Ho mann, Ma cel And é; Lasch, Raine
A icle
Unlocking he po en ial o p edic i e main enance o
in elligen manu ac u ing: Acase s udy on po en ials,
ba ie s, and c i ical success ac o s
Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (SBUR)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Schmalenbach-Gesellscha ü Be iebswi scha e.V.
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ho mann, Ma cel And é; Lasch, Raine (2025) : Unlocking he po en ial o
p edic i e main enance o in elligen manu ac u ing: Acase s udy on po en ials, ba ie s, and
c i ical success ac o s, Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (SBUR), ISSN 2366-6153,
Sp inge , Heidelbe g, Vol. 77, Iss. 1, pp. 27-55,
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s41471-024-00204-3
Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
Unlocking he Po en ial o P edic i e Main enance o
In elligen Manu ac u ing: a Case S udy On Po en ials,
Ba ie s, and C i ical Success Fac o s
Ma cel And é Ho mann · Raine Lasch
Recei ed: 12 June 2024 / Accep ed: 20 Decembe 2024 / Published online: 21 Janua y 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac P edic i e main enance (PdM) is a da a-d i en main enance s a egy ha
aims o a oid unplanned down imes by p edic ing he emaining li e ime o main-
enance objec s. Thus, unnecessa y eplacemen s o spa e pa s and c i ical p ocess
dis u bances due o b eakdowns can be a oided. Despi e he widely ecognized ad-
an ages o his echnology, he numbe o success ul applica ions in p ac ice is
s ill e y limi ed. Ou s udy aims o add ess he heo y-p ac ice gap by conduc ing
a comp ehensi e case s udy in ol ing 15 expe in e iews wi h indus y p o es-
sionals o unco e c i ical ac o s ha hinde he success ul implemen a ion o PdM.
Ou indings shed ligh on he unde lying easons o a hesi an PdM implemen a-
ion, including challenges ela ed o digi al eadiness, da a quali y and accessibili y,
echnological in eg a ion, and main enance o ganiza ion. By p o iding an in-dep h
analysis o hese ac o s, ou s udy o e s aluable insigh s and guidelines o imp o e
he implemen a ion success a e o PdM in he indus ial con ex . Based on he em-
pi ical indings, we p esen c i ical implemen a ion ac o s and de elop a amewo k
wi h en p oposi ions ha aim o disman le ba ie s in he indus ial applica ion
p ocess o PdM and s imula e u he esea ch in academia.
Keywo ds P edic i e main enance · Condi ion moni o ing · Case s udy ·
Indus y 4.0 · Digi aliza ion · Implemen a ion · Success ac o s
JEL L60 · O14 · O32
Ma cel And é Ho mann · Raine Lasch
Chai o Business Managemen , esp. Logis ics, Technische Uni e si ä D esden, Münchne
Pla z 1–3, 01062 D esden, Ge many
E-Mail: ma cel.ho mann@ u-d esden.de
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28 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
1 In oduc ion
The ou h indus ial e olu ion, also known as Indus y 4.0, includes he implemen-
a ion o digi al echnologies in he manu ac u ing sec o . The ela ed challenges
aim o cos educ ion, imp o ed e iciency, and op imized u iliza ion o esou ces
(Alenizi e al. 2023; Kage mann e al. 2013). Simul aneously, oday’s supply chains
a e g owing in complexi y and a e, he e o e, mo e suscep ible o dis u bances.
Reac ing o hese ans o ma ions, supply chain managemen inc easingly equi es
s able and esilien p ocesses wi h minimal delays o down imes. To mee hese
equi emen s, p edic i e main enance (PdM) has eme ged as a c i ical a ea o in e -
es in con empo a y manu ac u ing managemen . This main enance s a egy aims o
enhance main enance p ac ices by le e aging da a-d i en insigh s o p edic and p e-
en equipmen ailu es, ensu ing minimal down imes, low main enance cos s, and
op imal asse pe o mance (Schwendemann e al. 2021). Con en ional s a egies
such as eac i e and ime-based main enance lead o p ema u e subs i u ion o spa e
pa s o unplanned down imes. Consequen ly, long shu down imes o high cos s
o main enance measu es and spa e pa s can a ise. Condi ion-based main enance
(CBM) aces his p oblem by cons an ly moni o ing he cu en s a es o main e-
nance objec s. PdM ex ends his app oach by calcula ing he emaining use ul li e
which allows o ea ly indica ion o necessa y main enance measu es and spa e pa s
a e eplaced in ad ance o a b eakdown. As a esul , ailu es can be a oided in an
ea ly s age, which is pa icula ly bene icial in in e linked p ocesses wi h bo leneck
machines and o equipmen wi h e y expensi e spa e pa s. In pa icula , indi ec
main enance cos s, which ep esen oppo uni y cos s due o occu ed b eakdowns,
can be educed o a minimum (Busse e al. 2019).
Despi e he widely ecognized po en ials o PdM in enhancing ope a ional e i-
ciency and educing down ime, he numbe o success ul implemen a ions in indus y
emains disp opo iona ely low. The s udy o Haa man e al. (2018) shows ha 60%
o he su eyed Eu opean companies ha e angible plans o PdM implemen a ion,
whe eas only ele en pe cen success ully comple ed his ask. These numbe s high-
ligh an eno mous gap be ween planning and eali y ha needs o be add essed.
E en hough PdM shows a high po en ial o p escien main enance managemen
and s able p oduc ion p ocesses wi hou unplanned b eakdowns, he e is a lack o
success ul indus ial implemen a ions (S i as a a and Mondal 2016; Wel e e al.
2020) ha go beyond in es iga ions unde labo a o y condi ions. In o de o unde -
s and he easons o he low implemen a ion a e and o de elop solu ions, empi ical
esea ch me hods a e app op ia e, as highligh ed in p e ious publica ions. Passlick
e al. (2021) in es iga e In e ne o Things-d i en business models o main enance
and s a e a lack o empi ical esea ch in he ield o PdM. Fu he mo e, an Ouden-
ho en e al. (2022) call o mo e p ac ice-o ien ed esea ch in he ield o PdM
implemen a ion and ad oca e he de elopmen o mo e p oposi ions. The s udy o
Ho mann and Lasch (2023) also highligh s he need o empi ical esea ch o elab-
o a e mo e on he easons o a small numbe o success ul PdM applica ions and
analyze c i ical implemen a ion ac o s.
To ace his esea ch gap, a quali a i e case s udy is conduc ed in his pape ,
which allows o a ich explo a ion o eal-wo ld scena ios, o e ing a con ex ual-
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 29
ized unde s anding o he po en ials and challenges main enance manage s ace in
ha nessing he ull po en ial o p edic i e main enance. Se e al ela ed empi ical
case o in e iew s udies ha e been published in he li e a u e, conside ing CBM
and PdM. Howe e , hey ocus ei he on a single coun y o a speci ic indus y. This
concen a ion means ha he di e se needs o di e en egions and sec o s a e no
su icien ly aken in o accoun .
