes in hei cul i a ion ech-
niques (see Fig.4). They s a ed using hyb id seeds and shi ing o a c op a ie y ha a
a me could ha es ea ly. Due o he ecen hike in in la ion in Pakis an, a me s ha e
Fig. 9 Cons ain s o adap a ion (HCOs a e Human cons ain s; NCOs a e Na u al cons ain s)
Fig. 10 Fac o s o a me ’s adap a ion decision making

Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 16 o 27
shi ed o cos -e ec i e c ops (56%). The a me s p io i ized cheape seeds a he han
hei highe p oduc i i y. Mo e han hal o he a me s (53%) changed hei e ilize s.
Howe e , he unde lying eason o e ilize change was in la ion o he ma ke ing o e i-
lize and pes icide companies.
As he s udy a ea was he i iga ed egion o Pakis an, ainwa e ha es ing is no e en
known o mos a me s. Few a me s a e jus awa e o he p ac ice bu a e no applying i .
Cul i a ing sal - ole an c ops has been in oduced by some ag icul u e esea ch ins i u es,
especially in he Punjab egion. Howe e , mos people (56%) a e unawa e o hem, and
some a e awa e bu unable o implemen hem on hei a ms. Rega ding I iga ion- ela ed
managemen (IM), canal d edging (IM4) is he mos widely implemen ed adap a ion p ac-
ice (55%). Tube well ins alla ion has been adap ed by 46%, while almos hal o hem can-
no ins all i due o i s high economic cos . In some a eas, local modi ica ion o i iga ion
ules (IM5) is in p ac ice (19%), bu mos a me s a e unawa e o i . Only 25% a e applying
plan a ion on he a m (FM4).
5.4 Adap a ion le el inPunjab andSindh
Figu es5 and 6 compa e he adap a ion le els in bo h p o inces (Punjab N = 400 and Sindh
N = 400) in ou s udy a ea. To ep esen he deg ee o adap a ion, we ca ego ized adap a-
ion in o no adap a ion, low, medium, and high adap a ion le els in c op, a m, and i iga-
ion managemen adap a ion p ac ices.
In Punjab, he o e whelming majo i y (87%) p ac ice cos -e ec i e c opping (CM4),
84% ied di e en e ilize s (FM3), and 83% adap ed changes in he scheduling o hei
a mland p epa a ion (FM2). Rega ding he leas p ac iced adap a ions, only 10% adap ed
o ainwa e ha es ing (IM6), 32% adap ed h ough legume c opping (CM6), and 33% si -
ing o sal - ole an c opping (CM3).
Fa me s in Punjab adap ed ea ly cul i a s (68%). The ag icul u e o Punjab is mo e
ma ke -o ien ed han ha o Sindh because 87% o he a me s in Punjab adap ed o cul i-
a e cos -e ec i e c ops, while his pe cen age is 60% in Sindh (see Fig.6).
In Sindh, 75% adap ed wi h on- a m ee plan a ion (FM4) due o in ense hea wa es
du ing ecen imes, 74% applied canal d edging (IM4), and 74% adap ed h ough changes
in cul i a ion echniques (FM1). On he o he hand, only 34% apply ainwa e ha es -
ing (IM6), and 38% change hei i iga ion me hods (IM2). In addi ion, almos 40% a e
employing illage and wa e alloca ion ules. Table2 shows ou ield su ey da a on indi-
idual adap a ion p ac ices by a me s in he Punjab and Sindh p o inces. We show he e
he adap o s and non-adap o s in c op, a m, and i iga ion managemen in bo h p o inces.
In Sindh, ee plan a ion (75%) and ag o o es y (72%) a e be e adap ed han in Punjab
(50% and 46%, espec i ely). I is because o he hea wa es and ho e summe in he
egion whe e he empe a u e ouches 52 o 53C Table3.
