Classroom disruptions and classroom management in learning factory settings at vocational schools

Meinoka , Pie e; Wagne , Ingo
A icle
Class oom dis up ions and class oom managemen in
lea ning ac o y se ings a oca ional schools
In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional
Resea ch Associa ion
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Meinoka , Pie e; Wagne , Ingo (2025) : Class oom dis up ions and class oom
managemen in lea ning ac o y se ings a oca ional schools, In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch
in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET), ISSN 2197-8646, Eu opean Resea ch Ne wo k in
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (VETNET), Eu opean Educa ional Resea ch Associa ion, B emen,
Vol. 12, Iss. 2, pp. 266-288,
h ps://doi.o g/10.13152/IJRVET.12.2.5
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In e na ional Jou nal o Resea ch in Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (IJRVET)
2025, Vol. 12, Issue 2, 266–288
h ps://doi.o g/10.13152/IJRVET.12.2.5
ISSN: 2197-8646
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*Co esponding au ho : pie e.meinoka[email p o ec ed]
Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom
Managemen in Lea ning Fac o y
Se ings a Voca ional Schools
Pie e Meinoka 1*, Ingo Wagne 2
1Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology, Ins i u e o School Pedagogy and Didac ics,
Kaise s aße 12, 76131 Ka ls uhe, Ge many
2Albe -Ludwigs-Uni e si y F eibu g, Depa men o Spo s and Spo Science,
Sand angweg 4, 79102 F eibu g, Ge many
Recei ed: 24 June 2024, Accep ed: 22 No embe 2024
Abs ac
Con ex : As pa o oca ional educa ion and aining, lea ning ac o ies a e a new, hands-
on lea ning se ing in which s uden s can c ea e p oduc s wi h ealis ic digi al manu ac u-
ing equipmen while s ill in oca ional school. Gi en hei no el y, lea ning ac o ies ha e
no ye been s udied wi h espec o whe he special class oom managemen may be needed.
One key aspec o class oom managemen o eache s is he dealing wi h class oom dis up-
ions. The aim o his s udy is o in es iga e wha ypes o class oom dis up ions occu in
lea ning ac o ies and how eache s deal wi h hem.
Me hods: To close he exis ing esea ch gap, a guideline-based, semi-s uc u ed in e iew s udy
wi h se en eache s om he ede al s a e o Baden-Wü embe g, Ge many, was conduc ed.
The in e iews we e analyzed wi h a quali a i e con en analysis using he so wa e MAXQDA.
Findings: The indings show ha in his new se ing, es ablished s a egies o mi iga ing class-
oom dis up ions can be adap ed and applied. Teache s we e ound o use and op imize hei
exis ing abili ies o ensu e lea ning success and we e able o p o ec he mone a y alue o
he ac o y agains ce ain dis up ions. Mu ual us be ween eache s and s uden s, as well as
eache s u ilizing s a egies acco ding o hei pe sonali y, we e men ioned as he mos impo -
an ac o s in ensu ing success in his con ex .
*
267
Meinoka , Wagne
Conclusion: Lea ning ac o ies as a new lea ning en i onmen in oca ional schools do
no seem o equi e speci ic class oom managemen app oaches. As a esul , hei use can
be sa ely expanded. Teache s alue he possibili y o eaching in his special se ing while
seeing ha he e a e new possible ways o dis up ions. Ne e heless, he in e iewees eel
hemsel es p epa ed o hese new challenges, using hei al eady es ablished epe oi e o
s a egies, adap ing hem, i necessa y, o his new se ing. To do his, eache s need o sys-
emize and unde s and dis up ions inside hei class ooms. So a , esea ch is lacking sys-
emiza ions o class oom dis up ions in digi al se ings like lea ning ac o ies. This s udy
ex ends he esea ch landscape wi h an adap ion o an al eady exis ing cons uc .
Keywo ds: Class oom Managemen , S uden Beha iou , In e iew, VET, Voca ional Educa ion
and T aining
1 In oduc ion
Class oom dis up ions a e known o p e en schools om p o iding e ec i e lea ning ime
o s uden s (Ma quez e al., 2016; Sche zinge & We s ein, 2019) and c ea e heal h isks
o (beginning) eache s in all ypes o schools (Gonzalez e al., 2015; Kokkinos, 2007; Li le,
2005; Rajend an e al., 2020). One o hese ypes is oca ional schools, in which lea ning
ac o ies (LFs) ha e become inc easingly common. The new and special se ing ha LFs p o-
ide is expec ed o c ea e he highes possible le el o compe ence in s uden s wi h espec
o wo k-o ien ed beha io s (Fasshaue e al., 2021). This ep esen s a new ype o lea ning
a angemen ha mee s bo h he p essing educa ional demands in he a ea o digi iza ion
(Eu opean Union, 2020; Kul usminis e kon e enz, 2021) and he g owing need o oca io-
nal aining (P ei e e al., 2022). In his p ac ice-o ien ed and independen o m o ins uc-
ion, lea ne s gain ealis ic insigh s in o he p oduc ion p ocesses o hei u u e p o essional
wo lds. Due o he inclusion o digi al componen s, LFs can be conside ed a digi al se ing,
acco ding o he de ini ion ad anced by Meinoka and Wagne (2022). While schools in o-
ca ional educa ion and aining (VET) ha e ecognized he po en ial o LFs in his con ex ,
i is no ye clea how his no el se ing impac s he ways in which class oom dis up ions a e
managed.
