Dynamics between multidimensional and monetary poverty in Brazil: From deprivation to freedom

da Cunha, Ma ina Sil a
A icle
Dynamics be ween mul idimensional and mone a y
po e y in B azil: F om dep i a ion o eedom
Economies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: da Cunha, Ma ina Sil a (2025) : Dynamics be ween mul idimensional and
mone a y po e y in B azil: F om dep i a ion o eedom, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel,
Vol. 13, Iss. 5, pp. 1-17,
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Ci a ion: Cunha, M. S. d. (2025).
Dynamics Be ween Mul idimensional
and Mone a y Po e y in B azil: F om
Dep i a ion o F eedom. Economies,
13(5), 142. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies13050142
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A icle
Dynamics Be ween Mul idimensional and Mone a y Po e y in
B azil: F om Dep i a ion o F eedom
Ma ina Sil a da Cunha
Depa men o Economic, S a e Uni e si y o Ma inga, Ma inga 87020-900, B azil; [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Po e y is a global p oblem associa ed wi h dep i a ion; i is ma ked by he lack
o access o he minimum social needs o people’s in eg a ion and well-being. This wo k
aims o measu e he ela ionships be ween mul idimensional po e y and unidimensional
po e y in B azil om 2016 o 2022. The esea ch me hodology used mic oda a om
he Con inuous Na ional Household Sample Su ey o he IBGE, mul idimensional and
unidimensional po e y measu es, and mul inomial logi eg ession. The esul s show a
educ ion in po e y in i s di e en app oaches. Howe e , in 2022, 2.5% o he B azilian
popula ion s ill li ed in ch onic po e y, 0.8% in s uc u al po e y, and 25.7% in si ua ional
po e y, while he es enjoyed hei basic eedoms. Women, child en and young people,
non-whi es, hose wi h less educa ion, and hose li ing in he No h and No heas egions
a e mo e ulne able. Based on he esea ch esul s, i is ecommended o enhance public
policies o housing, educa ion, employmen inclusion, and ood s abili y.
Keywo ds: po e y; well-being; basic se ices; ch onic po e y; public policies; B azil
JEL Classi ica ion: D63; I32; I28; H51
1. In oduc ion
In 2022, i was es ima ed ha 1.1 million people wo ldwide we e expe iencing mul i-
dimensional po e y, which includes indica o s ela ed o heal h, educa ion, and s anda d
o li ing. Ou o he o al numbe , a ound 50% we e in sub-Saha an A ica, 33 million we e
in La in Ame ica and he Ca ibbean, and 7.9 million we e in B azil (UNDP & OPHI,2023).
Conside ing a po e y line o USD 3.65, om he Wo ld Bank o low- and middle-income
coun ies, he e we e 26.7 million people in a si ua ion o mone a y po e y in B azil.
Howe e , when he po e y line o BRL 606,00 is conside ed, his o als 63.4 million people,
which co esponds o a ound 30% o he B azilian popula ion in 2022 (IBGE,2023).
Hence, po e y has consequences o people ac oss he globe. This p oblem is conce n-
ing, and add essing i ully is he p ima y objec i e o he i s Sus ainable De elopmen
Goal ou lined in he 2030 Agenda, which was es ablished du ing he 2015 Uni ed Na ions
Sus ainable De elopmen Summi held a he headqua e s in New Yo k (ONU,2015).
Essen ially, po e y means he absence o basic pe sonal eedoms. Seeing i in his ligh ,
he g ow h o a na ion would e ol e a ound he ad ancemen o hese eedoms, he
absence o which cons ains oppo uni ies, choices, and accomplishmen s. Access o essen-
ial ameni ies o well-being has bene icial e ec s on bo h indi iduals and socie y (Sen &
Anand,1997;Sen,2000).
P e ious s udies in his a ea ha e aimed o quan i y po e y using bo h unidimen-
sional (Chen & Ra allion,2013) and mul idimensional app oaches (Alki e & Fos e ,2009;
Alki e e al.,2017;Alki e & Fang,2019;Bá cena-Ma ín e al.,2020), ye he e is a lack o
Economies 2025,13, 142 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13050142
Economies 2025,13, 142 2 o 17
esea ch del ing in o he in e play be ween hese wo app oaches. In his me hod, he
popula ion is di ided in o dis inc ca ego ies o dep i a ion, aiding in he de ec ion o social
ulne abili ies (Alki e & San os,2010;Alki e e al.,2015;Valen e,2023). Conside ing hese
s udies o some coun ies, his esea ch aims o add o his subjec by p o iding new da a
o B azil. The in e ac ion be ween hese wo app oaches c ea es ou popula ion ca ego ies.