A case s udy conduc ed by Tiddens e al. (2022) examines he mo i a ion behind
choosing speci ic PdM me hods in p ac ice. The e o e, 13 Du ch companies a e
examined ega ding expe ience-based, eliabili y s a is ics, s esso -based, deg ada-
ion-based, and model-based emaining use ul li e p edic ion. Roba o Sima d e al.
(2023) e iewed expec a ions and conce ns abou PdM in he Canadian mining in-
dus y by su eying se en mobile equipmen expe s in gold and diamond mines.
Giada and Rossella (2021) conduc ed a case s udy wi h h ee companies o ex-
ploi he challenges and ba ie s o PdM implemen a ion in he I alian machine y
indus y. Wagne and Helling a h (2019) in e iewed six Ge man indus y expe s,
p edominan ly managemen consul an s. They de eloped a i e-s ep p ocess model
o PdM p ojec s based on heo y and empi ical insigh s. G ooss (2024) conduc ed
a case s udy wi h ou small and medium-sized Danish en e p ises ega ding he
digi aliza ion o main enance p ocesses. an Oudenho en e al. (2022) ex ac ed en
p oposi ions om academic li e a u e ega ding he beha io o decision-making in
PdM and conduc ed an in e iew s udy o e i y hese p oposi ions wi h a s ong
ocus on echnology accep ance.
Add essing hese sho comings, ou pape complemen s exis ing publica ions by
he ollowing con ibu ions:
We in es iga e 15 Eu opean companies o di e en sizes and se en a ying sec-
o s.
We add a mo e p ac ice-o ien ed pe spec i e on oppo uni ies and ba ie s o he
exis ing li e a u e.
We es ablish p oposi ions abou u he esea ch in he ield o PdM implemen a-
ion.
We de elop solu ion app oaches and p o ide a amewo k o equi emen s o
a success ul PdM implemen a ion in p ac ice.
Ou pape ollows a wo-s ep app oach. Fi s , we aim o cla i y po en ials and
ba ie s o PdM as a da a-d i en main enance s a egy in p ac ical indus ial appli-
ca ions. The e o e, we use quali a i e in e iews o de i e empi ical insigh s in o he
ac ual s a e o main enance managemen in he in es iga ed companies and he p ac-
ical implemen a ion o da a-d i en main enance by examining po en ials, ba ie s,
and success ac o s in indus ial companies. Second, we es ablish sugges ions ha
in end o es ablish u he esea ch in his a ea. Fu he mo e, we wan o s imula e
suppo om academia and ex e nal ins i u ions o he p ac ical implemen a ion o
PdM. To achie e his, we conside he ollowing speci ic esea ch ques ions:
RQ1 How can PdM imp o e he a ge ed main enance ou comes?
RQ2 How do ba ie s obs uc he success ul implemen a ion o PdM in p ac ice?
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30 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
RQ3 How can key success ac o s and ex e nal suppo allow o a success ul
implemen a ion o PdM?
RQ4 How can exis ing ba ie s be add essed in a amewo k o suppo a success ul
PdM implemen a ion and exploi u u e po en ials?
The emainde o he pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2 includes an
o e iew o exis ing main enance s a egies, PdM po en ials, implemen a ion ba i-
e s, and c i ical implemen a ion ac o s in he academic li e a u e. In Sec ion 3, we
ou line he quali a i e esea ch me hodology o his s udy, ollowed by Sec ion 4,
in which we p esen he indings o he in e iew s udy acco ding o he i s h ee
esea ch ques ions. Sec ion 5 p esen s a amewo k wi h en p oposi ions ega ding
PdM implemen a ion and po en ials, acco ding o esea ch ques ion ou . Fu he -
mo e, we in end o p o ide main enance p ac i ione s wi h implica ions and poin
ou u he esea ch di ec ions based on he empi ical insigh s o he s udy. Sec ion 6
concludes wi h a summa y o he s udy.
2 Theo e ical Backg ound
2.1 Main enance S a egies
Be o e la ge da a amoun s and espec i e echnologies we e a ailable, main enance
managemen was solely based on wo con en ional s a egies. Co ec i e o eac i e
main enance is he oldes and mos s aigh o wa d p ocedu e. I implies ha nec-
essa y epai s a e only conduc ed in he case o a ailu e occu ence and measu es
canno be planned and scheduled in ad ance. As i can cause long down imes, his
s a egy is easible o objec s ha a e no c i ical o he p ocess and sa e y. The
ime-based p e en i e main enance s a egy is g ounded on pe iodic inspec ions o
eplacemen s o pa s o a oid b eakdowns. Main enance scheduling is based on
manu ac u e speci ica ions and expe ience (E be e al. 2005; Ruiz-Sa mien o e al.
2020).
Da a-d i en main enance s a egies a e becoming inc easingly impo an since
con en ional app oaches a e no easible o each he high equi emen s o oday’s
indus ial p ocess eliabili y. The app oach o CBM includes cons an o disc e e
moni o ing o ea u es ha indica e he heal h s a e o an objec . Consequen ly,
aul y o conspicuous componen s can be eplaced be o e a c i ical ailu e occu s
(E be e al. 2005; Ja dine e al. 2005; Meh a e al. 2015). While CBM o e s a good
s a ing poin o da a-d i en main enance, his s a egy does no es ima e he u u e
s a e. Add essing his sho coming, PdM aims o p edic he emaining use ul li e
o componen s so main enance objec s can be eplaced in ad ance o a ailu e and
he wea ese e can be used o he bes possible ex en , which also expands he
le el o main enance schedulabili y. PdM enhances he senso measu emen s and
da a analysis app oaches o CBM by applying A i icial In elligence (AI) and big
da a e alua ion me hods, which ha e made huge p og ess in he pas yea s (Feng
and Shan hikuma 2018; Hashemian and Bean 2011; Ho mann and Lasch 2023;
Selcuk 2017). In addi ion o indus ial applica ions, CBM and PdM is used in o he
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 31
Table 1 Academic iew o PdM po en ials
Po en ial Re e ences
Equipmen a ail-
abili y and p o-
cess s abili y
Ansa i e al. (2019), A o a and Rabe (2023), Da a i e al. (2021), Gugaliya and
Naikan (2020), Lai e al. (2019), Lee e al. (2011), Meddaoui e al. (2023), Sadegh
Kouhes ani e al. (2022), Selcuk (2017),Soualhie al.(2022), Sun e al. (2010),
Tu nbull and Ca oll (2021), Zio (2022), Zon a e al. (2020)
Reduced main e-
nance cos s
A o a and Rabe (2023), Da a i e al. (2021), Gao e al. (2018), Gugaliya and
Naikan (2020), Jezzini e al. (2013), Kim e al. (2016),Laie al.(2019), Lee e al.
(2011), Meddaoui e al. (2023), Selcuk (2017), Soualhi e al. (2022), Sun e al.