2 Theo e icalBackg oundandF amewo k
This a icle examines he ways in which LFs may be ulne able o class oom dis up ions. Un-
de s anding his ulne abili y equi es knowledge o ce ain ela ed class oom managemen
p ac ices.
268 Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom Managemen in Lea ning Fac o ies
2.1 Class oomManagemen andClass oomDis up ions
The e ec i e and success ul a angemen o a class oom has been a opic o esea ch since
he 1970s (Kounin, 2006). The weal h o esea ch in his a ea has led o a a ie y o ex-
plana ions and de ini ions being p oposed o he e m class oom managemen . A mode n
me a-analysis ha sough o a end o he uni o mi ies as well as he di e ences be ween
hese de ini ions gene ally concluded ha class oom managemen is based on "a mul i ude
o ac ions o es ablish and main ain" (Ma in e al., 2016, p. 31) smoo h class oom p ac i-
ces. Gene ally speaking, class oom managemen e e s o he ac i i y o eache s in shaping
he lea ning en i onmen in a way ha makes p o essional, emo ional, and social lea ning
possible (E e son & Weins ein, 2006). On a non-subjec - ela ed le el, such managemen in-
cludes mul iple a eas o oci, such as he managemen o he physical s uc u e, eaching ma-
nagemen , ime managemen , managemen o in a-class oom ela ionships, and beha io
managemen (Du ak & Sa i epeci, 2017). The igh combina ion o hese di e en aspec s o
managemen can lead o a ela i ely undis u bed lesson, which is bene icial o bo h s uden s
and eache s (Kokkinos, 2007; Ma quez e al., 2016; Rajend an e al., 2020; Sche zinge &
We s ein, 2019). Acco dingly, esea ch has shown ha well-s uc u ed ins uc ion wi h mi-
nimal dis up ions is a p edecesso o g ow h in compe ences among s uden s (Byo & Sims,
2015).
Class oom dis up ions a e unde s ood as en ailing "beha io a easonable pe son would
iew as being likely o subs an ially o epea edly in e e e wi h conduc o a class" (S ock-
on Uni e si y, 2001, p. 1). As such, hey "impai , in e up o make he eaching-lea ning
p ocess impossible" (Lohmann, 2011, p. 13). Dis ac ions in he class oom ha e been ound
o educe lea ning success (Wilbe s, 2007). Howe e , conduc ing quali y esea ch on his o-
pic depends on an app op ia e unde s anding o he ele an cul u al in luences and ce ain
concep ual accu acies. While he Ge man language has i s own wo d o class oom dis up-
ions, "Un e ich ss ö ungen" ("Un e ich " o class oom and "S ö ungen" o dis up ions),
he in e na ional li e a u e con ains e e ences o se e al e ms (Meinoka & Wagne , 2022).
As jus one aspec o class oom managemen , class oom dis up ions a e o en esea ched
alongside o he ela ed p ac ices and beha io s. Resea ch dedica ed exclusi ely o class oom
dis up ions in ce ain se ings is s ill lacking (Meinoka & Wagne , 2022). Gene al esea ch
on he opic o class oom dis up ions shows ha he e a e wo ypes o sys emiza ions: (a)
Sys emiza ions ha weigh he se e i y o dis up ions agains each o he and (b) sys emiza-
ions ha g oup dis up ions wi hou weighing hem (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024). Examples
can be ound in able 1 and able 2.
269
Meinoka , Wagne
Table 1: Ca ego ies o Sepa a ing Sys ema iza ions (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024)
Bille (1979) Lohmann (2011) Winkel (2011)
– Mino aul s – Ve bal dis up ions – Disciplina y dis up ions
– (In)di ec dis up ions – Lack o willingness o lea n – P o oca ion and agg ession
– Un eco e able dis up ions – Mo o ic es lessness – Pe manen acous ic and isual dis up ions, as
well as es lessness and concen a ion
– Una oidable dis up ions – Agg essi e beha io – Dis up ions om ou side he class
– Re usal o lea n and passi i y
– Missing mo i a ion
– Neu o ic diso de s
Table 2: Se e i y Weigh ing Sys ema iza ions (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024)
Se e i y Cogswell e al. (2020) Ra ay e al. (2018) Sche zinge and We s ein (2019)
High – High-le el class oom
dis up ion
– Conduc diso de s – Agg essi e
– Beha io al p oblems
– Impossibili y
– In e up ion
low – Low-le el class oom
dis up ion
– Impai men – Nonagg essi e
In e ms o digi al se ings, whe e LFs a e loca ed in, so a only one sys emiza ion o dis up-
ions exis s: The S uden Online Misbeha io scale (SOMs) by Li and Ti swo h (2015). They
name ou ca ego ies o dis up ions in a digi al class oom: Agg essi eness, lack o communi-
ca ion, in e ne slacking, and seeking unallowed assis ance. These ca ego ies a e expanded by
(Meinoka & Wagne , 2024) wi h h ee mo e ca ego ies: Technical e o s, ope a ing e o s, and
illici social beha io .