This s udy seeks o assess bo h mul idimensional and unidimensional po e y and
explo e hei in e connec ions in B azil be ween 2016 and 2022. In o ma ion om he
IBGE’s Con inuous Na ional Household Sample Su ey, measu es o mul idimensional
and unidimensional po e y, and mul inomial logi eg ession a e used o iden i y he main
de e minan s o po e y, conside ing bo h pe sonal and spa ial cha ac e is ics. Fu he mo e,
in addi ion o pe capi a household income, which measu es mone a y po e y, ele en
o he indica o s ela ed o educa ion, heal h, basic se ices, and housing condi ions a e
used o calcula e mul idimensional po e y.
Thus, we seek o ca y ou an empi ical analysis, iden i ying he popula ion’s si ua ion
as ch onic po e y, s uc u al po e y, si ua ional po e y, o no -po e y, which con ibu es
o a be e a ge ing o public policies, as well as hei moni o ing and e alua ion.
Besides unidimensional measu es, mul idimensional po e y analysis imp o es he
unde s anding o he well-being s a us o a popula ion, iden i ies he ecipien s o public
policies and se ices, and aids in acking and assessing he e ec i eness o public policies
and p og ams. Mo eo e , esea che s and public manage s a e in e es ed in he heo e ical
insigh s o Ama ya Sen and he weal h o in o ma ion om a mul idimensional iewpoin
(Alki e & Fos e ,2009). Public social policies need o ocus no only on aking people ou o
po e y bu also on p e en ing hem om alling back in o i (A. M. R. Sil a e al.,2011).
This wo k is o ganized in o i e sec ions and his in oduc ion. The upcoming sec ion
explo es heo e ical and empi ical ac o s ela ed o po e y. Sec ion 3i discusses he
esea ch me hodology ela ed o he da abase and echniques employed. I p oceeds by
discussing he measu es and ends o mul idimensional and unidimensional po e y in
B azil. Addi ionally, his sec ion co e s he connec ions be ween mul idimensional and
unidimensional po e y, p esen ing eg ession es ima es ha aim o desc ibe he popula ion
expe iencing dep i a ion. Sec ion 5discusses he main indings o he s udy, conside ing
he li e a u e on he subjec . Sec ion 6p esen s he key indings o he s udy.
2. Theo e ical and Empi ical Aspec s
Classical economic li e a u e de ines po e y based on un ul illed su i al equi e-
men s like ood and shel e , as de e mined by income le els. Townsend (1993) p oposed
ha po e y could be objec i ely de ined by examining he ela i e dep i a ion expe ienced
by indi iduals, amilies, o g oups wi hin a popula ion. Po e y can be de ined as no
ha ing enough esou ces o buy ood and main ain a s anda d o li ing ha is conside ed
no mal, which esul s in signi ican exclusion om communi y ac i i ies and adi ions. The
me hod o ackling po e y ou lined he e s ems om u ili a ian economic p inciples, which
p io i ize income o consump ion as he mos eliable measu es o indi idual wel a e.
De ining basic necessi ies and de e mining he accep able h eshold a e essen ial
s eps in ope a ionalizing his comp ehensi e concep o po e y. As a esul , po e y
can be quan i ied ei he absolu ely o ela i ely. Salama and Des emau (1999) poin ou
ha absolu e po e y e e s o ha ing enough income o sus ain an indi idual o amily,
whe eas ela i e po e y places hem wi hin he socie al con ex . In his me hod, po e y
is de ined as he lack o income and is e e ed o as he mone a y o unidimensional
iewpoin . Rocha (2006) a gues ha in con empo a y economies, whe e people sa is y hei
basic needs h ough comme cial ansac ions, i is common o he assessmen o hese
needs o be ca ied ou indi ec ly by looking a income le els. Chen and Ra allion (2013)
Economies 2025,13, 142 3 o 17
s a ed ha he po e y line is in luenced by he consump ion and income le els o a socie y,
which a e de e mined by he o e all well-being and social no ms.
Sen (2000) a gues ha weal h’s alue is in wha i can accomplish and acqui e, whe eas
Bou guignon and Chak a a y (2003) iew po e y as a mul idimensional phenomenon
wi h income se ing as a me e indica o . Towa ds he end o he 20 h cen u y, he e was
a shi in ocus wi hin esea ch on po e y, looking a he ul illmen o basic needs o
adop ing a mul idimensional iewpoin . Acco ding o Salama and Des emau (1999), he
pe spec i e o Unsa is ied Basic Needs (UBNs) encompasses wo key elemen s: he i s one
is ied o biological equi emen s, whe eas he second is associa ed wi h he a ailabili y o
public esou ces and se ices. Rocha (2006) also iews basic needs, such as ood, educa ion,
sani a ion, and housing, om his s andpoin .
