Oes e mann, T is an
A icle
A Colony o Oppo uni y: A ican Economic In e media ies,
Rubbe , and Capi alism in Ge man Colonial Came oon,
1884-1914
Vie eljah sch i ü Sozial- und Wi scha sgeschich e (VSWG)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Oes e mann, T is an (2025) : A Colony o Oppo uni y: A ican Economic
In e media ies, Rubbe , and Capi alism in Ge man Colonial Came oon, 1884-1914, Vie eljah sch i
ü Sozial- und Wi scha sgeschich e (VSWG), ISSN 2365-2136, F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga , Vol.
112, Iss. 2, pp. 184-206,
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F anz S eine Ve lag
Vie eljah sch i ü Sozial- und Wi scha sgeschich e 112, 2025/2, 184–206
DOI 10.25162/ swg-2025-0007, (CC-BY 4.0)
T is an Oes e mann
A Colony o Oppo uni y
A ican Economic In e media ies, Rubbe , and Capi alism
in Ge man Colonial Came oon, 1884–1914
Abs ac : Taking Ge man Came oon as an example, his a icle uses he concep o he colo-
nial in e media y o analyze A icans’ ole in colonial capi alism. While esea che s ha e shown
ha he colonial s a e depended on A icans, he impo ance o A ican in e media ies in Eu o-
pean ade has ha dly been explo ed: Eu opean companies also depended on A icans o hei
business. The a icle a gues ha colonial capi alism in Came oon was no only coe ci e bu
also opened new a enues o p o i , social ad ancemen , and accumula ion o A ican ade s,
employees, and subcon ac o s. S udying he li e his o ies o ou A ican economic in e medi-
a ies, he a icle analyzes he oppo uni ies o colonial capi alism, A icans’ s a egies o p o i
making, and A icans’ ole in colonial exploi a ion.
Keywo ds: in e media ies, colonialism, business, ade, Came oon, ubbe , capi alism, Ge man
colonialism
JEL Codes: N57, N77, N87, N97
1. In oduc ion
In c. 1902, James G. Mullen wo ked as a cle k in he o ices o he Obuasi Mines in he
B i ish colony o he Gold Coas . One day, he Gold Coas e o e hea d a con e sa ion
o wo colleagues. They alked abou a job ad e isemen in a local A ican- un newspa-
pe , he Gold Coas Leade , by he Ge man ubbe ading i m K ause & Feh mann and
he oppo uni ies o e ed by he Ge man colony o Came oon in gene al:1 “We a e all
cu ious abou his coun y which you speak abou so much, and ci cums ances pe mi -
ing, I should like o eke ou o his s u y dingy o ice, and go o his land whe e he e
seem such as possibili ies o a man wi h b ains.”2 Mullen showed in e es in wo king
in Came oon. On he nex day, one o his colleagues handed o e he ad e isemen o
him and said: “You may go, and i you do I gua an ee you will become iche han e e
1 In he digi al e sion o he Gold Coas Leade , he job ad e isemen could no be ound. See A ican
Newspape s, h ps://www. eadex.com/p oduc s/a ican-newspape s-se ies-1-and-2-1800-1925, las ac-
cessed: 25.04.2024. On Mullen see Newell (2008).
2 Mullen (2008), pp. 20 .
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
185A Colony o Oppo uni y
you we e, and he li e is one ha would sui you, I’d be .”3 Mullen qui his job in he
mine’s o ice and bough a icke o he nex s eame o Came oon.4
This is how Mullen himsel desc ibed he s a o his ca ee as a ubbe ade in he
Ge man colony o Came oon. The e, he managed ading ac o ies, bough ubbe o
se e al companies, and s ayed un il he ou b eak o Wo ld Wa One. In his accoun ,
published om 1916 o 1919 in he Gold Coas Leade , he depic s Came oon as a wild and
lawless on ie – a place whe e “Li e was o li le o no alue”,5 bu also a place whe e
one could ge ich quickly: A place whe e “b a e men, […] i ed o li e and he ame-
ness o hings s a ed o in o he g ea bush o ind new hings”, which u ned ou o be
“no bush a all, bu a beau i ul coun y ull o young wi es, a ca le, game o hun and
enemies o kill.”6 Wi h i s many oppo uni ies, o Mullen Came oon was “li le less han
an ea hly pa adise.”7
This accoun o Came oon unde Ge man colonial ule, w i en by an A ican cle k,
is a odds wi h how mos esea che s ha e desc ibed his speci ic colonial economy.
