Lopes, Te esa; Soa es, Annelyse; Mo ei a, Ana
A icle
Toxic leade ship and u no e in en ions: Emo ional
in elligence as a mode a o o his ela ionship
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Lopes, Te esa; Soa es, Annelyse; Mo ei a, Ana (2025) : Toxic leade ship and
u no e in en ions: Emo ional in elligence as a mode a o o his ela ionship, Adminis a i e
Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 1, pp. 1-22,
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Ci a ion: Lopes, T., Soa es, A., &
Palma-Mo ei a, A. (2025). Toxic
Leade ship and Tu no e In en ions:
Emo ional In elligence as a Mode a o
o This Rela ionship. Adminis a i e
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A icle
Toxic Leade ship and Tu no e In en ions: Emo ional
In elligence as a Mode a o o This Rela ionship
Te esa Lopes, Annelyse Soa es and Ana Palma-Mo ei a *
Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Tecnologia, Uni e sidade Eu opeia, Quin a do Bom Nome, Es . da Co eia 53,
1500-210 Lisboa, Po ugal; [email p o ec ed] (T.L.); annelyse.soa es@uni e sidadeeu opeia.p (A.S.)
*Co espondence: ana.mo ei a@uni e sidadeeu opeia.p
Abs ac : This s udy aimed o in es iga e he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and
u no e in en ions and whe he his ela ionship was mode a ed by emo ional in elligence.
The sample consis ed o 202 pa icipan s wo king in o ganiza ions based in Po ugal. The
esul s show ha oxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e in-
en ions. Rega ding emo ional in elligence, only he dimensions o he use o emo ions and
he emo ions o o he s a e posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e in en ions.
As o he mode a ing e ec , only he use o emo ions and emo ion egula ion dimensions
mode a e he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions. Pa icipan s
wi h high le els o emo ion use and emo ion egula ion, when compa ed o pa icipan s
wi h low le els o emo ion use and emo ion egula ion, ound ha oxic leade ship was
ele an in boos ing hei u no e in en ions. I can be concluded ha pa icipan s use
hei emo ional capaci ies o mo e away om oxic en i onmen s in sea ch o new and
be e wo king condi ions.
Keywo ds: oxic leade ship; u no e in en ions; emo ional in elligence; mode a ion;
emo ions
1. In oduc ion
The concep o leade ship can be ound in all popula ions and has been p esen since
he dawn o ci iliza ion. King, empe o , sul an, p esiden , and e en boss a e e ms used o
cha ac e ize someone who leads o he s owa ds c ea i e and in ui i e goals (Bolden,2004).
As o ganiza ions e ol e, he leade has an inc easing obliga ion o adap o he subo dina e
and ice e sa so ha bo h can achie e goals ha p o ide hem wi h p o essional and
pe sonal ha mony.
Leade s can be lexible and welcoming owa ds hei subo dina es and adop ans o -
ma ional o pa icipa i e leade ship (G ill e al.,2017). Howe e , subo dina es’ emo ions
a e nega i ely impac ed when hei leade s p e en hem om de eloping hei skills o
when hey demean hem. This is known as oxic leade ship. This ype o leade ship is
usually associa ed wi h he indi idual’s cha ac e is ics, which a e e y di icul o change
(A a ena,2019). E ickson e al. (2015) de ined oxic leade ship as a se o a ious oxic
ac ions ha lead subo dina es o achie e goals ha p omo e he leade ’s image.
Schmid (2008) de eloped a se o dimensions ha cha ac e ize oxic leade ship and
s a ed ha abusi e supe ision, au ho i a ian leade ship, na cissism, sel -p omo ion, and
unp edic abili y (Mónico e al.,2019) a e he sou ces o oxic leade ship and ha he
beha io s o hese leade s a e de i ed om one o hese i e dimensions.
Se e al p oblems a e associa ed wi h oxic leade ship, including nega i e a i udes,
lowe job sa is ac ion, dep ession (E ickson e al.,2015), and subo dina es’ esigna ion,
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15010026
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 2 o 22
which is s ongly in luenced by he ela ionships he employees ha e wi h hei colleagues
o manage s in he o ganiza ion (Bu e al.,2009). To ein o ce his, Zhang (2016) explains
ha u no e in en ions end o ise when o ganiza ions do no ca e o hei employees,
especially on a pe sonal le el. Employees’ pe cep ion o oxic beha io in hei leade can
lead o an inc ease in u no e in en ions (Ha ab e al.,2022).