Following Ama ya Sen’s ideas, a second mul idimensional iewpoin known as
capabili ies a ises, which, oo ed in p inciples o social jus ice, in eg a es eedom o choice
ega ding he oppo uni ies a ailable o each pe son. F om his s andpoin , he no ions
o unc ioning and capabili ies a e in eg a ed. Indi iduals alue ce ain unc ioning o
hei well-being, whe eas capabili ies e e o he unc ioning ha indi iduals can ac ually
achie e. Hence, empowe men deno es a kind o independence, enabling indi iduals o
engage in di e en se s o unc ioning (Sen,1993;Sen,2000).
Hence, unidimensional o mone a y indica o s o po e y a e conside ed indi ec
measu es o po e y, whe eas mul idimensional indica o s a e conside ed di ec measu es.
The e o e, po e y could s em om ac o s beyond income, which is e lec i e o he
oppo uni ies acqui ed o e a pe son
´
s li espan. O he elemen s come in o play, like he
in es men s made in heal h and educa ion, which a e c ucial o economic success. In
he beyond-income pe spec i e, po e y is de ined as he a ainmen o alued goals o
ou comes by indi iduals, which a e accomplished using income o a se o goods.
Fu he mo e, ce ain au ho s sugges assessing he connec ions be ween mul idimen-
sional and unidimensional me hods. (Alki e & San os,2010;Alki e e al.,2015;Alki e &
Fang,2019;Valen e,2023). The in e ac ion be ween hese wo app oaches c ea es ou
popula ion ca ego ies, which a e de ailed in Table 1. The i s one is when indi iduals a e
a ec ed by bo h mone a y po e y and mul idimensional po e y, called ch onic po e y.
In his scena io, people lack enough income and a e denied access o necessi ies. The e o e,
his g oup consis s o he mos suscep ible indi iduals in he popula ion. Ano he ype o
po e y, known as s uc u al po e y, is obse ed when a popula ion aces mul idimen-
sional dep i a ion a he han jus mone a y ha dships. This g oup comp ises indi iduals
who ea n enough o mee hei basic needs ye lack access o minimum li ing condi ions.
Table 1. Mul idimensional and unidimensional po e y dynamics.
Ca ego ies Mul idimensional Po e y
Poo Non Poo
Unidimensional po e y Poo Ch onic po e y Si ua ional po e y
Non-poo S uc u al po e y Socially in eg a ed
Sou ce: P epa ed in he esea ch.
In con as , indi iduals may ace si ua ional po e y i hey lack income bu can s ill
access basic goods and se ices. The e o e, e en hough he basic needs a e being ul illed,
he income o his g oup alls below he h eshold o mone a y po e y, esul ing in a s a e
o ecen po e y. In conclusion, he e is a g oup wi hin he popula ion ha does no all
in o ei he mone a y po e y o mul idimensional po e y, e e ed o as he non-poo .
This g oup o indi iduals is socially in eg a ed because i has i s basic needs ul illed and
enough income o main ain a decen quali y o li e.
Economies 2025,13, 142 4 o 17
In e na ional s udies ha e deepened he discou se on mul idimensional po e y by
examining i s ela ionships in a mo e holis ic manne , depa ing om he na ow, unidi-
mensional iewpoin . Rega ding mone a y po e y, he wo k o Chen and Ra allion (2013)
s ands ou when hey analyzed in o ma ion o 125 coun ies, om 1981 o 2008. They
con i med a dec ease in po e y and ound ha economic g ow h has occu ed alongside
he dec ease in absolu e po e y, while ela i e measu es a e mo e in luenced by inequali y
han by economic g ow h. Schola s ha e in es iga ed how po e y is measu ed using a
mul idimensional app oach, bo h ac oss di e en coun ies (Alki e & San os,2010;Bá cena-
Ma ín e al.,2020) and wi hin indi idual coun ies (Alki e & Fos e ,2009;Alki e e al.,
2017;Alki e & Fang,2019).