Wi h ew excep ions, his o ians pain a gloomy pic u e– an in e p e a ion cap u ed
bes by L. H. Gann and Pe e Duignan who labeled Ge man Came oon’s economy as
“Economics o coe cion”.8 Resea che s ha e p o ided ample e idence ha Ge man o -
ice s, ade s, and plan a ion owne s exploi ed he A ican popula ion, app op ia ed
hei lands and goods, and o ced people o wo k.9 On a la ge scope, Mullen’s accoun
also con adic s mos li e a u e on he his o y o he A ican ubbe indus y, which is
also widely iden i ied wi h iolence and o ced labo . While he e a e a ew nuanced
s udies,10 he Congo F ee S a e, whe e he ubbe ade was indeed connec ed o io-
len o ms o business, is gene ally seen as he pa s p o o o.11 Examples o A icans like
Mullen emind us o he dange o Manichaean in e p e a ions o colonialism and spe-
ci ically o colonial capi alism, which eplica e Eu opean an asies o omnipo ence, en-
de A icans as passi e and as a homogenous g oup, and which, mos p oblema ically,
igno e and e en deny A ican agency.12 Many accoun s on colonial economic his o y do
no ake in o accoun A icans in in e media y posi ions. Ac o s like Mullen wo ked as
agen s o colonial companies. They did business wi h he local popula ion on hei em-
ploye s’ behal . And as hey used his in e media y posi ion o acqui e pe sonal weal h,
hey p o i ed om colonial ule and colonial capi alism.
3 Mullen (2008), p. 21.
4 Mullen (2008), p. 21.
5 Mullen (2008), p. 5.
6 Mullen (2008), p. 24.
7 Mullen (2008), p. 20.
8 Gann/Duignan (1979), p. 166.
9 See e. g. Mandeng (1973); Rüge (1960); Winkle (1960); Volz (1989); Cla ence-Smi h (1993); Chil e
(1967); Möhle (1999). Fo a con as ing iew see Wi z (1972); Oes e mann (2023).
10 See Oes e mann (2023); Vos (2015); Osbo n (2004); Wi z (1972).
11 Tucke (2015). Fo s udies on he Congo F ee S a e and ela ed ubbe p oducing a eas see e. g. Ha ms
(1975); Ha ms (1983); Ha ms (2019); Hochschild (2012); Coque y-Vid o i ch (1972).
12 Fo a c i ique see Coope (1994); Mille (1999); K üge (2020).
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
is an oes e mann186
This a icle uses he concep o he colonial in e media y o p esen a di e en pe -
spec i e on A icans’ ole in colonial capi alism and capi alism in A ica.13 I a gue ha
colonial capi alism in Came oon was no only Eu opean exploi a ion and coe cion. Co-
lonial ule and he colonial economy also opened new alleys o p o i , social ad ance-
men , and accumula ion o some A icans, especially o economic in e media ies like
James G. Mullen. Tha colonial ule depended on A ican in e media ies is unde lined
by a g owing body o schola ly li e a u e.14 As schola s ha e poin ed ou , colonial a mies
and adminis a ions needed A icans who media ed be ween Eu opeans and A ican
socie ies as in e p e e s, messenge s, and cle ks. They we e much mo e han colonial
unde lings and collabo a o s. Eu opeans depended on hei skill, knowledge, and in-
i ia i e. Wi hou hem, colonial ule would ha e been impossible. In e u n, his de-
pendency opened oppo uni ies o A ican in e media ies. As Benjamin N. Law ance,
Emily Lynn Osbo n and Richa d L. Robe s pu i , “[ ]hose A icans wi h he abili y o
media e and b idge he gap be ween he colonize s and he colonized occupied impo -
an and some imes powe ul posi ions in colonial A ica.”15 A icans wo king o he
colonial s a e used hei posi ions be ween colonize s and colonized “ o in luence he
knowledge, in e p e a ions and ac ions” o Eu opean o icials,16 bu also o egula e he
access o he local popula ion o he ea o he colonial s a e. The eby, hey managed o
c ea e “uno icial co ido s o powe ”,17 which some imes allowed hem o manipula e
colonial ule o hei own ends. His o ians who ha e looked a A ican soldie s, police-
men, and labo ec ui e s h ough he lens o he colonial in e media y come o simila
conclusions. All hese ac o s used hei posi ion wi hin he colonial si ua ion o hei
own good.18 Mo e o en han no , A ican economic in e media ies he eby played an
ac i e ole in exploi a ion and coe cion.
A ican economic in e media ies like business cle ks, employed ade s, subcon-
ac o s, and o he s, howe e , ha e ha dly ecei ed any a en ion om schola s so a .