2.2 Voca ionalEduca ioninGe manyandLea ningFac o ies
Educa ion sys ems di e in e na ionally, as do eache aining and school condi ions. This
is conside ed below.
2.2.1 Educa ionalSys eminGe many
To es ablish a gene al unde s anding o he s a us o oca ional educa ion and oca ional
schools in Ge many, i is impo an o ha e some knowledge o he Ge man educa ion

270 Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom Managemen in Lea ning Fac o ies
sys em. Since educa ion lies wi hin he esponsibili y o each o he 16 ede al s a es in Ge -
many, he e is no such hing as one singula Ge man educa ional sys em (Edels ein, 2013).
Ne e heless, while he o ms o he schools and he s yles o pa icipa ion may di e om
s a e o s a e, he basic s uc u e emains simila . Gene ally, oca ional schools, e e ed o
as "Be u sschule" in Ge many, a e a pa o he second hal o seconda y educa ion, which
is designed o a ge young people a e hei manda o y minimum schooling pe iod. The e
a e wo main ypes o oca ional schools. The i s ype is pa o a dual educa ional sys em
in which he s uden s a e ained mos ly in companies, and his pe ennial educa ion is sup-
po ed by blocks o se e al weeks in which hey a end he oca ional school o manda o y
addi ional educa ion. The second ype o oca ional school is ull- ime a endance in a pa i-
cula school in p epa a ion o he chosen job (Edels ein, 2013). Only oca ional schools o
he i s ype we e included in his s udy.
2.2.2 VETTeache s
To become a eache in Ge many, mul iple ca ee pa hs exis . Mos ( u u e) eache s chose
hei ( wo) subjec s o each and s udy hem a bachelo and consecu i e mas e p og ams a
uni e si y. A e eaching he mas e 's deg ee, he eache s en e a p epa a ion phase. Du ing
his phase new eache s a e eaching pa - ime wi h supe ision and as well ecei e ex e nal
aining (one day a week). A e app oxima ely 1.5 yea s and passing hei exam, hey become
ull eache s. In Addi ion, e en wi hou eache aining a uni e si y g adua es can apply o
a eache job in VET acco ding o hei p o ession and will ge a pedagogical aining du ing
hei beginning phase o hei eaching p o ession (Fede al S a e o Baden-Wü embe g,
2024a). The e is also he possibili y o a "Sei eneins ieg" o p o essionals in which pe sons
can become eache s wi hou being o uni e si y be o e. This is connec ed o ce ain con-
di ions and will be guided wi h pedagogical aining as well (Fede al S a e o Baden-Wü -
embe g, 2024b). Al hough all eache s expe ience a so o pedagogical aining, due o he
mul iple possibili ies in becoming a VET eache , no e e y eache is equally p epa ed o
challenges in hei class ooms.
2.2.3 Lea ningFac o ies
Since oca ional schools a e closely linked o s uden s’ aining companies, he schools hem-
sel es and hei equipmen need o be as close as possible o wha he s uden s will ac ually
encoun e in hei espec i e p o essions (Abele, 2019). The cons an change in mode n in-
dus ial echniques makes i necessa y o schools o adap hei educa ion as well. To achie e
his aim, he ede al s a e o Baden-Wü embe g in Ge many began o os e he in eg a ion
o 16 LFs, "Le n ab iken" in Ge man, in o schools in 2016. Two yea s la e , ano he 21 LFs
271
Meinoka , Wagne
we e es ablished. O he oca ional schools ha e se up LFs wi hou s a e unding (Ba h u ,
2024). The e o e, i is e iden ha LFs a e inc easingly being es ablished in oca ional schools
o p o ide s uden s wi h insigh in o eal p oduc ion p ocesses as ea ly as possible in hei
ca ee s (Abele, 2019). O e all, he ocus o LFs lies on lea ne s' acquisi ion o compe encies
and inc easing hei mo i a ion (Jossbe ge e al., 2018). The e o e, an LF is unde s ood as
"a lea ning en i onmen speci ied by p ocesses ha a e au hen ic, include mul iple s a ions,
and comp ise echnical as well as o ganiza ional aspec s" (Abele, 2019, p. 1027). Lea ne s a e
exposed o he complex hinking and p og amming behind he ac o y's ope a ions and can
di ec ly p ac ice ce ain asks wi h he a ailable equipmen . The LFs implemen ed in schools
a e as di e en as he schools hemsel es. In gene al, hese eplicas o eal p oduc ion aci-
li ies a e in eg a ed in o he school building i sel . When i comes o he speci ic equipmen
o he LF, he schools se hei p io i ies acco ding o hei p o ile. Wha all schools ha e in
common is ha he in eg a ed LFs enable s uden s o access ealis ic p oduc ion acili ies
wi hin he school building. The ac o ies o en ha e a modula s uc u e, allowing he eache
o ocus on speci ic a eas o eal p oduc ion chains (Abele, 2019).