Despi e his poo ela ionship, some imes, employees may be unable o esign om
hei jobs due o accommoda ion, mone a y, o emo ional easons. This ype o emo ional
s abili y o ins abili y is de ec ed and con olled by each indi idual due o one’s emo ional
in elligence, which is he abili y o indi iduals o pe cei e emo ions and eason and apply
hem o a ious ex insic ac o s (Maye e al.,2004). F om ano he pe spec i e, emo ional
in elligence is iden i ied as he pe cep ion o pe sonal emo ions and he beha io s and
ac ions o o he s (Ioannidou & Kons an ikaki,2008). I is also impo an o no e ha
knowing how o ecognize one’s own emo ions helps o disc imina e good ac ions om
bad ones (Ioannidou & Kons an ikaki,2008).
Like oxic leade ship, emo ional in elligence has a model wi h ou dimensions: he
pe cep ion o one’s own emo ions, he pe cep ion o o he s’ emo ions, he use o emo ions,
and he egula ion o emo ions (Rod igues e al.,2011). P e ious s udies ha e shown ha
employees wi h high le els o emo ional in elligence ha e lowe u no e in en ions (Ha ab
e al.,2022;Jan jies & Bo ha,2024;Nonehka an e al.,2023). Howe e , a e ho oughly
sea ching he li e a u e, we ound a gap in he ela ionship be ween he h ee cons uc s
s udied ( oxic leade ship, u no e in en ions, and emo ional in elligence). We s udied
hese ela ionships o es he hypo hesis ha emo ional in elligence al e s he ela ionship
be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions. The e o e, his s udy aimed o de e mine
he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions and whe he emo ional
in elligence mode a ed his ela ionship.
2. Theo e ical F amewo k
2.1. Toxic Leade ship
Leade ship has been s ongly linked o he leade ’s abili y o p omo e and encou age
ollowe s o pe o m speci ic asks. A s ong leade ’s p ima y goal is o accomplish asks
on pe sonal and o ganiza ional le els. DeP ee (1998) s a ed ha leade s ha e a du y o
ac wi h a ce ain le el o ma u i y, which is exp essed h ough esponsibili y, sel -es eem,
a sense o belonging, and equali y (DeP ee,1998). Howe e , no all leade s p omo e he
well-being and o ganiza ional suppo ha subo dina es need.
The s udy by K asiko a e al. (2013) concludes ha oxic leade ship is no iceable
in some o ganiza ions. They s a ed ha oxic leade ship can ake a ious o ms, such as
abusi e supe ision and “pe y y anny” (K asiko a e al.,2013, p. 1308). In he same ein,
E ickson e al. (2015) obse ed ha oxic leade ship in he US mili a y is cha ac e ized
by a “pe ec ” iangle be ween oxic leade s, suscep ible subo dina es, and a welcoming
en i onmen . In ac , his phenomenon occu s in 25% o o ganiza ions wo ldwide (E ickson
e al.,2015).
Toxic leade s a e o en us a ed and a ogan , and hei main goal is o p e ail in
e ms o hei image and so e eign y o e o he s. F om his pe spec i e, he s udy by
K asiko a e al. (2013) cha ac e izes he oxic leade as e il. Thei beha io s a e essen ial
o hei supe io i y and isibili y wi hin he o ganiza ion, e en i hey nega i ely a ec
hei subo dina es. In he same ein, he esea ch by E ickson e al. (2015) shows ha
leade s can become oxic when hei pe sonal goals (p omo ions o ca ee ad ancemen )
canno be legi ima ely ecognized.
Also, he s udy by Eina sen e al. (2007) shows ha i is impo an o emembe ha
leade s can make bad decisions on a day- o-day basis wi hou being conside ed oxic.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 3 o 22
Leade s a e only conside ed oxic when hey sys ema ically and epe i i ely p o oke his
ype o ac ion. Simila ly, E ickson e al. (2015) s a ed ha in o de o be conside ed oxic,
he leade ’s ac ions mus be oli ional, sys ema ic, and epea ed o e ime.