Law ance, Osbo n, and Robe s explici ly exclude his g oup o in e media ies om
hei g oundb eaking edi ed olume.19 Jona han De ick jus p o ides a b ie ske ch o
hei ob ious impo ance.20 And while Dmi i an den Be sselaa has w i en some o
he ew wo ks on A ican whi e-colla business employees, he does no examine hei
in e media y posi ion.21 One eason o his neglec is he gene al lack o in e es in he
his o y o businesses in colonial his o y which le he ac i i ies o companies and hei
s a mos ly ou o he schola ly iew.22 Ano he one is he sca ci y o sou ces on A ican
13 See e. g. B ecken idge (2021); Guye (2004); Coope (2014).
14 See he a icles in Law ance e al. (2006a); Aus en (2011); De ick (1983); Moyd (2014).
15 Law ance e al. (2006b), p. 4.
16 Osbo n (2003), p. 30.
17 Osbo n (2003), p. 30.
18 Moyd (2014); Glasman (2016); Ma k-Thiesen (2012).
19 Law ance e al. (2006b), p. 5.
20 De ick (1983).
21 Van den Be sselaa (2011); an den Be sselaa (2019).
22 Hopkins (1976a); Hopkins (1976b); Hopkins (1987); Tigno (2007); Aus in (2017). Fo new publica ions
on colonial business see e. g. Todzi (2023); Oes e mann (2023); Kleinöde (2022).
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
187A Colony o Oppo uni y
economic in e media ies. As Ralph A. Aus en has unde lined, sou ces abou any kind
o A ican in e media ies a e ew, di icul o access, and o en biased.23 This is especially
ue o A icans who wo ked o colonial companies. While colonial go e nmen iles
can be consul ed in public a chi es, many colonial i ms wen ou o business and hei
pape s we e des oyed. Fi ms which su i ed o en do no allow his o ians o access
hei collec ions. And in he case o g an ed access, i is ne e su e i eco ds con ain
in o ma ion on A ican employees, subcon ac o s, o o he economic in e media ies.
This a icle econs uc s biog aphies, ac i i ies, oles, and s a egies o accumula-
ion o ou di e en A ican economic in e media ies in he Came oonian ubbe ade
om bi s and pieces and o en se endipi ous inds in public and p i a e a chi es as well
as in his o ical publica ions. In Came oon, many ens o housands o A icans wo ked
as in e media ies in he ubbe ade. In 1912 alone, he e we e mo e han 20,000 egis-
e ed ade s in he colony.24 Among hese, he ou indi iduals ep esen di e en kinds
o economic in e media ies o be ound in he ubbe ade and, he e o e, p o ide in-
o ma ion beyond hei indi idual a e: Elesa o Malimba was an independen ade
who used his close connec ions o companies and he colonial go e nmen o his busi-
ness. Ma in Paul Zampa was a o me colonial soldie who became an employee o he
company o Randad & S ein. James G. Mullen was a Wes A ican mig an who wo ked
as a ade o se e al ubbe i ms in Came oon. Pe e Mungeli, inally, was a eache ed-
uca ed in Ge many who en e ed he ubbe ade as a subcon ac o . All hese economic
in e media ies wo ked o Eu opean companies, aded wi h he local popula ion, used
his posi ion o hei own ends, and combined Eu opean as well as local models o
p o i and accumula ion. This econs uc ion o he his o y o A ican economic in-
e media ies o e s new insigh s in o how colonial capi alism wo ked on he g ound.
As he a icle shows, he daily business o he ubbe ade in colonial Came oon was
mos ly conduc ed by A icans who wo ked o Eu opean ading companies. They we e
he ones who bough and sold in he ading ac o ies and in local illages. The his o y
o hese economic in e media ies shows ha no only hose employed by he colonial
s a e, bu also he many A icans who wo ked o he i ms “acqui ed skills, knowledge,
and si ua ed au ho i y wi h which hey u he ed hei own s a egies o accumula-
ion.”25 O en hese in e media ies made hei p o i s a he expense o o he s. By show-
ing how A ican economic in e media ies p o i ed om hei posi ion be ween Eu ope-
an companies and he local popula ion and how hey used colonial ule o hei own
ends, his a icle o e s a mo e nuanced pic u e o A ican agency in colonial capi alism.
23 Aus en (2011).
24 Oes e mann (2023), p. 461.
25 Law ance e al. (2006b), p. 5.
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
is an oes e mann188
2. Rubbe , Capi alism, and he Rise o A ican Economic In e media ies
in Colonial Came oon
The ise o A ican economic in e media ies in Ge man Came oon was enabled by he
global ubbe boom, se in mo ion by a se ies o inno a ions om ubes o seals, cable
insula ion, and i es, which, om c. 1890 on, made ubbe an indispensable esou ce o
indus ializing socie ies. Global supplies o ubbe could ha dly ma ch global demand
as i had o be p oduced om a ious opical ees and ines in sca cely popula ed ain-
o es s. This led o e e ising p ices. The consequence was a ush whe e e ubbe p o-
ducing plan s could be ound.26 Also he ain o es s o wha had ecen ly become he
colony o Came oon de eloped in o a ubbe economy. The indus y s a ed a ound
1890,27 sho ly a e he ad en o colonial ule. Soon, ubbe became Came oon’s mos
impo an expo p oduc . Since 1905, ubbe made up oughly 50 % o all Came oonian
expo s.28 In 1911, Came oon was he second la ges expo e o ubbe in A ica, second
only o he Belgian Congo.29 This ubbe boom o e ed ample oppo uni ies o eco-
nomic in e media ies.