(2010), Tu nbull and Ca oll (2021), Zon a e al. (2020)
Ex ended li e-
ime o spa e
pa s and ma-
chines
A o a and Rabe (2023), Gugaliya and Naikan (2020), Jezzini e al. (2013), Lai
e al. (2019), Sun e al. (2010), T aini e al. (2021)
Schedulabili y
o main enance
ac i i ies
Fink e al. (2020), Fink e al. (2020), Langone e al. (2015), Selcuk (2017)
En i onmen al
p o ec ion
Ansa i e al. (2019), Ingema sdo e e al. (2021), Selcuk (2017)
a eas whe e a al ailu es mus be a oided, especially in a ia ion (Ve hagen and
De Boe 2018; Ve hagen e al. 2023). The e m p esc ip i e main enance implies
a mo e holis ic app oach ha uses da a o PdM wi h in o ma ion o he p oduc ion
planning and esou ce managemen o allow o da a-d i en decision-making in he
complex main enance managemen p ocesses (Ansa i e al. 2019).
2.2 PdM Po en ials
The li e a u e especially highligh s he ollowing po en ials o PdM, which a e sum-
ma ized in Table 1. The main bene i o PdM is an accu a e p edic ion o ailu es,
implying ha necessa y main enance measu es can be ini ia ed a an ea ly s age and
unplanned down ime can be a oided. As a esul , plan a ailabili y is inc eased and
p ocess s abili y is imp o ed. Reduced down ime also leads o educed main enance
cos s, pa icula ly due o he a oidance o unplanned b eakdowns and be e plan
u iliza ion. In addi ion, by p edic ing he emaining use ul li e, wea pa s can be
used o hei maximum po en ial, sa ing ma e ial and labo cos s compa ed o ime-
based main enance. Ongoing moni o ing also helps o p e en equipmen damage,
esul ing in a longe se ice li e and highe esidual alue. Based on an accu a e
p edic ion o he emaining use ul li e, necessa y main enance ac i i ies can be
scheduled in ad ance and as a posi i e en i onmen al e ec , was e is educed due
o he op imal usage o spa e pa s.
2.3 Ba ie s and C i ical Success Fac o s o PdM
The small numbe o p ac ical PdM applica ions indica es a a ie y o ba ie s in
planning and implemen a ion. The academic li e a u e poin s ou se e al obs acles
ha academia and p ac ice a e acing (see Table 2).
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32 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
Table 2 Academic iew o PdM implemen a ion ba ie s
Ba ie Re e ences
Implemen a ion
e o /unclea e u n
on in es men
A o a and Rabe (2023), Gao e al. (2018), Gugaliya and Naikan (2020), Inge-
ma sdo e e al. (2021),Laie al.(2019), Meddaoui e al. (2023), Om i e al.
(2020), Zon a e al. (2020)
Missing da a and
machine pa ame e
Ansa i e al. (2019), A o a and Rabe (2023), Cheng e al. (2022), Gao e al.
(2018), Ingema sdo e e al. (2021), Lai e al. (2019), Lee e al. (2011), Mol˛eda
e al. (2023), Om i e al. (2020), Pap ocka e al. (2021), Sadegh Kouhes ani e al.
(2022), Shin e al. (2021), Theissle e al. (2021), T aini e al. (2021), Vallim
Filho e al. (2022), Wen e al. (2022), Zio (2022)
Da a p i acy con-
ce ns
Ansa i e al. (2019), Ingema sdo e e al. (2021)
Necessa y eo gani-
za ion
Ansa i e al. (2019), Ingema sdo e e al. (2021)
Lack o capaci y
and skilled wo ke s
Ansa i e al. (2019), A o a and Rabe (2023), Cheng e al. (2022), Gao e al.
(2018), Ingema sdo e e al. (2021), Lai e al. (2019), Mol˛eda e al. (2023),
Om i e al. (2020), Sun e al. (2010)
Missing knowl-
edge abou PdM
ad an ages
A o a and Rabe (2023), Ingema sdo e e al. (2021), Lai e al. (2019), Sun e al.
(2010)
Reluc ance om
employees
Ansa i e al. (2019); Ingema sdo e e al. (2021), Theissle e al. (2021)
Da a s o age Ingema sdo e e al. (2021), Mol˛eda e al. (2023)
Robus ness, unde -
s andabili y, and
ans e abili y o
da a-based models
Ansa i e al. (2019), Cheng e al. (2022), Da a i e al. (2021), Ingema sdo e
e al. (2021), Lee e al. (2011), Mol˛eda e al. (2023), Sadegh Kouhes ani e al.
(2022), Soualhi e al. (2022), Theissle e al. (2021), Wen e al. (2022), Zhai
e al. (2021), Zio (2022)
As a da a-d i en main enance s a egy, PdM elies on se e al In e ne o Things-
echnologies (Dalzochio e al. 2020; E andonea e al. 2020). Fi s and o emos ,
senso s a e needed o collec da a on sys em pa ame e s ha indica e he sys em’s
condi ion. La ge amoun s o da a a e ypically collec ed and analyzed using big
da a app oaches o AI me hods. The in es men in hese echnologies is compa a-
i ely high. Due o he unclea payback pe iod, companies conside he in es men
isks oo high and do no implemen hem. While ac o y-ins alled senso s can mea-
su e machine pa ame e s, da a collec ion is no eadily a ailable o some sys ems.
Fu he mo e, PdM equi es a capable and secu e IT-in as uc u e o handle and
s o e he la ge da a amoun s. The schola ly li e a u e shows se e al ba ie s on he
o ganiza ional le el o main enance oo, o example necessa y es uc u ing, lack
o skilled labo o implemen a ion, missing knowledge abou he ad an ages and
e ec s o PdM, and eluc ance om employees.
Fu he mo e, he ollowing c i ical success ac o s a e discussed in he academic
li e a u e. A company-wide ision and s a egy o PdM is essen ial o ensu e a con-
sis en and e icien implemen a ion app oach (G ubic e al. 2009; Ingema sdo e
e al. 2021). Pilo p ojec s can be used o a oid he inancial isk o la ge in es men s
and o gain ini ial expe ience wi h a small in es men o esou ces (Om i e al. 2020).
PdM is a echnology ha equi es specialis s om di e en ields. In e disciplina y
coope a ion is he e o e essen ial o success ul implemen a ion (Cheng e al. 2022;
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 33
Gao e al. 2018; Ingema sdo e e al. 2021; Lai e al. 2019; Selcuk 2017; Zon a
e al. 2020). As a esul , use - iendly applica ions a e equi ed ha enable smoo h
collabo a ion be ween people and he sys em (Ingema sdo e e al. 2021;Mol˛eda
e al. 2023;Om ie al.2020;Shine al.2021).
3 Me hodology
3.1 Case S udy Resea ch Design
This pape aims o unco e exis ing po en ials and ba ie s o PdM implemen a ion
in indus ial companies and p o ide main enance manage s and schola s wi h c i ical
success ac o s and a guideline o his ask. The e o e, we conduc ed a mul iple case
s udy based on semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h indus ial main enance expe s. The
empi ical esea ch me hod o his s udy is desc ibed in he ollowing.