Va ious s udies in he empi ical li e a u e o B azil ha e u ilized he mul idimensional
pe spec i e. Bou guignon and Chak a a y (2003) obse ed a dec ease in educa ional
dep i a ion bu a ise in income dep i a ion among he u al popula ion in B azil du ing
he 1980s. O e he ollowing ew decades, da a om he Na ional Household Sample
Su ey also shows a dec ease in mul idimensional po e y in he coun y (Ho mann &
Kageyama,2006;Ba os e al.,2006;Fahel e al.,2016;Ma celino & Cunha,2024). In u n,
Ne es and Sil a (2023) showed a educ ion in mul idimensional po e y om 2004 o
2008, bu an inc ease om 2016 o 2019. The au ho s a ibu e his pe o mance o he
g ea e economic g ow h in he ini ial pe iod and he alloca ion o unds o social p og ams.
Du ing he second pe iod, he economy expe ienced a dec ease in dynamism, a ise in
unemploymen , and a decline in social well-being.
By examining da a om he 1991, 2000, and 2010 Demog aphic Censuses, B ambilla
and Cunha (2021) and B i es e al. (2022) demons a ed a decline in po e y wi hin he
coun y’s municipali ies. Addi ionally, Rosa e al. (2023) esea ched he No h egion and
no ed a end o po e y becoming mo e concen a ed in me opoli an a eas om 1991 o
2010, ollowed by a e e sal in he ollowing decade.
S udies ha e examined di e en egions o he coun y, such as he No h and No h-
eas (A. F. Sil a e al.,2017;J. J. Sil a e al.,2020), and speci ic s udies ha e ocused on
indi idual s a es (Albuque que & Cunha,2012;Fahel & Teles,2018;Viei a e al.,2017).
Pe ei a e al. (2020) examined po e y in B azilian you hs, while Belkiss e al. (2021) ocused
on he COVID-19 pandemic pe iod. Re iewing bo h heo e ical and empi ical li e a u e on
po e y emphasizes i s in ica e na u e and he necessi y o add essing i o os e a mo e
equi able socie y and sus ainable de elopmen . O e all, he e a e signs o ad ancemen ,
which a e no able on a global scale as well as in B azil.
Finally, he e is s ill sca ce e idence on he ela ionships be ween unidimensional
and mul idimensional po e y, ollowing he app oach o Alki e and Fos e . In his
sense, o China, in 2008, he e idence poin s o 1.82% o he popula ion in si ua ional
po e y, 11.6% in s uc u al po e y, 0.87% in ch onic po e y, and 85.71% in non-po e y
(Alki e & San os,2010).
In his empi ical li e a u e, he e a e s udies ha ollow he app oach o Bou guignon
and Chak a a y (2003), which include income as an addi ional indica o in he elabo a ion
o a mul idimensional po e y index (Ho mann & Kageyama,2006;Ba os e al.,2006;
Albuque que & Cunha,2012;Bá cena-Ma ín e al.,2020;B ambilla & Cunha,2021;B i es
e al.,2022;Rosa e al.,2023;Ne es & Sil a,2023). On he o he hand, he e a e s udies
ha ollow he app oach o Alki e and Fos e (2009) and Alki e e al. (2015), which analyze
unidimensional and mul idimensional po e y sepa a ely (Fahel e al.,2016;Viei a e al.,
2017;Fahel & Teles,2018;Pe ei a e al.,2020;Belkiss e al.,2021;Ma celino & Cunha,2024).
As in he p esen s udy, in gene al, he s udies ha ollow he la e app oach use h ee
dimensions, wi h social well-being indica o s ela ed o educa ion, heal h, public se ices,
and housing condi ions.

Economies 2025,13, 142 5 o 17
3. Me hodology
3.1. Da a and Measu emen o Mul idimensional and Unidimensional Po e y
This wo k uses in o ma ion om he Con inuous Na ional Household Sample Su ey
(PNADC) o he B azilian Ins i u e o Geog aphy and S a is ics (IBGE), om 2016 o 2022.
I conside s households wi h accessible pe capi a income, adjus ing hei alues wi h he
Na ional Consume P ice Index (INPC) o he las qua e o 2022. Mo eo e , in o de
o keep he compa ison consis en ac oss PNADC yea s and s anda dize he da abases,
obse a ions we e included ha con ained all he ele an in o ma ion o he s udy.
The Alki e and Fos e me hod was u ilized o assess mul idimensional po e y, aking
in o accoun indica o s, dimensions, weigh ing p ocedu es, and agg ega ion echniques
(Alki e & Fos e ,2009;Alki e e al.,2015). Thus, suppose he e a e nindi iduals and d
dimensions. Conside ing a gi en indica o , i s achie emen o indi idual iin dimension jis
ep esen ed by x
ij
. To a oid being classi ied as dep i ed, an indi idual mus achie e a leas
he minimum pe o mance speci ied by z
j
. The e o e, i x
ij
is smalle han zj, indi idual iis
p i a e in dimension jand has a g0
ij equal o 1; o he wise g0
ij equals ze o.