The dizzying g ow h o he ubbe ade was made possible no only by ising p ices
o he aw ma e ial on he wo ld ma ke , bu also by he s uc u es o local capi alism.
Sou he n Came oon’s ain o es s, he colony’s main sou ce o ubbe , had al eady been
pa o he A lan ic economy be o e he ad en o colonial ule. I s main expo p oduc
was i o y. Du ing he second hal o he 19 h cen u y, he i o y ade– and he eby also
poli ical powe – became monopolized by a limi ed numbe o Bulu, Be i, Ngumba,
Mabea, and Ba anga ade s. In a complex sys em o exchange, hey and hei ex ended
amilies, which we e he basis o he local social and poli ical o de , aded he i o y
om he elephan hun ing g ounds in he a in e io o he coas , whe e Ba anga ade s
sold i o Eu opeans.30 I o y was exchanged agains Eu opean commodi ies: guns, pow-
de , clo h, beads, sal , me al goods, and he my iad o o he hings which we e pa o
he A lan ic ade. These commodi ies could be used o consump ion, bu also as cu -
encies. The e o e, hey could be in es ed.31 The mos impo an o m o in es men was
acqui ing con ol o e people: While land was abundan in mos pa s o 19 h cen u y
A ica, people who cul i a ed i we e sca ce. The e o e, igh s o e people we e key o
poli ical, social, and economic powe .32 Acco dingly, sou he n Came oon’s i o y ade s
in es ed in sla es, bu mos impo an ly, hey in es ed in b ideweal h.33 Since he s a
o he i o y ade, hei access o highly alued Eu opean goods allowed ich ade s o
26 Tully (2011); Ha p (2016).
27 The ubbe ade on Moun Came oon which s a ed ea lie was a he sho -li ed. See Oes e mann
(2023), pp. 143 . Fo an accoun see Knu son/A dene (2001).
28 Wi z (1972), pp. 32 .
29 Whi o d/An hony (1926), p. 8.
30 Wi z (1972); Quinn (2006). Fo a his o ical analysis o Sou h Came oonian socie ies see Labu he-Tol a
(1981); Guye (1984); Alexand e/Bine (1958); Vansina (1990).
31 Ha ms (1981), pp. 44 .
32 Fo he concep o „weal h in people“ see Kopy o /Mie s (1977); Guye (1993); Guye (1995).
33 Wi z (1972), pp. 103 .
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
189A Colony o Oppo uni y
ma y dozens o women and o build up eno mous households. Wi es wo ked in ood
p oduc ion and ga e bi h o o sp ing who also wo ked o he household in a ious
o ms o who could be pawned o gi en in ma iage o o m new ading connec ions
and, he e o e, o acqui e mo e capi al.34
This p ocess o accumula ion accele a ed in he ea ly 1880s. On he one hand, he
“cul u ally exal ed masculini y” o ich ade s who con olled la ge numbe s o wi es
“became a powe ul model o male aspi a ions”.35 I unde gi ded he o ms o accumu-
la ion p ac ices o economic in e media ies ha could be obse ed du ing he ubbe
boom. On he o he hand, accumula ion ampli ied inequali y and exploi a ion– be-
ween men and women, bu also be ween di e en social s a a o men. In he 1880s,
many men om poo e backg ounds became unable o ma y because hey had no con-
nec ions o he i o y ade and ha dly any access o Eu opean goods. Ins ead, hey had
o s ay in he households o hei a he s, uncles, o olde b o he s, o joined he ade s’
households as clien s and we e allowed o li e wi h one o hei pa on’s wi es.36 In a so-
cie y whe e only a ma ied man had any social s anding,37 his c ea ed massi e ensions.