Long- e m esea ch on leade ship beha io s has demons a ed ha hese ac ions
can ake di e en o ms Dobbs (2014). This au ho de e mined ha oxic leade ship is
mul idimensional and iden i ied i e in e connec ed a eas based on he concep ual model
and Toxic Leade ship Scale (TLS) de eloped by Schmid (2008). Schmid (2008) ou lined
he i e dimensions o oxic leade ship as ollows: (1) abusi e supe ision, which consis s
o oxic e bal and non- e bal beha io s (Schmid ,2008), such as ou bu s s o ange ,
agg essi e eedback, and idicule o subo dina es (Sal ado ,2018), poo o ganiza ional
jus ice, and psychological abuse (Teppe ,2000); (2) an au ho i a ian leade ship, which is
de ined as a beha io o con ol ( o cing subo dina es o be obedien ) (Cheng e al.,2004),
psychological abuse (Teppe ,2000), and a es ic ion on he au onomy and ini ia i es o
subo dina es (Fe ei a e al.,2021); (3) na cissism, whe e an indi idual hinks o and alues
onesel as a o m o sup emacy (Schmid ,2008), which has a bad in luence on he wo k and
li es o subo dina es (Lubi ,2004) and esul s in a big gap in empa hy and ecogni ion o
he e o s made by o he s (Fe ei a e al.,2021); (4) sel -p omo ion, which aims o p omo e
he image o leade s excessi ely, o p omo e hei in e es s in o de o c ea e a good image
a highe le els o he hie a chy (Schmid ,2008), and o compe e agains i als wi hin
he o ganiza ion (Sal ado ,2018); and (5) unp edic abili y, which e e s o he leade ’s
unexpec ed beha io s, mainly oxic o abusi e beha io s and unp edic able mood swings
(Schmid ,2008;Sal ado ,2018;Mónico e al.,2019).
Schmid ’s (2008) esea ch demons a ed ha oxic leade ship has a la ge impac on he
o ganiza ion and, abo e all, on subo dina es. Thus, he a emp ed o unde s and some o
he beha io s adop ed by he leade , which we e classi ied acco ding o he i e dimensions
men ioned abo e.
The beha io s o he leade s o en ha e nega i e impac s on hei subo dina es who
can de elop physical, men al, o o ganiza ional p oblems. A b ie su ey ound ha he
consequences o his ype o leade ship include a g ea lack o us , a eeling o a o i ism
and nepo ism (E ickson e al.,2015), bullying (Khan e al.,2017), and a lack o ene gy,
mo i a ion, and a igue (Goleman,2011;E ickson e al.,2015). A a mo e ex eme s age,
some employees may su e om physical iolence (Schyns & Schilling,2013) and e en end
up lea ing he o ganiza ion, as explained by A shad and Pu eh (2015), who de e mined
ha us a ed and unhappy employees a e mo e likely o lea e han sa is ied employees.
2.2. Tu no e In en ions
Wi h he g ow h and de elopmen o he human esou ces depa men , he e is a
need o analyze employees’ po en ial in en ions o lea e he o ganiza ion. Mendes (2014)
analyzed and desc ibed h ee ypes o his phenomenon: in olun a y u no e , which is
he depa u e o an employee based on he decision o he o ganiza ion; olun a y u no e ,
e e ing o he depa u e o an employee based on hei own decision; and, inally, u no e
in en ions, desc ibed as he employee’s u no e in en ions h ough hei beha io , wo ds,
o a i udes (Mendes,2014).
Tu no e in en ion is de ined as he desi e o willingness o lea e he o ganiza ion
o a new posi ion (Liu & Onwuegbuzie,2012) o he ac ual mo emen o an employee
o a di e en o ganiza ion (Rahman & Nas,2013). Ca meli and Weisbe g (2006) s a ed
ha he u no e in en ion p ocess is di ided in o h ee phases: (1) hinking abou lea ing,
(2) hinking abou looking o a new job, and (3) he ac ual u no e in en ion. This led
o he ollowing esea ch ques ion: why do employees in end o lea e he o ganiza ion?
S udies ha e shown ha se e al mo i a ions can con ibu e o his phenomenon, including
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 4 o 22
issues wi h managemen and unions (Alam & Asim,2019), he ela ionship wi h colleagues
(Alam & Asim,2019;Liu & Onwuegbuzie,2012), sala y and bene i s (Alam & Asim,2019;
Lee e al.,2012), and o ganiza ional ac o s such as he wo k en i onmen (Alam & Asim,
2019;Lee e al.,2012) and commi men o he o ganiza ion (Alam & Asim,2019;Liu &
Onwuegbuzie,2012;Rahman & Nas,2013) and NasA su ey by he Socie y o Human
Resou ce Managemen and Aon Consul ing concluded ha poo managemen is he hi d
mos common eason o employees o conside lea ing he o ganiza ion Rahman and Nas
(2013). This has led o a g owing conce n o o ganiza ions o main ain good managemen
p ac ices o main ain he men al well-being and p o essional goals o employees and a oid
he cos s associa ed wi h edundancies.