Implemen ing PdM is a complex ask ha is a ely based on a gene al s uc u ed
p ocess model due o i s many applica ion a ian s. Conduc ing expe in e iews
allows o ob aining a comp ehensi e pic u e o po en ials and hu dles in implemen-
a ion om he use s’ poin o iew, which is a common app oach o in es iga e ech-
nology applica ions (B and ne e al. 2021;Chewe al.2018;Lu ze al.2019). The
po en ials o PdM a e e iden in he schola ly li e a u e (see Sec ion 2.2). Howe e ,
he numbe o success ul implemen a ions s ill emains behind expec a ions (Feld-
mann e al. 2018;Haa mane al.2018; Wel e e al. 2020). To p o ide academia
wi h empi ically subs an ia ed heo y in he con ex o PdM implemen a ion, he
s uc u ed mul iple case s udy app oaches om Eisenha d (1989)andYin(2018)
we e chosen o his s udy, whe eas semi-s uc u ed and guideline-based expe in-
e iews se e as inpu da a. Compa ing he di e en in e iewed o ganiza ions as
mul iple cases enables us o de i e subs an ia ed insigh s (Yin 2018).
The me hodological p ocess is spli in o case s udy designing and planning, col-
lec ing da a, da a analysis, and epo ing (Yin 2018). The esea ch ques ions we e
ini ially de ined based on he analyzed esea ch gap in Sec ion 1. The sampled case
selec ion was execu ed ac oss di e en sec o s in Eu opean ope a ions and logis ics.
The company size spec um a ies be ween small and medium-sized en e p ises
and la ge in e na ional companies lis ed in he EURO STOXX 50. The companies’
sizes a e classi ied acco ding o he Eu opean Commission’s de ini ion o small and
medium-sized en e p ises om 2003 (Eu opean Commission 2003). We ocused on
a b oad dis ibu ion o indus ies, esul ing in insigh s in o se en dis inc indus y
sec o s.
Following heo e ical sampling s a egies, he in e iew pa ne s we e selec ed
by hei posi ion and expe ience in main enance. The e o e, plan and main enance
manage s we e consul ed. The cha ac e is ics o he sec o , company size, posi ion
o he in e iewees, and yea s o main enance expe ience a e compiled in Table 3.
To ensu e insigh s in o po en ials, ba ie s, and c i ical implemen a ion ac o s, we
conside ed bo h ypes o cases wi h and wi hou a success ully implemen ed PdM
s a egy, conside ed as pola cases (Eisenha d and G aebne 2007).
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34 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
Table 3 Pa icipan s o in e iew s udy
# Indus y Size Posi ion o In e iewee(s) Main enance Expe ience
(Yea s)
SEMI 1** Semiconduc o La ge Main enance Enginee 20–30
SEMI 2* Semiconduc o La ge Main enance Coo dina o >30
SEMI 3** Semiconduc o La ge Main enance Enginee 15–20
SEMI 4* Semiconduc o (R&D) Medium Chie Main enance O ice 15–20
AUTO 1 Au omo i e La ge Chie Main enance O ice 20–30
AUTO 2 Au omo i e La ge Main enance Enginee 5–10
LOG 1** Rail and uck logis ics La ge P ocess Manage o Diagnos ics 15–20
LOG 2* Rail logis ics Small Main enance Enginee 5–10
MECH 1* Mechanical enginee ing La ge Sales Manage o Main enance Se ices+ De elopmen Enginee (2 in-
e iewees)
5–10/10–15
MECH 2 Main enance se ices La ge P ojec Manage o Main enance Se ices 10–15
CHEM 1** Chemical indus y La ge Plan Manage 5–10
CHEM 2** Chemical indus y La ge Chie Main enance O ice 20–30
FOOD 1 Food indus y Medium Chie Main enance O ice >30
FOOD 2 Food indus y Small Plan Manage <5
ELEC Elec onics indus y Medium Chie Main enance O ice 20–30
* cu en ly implemen ing PdM
** success ully implemen ed PdM
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 41
dependen on ex e nal know-how. Once hese p ocesses a e comple e, p oblems wi h
alse o missed ala ms a e o be expec ed a he beginning. Accu acy hen inc eases
o e ime as he amoun o da a inc eases. The PdM sys em canno be elied on
blindly, especially a he beginning o i s use, because he e is no un- o- ailu e da a
om which he sys em can iden i y which anomalies lead o b eakdowns (LOG 1,
CHEM 1).
4.2.2 O ganiza ional Ba ie s
On a company le el, main enance is s ill no seen as a s a egic componen o ope -
a ions and logis ics bu as a necessa y suppo p ocess ha mus be ca ied ou cos -
e icien ly. The e is a missing unde s anding o PdM in esponsible depa men s o
he company. As a esul , in es men in his non- alue-adding a ea is gi en lowe
p io i y, which in u n inhibi s inno a ion (AUTO 1, LOG 1, FOOD 2). Fu he -
mo e, la ge o ganiza ions lack a company-wide s a egy o de elop and implemen
new echnologies, which causes ine iciency:
“Wi hin he nume ous di isions o he company, many employees deal wi h he
echnologies such as CBM o PdM. Tha means ha e e yone is doing some-
hing and hen you ind ou ha ano he di ision o he company has al eady
de eloped a simila solu ion. Bu hey didn’ know abou each o he , hey don’
alk o each o he ” (LOG 1).
Ano he cons ain is he lack o capaci y o do su icien wo k on new echnolo-
gies. Ope a ional asks and p oblems o en domina e and he e is no enough ime
o deal wi h he s a egic de elopmen o main enance (AUTO 1). One in e ie-
wee s a ed ha a new depa men would be needed o de elop and implemen PdM
dedica ed solely o his issue ac oss he company (SEMI 2).
Deploying PdM equi es ex ensi e sensing, signal p ocessing, p og amming, ma-
chine lea ning, and IT in as uc u e expe ise. In all hese a eas, he e is a se e e
sho age o skilled wo ke s in Eu ope, and only a ew companies can ully handle
hese asks wi h in e nal s a . In pa icula , a sho age o p og amme s signi ican ly
hampe s he in oduc ion o new main enance echnologies (AUTO 1, MECH 2).
This sho age o ces companies o ely on ex e nal specialis s, inc easing cos s, de-
pendencies, and educing he abili y o eac quickly o changes and p oblems. On
he o he hand, such an ou sou cing solu ion makes i possible o implemen ini ial
PdM p ojec s wi h a calculable e o wi hou acqui ing and employing hei own
specialized s a , which leads o g ea e lexibili y (SEMI 2, AUTO 1, CHEM 1).