Figu es7 a and b compa e adap ion in he p o inces o Punjab and Sindh. Fa me s in
Punjab swi ched o a m managemen s a egies a he han i iga ion. Adap i e c op man-
agemen p ac ices a e also mo e common in Punjab han in Sindh. In i iga ion manage-
men , howe e , a me s in Sindh (337) adap ed be e han hose in Punjab (302). Table2
and Fig.7 a show ou indings om indi idual adap a ion measu es.
The map below (Fig.8) shows he spa ial dis ibu ion o adap a ion ac ions wi hin ou
s udy uni s. In ou s udy a ea, we plo he compu ed adap a ion sco e o c op managemen ,
a m managemen , and i iga ion managemen o 39 spa ial uni s (Tehsils and Talukas).
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 17 o 27 23
In c op managemen , he no he nmos (Guj anwala) and he sou he nmos (Badin) dis-
ic s ha e he highes adap a ion, while he sou he n Punjab egion (Veha i and Rajanpu )
has e y low o no adap a ion. In Fa m managemen , he wo no he n dis ic s in Punjab
p o ince (Guj anwala and Sa godha) showed he highes adap a ion sco e. Dis ic Veha i
in Punjab is again ound low in adap ing s a egies a he a m. In e es ingly i iga ion
managemen is he highes in Guj anwala and medium in Rajanpu . Dis ic Bhakka (hal
dese ) was he lowes in adap ing i iga ion- ela ed adap a ion s a egies. The e is no clea
end in he lowe Indus plains (Sindh), whe eas i shows a mix-up o all possible adap a-
ion sco es (low o high).
5.5 Cons ain s and ac o s inadap a ion
Despi e ha ing enough ealiza ion ega ding clima e change in ou s udy a ea, many a m-
e s did no make signi ican adjus men s o hei a ming. We iden i ied and anked some
cons ain s p e en ing a me s om adop ing di e en clima e change mi iga ion s a e-
gies. We ound ha a lack o inancial esou ces (ci ed by 69% o esponden s) was he
mos signi ican ba ie o adap a ion.
Table 3 On- a m adap a ion in Punjab and Sindh, Pakis an
Adap a ion Punjab (n = 400) Sindh (n = 400)
C op Managemen Code Adap o s Non-Adap o s Adap o s Non-Adap o s
CM1 343 57 264 136
CM2 314 86 268 132
CM3 210 190 269 131
CM4 389 11 381 19
CM5 330 70 355 45
CM6 312 88 262 138
A g 316 84 300 100
Fa m Managemen
FM1 363 37 377 23
FM2 381 19 296 104
FM3 364 36 296 104
FM4 338 62 365 35
FM5 301 99 243 157
A g 349 51 315 85
I iga ion Managemen
IM1 298 102 379 21
IM2 337 63 336 64
IM3 376 24 379 21
IM4 367 33 378 22
IM5 244 156 259 141
IM6 105 295 242 158
IM7 386 14 385 15
A g 302 98 337 63
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 18 o 27
We ound ha wa e sca ci y (57%) and poo soil e ili y (44%) a e second and hi d i
we ank he cons ain s o adap a ion. Figu e9 exp esses he cons ain s aced by he a m-
e s in ou s udy a ea. A p e ious s udy ound inadequa e i iga ion supplies and knowledge
abou app op ia e adap a ion op ions we e signi ican oadblocks o he adap a ion p ocess
(Ali & Rose 2021). (Shah e al. 2022) ecen ly epo ed inancial cons ain s (28%), lack o
knowledge and in o ma ion (25%), and inadequa e a m esou ces (23%) in he no hwes -
e n p o ince o Pakis an.
We see ac o s as a iables ha in luence a me s’ decisions. Figu e10 shows he ank-
ing o ag icul u al decision-con olling ac o s in ou s udy a ea. We ound ha inancial
liquidi y and c op p ice sensi i i y a e he c i ical ac o s ha con ol a me s’ a ming
decisions in ou s udy a ea wi h hei signi icance quan i ied a 78% and 77%, espec i ely.