Teppe (2000) concluded ha abusi e supe ision by leade s has signi ican e ec s on
employees’ in en ions o lea e due o he imbalance be ween hei pe sonal and p o essional
li es and a signi ican inc ease in s ess and psychological p oblems. Rahman and Nas
(2013) s a ed ha employees who a e dissa is ied wi h hei manage pe o m poo ly and
sea ch o al e na i e jobs, in addi ion o ha ing nega i e eelings abou hei manage .
Howe e , Zhang (2016) concluded ha he depa u e o an employee can esul in
explici cos s ( ec ui men , aining, and p oduc i i y) and hidden cos s (un a o able
commen s abou he o ganiza ion by he employee, loss o oppo uni ies, and low mo ale).
Simila ly, Guzelle and Celike (2020) s a ed ha u no e , which ollows he in en ion o
lea e, can esul in high cos s o he o ganiza ion (due o ime and labo associa ed wi h
he aining o he p e ious and u u e employees), a loss o alen , edundancy paymen s,
and new hi es.
To educe u no e in en ions, i is necessa y o p epa e a se o ac ions ha educe his
impac so ha , la e , he in en ion is no ul illed (Fukui e al.,2019). The s a egies include
leade ship aining ( aining in echniques and s a egies), imp o ing he condi ions o
he o ganiza ion (inc easing sala ies and bene i s and c ea ing oppo uni ies o ca ee
p og ession), and, inc easingly, in es ing in good men al heal h p og ams o employees
(indica o s o wo k s ess and bu nou as well as educing he likelihood o dep ession and
job dissa is ac ion) (Fukui e al.,2019).
Despi e his, he employee’s in en ion o lea e is in luenced by in ape sonal ac o s,
such as mo i a ions ha a e ex insic o he company’s goals, mo ing o ano he coun y,
o pe sonal cha ac e is ics.
Toxic Leade ship and Tu no e In en ions
The leade ’s oxic cha ac e is ics and pe sonali y se e o main ain hei epu a ion
and a good image o hei supe io s (K asiko a e al.,2013). Zhang (2016) concluded ha
when wo ke s expe ience di icul y in hei ela ionships wi h hei bosses, hey need o
exe g ea men al e o in hei p o essional li es o main ain a wo king ela ionship.
Job sa is ac ion and commi men can be comp omised when oxic hie a chical ac o s
a e iden i ied wi hin eams (Zhang,2016). This dissa is ac ion is o en accompanied by
us a ion and dis ess, leading employees o disengage om hei wo kplace.
Khan e al. (2017) concluded ha u no e in en ions esul om a ious e en s
wi hin a oxic wo kplace en i onmen . Low commi men , educed p oduc i i y, and
inc eased absen eeism lead o a high le el o s ess, which inc eases job dissa is ac ion
and, consequen ly, he u no e in en ions o he company’s employees (Khan e al.,2017).
E ickson e al. (2015) ound ha oxic leade ship is s ongly linked o u no e a e, o
example, in he Uni ed S a es A my. Zhang (2016) demons a ed ha high u no e a es a e
due o weak and poo managemen leade ship, which ansla es in o a high o ganiza ional
cos associa ed wi h a ac ing and e aining employees. O ei e al. (2023) concluded ha
when nu ses pe cei e oxic beha io in hei leade s, hei u no e in en ions inc ease.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 5 o 22
Simila ly, o he au ho s ha e concluded ha employees’ u no e in en ions inc ease in
he p esence o a oxic leade (Ha ab e al.,2022;Jan jies & Bo ha,2024;Nonehka an e al.,
2023;Nunes & Palma-Mo ei a,2024). The e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis is o mula ed:
Hypo hesis 1. Toxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e in en ions.
2.3. Emo ional In elligence
Ra ionali y di e en ia es humans om o he li ing beings. C i ical hinking and
decision-making a e ac o s ha occu in all human popula ions and con ibu e o emo ions
expe ienced by each indi idual.
Whe he o no an indi idual is a ional depends on he emo ions hey may eel
owa ds some hing. Adolphs e al. (2019) s a ed ha an emo ion is a s a e o he b ain ha
causes a ce ain beha io . This emo ion can come om a ious ac o s, such as unning
away om some hing dange ous o c ying wi h joy (Adolphs e al.,2019). I is impo an
o no e ha emo ion o a single s imulus can a y among indi iduals (Adolphs e al.,2019).
Howe e , he concep o emo ional in elligence and i s applica ion in a ious con ex s
is inc easingly being s udied.
Emo ional in elligence is cha ac e ized as he indi idual’s way o pe cei ing and
con olling hei emo ions (Siddiqui & Hassan,2013). In he same ein, Goleman e al.