Some o ganiza ions expe ience eluc ance om employees when in oducing new
echnology in main enance. To inc ease accep ance, esponden s see he need o
clea ly communica e he bene i s and achie e posi i e esul s wi h small p ojec s
(AUTO 1, MECH 2). This p oblem is accompanied by missing knowledge abou
PdM ad an ages (CHEM 1) and managemen ’s exagge a ed ideas abou he ben-
e i s o PdM (LOG 1). Consequen ly, meaning ul me ics a e needed o e alua e
success ul PdM applica ions (Velmu ugan and Dhing a 2015). The su ey o main-
enance p o essionals e ealed ha no o only e y udimen a y KPIs ha e ye been
implemen ed o assess he main enance esul s. Th ee companies ha e no ye im-
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42 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
plemen ed KPIs (SEMI 2, SEMI 4, FOOD 2). In all he o he s, main enance is
e alua ed based on equipmen a ailabili y. One company also measu es he Mean
Time Be ween Failu e (SEMI 3). FOOD 1 addi ionally uses O e all Equipmen E i-
ciency, mainly implemen ed in p oduc ion, o d aw conclusions abou main enance
e ec i eness. I can be concluded ha no speci ic KPIs ha e been used so a o
adequa ely eco d and e alua e he esul s o di e en main enance s a egies, which
conside , o example, di ec and indi ec main enance cos s simul aneously.
4.2.3 Cos - ela ed Ba ie s
As men ioned in sec ion 4.1.3, PdM has a a - eaching impac on main enance cos s.
Hence, his ac also causes ba ie s o a success ul implemen a ion. In mos su eyed
companies, in es men s in da a-d i en main enance sys ems a e only app o ed i
he e is a ela i ely sho payback pe iod. As he posi i e e ec s on main enance
canno be measu ed in he sho e m bu only in he medium o long e m, he
p oblem o an unclea e u n on in es men a ises (SEMI 1) compa ed wi h he isk
o sunk cos s:
“I see he isk in he le el o in es men in PdM, wi h he isk o no achie ing
highe machine a ailabili y o eliabili y in he end. Then i will quickly u n
ou o be nonsense” (MECH 2)
In e iewee LOG 1 claims ha posi i e e ec s on down imes and main enance
cos s canno be expec ed wi hin i e yea s o he beginning o he implemen a ion
p ojec . Consequen ly, he managemen does no au ho ize in es men s as PdM is
pe cei ed as disp opo iona ely isky and unp o i able, caused by he compa a i ely
high in es men cos s (AUTO 1) and doub s abou measu able added alue in mo e
inc eased a ailabili y.
PdM shows a diminishing ma ginal bene i wi h inc easing in es men in complex
main enance sys ems. New plan s o en al eady ha e ex ensi e senso echnology
and da a ansmission media ins alled ha can be used o PdM, which educes
in es men cos s conside ably. Olde plan s, howe e , a e no always equipped wi h
condi ion moni o ing senso s. The cos o e o i ing his in as uc u e is e y high
and uneconomical, so PdM is o en only iable o newe plan s (SEMI 1, CHEM 1,
MECH 2).
Ano he ba ie is he addi ional cos o expanding he IT in as uc u e.Many
companies do no ha e su icien capaci y o exchange la ge amoun s o da a; in some
cases, he e is no enough bandwid h a ailable o mobile applica ions (AUTO 1).
The cos ly s o age o la ge amoun s o da a is ano he limi ing ac o ha leads o
addi ional in es men s in a mo e ex ensi e se e in as uc u e o cloud-compu -
ing solu ions (AUTO 2). A u he cos - ela ed ba ie is ep esen ed by unning
cos s o he sys ems’ main enance. One in e iewee desc ibed p e ious expe iences
wi h simila so wa e-based p ocesses in he company. O e ime, hese ha e led o
majo compa ibili y p oblems when new ha dwa e o ela ed so wa e e sions a e
in oduced.
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 43
“Fo example, we had small p og ams c ea ed by wo king s uden s. The wo k-
ing s uden is gone, he p og ams exis , bu how a e hey main ained i some-
hing happens? No e e y p og am is compa ible. I ’s also qui e a big job o
main ain and cus omize he so wa e. One should de ini ely no unde es ima e
his i we a e now emba king on In e ne o Things- solu ions” (SEMI 1)
In addi ion, lock-in e ec s lead o cos ly p oduc suppo om endo s (SEMI 1).
Addi ional cos s don’ come om he senso s hemsel es bu om connec ing hem
o sys ems wi h de eloped e alua ion ou ines (AUTO 1) and c ea ing he necessa y
in as uc u e (LOG 1), which is also a majo d ain on human esou ces.
4.2.4 Technological Ba ie s
PdM equi es sophis ica ed in o ma ion sys ems and mus be seen as a holis ic
app oach wi h nume ous in e aces o o he sys ems and sec ions in he company. In
his con ex , he main enance expe s ha e ou lined se e al echnological ba ie s.
Compa ibili y p oblems ep esen a majo hu dle o he companies. In he pas , many
so wa e solu ions in o he a eas o SCM ha e been de eloped in isola ion and ha e
no been in eg a ed in o he o e all IT in as uc u e. Thus, main aining so wa e
p oduc s is e y di icul , esul ing in indi idual p oduc s becoming incompa ible
wi h newe de ices o new e sions o connec ed sys ems. Once he plan is equipped
wi h condi ion moni o ing senso s om he equipmen manu ac u e s, he connec ion
o senso s o he companies’ sys ems is ano he c i ical ac o whe e compa ibili y
p oblems can a ise. The e o e, in e aces mus be clea ly de ined and s anda dized
(SEMI 1, SEMI 2).
Equipmen manu ac u e s usually p o ide ecommenda ions on main enance in-
e als and main enance ac ions o ime-based o usage-based main enance. Such
manu ac u e speci ica ions o CBM and PdM a e o en missing. As a esul , use s
canno ely on p ede ined h esholds o condi ion-based ope a ion bu mus gain he
necessa y expe ience o e a mo e ex ended pe iod. As a esul , posi i e e ec s on
main enance cos s will occu la e and unplanned b eakdowns will occu ega dless
o CBM sys ems (SEMI 1, AUTO 1). I is expec ed ha equipmen manu ac u e s
gene a e mo e e enue om he sale o equen ly eplaced wo n pa s and, he e o e,
a e no mo i a ed o suppo cus ome s in implemen ing CBM o PdM. Howe e , i
can be assumed ha he necessa y in o ma ion on ailu e beha io is a ailable.
Plan use s ha e e y di e en equi emen s o condi ion moni o ing. O en, he
sys ems mus be e o i ed wi h senso s du ing hei li e ime o use PdM. Re o i ing
is some imes di icul because o limi ed ins alla ion space and he lack o open
in e aces o in eg a e he senso s in o he exis ing sys em a chi ec u e (SEMI 1).
The ope a o o mobile main enance asse s men ions ano he hu dle ela ed o he
exis ing public mobile ne wo k in as uc u e. Due o he poo co e age o 5G ne -
wo ks in u al a eas, eal- ime moni o ing in ope a ing ains does no wo k in ull
co e age and da a exchange is delayed o canceled. Fo his eason, he company
cu en ly pos pones majo in es men s in PdM (LOG 1).