Acco dingly, LFs comp ise a se ing ha acili a es he success ul ans e be ween school
and p o essional li e, and as Bonnes and Hochholdinge (2020) ha e highligh ed, hey p o-
ide he educa ion equi ed o a con empo a y app en iceship. To implemen hese p oces-
ses, he componen s used in LFs a e ecognized and p ocessed in eal ime using echnical
iden i ica ion me hods (e.g., Radio F equency Iden i ica ion [RFID] codes; Pis o ius, 2020).
Fu he mo e, he modules o an LF a e o en p o ided on digi al de ices. Also, many pa s
o LFs a e based on digi al communica ion and use moni o s o o he pe iphe als o in- and
ou pu . Acco ding o he speci ic o m o LF in schools, o he digi al pa s may also be in e-
g a ed. The e o e, LFs a e pa o digi al se ings acco ding o Meinoka and Wagne (2022).
This a ie y o design op ions c ea es didac ic leeway o eache s. Teache s can ini ia e
bo h ins uc ion-d i en and explo a i e lessons. P io amilia iza ion wi h he exis ing ha d-
wa e is essen ial. The didac ic se ing can be adap ed o he equi emen s o he con en and
he lea ning g oup wi hin he spa ial possibili ies o he LF and he ime a ailable o he
eache s. The e o e, o he possibili ies a e gi en han compa ed o se ings in a mo e classical
class oom.
2.3 Resea chGap
Like all o he didac ical se ings, LFs su e om class oom dis up ions, which lead o a i-
ous educa ional disad an ages. This includes a dec eased s uden academic success (Ma quez
e al., 2016) when he eaching-lea ning en i onmen is dis up ed. Meinoka and Wagne
(2024) show, ha he inc eased numbe o digi al se ings b ing up new challenges as well as
new possibili ies o eache s. LFs, as a ela i ely new digi al se ing inside oca ional schools,
272 Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom Managemen in Lea ning Fac o ies
a e hus in need o u he esea ch o add ess hese issues. As Meinoka and Wagne (2024)
ha e shown, he e is a need o se ings ou side o he s anda d class oom o be in es iga ed
in e ms o class oom dis up ions and how pa icipan s deal wi h hem. While some esea ch
has been conduc ed on bo h p e en i e (p eceding a dis up ion) and in e en i e ( ollowing
a dis up ion) eache beha io s (E e son & Emme , 2013; Lohmann, 2011; May , 2006; Sy-
ing e al., 2013), he ways in which hose wo king in LFs can manage class oom dis up ions
has hus a been unexplo ed (Abele e al., 2015; Cachay e al., 2012; Scheid, 2018; S e en e
al., 2013). Due o hei di e en ia ed design and eache s no being expe ienced he ein, i
should also be assumed ha digi al-based LFs demons a e an oppo uni y o new o ms
o dis up ions (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024). Conside ing hese issues, in combina ion wi h
p e ious esea ch, he ollowing esea ch ques ions we e o mula ed:
– RQ1: Wha ypes o class oom dis up ions occu in LFs?
– RQ2: Wha p e en i e and in e en i e measu es do eache s use o deal wi h
class oom dis up ions in LFs?
3 Me hods
The lack o esea ch on his opic sugges ed ha a quali a i e, explo a o y design would be
mos app op ia e (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). Simila esea ch in his a ea, a guably in he
absence o e e ence o LFs, shows ha he ac ual imp essions o p ac icing eache s can be
e y in o ma i e (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024). To gain new insigh s while main aining some
lexibili y (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018), his s udy elied on semi-s anda dized, guideline-based
in e iews conduc ed wi h eache s a oca ional schools in he ede al s a e o Baden-Wü -
embe g, Ge many, who we e ac i ely eaching a LFs.
3.1 Sample
The es ic ion o oca ional schools wi h lea ning ac o ies in he s a e o Baden-Wü em-
be g educes he choice o po en ial schools o his s udy. Eligible schools we e con ac ed in
w i ing and he eques was o wa ded in e nally o eligible eache s. Se en o hese eache s
ag eed o ake pa in he s udy and we e asked in ad ance o gi e hei w i en consen o he
in o ma ion abou he use o he in e iews o scien i ic esea ch and o da a p o ec ion in
acco dance wi h cu en legal egula ions in Ge many.