Jus be o e he ad en o Ge man ule in sou he n Came oon, he egion’s socie ies we e
a powde keg eady o explode.38
In he ea ly 1890s, his social o de came unde s ess. Fi s , Ge man colonial ul-
e s assumed so e eign powe . Second, he ubbe ade allowed men hi he o excluded
om he A lan ic expo economy and s uck in he la ge households o ea n Eu ope-
an goods hemsel es.39 Thousands g asped he oppo uni y o e ed by he demand o
ubbe and wen in o he o es s, apped ees and ines, sold hei ubbe o Eu opean
companies, wo ked as wage labo e s in ading ca a ans, ea ned Eu opean goods, ma -
ied, and, he e o e, assumed mo e indi idual au onomy.40 Wha happened in sou he n
Came oon a e 1892 was compa able o a gold ush: an o en iolen , e e ish e en , in
which many people ied o ge ich quickly. The social uphea al which ollowed on he
heels o he ubbe ade was no s abilized by he new colonial s a e. I a he con ib-
u ed o he ensuing chaos: Because i lacked he manpowe o es ablish con ol, i con-
cen a ed on iolen policing. When he i o y ade s ied o de end hei social posi-
ion and s opped Eu opean companies om buying ubbe , he la e called he colonial
a my. Many ade s we e de ea ed mili a ily, and hei posi ion de e io a ed e en mo e.41
In colonial sou he n Came oon he e we e, hus, on he one hand huge pa s o he
local popula ion who wan ed o sell ubbe . On he o he hand, he e we e Eu opean
companies who wan ed o buy ubbe . Howe e , as a Ge man ade e ealed: “Whi es
34 See Walke -Said (2018), p. 5; Wi z (1972), pp. 15 .; Labu he-Tol a (1981), pp. 270–296; Guye (1984), p. 16.
35 B own (2003), p. 13.
36 Labu he-Tol a (1981), p. 244; Quinn (2006), pp. 11, 22; Geschie e (1995).
37 A gen i (2008); Wa nie (1996); Baya (1985), p. 15; Guye (1984); Alexand e/Bine (1958), p. 57; Labu -
he-Tol a (1981), pp. 378–380.
38 Oes e mann (2023), pp. 73 .
39 Wi z (1972), pp. 107, 144; Geschie e (2007), p. 51.
40 Oes e mann (2023).
41 See Ho mann (2007); Kaeseli z (1968); Akamba (1979).
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
is an oes e mann190
only buy e y li le ubbe .”42 The ac ual deals we e mainly made by A ican economic
in e media ies. Fi ms ne e had enough Eu opeans on he g ound o buy he massi e
amoun s o ubbe in he as ading ne wo ks in he ain o es . Eu opeans we e ex-
pensi e because hey had o be paid, housed, ed, and anspo ed om and o Eu ope,
and many o hem died om mala ia and o he diseases. On a cul u al le el, hey o en
had di icul ies lea ning A ican languages, o inding hei way amongs he complex
poli ical ela ionships on he spo .43 A ican economic in e media ies we e conside ed
a good al e na i e. The Eu opean manage s o ading companies like C. Woe mann,
Jan zen & Tho mählen, Randad & S ein and A. & L. Lubcke had lea ned hei ade
in Gabon. The e, A icans om coas al a eas had wo ked as in e media ies in business
o decades.44 Eu opean manage s knew ha A ican pa ne s and employees wi h hei
skills, knowledge, and connec ions we e an indispensable asse . Thus, Eu opean com-
panies in sou he n Came oon elied on A ican economic in e media ies o he lion’s
sha e o hei ade.
3. In e media y Posi ions in he Rubbe T ade
The ubbe ade in colonial Came oon was complex. Se e al business models ( om
small Eu opean ading businesses o la ge co po a ions wi h in e es s in se e al colo-
nies o well inanced concessiona y companies) and echniques o ade ( om ading
ac o ies o ading ca a ans, c edi a angemen s called “ us ”, o o ms o p eda o y
lending like “ ade back”) coexis ed. Also, he impo ance o hese models and ech-
niques changed o e ime as well as did he e y p ac ices o he ade.45 The e o e, he
ubbe indus y o e ed a ious in e media y posi ions o A icans, and hese posi-
ions, he equi emen s, he expec a ions, and possibili ies ha came wi h hem, also
changed o e ime.
Independen A ican ade s assumed impo an in e media y posi ions om he
e y beginning o he ubbe ade. Some o hem su ely we e pa o he old i o y ad-
ing eli e.46 Howe e , he demand o ubbe and he Eu opean companies’ need o lo-
cal knowledge and connec ions o e ed space o newcome s. In ac , he use o c edi
wi hin a sys em called “ us ” was a s a egy delibe a ely used o inc ease he numbe o
ade s willing o do business wi h hem.47 Tha a leas some o hese new independen
ade s should be dis inguished om he p e-colonial ones becomes clea i we look a
he example o a man called Elesa. A he u n o he cen u y, he was conside ed one o
42 F öhlich (1910). All ansla ions om Ge man a e mine.
43 Schkopp (1903).
44 Oes e mann (2023), pp. 50–55, 95 .; Chambe lin (1977). The same was he case in o he egions. See e. g.
Coke (1976).