In e es ingly, clima ic ac o s ( empe a u e 70%, ain 68%, wa e a ailabili y 63%, and pes
a acks 55%) a e seconda y i we compa e hem wi h money- ela ed ac o s. Acco ding o
B yan B yan e al. (2013), weal h, access o ex ension se ices, c edi , and knowledge o
he local clima e a e all ac o s ha a ec a me s’ decisions o adap in Sou h A ica and
E hiopia.
6 Discussion
This s udy was aimed o highligh a me s’ pe cep ions o clima e change, hei adap a ion
s a egies, and he cons ain s hey ace and ac o s ha shape hei decision making in he
i iga ed plains o Punjab and Sindh, Pakis an. Ou indings con i m ha clima e change
is a key challenge in he egion shaping pe cep ion and adap a ion decisions, as e idenced
by he signi ican impac s on c op yields and wa e quali y epo ed by a me s in bo h
p o inces.
Clima e change is a daun ing challenge o a agile a ming sys em in Pakis an (Syed
e al. 2022). Rising empe a u es and shi s in p ecipi a ion pa e ns in he Indus Plains
a e epo ed (Mobeen e al. 2017). Acco ding o ou su ey esul s, a me s in Punjab and
Sindh p o inces pe cei e changing seasonal pa e ns, which aligs wi h Bha i e al. (2019).
Acco ding o Abbas (2013), ising hea wa es and mo e ainy days a e se e e challenges
o ag icul u al p ac ices in Pakis an. Se e al s udies (Abid e al. 2019; A shad e al. 2017)
ha e yielded simila ou comes in he las i e yea s. Insi u me eo ological obse a ions
om 1981–2010 also epo ed ex ended summe s by 4.19 nigh s and 0.92days pe decade
(Abbas 2013).
Mos a me s a e well awa e o clima e change and belie e i is one eason o hei low
c op yield. In addi ion, mos esponden s belie e clima e change is esponsible o de e io-
a ed i iga ed wa e and g oundwa e quali y in he las en yea s. Shah e al. (2019) also
epo ed he pe cei ed decline in i iga ed wa e quali y and g oundwa e able.
Clima e changes and subsequen egional pe cep ion shi s in luenced ag icul u al p ac-
ice in all espec s. Especially he e ec s o clima e change on ag icul u al ou pu in Pun-
jab p o ince ha e been he subjec o ex ensi e esea ch (Bashi & Mobeen 2018), which
epo ed a decline in p oduc i i y due o clima e change. Scien i ic li e a u e highligh s ha
clima e change is ueling exis ing p oblems and c ea ing new ones, such as changes in ain-
all and empe a u e, which a e pushing a me s o change hei cul i a ion p ac ices o
be e esul s.Sche an e al. (2012) in es iga ed his nexus o de ining he ole o clima e
change, which was la e epo ed on by F oese and Schilling (2019); Ide e al. (2016).
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 19 o 27 23
Adap a ion o clima e change is a complex p ocess equi ing a sound unde s anding o
how a me s pe cei e and in e p e clima ic changes locally (Abbas e al. 2022). Acco ding
o ou su ey, he awa eness o adap a ion s a egies a ies om place o place. Fa me s in
Sindh a e less likely o be awa e o imp o ed c op a ie ies and cul i a ion me hods, which
is no he case in Punjab. The e o e, he a me s in Punjab ha e s ongly adop ed o sal -
ole an and wa e -s ess- ole an c op a ie ies. Fa me s in Punjab a e also adap ed o cul-
i a ing ea ly cul i a s, especially in uppe Punjab. Ano he con as is ha he ag icul u e
o Sindh is less ma ke -o ien ed han ha o Punjab because 87% o he a me s in Punjab
adap ed o cul i a e cos -e ec i e c ops, while his pe cen age is 60 in Sindh. T ee plan a-
ion (75%) and ag o o es y (72%) a e mo e adap ed in Sindh, while in Punjab, he pe cen -
age is 50 and 46, espec i ely. The unde lying cause o his dispa i y could be hea wa es
and a ho e summe in he egion whe e empe a u es each 52 o 53°C.