273
Meinoka , Wagne
Table 3: O e iew o Pa icipan s
Alias Gene al eaching expe ience in yea s LF eaching expe ience in yea s
A 25 5
B 20 4
C 14 5
D 12 1
E 20 2
F 9 5
G 11 2
A o al o se en eache s we e in e iewed. The in e iews we e conduc ed pa ly online and
pa ly ace- o- ace; all we e eco ded and ansc ibed e ba im be o e he analysis (Hussy e
al., 2013). The ansc ip ion was ca ied ou wi h he aim o main ain he in ended meaning
a he han o gene a e easy- o- ead accessibili y. A o al o 45 pages wi h 2601 lines o in e -
iew ansc ip we e gene a ed ou o he app oxima ely ou hou s o eco ded in e iews.
Since he in e iews we e held in Ge man, pa s o he ansc ip s we e ansla ed in o he
English language by one o he au ho s and all au ho s discussed i he in ended meaning
was kep du ing he ansla ion p ocess. Be o e each in e iew, all eache s we e in o med
in de ail abou he pu pose o he in e iew and ga e hei consen o u he da a p oces-
sing. Any in o ma ion ha allowed o any conclusions o be d awn abou names, schools,
o local cha ac e is ics was anonymized. Biog aphical in o ma ion was also collec ed om
he eache s, who ecei ed he main ques ions o he in e iew in ad ance o p epa e hei
esponses and o decide o hemsel es which answe s hey would like o p o ide. As a esul ,
i was hoped ha he subjec o dis up ions could be add essed as openly as possible.
3.2 In e iewGuide
Acco ding o Misoch (2015), semi-s uc u ed, guideline-based in e iew p o ocols a e sui-
able o conduc ing expe in e iews. The e o e, an in e iew guide was de eloped, which
included a se o main ques ions ha aimed o ind answe s o he gi en esea ch ques ions
and suppo i e ques ions ha could be used in case addi ional in o ma ion was needed. This
allowed o good compa abili y while simul aneously main aining he indi iduali y o each
in e iew (Hussy e al., 2013). Fu he mo e, he e was he possibili y o using addi ional ques-
ions no men ioned in he guide o cla i y some o he s a emen s p o ided by he eache s
i necessa y. The same o de o ques ions was main ained h oughou all he in e iews, and
a simpli ied e sion o he guide can be seen in Table 4. As men ioned abo e, o ganiza ional
in o ma ion, ele an decla a ions, and socio-demog aphic in o ma ion abou he eache s
we e all p o ided o ob ained p io o he in e iews.
280 Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom Managemen in Lea ning Fac o ies
dis up ions in LFs ha e he same impac on he lea ning p ocess as dis up ions ha occu in
o he se ings. Since LFs a e embedded in oca ional school se ings, his should come wi h
no su p ise.
The in es iga ion o his special se ing shows, o he i s ime, ha he e is a connec-
ion be ween LFs and o he class oom se ings ha o e a somewha non-s anda d en i-
onmen o deli e ing lessons. Speci ically, he men ioned dis up ions could some imes be
ans e ed om/ o o he class oom se ings o subjec s. Fo example, he in en ional ma-
nipula ion o ha dwa e, wea and ea , and he p oblem o a o al ope a ional ailu e can be
ound in compu e science classes, and issues wi h he sha ed use o esou ces can be ound
in he educa ion o STEM subjec s. As men ioned be o e, he exis ing esea ch by Li and
Ti swo h (2015) is modi ied by Meinoka and Wagne (2024) iden i ying a o al o se en
ca ego ies o class oom dis up ions in digi al eaching en i onmen s: Agg essi eness, lack o
communica ion, in e ne slacking, seeking unallowed assis ance, echnical e o s, ope a ing e -
o s, and illici social beha io . Almos all he ca ego ies o dis up ions men ioned in his
s udy can be so ed in o his sys emiza ion, which u he con i ms i s applicabili y (Table 5).
Table 5: Linking he Ca ego ies Found in This S udy Wi h he Cu en S a e o Resea ch
Ca ego y o class oom dis up ion in his s udy Co esponding ca ego y om he li e a u e
(Un-) In en ional manipula ion Ope a ing e o
Dealing wi h con en un ela ed o he lesson Illici social beha io / in e ne slacking
Non-pa icipa ion Lack o communica ion
Dis up i e social in e ac ion Illici social beha io
The Illici social beha io
Ta diness Illici social beha io
To al ailu e Technical e o
Wea and ea Technical e o
Sha ed use Technical e o / ope a ing e o
The li e a u e-based ca ego ies agg essi eness and seeking unallowed assis ance (Li & Ti s-
wo h, 2015) we e no ep esen ed in he in e iews. A conclusion ha hose kinds o dis-
up ions we e no pa o dis up ions in LFs would be w ong. Ra he his indica es ha he
in e iewed eache s we e no able o emembe and epo hem.
Looking om he o he side, he only ca ego y men ioned by a eache in his s udy ha
could no be ela ed o an exis ing ca ego y in li e a u e was ha o p oblema ic in as uc u e.