45 Oes e mann (2023).
46 See e. g. Sabi (1910), p. 8.
47 Oes e mann (2023), pp. 89–94. On us see Njoku (1980); Lo ejoy/Richa dson (1999); Newbu y (1972).
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
191A Colony o Oppo uni y
he “mos impo an and in luen ial ade s be ween he Sanaga and he Nyong i e s”.48
He was bo n a ound 1860 in he coas al own o Malimba. P esumably in his ading
hub, he came in o con ac wi h he company o C. Woe mann o which he wo ked
as a cap ain on one o he i m’s launches. In 1894, howe e , Elesa no longe was an
employee bu a “Big Man”– a ich ade wi h a high social s a us.49 He ecei ed c edi
om Eu opean companies and bough ubbe om his Bakoko, Ngumba, Be i and Bulu
ading pa ne s.50 Elesa aded o se e al companies. While o iginally a ilia ed wi h
Woe mann, a leas om 1897 o 1899, he wo ked o he compe i o s om A. & L. Lub-
cke and p obably also o o he s.51 In 1901 o 1902, he wo ked o he Handelsgesellscha
Südwes -Kame un.52
Fo many easons, Elesa was e y aluable o he i ms. Unlike many Eu opean em-
ployees, he spoke local languages, knew he local ading cus oms, and possessed local
ne wo ks which allowed him o a el a wi hou being ha med.53 Ano he impo an
asse was ha he also enjoyed ye ano he in e media y posi ion as an agen o he co-
lonial go e nmen . In 1894, he ac ed as an in e p e e o he Ge man adminis a ion
and had al eady been gi en “a ce ain deg ee o judicial powe ”, p obably in he li o-
al egion, whe e he “wo ked e y use ully”.54 La e , Gou e neu on Pu kame made
Elesa he pa amoun chie o he Bakoko, u he in he in e io .55 Elesa enjoyed good
ela ionships wi h Eu opeans whom he en e ained in his house, se ing wine and bee
(“Ma ien hale dunkel, nicely chilled”).56 Gi en he excesses which Elesa was accused
o , which will be deal wi h la e in his a icle, i seems clea ha Elesa did no sepa a e
his oles as ade and go e nmen agen bu used he la e o make business– and his
was also good o his Eu opean inance s.
These Eu opean companies, howe e , did no only ely on independen coas al big
men like Elesa. They also employed A icans as ubbe ade s. As he ubbe ade ook
he o m o a ading on ie which cons an ly mo ed a e in o he in e io ,57 he com-
panies’ business was cha ac e ized by spa ial expansion in o he hin e land. This expan-
sion ook he o m o es ablishing ading ac o ies a s a egic poin s wi h dependen
sub- ac o ies on he ubbe on ie , o o mobile ading ca a ans sen ou om he
coas o om he ac o ies o he illages whe e ubbe was p oduced.58 Fac o ies on
s a egic poin s, which we e impo an o he o ganiza ion o he ubbe ade, we e
managed by Eu opeans. T ading ac o ies on he ubbe p oducing on ie , howe e ,
48 Schkopp (1906), pp. 99 .
49 SLUB Msc . D esd. app. 3045 Knochenhaue , B uno. Vol. 3: 11 h Janua y 1894.
50 Schkopp (1906), pp. 100 .
51 BA ch R 1001/3421 Lis e de im Schu zgebie Kame un hä igen Handels- und E we bsgesellscha en
1897/98/99, pp. 4, 12, 18; Schkopp (1906), pp. 100 .
52 Schkopp (1906), p. 101.
53 Schkopp (1906), pp. 100 .
54 SLUB Msc . D esd. app. 3045 Knochenhaue , B uno. Vol. 3: 11 h Janua y 1894.
55 Deu sches Reich (1906), ol. 3, p. 2150.
56 SLUB Msc . D esd. app. 3045 Knochenhaue , B uno. Vol. 3: 11 h Janua y 1894; Schkopp (1906), pp. 102 .
57 Oes e mann (2023), p. 150.
58 Fo he o ganiza ion o ading ne wo ks see Oes e mann (2023), p. 94–102. See also Wi z (1972), pp. 115 .
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
is an oes e mann198
o local ideas o wi chc a called ekon/ekom/ekongi, connec ed o illici accumula ion
in ade: Acco ding o missiona ies, “a ade who wan s o […] en ich himsel , names
an unpopula ela i e o acquain ance o a so ce e , ha is a p epa e o poisons.” While
he ade lea es o he “bush” o make business, he pe son now ge s poisoned. “Ac-
co ding o his supe s i ion, as soon as his soul lea es his body, his pe son has o help
his ela i e in he bush o make a p o i able business.”110 Thus, he accusa ion o Elesa o
be using cha ms and poisons, h ows ligh on how local people hough abou his ascen
o iches: I was no legi ima e.
5. In es men
Whe he seen as legi ima e o no , A ican economic in e media ies used hei p o i s
in a ious ways. One impo an way o spend ea nings was conspicuous consump ion.