In o de o c ea e a po e y index, i is necessa y o gi e a weigh o each indica o
o show i s ela i e impo ance, deno ed as w
j
, whe e he o al sum om j = 1,
. . .
, o d
mus be equal o 1. The dep i a ion le el o indi idual iis de e mined by summing up
ci=∑d
j=1wjg0
ij
, which alls be ween ze o (indica ing no dep i a ion) and one (signi ying
dep i a ion in all dimensions). A dep i a ion sco e o po e y h eshold needs o be
es ablished, indica ing he alue (k) a which an indi idual is classi ied as poo (c
i≥
k).
In his s udy, a sco e o 1/3 o highe , in line wi h exis ing esea ch, was used o classi y
someone as expe iencing mul idimensional po e y.
The mul idimensional po e y index (M0) is calcula ed by mul iplying he pe cen age
o indi iduals li ing in po e y (H) by he deg ee o po e y (A). The pe cen age o indi id-
uals in po e y is de e mined by di iding he numbe o iden i ied dep i ed indi iduals
by he o al numbe o indi iduals, based on he chosen sco e o k. Addi ionally, he
se e i y o po e y is calcula ed speci ically o indi iduals li ing in po e y and indica es
he p opo ion o ha dships ha hey expe ience, deno ed as
A=1
q∑n
i=1ci(k)
. Thus, he
mul idimensional po e y index is he p oduc : M0 = H
×
A, whe e M0, Hand Acan a y
om 0 o 1.
In his s udy, h ee dimensions a e examined, each ca ying an equal weigh o 1/3, as
sugges ed by p e ious esea ch. Ele en dimensions o po e y a e analyzed, assigning a
alue o one in cases o dep i a ion and ze o in cases o non-dep i a ion. Hence, Table 2
displays he indica o s, dimensions, and weigh s u ilized.
Th ee indica o s o dep i a ion a e aken in o accoun o he educa ion dimension.
Dep i a ion in e ms o school a endance e e s o he p esence o a leas one school-
aged child (be ween six and se en een yea s old) in he household who is no en olled in
school. Rega ding academic delay, no comple ing seconda y educa ion was iewed as a
dep i a ion o a leas one indi idual aged be ween nine een and wen y- ou . Households
we e classi ied as educa ionally dep i ed i hey did no ha e any adul aged wen y- i e
o olde wi h a comple e p ima y educa ion.
Fou indica o s a e p esen in he dimension o heal h and basic se ices. Wa e
dep i a ion happens when a household does no ha e access o unning wa e om a
gene al dis ibu ion ne wo k, well, o sp ing in a leas one oom. When ga bage is no
collec ed by a cleaning se ice, i indica es a de iciency in hese se ices. Households
ha do no ha e main elec ici y, gene a o s, o sola ligh ing a e in a p eca ious posi ion.
In his con ex , he lack o p ope sewage sys ems linked o ei he a ne wo k o a i e
deno es dep i a ion.
Economies 2025,13, 142 6 o 17
In he dimension o housing condi ions, he e a e a o al o ou indica o s. Ha ing
h ee o mo e esiden s pe bed oom is a o m o dep i a ion, jus like ha ing insu icien
ceiling ma e ial in he house. Using cooking uel o he han elec ici y o gas sugges s a
lack o esou ces, as well as no ha ing wo o mo e du able goods.
Thus, he indica o s seek o cap u e dep i a ion in households and he absence o
social well-being. Howe e , despi e being widely used as a measu e o access o goods and
se ices, hey measu e hei p esence o absence, bu no hei quali y, which may ep esen
a limi a ion in measu ing po e y.
Table 2. Dimensions, indica o s, desc ip ion, and weigh o mul idimensional po e y.