Desc ibed by he eache as a p oblem wi h space and ime ha could be a ibu ed o he
ci cums ances o a school's layou and loca ion, his dis up ion is no necessa ily co ela ed
wi h he beha io o an indi idual pa icipan . Ra he , i highligh s a s uc u al p oblem ha
is beyond he con ol o bo h he eache s and s uden s. A simila ca ego y o his ype

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Meinoka , Wagne
o dis up ion would be a echnical e o , since hei occu ence canno be a ibu ed o he
eache s o s uden s, bu a he o echnological p oblems ha we e no hough o o deal
wi h be o ehand. Acco dingly, his s udy shows ha he e is a sepa a ion be ween dis up ions
based on human beha io and in e ac ion and hose caused by ex e nal condi ions. Table
6 shows how he exis ing esea ch ela es o his new sepa a ion, based on he dis up ions
epo ed in his s udy.
Table 6: Sepa a ion o Class oom Dis up ions
Class oom dis up ions caused by human beha io o in e ac ion Class oom dis up ions caused by ex e nal aspec s
Lack o communica ion Technical e o s
In e ne slacking In as uc u e p oblems
Ope a ing e o s
Illici social beha io
Technical e o s and in as uc u e p oblems a e caused by ex e nal condi ions, while he
o he ca ego ies a e associa ed wi h human beha io o in e ac ion. Wi h his expansion o
he cu en s a e o esea ch, his s udy opens up new ques ions abou he ways in which
class oom dis up ions in digi al se ings can be deal wi h. Can eache s only p e en o in-
e ene in dis up ions caused by human ac o s? How is he didac ic p epa a ion o eache s
linked o he ex e nal ac o s o dis up ion? A e school adminis a o s and educa ion poli-
cymake s esponsible o o able o coun e eaching dis up ions a an in as uc u al le el?
Fu he esea ch is needed o answe each o hese ques ions.
5.2 P e en i eandIn e en i eMeasu esinLea ningFac o ies
Elsewhe e, eache s ha e sha ed he opinion ha p e en ion is mo e impo an han in e -
en ion when i comes o dis up ion- ee eaching (Kounin, 2006; Lohmann, 2011). This
s a emen is suppo ed by he ac ha he eache s in he p esen s udy men ioned mo e p e-
en i e s a egies o deal wi h class oom dis up ions in hei LFs han in e en i e s a egies
(Chap e 4, Sec ions 2.1 and 2.2). While gene ally, he di e ence be ween hese s a egies was
no e y la ge, he eache s seemed o be e y ca e ul wi h hei choice o s uden s o b ing o
he LFs, keeping in mind he high mone a y alue o he ac o y, as well as he possibili y o
wo king in his se ing being iewed as a p i ilege.
Rega ding he ypes o class oom dis up ions wi hin LFs, i became clea ha he s a-
egies used o deal wi h hem, bo h p e en i e and in e en i e, seemed o be ans e ed
om o he (pa ially digi al) se ings. The e o e, i is imaginable ha he s a egies used by
he eache s in he LFs we e also used be o e in lessons ha we e no held in hese se ings.
282 Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom Managemen in Lea ning Fac o ies
Acco ding o he eache s in e iewed in his s udy, he e was a ce ain simplici y o im-
plemen ing ins uc ion in he new lea ning en i onmen o he LF based on he eache s'
exis ing epe oi e o ac ions, as well as in implemen ing and adap ing al eady-exis ing
s a egies o dealing wi h class oom dis up ions in his new class oom se ing. This goes
along wi h cu en esea ch on eache s' s a egies o managing class oom dis up ions
in digi al se ings (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024). I can u he be con i med ha eache s
a e capable o choosing he igh s a egy acco ding o hei espec i e pe sonali ies o
e ec i ely deal wi h a ce ain si ua ion (Lohmann, 2011). The e o e, LFs, as a digi al se -
ing in oca ional educa ion, can be in eg a ed easily in o he eache s' epe oi e i he
school i sel is willing o in es in such a se ing. Such in es men would suppo he need
exp essed by he eache s o ensu e ha digi aliza ion is an in eg a ional pa o hei daily
wo k (Meinoka & Wagne , 2024).
Fu he mo e, i is s iking ha he ela ionship o us be ween he s uden s and
eache s was add essed so equen ly du ing he in e iews. I can be assumed ha LFs,
due o hei special equipmen , high mone a y alue, and high main enance equi emen s,
inc ease he demands o good beha io on he pa o he s uden s, which means ha
eache s may only wan o wo k wi h lea ning g oups ha hey us . Among o he ac o s,
lea ne s may de elop us h ough ewe dis up ions in p e ious lessons, which means
ha ewe dis up ions should be expec ed in he LF. Fo he s uden s, he e is a possibili y
o no pa icipa e in he LF which may also makes he lessons appea mo e in e es ing,
and esea ch shows ha in e es ing lesson designs can hemsel es p e en dis up ions
(May , 2006). I may hus be wo hwhile o make in e disciplina y compa isons wi h o he
digi ally-based eaching o ma s and o include he aspec o mo i a ion in such conside-
a ions. Fu he mo e, he dis inc i e in luence o special se ings and hei connec ion o
he amoun and se e i y o dis up ions would be aluable o conside , as he LF se ing
he e gi es a clea indica o ha his change in se ing was signi ican . As a esul o hese
insigh s, his s udy shows ha he e is a need o esea ch in o mo e special se ings, as well
as compa isons be ween mo e adi ional se ings.