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44 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
4.3 Key Success Fac o s o Implemen a ion and Ex e nal Suppo
Oppo uni ies
Analysis o he ba ie s o PdM adop ion shows many easons o he low adop ion
a e. In he ollowing, c i ical success ac o s ha should enable he implemen a ion
o a PdM s a egy a e discussed. In addi ion, we analyze which ex e nal suppo
o e s a e help ul o suppo companies in implemen ing PdM.
4.3.1 O ganiza ional Success Fac o s
Implemen ing PdM is a e y complex challenge, bo h echnologically and o ganiza-
ionally. To mas e his ask, expe s om di e en a eas ha e o wo k oge he . A key
ac o in he o ganiza ion is conduc ing implemen a ion p ojec s wi h an in e disci-
plina y eam, which makes i possible o unde s and he complex in e ela ionships
o plan design, ailu e beha io , da a collec ion, da a e alua ion, and o ecas ing
and o de elop sui able solu ions. Fu he mo e, app op ia e solu ions mus be e al-
ua ed conce ning hei economic e iciency o educe he o al main enance cos s
(MECH 1).
Smalle implemen a ion p ojec s can gain ini ial PdM expe ience wi h limi ed e-
sou ces. Such ligh house p ojec s make i possible o e alua e he e o and bene i s
o PdM and, i he esul s a e posi i e, o c ea e a highe le el o accep ance among
colleagues and managemen . Based on his expe ience, o he p ojec s can ollow and
mis akes can be a oided in he ea ly s ages. A he main enance managemen le el,
i is possible o assess which echnologies a e sui able o he PdM applica ion a ea
and whe e he e is po en ial o u he imp o emen . In ha way, a isk-minimal
en ance in o he ield o PdM can be ound, laying a solid ounda ion o u he
implemen a ion p ojec s (AUTO 1).
In e iewee SEMI 2 expe ienced a adeo be ween agili y in small and medium-
sized en e p ises and inancial oppo uni ies o la ge companies combined wi h
economies o scale in implemen ing new echnologies. In la ge and inancially s ong
companies, decisions o PdM a e made mo e equen ly, while hese ake longe
o implemen . On he o he hand, implemen a ion p ojec s a small and medium-
sized en e p ises a e o en pos poned due o excessi e cos s and isks bu can be
implemen ed much as e when he p ojec s a s. As a c i ical success ac o , i can
be deduced ha a cou ageous en y in o he echnology wi h manageable isks is
necessa y. A he same ime, PdM is hen implemen ed wi h a high le el o agili y
(SEMI 2, LOG 1).
The mone a y bene i o PdM is challenging o calcula e, and he ad an age only
ma e ializes a e a ew yea s in case c i ical ailu es a e a oided. I is p ima ily
unknown wha he consequen ial cos s o such a ailu e would ha e been. Fo his
eason, implemen ing PdM is ini ially seen as a cos d i e . To o e come his p ob-
lem, i is necessa y o ha e a basis o e alua ing he long- e m cos -bene i s o PdM
on main enance cos s, which is no add essed adequa ely in he exis ing esea ch
li e a u e (CHEM 1).
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 45
Many companies do no su icien ly conside indi ec main enance cos s (see 4.1.3).
Howe e , he ac ual ad an age o PdM can only be de e mined by a holis ic cos
calcula ion ha akes in o accoun bo h di ec and indi ec main enance cos s:
“One has o ollow a holis ic app oach and ask he ques ion: i a plan is down
o ou hou s, wha cos s does ha cause beyond he di ec main enance cos s?
Do I pe haps ha e any deli e y p oblems wi h he cus ome , e c.?” (MECH 2).
4.3.2 Technological Success Fac o s
A wide ange o plan and machine y can be main ained p edic i ely. The as a ay
o op ions makes de ising and implemen ing plug-and-play solu ions challenging.
All companies su eyed ha ha e employed PdM ha e had o con igu e he echno-
logical solu ions independen ly and in eg a e hem in o cu en sys ems. One o he
in e iewed companies, which employs many main enance objec s o he same kind,
has ins i u ed a labo a o y-s yle es ing ield. This ield is u ilized o es solu ions
on a small scale be o e deploymen on he en i e lee . By doing so, bo h so wa e
and ha dwa e equi emen s a e me and s a -up issues a e educed (LOG 1).
Mo eo e , one can acqui e aluable expe ience, which can p o e bene icial o
subsequen unde akings. Such expe ience necessi a es a comp ehensi e knowledge
eposi o y a chi ed in a knowledge base. Addi ionally, in e iewee MECH 2 high-
ligh s he impo ance o aul documen a ion in es ablishing limi s o CBM and
PdM.
4.3.3 Ex e nal Success Fac o s
The in e iewees a e awa e ha esea ch in he ield o PdM is al eady much mo e
ad anced han p ac ical implemen a ion. Mo e echnology ans e om esea ch
ins i u ions o p ac ice is equi ed o o e come he low applica ion o PdM. In e iew
pa ne AUTO 1, he e o e, calls o mo e academic coope a ion:
“Funding migh no be a bad hing. I somebody could help wi h he imple-
men a ion o PdM, o ind a solu ion oge he h ough a esea ch associa ion,
h ough a coope a ion ag eemen wi h a uni e si y o some hing like ha , ha
wouldhelpus”(AUTO1).
In addi ion, CHEM 1 achie ed economies o scale in in oducing PdM by sha ing
he de elopmen cos s h ough coope a ion wi h o he companies in he same indus-
y. The expe also poin s ou ha he necessa y senso echnology and e alua ion
so wa e a e s ill expensi e and ha implemen a ion will only become a ac i e o
many companies i p ices con inue o all.
5 Discussion
The ollowing sec ion in ends o in e p e and discuss he case s udy indings by ex-
ploi ing ela ionships be ween he di e en ca ego ies. We p o ide en p oposi ions
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46 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
Fig. 1 F amewo k o p oposi ions ega ding PdM implemen a ion and po en ials
ega ding measu es o o e come he analyzed ba ie s and how PdM will in luence
main enance managemen in he u u e. Fu he mo e, we discuss manage ial and
esea ch implica ions based on he in e iew indings.
5.1 F amewo k and P oposi ions
The amewo k in Fig. 1shows ela ionships be ween he g ouped ba ie s, c i ical
implemen a ion ac o s, and po en ials. They a e o ganized e ically acco ding o
hei in e nal o ex e nal cha ac e is ics. We exploi ela ed c i ical implemen a ion
ac o s a e g ouping he induc i ely and deduc i ely de e mined ba ie s. Based
on hose ela ionships, we o mula e i e p oposi ions (P1–P5) on o e coming he
obs acles and success ully implemen ing PdM. Fu he mo e, we s a e i e p oposi-
ions (P6–P10) abou u u e PdM po en ials and hei in luence on main enance and
supply chain managemen . The p oposi ions in end o encou age u he esea ch in
he ield o PdM implemen a ion and o emo e obs acles in p ac ice sys ema ically.