Lack o knowledge ega ding adap a ion measu es is a signi ican cause o low adap a-
ion a es in u al a eas. We ound ha many a me s in he Indus Plain we e unawa e o
many use ul adap a ion measu es. Fo example, a me s do no know enough abou using
sal - ole an c op a ie ies, legume c opping, illage modi ica ion, local modi ica ion o
i iga ion ules, and ainwa e ha es ing. The ag icul u e ex ension depa men should
add ess he lack o awa eness by launching an awa eness campaign in u al a eas.
Many a me s knew he possible adap a ion p ac ice bu could no apply i despi e hei
posi i e adap a ion in en ion. Fo example, cul i a ion o high e enue-p oducing c ops,
i iga ion escheduling, wa e cou se ce i ica ion, and new ub well ins alla ion a e hose
measu es ha a e well known o mos a me s. They wan o adop hese measu es bu can-
no do i due o insu icien esou ces. The e o e, we ecommend ha go e nmen al inan-
cial ins i u ions and banks dispense in e es - ee loans and subsidies.
An app op ia e adap a ion s a egy needs a clea unde s anding o a me s’ pe cep ion
o clima icpa e ns and he d i e s and cons ain s oadap a ion (Esham & Ga o h 2013).
Howe e , despi e ealizing enough abou clima e change in ou s udy a ea, many a me s
did no signi ican ly adjus hei a ming.
Su p isingly, he e we e a la ge numbe o a me s who we e well awa e o some help-
ul adap a ion p ac ices bu we e no eady o implemen hem. We can a ibu e his adap-
a ion delay o pe cei ed cons ain s and decision-making ac o s. Ne e heless, we need
o explo e his u he om he beha io al s udy iewpoin . In ou esul s, we ound ha
some a me s we e no eady o adap e en hough hey we e p e y su e abou he bene i
o some adap a ion measu es. Fo example, 42% a me s a oided ins alling new ube wells
o add ess wa e sho age due o hei high cos . Howe e , hey did no apply e en he low-
cos measu es, i.e., Changing i iga ion me hods (43.5%) and local modi ica ion o i iga-
ion ules (16.25%). The eason behind his beha io is wo h explo ing o u u e esea ch
ega ding clima e change adap a ion in Pakis an’s ag icul u e sec o . Some s udies deal
wi h his beha io as cogni i e dissonance o he people (Oswald & B igh 2022).
The main cons ain s o adap a ion in he s udy a ea a e lack o money, wa e sca -
ci y, poo soil e ili y, and small landholdings. The ac is in line wi h he indings o
a s udy (Ali e al. 2020) in di e en ag o-ecological uni s o Punjab p o ince, which
also iden i ied ha lack o money, high cos o a m inpu s, and lack o knowledge
abou app op ia e adap a ions a e he mos c i ical cons ain s in adap a ion p ac ices.
In ano he s udy (Bhale ao e al. 2022) in moun ainous egions in India, mos a m-
e s (68.1%) indica ed ha he high cos o ag icul u al inpu s is he mos signi ican
cons ain , which slows down he adap a ion p ocess. Financial esou ce is a uni e sal
ac o as i is equally in luen ial all a ound he globe. E en in he de eloped wo ld, Aus-
alia’s majo adap a ion cons ain was high p oduc ion cos s and deb (B own e al.
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 20 o 27
2016). These cons ain s wo k as a de e en ac o in he adap a ion p ocess. On he
o he hand, la ge a me landholding size, capi al, a ming expe ience, a me educa-
ion le el, soil e ili y, wa e a ailabili y, and access o he la es in o ma ion can posi-
i ely a ec he adap a ion p ocess. The lowe alue o any o hese ac o s limi s he
a me ’s capabili y o adap o ac .
We ound an e iden spa ial a ia ion in adap a ion le els ac oss he s udy a ea. This
con as may be due o a me s’ he e ogeneous capabili ies and cons ain s ac oss he
egion. In ou indings, he magni ude o cons ain s is also di e en in di e en a eas.