Dimension/Indica o s Desc ip ion Weigh
Educa ion 1/3
School a endance
Homes wi h a leas one child o eenage be ween six and se en een yea s
old who is no in school. 1/9
Schools delay Household ha includes a young pe son who has no ye g adua ed om
high school. 1/9
Yea s o s udy Household whe e no adul esiden has inished p ima y school. 1/9
Heal h and basic se ices 1/3
Wa e supply A esidence wi hou access o unning wa e in a leas one oom supplied
by a gene al dis ibu ion ne wo k, well, o sp ing. 1/12
Ga bage des ina ion Household ha does no use a cleaning se ices o ga bage collec ion. 1/12
Elec ici y Household lacking main elec ici y, gene a o , o sola ligh ing. 1/12
Sani a y sewage Household wi h a oile ha is no connec ed o he sewage o
ainwa e ne wo k. 1/12
Housing condi ions 1/3
Densi y A household whe e h ee o mo e people sha e a bed oom. 1/12
Ceiling ma e ial Household wi h a oo p ima ily made o ma e ials o he han iles,
conc e e slabs, o cons uc ion-g ade wood. 1/12
Fuel Household ha cooks wi hou gas o elec ici y. 1/12
Du able goods
Household ha does no ha e mo e han one o he ollowing i ems:
e ige a o , ele ision (colo o black and whi e), elephone (landline o cell
phone), washing machine, pe sonal compu e , and au omobile.
1/12
Sou ce: P epa ed by he au ho .
Fu he mo e, he p opo ion o poo indi iduals is u ilized as a me ic o unidimen-
sional po e y, wi h wo po e y h esholds de e mined by he minimum wage (SM) o
2022 and he pe capi a household income. In o de o iden i y ex eme po e y, he po e y
line was se a BRL 303.00, equi alen o a qua e o he minimum wage (SM), whe eas o
assess po e y, i was se a BRL 606.00, co esponding o hal o he minimum wage (SM).
3.2. Mul inomial Logi Reg ession
Ou goal was o de ine he cha ac e is ics o indi iduals in di e en segmen s by
conduc ing eg essions wi h he mul inomial logi model. The dependen a iable was a
disc e e polycho omous a iable wi h mul iple alues. The mul iple choices logi model is
a gene aliza ion o bina y models. The uno de ed nominal dependen a iable is modeled
by he mul inomial logi .
Economies 2025,13, 142 7 o 17
The gene al s uc u e o his model, as desc ibed by G eene (2018), is as ollows:
pij =P ob(Yi=j|wi) = exp(w′
iαj)
∑J
j=0w′
iαjj=0, . . . , j;e i=1, . . . , n. (1)
whe e ideno es he indi idual, jdeno es he s a e, and w
i
ep esen s a ec o wi h he
con ol a iables o indi idual iand deno es he p obabili y o indi idual ibeing in
s a e j. In his s udy, each es ima ed model has a alue o h ee o J, wi h a o al o ou
ca ego ies. As such, e e y concei able link be ween mul idimensional and unidimensional
po e y was in es iga ed, encompassing ch onic, si ua ional, and s uc u al po e y, wi h
he indi idual placed in a non-poo si ua ion. Acco ding o G eene (2018), since he
p obabili ies o al one, es ima ing J ec o s is su icien o de e mine he J+ 1 p obabili ies.
Es ima es a e p esen ed in he o m o odds a ios, calcula ed as p
ij
/p
i0
, o illus a e he
likelihood o being in s a e jcompa ed o he e e ence s a e j= 0. Acco ding o Came on
and T i edi (2005), he na u al loga i hm o he odds a io, ln[p
ij
/p
i0
], is linea wi h he
eg esso s, and he model akes he o m o ela i e isk. The e o e, i he coe icien
es ima es o all con ol a iables a e abo e one, he p obabili y o being in s a e iis highe
han in he e e ence s a e. Chances a e educed compa ed o he e e ence s a e when he
alue is less han one.
Conce ning he con ol a iables, a bina y a iable was inco po a ed o di e en ia e
be ween sex, assigning a alue o one o women. Ano he a iable was in oduced o
dis inguish ace o skin colo , assigning a alue o one o non-whi e indi iduals, ha is,
black, b own, and indigenous people. To di e en ia e he age o he popula ion, se en
bina y a iables we e included o age g oups om 0 o 5 yea s, om 6 o 10 yea s, om
11 o 14 yea s, om 15 o 17 yea s, om 18 o 24 yea s, om 25 o 29 yea s, and om 30
o 59 yea s. Six bina y a iables based on di e en educa ion le els o analyze he impac
o educa ion we e used: hose wi h no educa ion o less han 1 yea o s udy, incomple e
elemen a y school, comple e elemen a y school, incomple e seconda y educa ion, comple e
seconda y educa ion, and incomple e highe educa ion.