The in e iewees s a ed ha a lack o s a egy hinde s he in oduc ion o PdM.
Ou esul s sugges ha he managemen should de ine he implemen a ion objec-
i es, which can be app oached in a s uc u ed manne . The concep phase can be
simpli ied and implemen a ion s anda dized using a s uc u ed policy and p ocess.
I should be no ed, howe e , ha he la ge numbe o di e en main enance objec s
makes de eloping a uni o m s anda d di icul . Ano he issue a ises om he lim-
i ed a ailabili y o employees o ake ca e o he s a egic main enance o ien a ion
alongside hei ope a ional ac i i ies. To ackle his challenge, pilo p ojec s can
be implemen ed by smalle eams o he in oduc ion and es ing o PdM in agile
en i onmen s.
P1: A s uc u ed implemen a ion p ocess and labo a o y-le el implemen a ion
ini ia i es can add ess he p oblem o lacking deploymen s a egies and limi ed
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 47
capaci y o ob ain ini ial PdM implemen a ion exposu e wi h a easonable numbe
o employees.
Such labo a o y-scale implemen a ions also allow o a mi iga ion o misin es -
men isks and an e alua ion o he implemen ed ha dwa e and so wa e be o e PdM
is scaled up o la ge dimensions. The posi i e esul s om in oducing PdM can
only be expec ed o e a mo e ex ended pe iod o ime as he a o able e ec s mainly
esul om a oiding b eakdowns, which cause high oppo uni y cos s.
P2: The high ini ial in es men and unning expenses o PdM solu ions impede
i s b oad indus ial implemen a ion, and an excessi e ocus on e u n on in es men
leads o a dis ega d o long- e m ad an ages. Thus, comp ehensi e cos es ima ion
and long- e m cos -bene i analysis models a e equi ed.
PdM equi es la ge olumes o senso and machine y da a, which a e analyzed ia
big da a echnologies o AI and ansmi ed in in e connec ed ne wo ks. The e o e,
PdM elies on echnologies assigned o he Indus ial In e ne o Things (Ta¸scı e al.
2023). On he o he hand, companies a e lagging behind in he digi al ans o ma ion,
which is pa icula ly he case o small and medium-sized en e p ises.
P3: Companies wi h limi ed digi aliza ion a e unlikely o adop PdM in he nea
u u e due o a lack o necessa y IT in as uc u e. Hence, digi al ans o ma ion can
be seen as a p econdi ion o PdM.
Some in e iewees exp essed conce n abou he sho age o skilled wo ke s a ail-
able in he labo ma ke o ul ill he di e se asks o digi aliza ion, including he
implemen a ion o da a-d i en p ocesses such as PdM. Addi ionally, many com-
panies ace esis ance o echnological inno a ions wi hin hei wo k o ce. Some
employees associa e he in oduc ion o AI wi h job losses. This misconcep ion can
only be dispelled h ough anspa en in o ma ion and knowledge ans e .
P4: Comp ehensi e in o ma ion abou PdM ad an ages, as well as a ocus on
educa ion and aining, helps o o e come se e al implemen a ion ba ie s o PdM,
o example, eluc ance om employees, missing knowledge abou PdM bene i s,
he sho age o PdM-speci ic skills and ex e nal expe s.
In exis ing publica ions, esea che s exp essed conce ns abou he absence o al-
ida ion me hods o cu en models and da a o enhance he obus ness and comp e-
hensibili y o PdM models. On he o he hand, indus ial companies ha e nume ous
po en ial applica ion cases o heo e ically de eloped models ha could be alida ed
and es ed in eal scena ios.
P5: The e is a need o s uc u ed collabo a ion be ween academia and companies
ega ding he implemen a ion o PdM, which would boos he e iciency o de el-
opmen p ocesses, educe cos s, and add ess he challenge o missing in e nal and
ex e nal specialis s.
The p esen ed p oposi ions indica e se e al ecommenda ions o p ac i ione s o
app oach PdM implemen a ion o lay he ounda ions o exploi he po en ial o da a-
d i en main enance, pa icula ly o c ea e a digi al in as uc u e and he dedica ed
s a ia pilo p ojec s. In addi ion, he ollowing p oposi ions highligh he bene i s
o PdM ha he in e iewees conside mos ele an o he u u e:
P6: PdM o e s high sales po en ial o machine manu ac u e s and main enance
se ice p o ide s, as he echnology enables hem o di e en ia e om hei com-
pe i o s and build s onge cus ome ela ionships.
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48 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
P7: When applied o main enance objec s ha ha e a high c i icali y on he p ocess
o equi e expensi e spa e pa s, PdM educes he o e all main enance cos s.
P8: PdM enables he s eamlining o o ganiza ional p ocesses. An au oma ed wo k
o ganiza ion in p esc ip i e main enance is concei able h ough a holis ic connec ion
o adjacen a eas, such as o de ing and shi planning.
P9: PdM is a co e componen o he Indus ial In e ne o Things. I enables mo e
s able p ocesses and helps o educe supply chain isks.
P10: PdM posi i ely a ec s social and economic sus ainabili y due o highe
machine sa e y and educed spa e pa s consump ion.
5.2 Manage ial Implica ions
The indings o his s udy in end o suppo p ac i ione s in implemen ing PdM
o hose main enance objec s whe e i gene a es added alue and leads o educed
o e all cos s.
PdM should be conside ed a long- e m in es men in p ocess s abili y. The i-
nancial bene i s may no be immedia ely appa en in educed unning cos s bu in
p e en ing damage and indi ec main enance cos s esul ing om c i ical ailu es.
The e o e, PdM is an essen ial componen o he company’s isk managemen s a -
egy, ac ing as an insu ance policy agains damage caused by unplanned down ime.
To quan i y his added alue, i is necessa y o pe o m holis ic cos calcula ions
ha conside he educed isks and oppo uni y cos s.
On he o he hand, PdM is no a panacea o main enance obs acles. Ins ead, i is
ecommended o implemen i in a a ge ed manne o c i ical sys ems whe e ailu es
mus be p e en ed due o sa e y conce ns, p ocess s abili y, o indi ec main enance
cos s. Addi ionally, i is essen ial o no e ha PdM canno unc ion as a s andalone
solu ion and equi es ho ough in eg a ion in o he main enance o ganiza ion.The
implemen a ion o PdM is o en hinde ed by an inadequa e IT in as uc u e and
a sho age o p og amme s and AI specialis s, which a e equi ed o connec o
exis ing applica ion sys ems and mee he need o ex ensi e IT expe ise. These
issues a e no unique o PdM and a e common obs acles o many echnologies in
he In e ne o Things-en i onmen . Addi ionally, he eluc ance o many employees
o emb ace new echnologies is a majo issue in p ac ice. This p oblem is also e iden
in he challenge o implemen ing pu ely op-down app oaches when employees do
no accep hem. One solu ion is o p o ide comp ehensi e in o ma ion o dispel
p ejudices and demons a e he bene i s o use s.