The men ion o expulsion as a possible s a egy o in e ene in class oom dis up ions
s ands in con as o hose s a egies ha aim a es ablishing a posi i e lea ning clima e
and mu ual us . Since he eache s epo ed his as a so o ul ima a io, and esea ch
shows ha expulsion can ha e a nega i e impac on s uden beha io (Russell & Rausch,
2015), he use o his measu e in LFs is as ques ionable he e as i is in o he se ings. A
he same ime, i con i ms he indings o Ra ay e al. (2018) and Cogswell e al. (2020),
bo h o whom based hei esea ch on a o m o escala ion p ocess, choosing he impac o
class oom dis up ions acco ding o hei se e i y. The s a egies men ioned by he eache s
e lec his escala ion p ocess, whe ein app oaches like e bal in e en ion a e loca ed a
he lowe end o he se e i y scale and expulsion on he highe end. Linking he chosen
283
Meinoka , Wagne
s a egy and i s se e i y o he encoun e ed dis up ions and hei impac on he class seems
like a p oduc i e app oach o eache s o main ain a smoo h- unning lesson. Sys emiza-
ions like hose p o ided by Meinoka and Wagne (2024) may he e o e be help ul o
eache s o decide how impac ul hei s a egy has o be o deal wi h ce ain si ua ions.
6 Limi a ionsandFu u eResea ch
I should be no ed ha he s udy p esen ed he e is o a highly explo a i e cha ac e . This can
be seen in he limi ed numbe o pa icipan s. Due o he limi ed numbe o quali ied schools
and eache s ha ing an LF, he numbe o possible in e iewees was necessa ily limi ed. This
could lead o missing indings. A possible example o his is he absence o epo ed dis up-
ions in he li e a u e-based ca ego ies agg essi eness and seeking unallowed assis ance. Based
on he answe s gi en by he eache s, i can be assumed ha an app op ia e sa u a ion le el is
eached bu an inc eased numbe o pa icipan s could u he imp o e he indings.
Findings o RQ2 show limi a ions in he quan i ica ion o answe s. Gi en he explo a i e
cha ac e o his s udy, he in e iew-guide and he ques ions wi hin should be conside ed
o e alua ion in u u e esea ch. Using mo e suppo ques ions du ing an in e iew could
c ea e mo e p ecise indings, bu o cou se, hey should no be sugges i e.
The opic o class oom dis up ions is sensi i e o some eache s, since hey do no wan
o alk abou he a he unpleasan aspec s o hei eaching. This may ha e con ibu ed o he
ac ha only a small numbe o eache s ag eed o ake pa in he s udy. Fu u e s udies could
econside he app oach. Ne e heless, hose eache s who we e willing o pa icipa e we e
highly anspa en abou hei eaching, and as a esul , he indings o his s udy p o ide a
eliable and impo an baseline. Acco dingly, his s udy should be conside ed he i s s ep
in a new a ea o inqui y. Ne e heless, olun a y pa icipa ion in he in e iew s udy canno
ule ou he ac ha pe haps only eache s wi h posi i e p e e ences ega ding he LFs made
hemsel es a ailable. Hence, he esul s canno be conside ed ep esen a i e. A la ge num-
be o pa icipan s is needed o ob ain mo e a ied and in-dep h insigh s. This also aises he
possibili y o aking o he me hodological app oaches o he subjec . In he u u e, he ques-
ion may a ise as o whe he LFs in his o m will con inue o inc ease a oca ional schools
o whe he smalle , cheape , and mo e mobile al e na i es will ind hei way in o his con-
ex . I espec i e o such a de elopmen , esea ch on LFs, wi h a special ocus on class oom
managemen and class oom dis up ions, p o ides a basis o decisions on u u e o ms o
se ings. On his ounda ion, u u e esea ch can ake a close look a he speci ic ea u es
o high-quali y eaching in LFs. To achie e his aim, i would be pa icula ly in e es ing o
ob ain he s uden s’ pe spec i es, as esea ch in his ield and on class oom managemen in
gene al is al eady e y eache o ien ed.