Fo ins ance, he ade s showed ha hey could a o d Eu opean luxu ies which we e
conside ed e y p es igious. Illus a i e is he example o Zampa. In 1904, he w o e o
his men o on Mo gen, ha he spo ed a g amophone, wo ho ses, ou se an s, and
a washe man. “My wi e wea s beau i ul long d esses and shoes like he ancy ladies in
Ge many and always p omenades he sel p oudly.”111 Also he ade s hemsel es o en
wo e excellen and expensi e clo hes o show o hei weal h. Fo example, onboa d he
s eamship o he ading pos s a he Came oon coas , Hans Ossmann obse ed a num-
be o “Black Gen lemen”, who wo ked o he ubbe companies: “ hei colla s we e
so high ha hey ha dly could mo e hei heads, and hei inge s excessi ely co e ed
wi h so-called Acc a- ings”.112 Some A ican ade s bough luxu ies in Eu opean ac o-
ies. Those who sea ched o special exclusi eness i s o de ed a ca alogue and hen he
desi ed commodi ies di ec ly om Ge many. Acco ding o a Ge man missiona y, his
was whe e Zampa go his luxu y a icles: “Fo his wi e, he o de ed d esses in he leading
s o es. Once, he is said o ha e o de ed a d ess o he ha was as beau i ul and expen-
si e as he one wo n by he Emp ess he sel .”113 By displaying hese Eu opean o ms o
weal h, ade s like Zampa signaled hei social posi ion well abo e he a e age A ican
in he colony. Thei weal h made he in e media ies espec ed, ea ed, and en ied indi-
iduals wielding conside able powe .
Howe e , p o i s we e no only consumed bu also in es ed. Many economic in e -
media ies in es ed in p ecolonial o ms o weal h– and, he eby, ollowed models o
“cul u ally exal ed masculini y” cha ac e is ic o sou he n Came oon: They acqui ed
igh s o e people, especially h ough ma iage. No wi hou eason, Mullen men ioned
he access o many “young wi es” as an incen i e o people o wo k as ade s in Came-
110 König (1901), p. 42. See also Schili z (1901), p. 123. Fo an an h opological accoun o hese o ms o wi ch-
c a and i s connec ion o illici accumula ion see Geschie e (1997); Geschie e (2001).
111 BA ch N 227/22 Zampa o on Mo gen, 29.10.1904, p. 17.
112 Osman (1911), p. 59.
113 Hennemann (1915), pp. 131 .
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
199A Colony o Oppo uni y
oon.114 The ubbe boom con ibu ed o ising cos s o b ideweal h. In 1910, in Molun-
du in he ex eme Sou heas o he colony, a sui o had o pay goods wo h 500 o 3,000
Ma ks o he a he o he gi l he wan ed o ma y.115 In he Dume egion, a he hea
o ubbe p oduc ion in ha ime, b ideweal h su ely was e en dea e as a lo o goods
lowed in h ough he ubbe ade. Howe e , jus like he p ecolonial i o y ade s, A i-
can economic in e media ies we e in a e y good posi ion o pay expensi e b ideweal h
and o build la ge households. As he jou nalis Emil Zimme mann epo ed om he
Dume egion c. 1910: A success ul ac o y manage , “d essed in an immacula e sui wi h
whi e shi , whi e colla , and ine cal skin-boo s” had hough i “necessa y o ge h ee
young black beau ies o himsel , who ce ainly cos him a lo o money.”116
Ma iage and in es men in la ge households did no only ollow cul u al o ms o
masculini y bu had also o he easons: Ma iages c ea ed ne wo ks o alliances be-
ween ade s and he local popula ions. Also, women and child en could be used as
labo e s. Ma iage was an impo an me hod o mobilizing labo , especially in a socie y
whe e access o labo was di icul and highly compe i i e.117 This is demons a ed by he
example o Elesa. Al eady in 1904, he was said o be he owne o a cocoa-plan a ion.118
Appa en ly, his was a long- e m in es men o him because he was s ill men ioned as
a ade and a me in he K ibi dis ic in 1913.119 As a Ge man ga dene obse ed, he
wo ke s o Elesa’s plan a ion we e mos ly women– e y likely his wi es.120
Elesa was no he only A ican economic in e media y who in es ed his p o i s in
cash c op ag icul u e. The ans o ma ion o ading p o i s in o land owne ship and he
es ablishmen o plan a ions un by ex ended amilies was a pa e n. This is especially
ue o he pe iod a e he collapse o he ubbe ade in 1913 and he Fi s Wo ld Wa .