Th ee bina y a iables we e included o di e en ia e be ween nuclea , ex ended, and
compound household uni s in which he indi idual li es. A bina y a iable wi h a alue o
one o dis inguish u al households om u ban ones was used. A bina y a iable was used
o sepa a e indi iduals li ing in me opoli an a eas om hose li ing in non-me opoli an
a eas, wi h a alue o one indica ing esidence in me opoli an a eas. To accoun o he
coun y’s egional a ia ions, ou bina y a iables we e inco po a ed, ep esen ing he
No h, No heas , Sou h, and Cen al-Wes egions.
Thus, o he bina y a iables included, men, whi e people, indi iduals aged 60
o o e , people wi h a highe educa ion deg ee o mo e, and esiden s o single-pe son
households in u ban, me opoli an a eas, and he Sou heas egion we e conside ed as
e e ence ca ego ies.
4. Resul s
4.1. Mul idimensional and Unidimensional Po e y Measu es om 2015 o 2022
A i s , he mul idimensional po e y index was ob ained by ga he ing indica o s
ela ed o educa ion, heal h, basic sani a ion, and housing condi ions, as ou lined in Table 3.
In 2016, he adul popula ion in households expe iencing mul idimensional po e y had
he highes le el o dep i a ion in e ms o yea s o s udy, ha is, he absence o a leas one
adul wi h comple e p ima y educa ion in he household, which was equal o 91.6%. In
e ms o educa ion, he second mos se e e dep i a ion o young indi iduals is he delay
in comple ing seconda y educa ion, which s ands a 62.2%. This is ollowed by school
Economies 2025,13, 142 8 o 17
a endance in basic educa ion, wi h dep i a ion o 21.2%, which conside s bo h p ima y
and seconda y educa ion. In 2022, high le els o educa ional dep i a ion pe sis ed among
hose in mul idimensional po e y, eaching 15.6% in school a endance, 54.9% in academic
delay among young people, and 86% in yea s o s udy in he adul popula ion.
Table 3. Dep i a ion in households in si ua ions o mul idimensional po e y, 2016–2022.
Dimension/Indica o 2016 2017 2018 2019 2022
Educa ion
School a endance 21.22 21.03 19.37 17.47 15.66
School delay 62.22 62.05 61.84 58.21 54.88
Yea s o s udy 91.61 90.38 89.96 88.67 85.99
Heal h and basic sani a ion
Wa e supply 27.65 27.18 27.84 26.18 29.81
Ga bage disposal 70.32 70.30 70.08 71.32 72.58
Elec ici y 4.03 4.21 4.50 4.64 4.22
Sani a y sewage 85.52 86.80 89.39 88.52 88.85
Housing condi ions
Densi y 52.67 52.19 54.12 51.20 49.83
Ceiling ma e ial 13.40 14.49 13.17 13.29 16.29
Fuel 0.80 1.23 1.32 20.82 18.56
Du able goods 4.02 4.06 3.65 4.35 3.79
Sou ce: Resea ch in o ma ion, ob ained based on PNADC/IBGE.
People li ing in mul idimensional po e y expe ience signi ican de iciencies in heal h
and basic sani a ion. Among he indica o s analyzed, sewage ep esen ed 85.5% in 2016. I
became e en mo e in ense in 2022, when i eached 88.85%. The eason o his ou come
is he building o houses in egions lacking p ope in as uc u e. The indica o o was e
disposal anked second in e ms o dep i a ion in his dimension. I ose o e he pe iod,
eaching 72% in 2022. Abou 4% o he popula ion su eyed did no ha e access o elec ici y,
which was one o he indica o s wi h he highes le el o a ailabili y.
In e ms o housing condi ions, he indica o ha shows he highes le el o dep i a ion
is household densi y, which e e s o households wi h h ee o mo e esiden s sha ing he
same oom, s anding a app oxima ely 50% in 2022. This indica o saw a dec ease o 2%
du ing he pe iod. The pe cen age o inapp op ia e ceiling ma e ial ose o 16% du ing his
pe iod. In 2022, 19% o he popula ion in mul idimensional po e y used inapp op ia e
cooking uel. In he pe iod s udied, he owne ship o goods showed he lowes le el o
dep i a ion, a app oxima ely 4%.