I main enance is conside ed as a se ice o e ed by plan manu ac u e s and
se ice p o ide s, he e is high po en ial o he u iliza ion and comme cializa ion
o PdM. The widesp ead use o senso s in unning plan s can p o ide aluable
in o ma ion abou ailu e beha io and usage pa e ns, which can be used o de elop
u u e plan gene a ions, so-called ins alled-based in o ma ion. Fu he mo e, se ice
con ac s can lead o s ong cus ome ela ionships and long- e m sales in he a e -
sales phase.
To mi iga e he isk o malin es men and sunk cos s, conduc ing pilo p ojec s
on a smalle scale is ecommended. This app oach allows ini ial expe ience o be
gained wi h a smalle p ojec eam and o ini ial esul s o be alida ed. I hese pilo
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Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55 49
p ojec s a e success ul, PdM solu ions can be scaled up and ans e ed o se e al
main enance objec s on a la ge scope. I is easonable o assume ha in oducing
his echnology is associa ed wi h high cos s, mainly due o he demands on IT in-
as uc u e. Howe e , economies o scale will conside ably dec ease ma ginal cos s
o implemen ing i on addi ional objec s. One di e en app oach o educe imple-
men a ion cos s is o collabo a e wi h o he companies, which allows o pooling o
esou ces o compensa e o he lack o specialis s.
5.3 Academic Implica ions
This s udy can subs an ia e se e al indings o p e ious esea ch in he ield o PdM
implemen a ion. E idence exis s ega ding he economic bene i s o PdM, he need
o high-quali y da a, he ocus on human und know-how, missing IT in as uc u e,
and a need o mo e skilled da a analys s. Howe e , u he ele an aspec s o PdM
implemen a ion could be iden i ied by conside ing di e en egions and indus ies.
These include enhanced sa e y o humans and he en i onmen , di e ences be ween
small and la ge companies in managing he digi al ans o ma ion, including he
implemen a ion o PdM, and coope a ion among companies. The s udy also e ealed
se e al di ec ions o u he academic esea ch.
In addi ion o he men ioned pa ne ships be ween companies, collabo a ing wi h
esea ch ins i u ions holds g ea po en ial. They ha e a high le el o echnologi-
cal expe ise and can p o ide suppo , pa icula ly in pa ame e izing algo i hms o
anomaly de ec ion and emaining use ul li e o ecas ing. In e disciplina y coope a-
ion is assumed o lead o a mo e e icien implemen a ion o PdM, allowing o he
u iliza ion o syne gy e ec s be ween pa ne s.
A majo obs acle ega ding he decision o implemen PdM is unclea mone-
a y bene i s, which is caused by di icul measu emen and p edic ion o indi ec
main enance cos s. To o e come his issue, holis ic calcula ion models ha ake he
bene i s o educed di ec and indi ec main enance cos s in o accoun , a e equi ed.
The la e include he impac o equipmen ailu es on complex supply chains and
he cos o supply dis up ions. F om he p ac i ione ’s poin o iew, main enance
managemen also lacks speci ic KPIs ha measu e he impac o PdM, hus allowing
p ope moni o ing and benchma king o main enance esul s agains o he main e-
nance s a egies.
The de elopmen and pa ame e iza ion o algo i hms is a majo echnological
challenge in implemen ing PdM. The e is a need o u he esea ch in o models and
solu ions ha p io i ize ease o applica ion in p ac ice, which is also claimed by Vogl
e al. (2019). In his con ex , sel -op imizing app oaches ha can be implemen ed
by main enance s a wi hou in-dep h p og amming knowledge need o be u he
explo ed.
Implemen ing da a-d i en echnologies always ca ies some isk o da a manipu-
la ion and loss. Many esponden s conside hese isks o be g ea e han he po en ial
o PdM and a e conce ned abou o e -dependence on cybe -physical sys ems. Con-
sequen ly, u he esea ch is needed o imp o e da a secu i y, build esilien sys ems,
and p o ec hem om unwan ed ex e nal access. The e a e also majo o e laps wi h
he esea ch opic o cybe -secu i y.
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50 Schmalenbach Jou nal o Business Resea ch (2025) 77:27–55
Go e nmen s should also ake a g ea e in e es in in oducing PdM, as his
main enance s a egy can imp o e ecological (lowe esou ce consump ion) and
social sus ainabili y (occupa ional and en i onmen al sa e y). Fu he mo e, unding
in e disciplina y esea ch p ojec s helps closing he gap be ween he e iden bene i s
o PdM and he small numbe o p ac ical implemen a ions.
6Conclusion
This pape in ends o expand exis ing esea ch abou PdM po en ials and add a mo e
p ac ical pe spec i e on he u u e o his echnology. Fu he mo e, ou objec i e was
o gain new empi ical insigh s in o he ba ie s o PdM implemen a ion and shed
ligh on he easons o he small numbe o success ul applica ions. In con as
o exis ing publica ions, 15 Eu opean companies om se en indus y sec o s and
a ying sizes we e examined. The s udy e ealed, ha he di e ences be ween small
and la ge companies a e bigge han he di e ences be ween he indus y sec o s
and egions.
Rega ding he i s wo esea ch ques ions, he expe s exp essed high expec a-
ions o PdM ega ding sys em a ailabili y, p ocess s abili y, main enance planning,
cos educ ion, and sus ainabili y. In pa icula , high in es men cos s and isks,
a lack o s a egic unde s anding o main enance, and insu icien in o ma ion and
expe ise we e iden i ied as ba ie s. In some o ganiza ions, PdM is pa o a se ies
o open-ended digi aliza ion p ojec s ha a e no being implemen ed wi h he nec-
essa y consis ency, mainly due o inadequa e IT in as uc u e and a lack o in e nal
specialis s.
Acco ding o esea ch ques ion h ee, se e al app oaches a e exploi ed o o e -
come hose ba ie s. A majo implemen a ion ac o is coope a ion, bo h in e -
company and be ween companies and esea ch ins i u ions. Fu he mo e, ligh house
p ojec s wi h small and in e disciplina y eams allow i s expe iences, educe he
isk o sunk cos s, and p epa e upscaling o PdM in a company. We mapped he
ela ionships be ween ba ie s, c i ical success ac o s, and po en ials in a ame-
wo k, acco ding o esea ch ques ion ou , and es ablished en p oposi ions on he
u u e de elopmen o PdM and i s success ul implemen a ion. Fu he mo e, se e al
esea ch di ec ions we e e ealed based on he empi ical da a o s imula e academia
wi h u he achie emen s in he a ea o PdM and o de elop solu ions o a b oad
applica ion in indus y.
7 Appendix
7.1 In e iew Guide
1 In o ma ion abou he company and in e iewee
Please desc ibe you company and main ield o economic ac i i y.
Wha depa men a e you wo king in and wha a e you esponsibili ies?
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