Fo me economic in e media ies o he ubbe ade played a ce ain ole in he pos wa
cash c op boom. The same is known om he Gold Coas whe e ubbe p o i s we e in-
es ed in cocoa-g owing.121 In 1929, a Ge man who had e u ned o sou he n Came oon
epo ed: “The old ade Akin and also Hae e ha e a huge cocoa plan a ion in Elin.”122
Fo eign ade s who had wo ked o ubbe companies and had s ayed in Sou he n
Came oon also in es ed in cocoa. William Hey o d om he Gold Coas , who like Mul-
len had spen his li e as a ubbe ade , is epo ed o ha e had h ee cocoa plan a ions.123
This way, he o unes made in he gold ush o he ubbe boom we e ans e ed in o
he new e a o cash c op p oduc ion unde he F ench manda e.
114 Mullen (2008), p. 24.
115 Museum am Ro henbaum. Kul u en und Küns e de Wel SCH 1.10, F age 970.
116 Zimme mann (1913), p. 4.
117 Oes e mann (2023).
118 Winkle (1906), p. 573.
119 NN (1913), p. 318.
120 Winkle (1906), p. 573.
121 Dume (1971); A hin (1980).
122 NN (1929), p. 14.
123 O’B ien (1938), p. 237.
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is an oes e mann200
6. Conclusion
Unde Ge man colonial ule, Came oon de eloped in o a colony o oppo uni y. I was
no because o goodwill Ge man policy. Ra he , oppo uni ies eme ged because o he
chaos which de eloped in he wake o colonial conques and he ubbe boom. An im-
po an g oup o bene icia ies o he chaos and i s oppo uni ies we e A ican economic
in e media ies. Jus like o he colonial sec o s, Eu opean ading companies depended
on A icans o keep hei business unning. As ade s, manage s o ac o ies, o subcon-
ac o s, A ican economic in e media ies we e he ones who bough mos o he ubbe .
In exchange, hei engagemen in ade o e ed hem he possibili y o p o i s. A ican
employees ea ned high wages and e en highe commissions. Subcon ac o s we e gi en
he oppo uni y o ea n high ma gins. And as many Eu opeans, many A icans did no
ca e abou o he people, hei wellbeing, hei li es. Some o hese in e media ies used
hei posi ion be ween colonize s and colonized o inc ease hei p o i s e en mo e:
They decei ed hei Eu opean as well as A ican ading pa ne s, hey illegally assumed
adminis a i e powe s, hey blackmailed, h ea ened, kidnapped, and mu de ed. Wi h
incomes some imes much highe han hose o a e age Ge man wage-ea ne s, A ican
economic in e media ies engaged in conspicuous consump ion, in es ed in demo-
g aphic expansion, bough p ope y, and in es ed in cash c op p oduc ion.
The his o y o A ican economic in e media ies again shows he limi s o Eu ope-
an powe and con ol unde colonial ule. Thei dependence on A icans on he spo
opened oppo uni ies o hose who we e skilled, sly, o eckless enough. A icans in lu-
enced he de elopmen o colonial capi alism beyond he in en ions o he colonize s–
and o en imes ac ed di ec ly agains hem while exploi ing he oppo uni ies o e ed
by colonial ule and he ollowing des uc ion o local poli ical, social, and economic
s uc u es.
This a icle ocused on A ican ade s as economic in e media ies. Howe e , hey
we e no he only ones one could coun among hose who g asped he oppo uni ies o
he chao ic colonial si ua ion: Chie s, headmen, and sla e deale s used he new labo
ma ke and sold o en ed ou hei dependen s as labo e s.124 Po e s used hei jou ney
o he coas o buy goods and sold hem in he in e io o p o i .125 T icks e s used he
unending demand o ca a an labo o hi e hemsel es and hei men ou o ca ying
Eu opean goods– and disappea ed wi h hem ne e o be seen again.126 Family heads
hi ed ou hei wi es and daugh e s as p os i u es.127 Boys sold hei sis e s o passe s-
by.128 I we look a hese many economic in e media ies, hese ade s, p o i ee s, sol-
die s o o une, and ou igh gangs e s, we can gain a new pic u e o he Came oonian
economy: one, in which iolence and coe cion s ill played an impo an ole, bu also
124 Oes e mann (2023), passim.
125 Oes e mann (2023), pp. 230–233.
126 P ange (1912), pp. 232–238.
127 BA ch R 1001/3416 Roh bach: Kame une Ve häl nisse, F ank u e Zei ung, 25.05.1913, p. 84.
128 S aa sbiblio hek zu Be lin Ms. ge m. oc . 1355 Saue , F i z (1919): Meine Fah zum Aequa o . Süd-Kame-
une E inne ungen, p. 257.
© by he au ho (s), published by F anz S eine Ve lag, S u ga 2025
201A Colony o Oppo uni y
one ha is embedded in o A ican his o y and A ican social ins i u ions. One which
shows he many o ms o how A icans expe ienced and shaped colonial ule and colo-
nial capi alism. One ha akes A ican agency se iously.
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