Consequen ly, indi iduals li ing in po e y exhibi ed conside able sho comings
ac oss a ious indica o s, as illus a ed in Table 3. The coun y s ill aces signi ican
challenges in he dimensions s udied. When i comes o educa ion, Fede al Law 12,796
o 2013 se ou new di ec i es and ounda ions o he na ional educa ion sys em, such as
inc easing he age o ee and compulso y basic educa ion om 4 o 17 yea s o age (B asil,
2013). The 2014 Na ional Educa ion Plan (PNE) laid ou p inciples, objec i es, and ac ics
o educa ion in he coun y om 2014 o 2024 (B asil,2014). The e o e, he PNE aimed o
ha e a leas 50% o child en unde 3 yea s old en olled in dayca e cen e s by 2024, as well
as p o ide uni e sal access o p eschool o 4- and 5-yea -olds by 2016. By 2024, he aim
was o a leas 95% o s uden s aged 6 o 14 o inish p ima y educa ion a he app op ia e
age. By 2016, he aim was o ensu e ha all indi iduals aged 15 o 17 would ha e access o
seconda y educa ion, and by 2024, he goal was o aise he ne en ollmen a e o 85%.
Da a om he 2022 IBGE Demog aphic Census e eal ha app oxima ely 24.3% o
he B azilian popula ion s ill lacked p ope sani a ion (IBGE,2024). In 2020, he Fede al
Economies 2025,13, 142 15 o 17
6. Conclusions
This s udy ocused on bo h mul idimensional and unidimensional po e y and ex-
amined how hese wo app oaches a e in e connec ed. This led o he di ision o he
popula ion in o ca ego ies o ch onic, s uc u al, si ua ional, and socially in eg a ed po e y.
I analyzed PNADC da a om 2016 o 2022, along wi h po e y measu es, and conduc ed
eg essions o iden i y he key ac o s in luencing po e y le els in he B azilian popula ion.
Based on he indings p esen ed, i was e iden ha po e y me ics dec eased, bo h
om 2016 o 2019 and om 2019 o 2022. The excep ion was si ua ional po e y, which
inc eased om 2019 o 2022. In 2016, app oxima ely 32% o he popula ion aced some
o m o dep i a ion, compa ed o a ound 29% in 2022. This s ill accoun s o a signi ican
segmen o he popula ion.
In e ms o mul idimensional po e y, a lack o access o educa ion had he g ea es
impac , ollowed by inadequa e heal h and sani a ion, and las ly, poo housing condi ions.
The majo i y o people li ing in po e y a e women, non-whi es, young indi iduals, hose
wi h lowe educa ion le els, hose li ing in u al o non-me opoli an a eas, and hose in
he No h and No heas egions. Po e y a es a e he highes in he s a e o São Paulo,
ollowed by Bahia, Minas Ge ais, Pa á, and Rio de Janei o. Hence, he s udy ou comes
imply ha po e y does no esul om a sho age o weal h bu om he no ably unequal
dis ibu ion o weal h ac oss he coun y.
Ano he impo an poin o conside is he high a e o po e y a ec ing child en,
eenage s, and young adul s in he na ion, which s ands a app oxima ely 40%. This
hinde s he possibili ies o ad ancing socially and escaping po e y in he u u e. These
indi iduals equi e p o ec ion bu ace daily s uggles wi h basic needs, such as ood
insecu i y. This issue could be add essed h ough access o dayca e cen e s and ull- ime
educa ion p og ams.
Fo u u e wo k, we sugges o analyzing he impac on he measu emen o mul-
idimensional po e y when he weigh s used o he dimensions and o he le el o
dep i a ion necessa y o be conside ed in a si ua ion o po e y a e changed. The inclusion
o new indica o s is also sugges ed, such as hose associa ed wi h heal h, such as ood and
nu i ional secu i y and in an mo ali y, which a e no a ailable a he household le el o
he yea s analyzed. Fu he mo e, a limi a ion o he s udy is he a ailabili y o indica o s
on he quali y o goods and se ices, no jus hei quan i y.
Hence, he indings om he s udy enable us o desc ibe he na ion as ha ing sig-
ni ican socioeconomic dispa i ies. A signi ican po ion o he popula ion, abou 30%,
emains inadequa ely in eg a ed in o socie y, meaning hey a e unable o access hei basic
eedoms o engage in educa ion. In his scena io, i is ecommended o enhance public
policies such as heal h se ices, educa ion om dayca e up o high school g adua ion,
housing, employmen inclusion, and ood secu i y. Po e y is ma ked by he lack o access
o minimum social necessi ies o in eg a ion and well-being, basic o he sus ainable
p og ess o succeeding gene a ions.
Funding: The au ho ecei es a esea ch p oduc i i y g an om CNPq du ing he s udy.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The esea ch da a is a ailable a IBGE (h ps://www.ibge.go .b /
accessed 10 Feb ua y 2024).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho decla es no con lic o in e es .

Economies 2025,13, 142 16 o 17
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