284 Class oom Dis up ions and Class oom Managemen in Lea ning Fac o ies
Ano he in e es ing ac a ising om he indings o he s udy and hei discussion is he
connec ion be ween class oom se ings and expe ienced dis up ions. Since connec ions
be ween, o example, compu e science classes and LF se ings can demons a e simila dis-
up ions, such as in en ional manipula ion, i is likely ha o he se ings ha e simila i ies
as well. Special se ings like physical educa ion in gyms, na u al science educa ion in labo-
a o ies, o ex acu icula ac i i ies ou side he school may sha e simila i ies and exhibi
key di e ences om mo e s anda d class oom se ings like hose sui ed o ma hema ics o
language educa ion. Fu he esea ch is needed. This also applies o he sepa a ion o hu-
man and ex e nal ac o s ha con ibu e o class oom dis up ions in digi al se ings, and he
connec ion be ween special se ings like LFs and he appeal o class oom managemen o
ce ain se ings.
The indings show ha eache s adap hei exis ing s a egies mo e han in en new s a-
egies o deal wi h dis up ions. This opens he ques ion i eache s a e no ye using digi al
se ings o hei ull po en ial in e ms o new ideas and solu ions o i digi al se ings a e no
gene a ing such possibili ies. I could be assumed ha eache s need mo e ex e nal pe spec-
i es, o example in o m o eache ainings, o widen hei ho izon in possibili ies o new
digi al se ings.
7 Conclusion
LFs, which can be conside ed a digi al se ing due o hei digi al componen s (Meinoka &
Wagne , 2022), ep esen a special lea ning en i onmen ha is especially sui ed o mee he
g owing demands o educa ion and digi iza ion (Eu opean Union, 2020; Kul usminis e kon-
e enz, 2021). These expensi e sys ems, which in ol e a g ea deal o o ganiza ional e o ,
ep esen eal exis ing p ocess and p oduc ion chains in indus y and enable oca ional s u-
den s o ga he p ac ical expe ience in he school en i onmen , which p epa es hem o
hei la e wo k. Wi h e e ence o his special s a us, his s udy examined he occu ence o
class oom dis up ions and he p e en i e and in e en i e app oaches o add essing hese
dis up ions. The eache s om oca ional schools in Baden-Wü embe g, Ge many, who
we e in e iewed in his pa ially s anda dized, guideline-based in e iew s udy, all augh
in LFs. The esul s show ha all he ac o s in ol ed we e awa e o hei special s a us. In
ex ending exis ing esea ch, his s udy shows ha class oom dis up ions can be based on
mo e han jus human ac o s. In conside ing LFs as digi al se ings, ex e nal ac o s come
in o play as well, which pose dis inc i e challenges o eache s wi h espec o hei didac ical
p epa a ions. The eache s in e iewed op imized hei pa e ns and s a egies o eaching in
LFs based on hei expe iences in o he lea ning se ings; in doing so, hey enabled op imal
lea ning success o he s uden s, and, a he same ime, by a e ing po en ial des uc ion,
hey p o ec ed he mone a y alue o he LF. The p e en ion and in e en ion s a egies we e
285
Meinoka , Wagne
based on an escala ion p ocess ha is linked o he se e i y o he dis up ion. In gene al, i
was ound ha es ablished class oom dis up ions sys emiza ions om o he digi al se ings
can be applied o LFs; hus, LFs, as new lea ning en i onmen s in oca ional schools, do
no equi e a pa icula class oom managemen s yle. I seems ha he s yle eache s use o
manage hei class ooms depends mo e on he eache 's pe sonali y han on he subjec and
is jus adap ed si ua ionally. Class oom managemen p ac ices om o he didac ical se ings
can be applied in LFs as well. Teache s and hei ongoing adap a ion o s a egies can use
indings o his s udy o e alua e hei own lessons. Fu he mo e, being able o sys emize
expe ienced dis up ions and p io i ize s a egies acco dingly c ea es space o o he aspec s
o class oom managemen ha eache s can deal wi h.
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Biog aphicalNo es
Pie e Meinoka , M.Ed., is a esea ch assis an and doc o al candida e a he Ka ls uhe Ins-
i u e o Technology (KIT), Ins i u e o School Pedagogy and Didac ics (ISD). Since com-
ple ing his Mas e o in he subjec s o physical educa ion, compu e science and educa ional
science, he has been wo king on he opic o class oom dis up ion. Wi h digi aliza ion as
a connec ing elemen , his in e disciplina y esea ch is in ended o bo h p ospec i e and
p ac icing eache s. The indings o his esea ch a e cu en ly being inco po a ed in o he
u he aining o eache s in he ede al s a e o Baden-Wü embe g, Ge many.
Ingo Wagne , D phil., wo ks as Full P o esso o Spo Pedagogy, Spo Sociology and Heal h
Educa ion a he Uni e si y o F eibu g, Ge many. He o me ly led he depa men o In-
e disciplina y Didac ics a he Ka ls uhe Ins i u e o Technology. Ingo Wagne s i es o
ac i ely shape he u u e o educa ion h ough inno a i e pe spec i es. The cen al s a ing
poin o his is his esea ch on didac ic designs o eaching-lea ning p ocesses in o de
o u he de elop eache aining in he cou se o s udies, in eache aineeships and in
schools.