Lack o inancial esou ces is ou s udy a ea’s mos widesp ead cons ain on adap a-
ion. To add ess his cons ain , he go e nmen o Pakis an in oduced many subsidies
and inancial loan schemes h ough banks. Howe e , mos a me s we e eluc an o use
bank c edi inancing due o high-in e es a es and cumbe some documen a y p oce-
du es. Simpli ying his loan p ocu emen p ocedu e h ough banks can help a me s o
deal wi h hei p oblems (Saqib e al. 2016). Howe e , he li e a u e epo s ha such
loans a e no used o add ess ag icul u al challenges. Ins ead, hey a e used o non- a m
expendi u es like a me s’ leisu e ac i i ies and pu chasing household i ems o daily use
(Shabi e al. 2020).
Acco ding o ou indings, poo soil e ili y is ano he c i ical cons ain in he Indus
Plain. Low soil e ili y is also a limi ing ac o ha de e s a me s om adop ing new c op
a ie ies. The s udies ha e epo ed mul iple soil nu ien de iciencies in he in ensi e c op-
ping egions, especially co on-whea c opping a eas o Sindh (Bux e al. 2022). The soil
e ili y loss was signi ican ly imp o ed when sus ainable soil managemen and e ilize
ea men we e applied in he a ec ed egions o Punjab (Qazi & Khan 2021). Smalle
landholdings a e ano he cons ain in adap ing new adap a ion measu es. Saqib e  al.
(2016) epo ed ha smalle landholdings in Sindh we e a signi ican ac o in low c edi
access o he a me s.
Va ious ac o s in luence a me s’ decisions, and he e a e mul iple ways o g ouping
hese ac o s (Chilonda & Van Huylenb oeck 2001). We g ouped hese ac o s in o clima ic
and non-clima ic ac o s. The a me s a ed clima ic ac o s signi ican ly, bu inancial
esou ces om he non-clima ic ac o g oup we e ound o be he mos in luen ial ac o
in luencing hei decisions. We also ound ha he ole o go e nmen ag icul u al ad iso y
and go e nmen policies signi ican ly in luences he decision o a me s. Pee ad ice is
a ed mo e impo an han ad iso y se ices in he egion. This is ypical o unde de el-
oped social s uc u es whe e in o mal social capi al is us ed mo e han o mal, which was
s udied by Escandon-Ba bosa e al. (2019).
The abo e discussion highligh s some impo an unde lying dimensions shaping he pe -
cep ion and adap a ion decisions o he a me s. Fi s , he di e en ial adap a ion esponses
be ween Punjab and Sindh indica e a b oade socio-economic and cul u al landscape in lu-
encing a me s’ decisions beyond pu ely clima ic ac o s. This dispa i y sugges s u he
s udy o some localized solu ions, sensi i e o he socio-economic and cul u al con ex o
each p o ince. Secondly, he ole o inancial cons ain s in shaping adap a ion decisions
e eals he deepe p oblem wi h esou ce accessibili y among he a ming communi y. The
ocus on economic cons ain s and he p io i iza ion o cos -e ec i e c ops o e highe
p oduc i i y op ions e lec a su i al s a egy a he han op imal ag icul u al p ac ice.
This hin s a he un apped po en ial o signi ican yield imp o emen s h ough in e en-
ion. Fu he mo e. The high awa eness abou clima e change impac as well as he gap in
implemen a ions o adap a ion op ions indica e a knowledge ans e bo leneck. This si ua-
ion highligh s he need o a localized ag icul u al ex ension p og am o dissemina e adap-
a ion op ions.

Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23 Page 21 o 27 23
7 Conclusion
The a me s in he Indus Plains ha e a signi ican pe cep ion o equen hea wa es, an
ex ended summe , and a con ac ed win e . Howe e , hal o hem can ansla e his sea-
sonal change in o changes in hei c opping calenda . They s ongly pe cei e he decline
in c op yields in he las en yea s because o clima e change. Fa me s in ou s udy a ea
epo a loss o soil e ili y and a decline in i iga ed wa e quali y. Mos a me s a e
awa e o he majo i y o adap a ion op ions and ha e al eady adop ed he measu es. In
Punjab, he a me s adap ed mo e o c op and a m managemen ; in Sindh, he a me s
adap ed o i iga ion- ela ed a angemen s. I indica es ha he wa e p oblem is mo e
p onounced in he lowe ipa ian egion han in he uppe ipa ian egion, sugges ing
a c i ical need o policies ha acili a e e ec i e adap a ion s a egies, especially in
esou ce-limi ed se ings.
Fu u e esea ch can explo e his a ia ion o adap a ion s a egies in he Indus Plains.
Rainwa e ha es ing is unknown o mos o he a me s in he egion. Recognizing he eco-
nomic cons ain s highligh ed by ou indings, we ad oca e o a ge ed in e en ions such
as p omo ing ainwa e ha es ing o cope wi h wa e challenges, using sola ene gy o
ube wells o deal wi h ene gy c ises, and in eg a ing c edi inancing o mi iga e inancial
challenges. Ta ge ed subsidies o s a egically impo an c ops o egions mos a ec ed by
clima e change could enhance a me s’ inancial capaci y, simila o he cu en co on sub-
sidies in he sou h Punjab egion, ensu ing sus ainabili y and economic iabili y..
The use o o ganic e ilize s (manu e use) should be p omo ed as hey incu a mea-
ge cos , o e ing a cos -e ec i e me hod o imp o e soil e ili y. We iden i ied knowl-
edge gaps abou some impo an adap a ion op ions. Fo example, he e is a lack o
knowledge abou new i iga ion me hods, legume c opping, and new c op a ie ies.
An in o ma ion campaign wi h he help o he ag icul u e ex ension depa men can be
help ul o close hese gaps. We also e ealed ha some a me s a e no eady o adap
despi e knowing he bene i s o adap a ion, and some ha e delayed hei adap a ion
ac ions o he u u e. Explo ing he eluc ance o make adap a ion decisions should be
he subjec o u u e esea ch.
Cons ain s and ac o s, we belie e, play mode a ing oles in he adap a ion p ocess.
Lack o inancial asse s, limi ed wa e a ailabili y, poo soil e ili y, inadequa e land
size, and a lack o in o ma ion ela ed o adap a ion measu es we e signi ican con-
s ain s a he a m le el. We also disco e ed ha money and he ma ke we e impo -
an ac o s in Pakis ani a me s’ decisions, unde sco ing he necessi y o a ge ed edu-
ca ional p og ams and inancial suppo mechanisms. The a me s pe cei e he ole o
na u al ac o s ( empe a u e, ain all, and wa e a ailabili y) as less impo an han he
a ailabili y o inancial esou ces. To add ess he lack o inancial esou ces, imely pay-
men o he c op om he mill owne s, c edi inancing om banks, and subsidies on
elec ici y can show good esul s.
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi.
o g/ 10. 1007/ s11027- 025- 10212-1.
Acknowledgemen s This s udy is pa ially unded by he Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha (DFG, Ge -
man Resea ch Founda ion) unde Ge many‘s Excellence S a egy – EXC 2037 ’CLICCS - Clima e, Cli-
ma ic Change, and Socie y’ – P ojec Numbe : 390683824 and con ibu es o he Cen e o Ea h Sys em
Resea ch and Sus ainabili y (CEN) o Uni e si ä Hambu g.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Mi ig Adap S a eg Glob Change (2025) 30:23
23 Page 22 o 27
Da a a ailabili y This pape is based on p ima y da a, which can be p o ided upon eques o he i s au ho .
Decla a ions
Con lic s o in e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no con lic o in e es .
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License,
which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long
as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Com-
mons licence, and indica e i changes we e made. The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his a icle
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pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly
om he copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/.
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