(2018) s a ed ha emo ional in elligence in ol es he abili y o manage one’s own and o he s’
eelings and emo ions, disc imina e he in o ma ion ga he ed, and plan u u e ac ions.
To dis inguish be ween di e en aspec s o emo ional in elligence, Maye e al. (1997)
o ganized emo ional in elligence in o ou dimensions: (1) pe cei ing emo ions; (2) e lec -
ing on emo ions; (3) assimila ing emo ions in o hough ; and (4) pe cei ing and exp ess-
ing emo ions.
La e , Da ies e al. (1998) eo ganized he dimensions o emo ional in elligence based
on he s udies o Maye e al. (1997), which was la e adop ed by Law e al. (2004). This
led Law e al. (2004) o de ine he ou dimensions as ollows: (1) The i s one is he
e alua ion and exp ession o one’s own emo ions, which e e s o he way in which he
indi idual pe cei es and unde s ands spon aneous and au hen ic emo ions in a non- e bal
way (Pel ie ,2011;Rod igues e al.,2011). I is based on pe cei ing eelings, such as ange ,
ea , happiness, disgus , and sadness, among o he s (Maye e al.,2004), and au oma ically
il e ing hei ac ions based on his pe cep ion (Rod igues e al.,2011). (2) The second
dimension is he e alua ion and ecogni ion o he emo ions o o he s, which e e s o he
pe cep ion, iden i ica ion, and e alua ion o he indi idual in ecognizing and analyzing he
emo ions o o he s, allowing o be e sensi i i y owa ds o he s (Pel ie ,2011;Rod igues
e al.,2011). This dimension is impo an as i allows us o dis inguish whe he emo ions
ha e been hones o no (Pel ie ,2011). (3) The hi d dimension is he use o emo ions o
acili a e an indi idual’s pe o mance, wi h he aim o using he bes emo ions o acili a e
one’s pe o mance in ac i i ies (Rod igues e al.,2011). I p omo es di ec ion, hinking, and
seeing hings om a di e en pe spec i e, and i p io i izes only accomplishing asks ha
a e eally impo an (Maye e al.,2004;Pel ie ,2011). (4) Finally, he ou h dimension
e e s o managing one’s emo ions and, speci ically, egula ing hem (Rod igues e al.,
2011). I also helps an indi idual o de e mine whe he o no one’s “sel ” should u n o
emo ions in he ace o an e en o si ua ion ha has occu ed (G ilo,2009).
The s udies by Maye e al. (1997), Da ies e al. (1998), Law e al. (2004), Wong and
Law (2002), and Rod igues e al. (2011) allowed o he de elopmen and alida ion o he
emo ional in elligence scale adap ed o he Po uguese popula ion Rod igues e al. (2011).
Howe e , Neubaue and F euden hale (2005) concluded ha emo ional in elligence
helps cogni i e success. Rod igues e al. (2011) emphasized ha emo ional in elligence
has a mul idimensional objec i e, i.e., i aims o be able o pe cei e he emo ions o he
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 6 o 22
indi idual and o o he s, o egula e hem well, o make good decisions, and o use hem
co ec ly o achie e ha mony be ween emo ions and ac ions.
2.3.1. Emo ional In elligence and Tu no e In en ions
Emo ional in elligence imp o es he pe cep ion and a ionaliza ion o emo ions. The
esea ch by Khos a i e al. (2020) concludes ha , om an in ape sonal pe spec i e,
emo ional in elligence enhances p oblem-sol ing and indi idual and collec i e beha io s.
F om an in e pe sonal pe spec i e, Mohammad e al. (2014) showed ha employees who
conside hei leade o ha e a high emo ional in elligence a e less likely o lea e he
o ganiza ion.
The esponse o emo ional in elligence in he p o essional con ex can be use ul in ha
i can help egula e emo ions when dealing wi h di e en bosses, wo k p essu e, o lack o
ecogni ion a wo k (Kong,2011). F om ano he pe spec i e, eams wi h a high capaci y
o emo ional in elligence a e mo e a en i e and, in u n, can manage hei emo ions in
esponse o possible con lic s (Khos a i e al.,2020). Fo example, a s udy conduc ed
in a public hospi al, by Abdallah and Mos a a (2021), showed ha when nu ses pa ic-
ipa e and become in ol ed in decisions oge he wi h hei leade s, hey exp ess mo e
posi i e emo ions, which makes hem happie , mo e al uis ic, and mo e ci ic-minded.
Simila ly, La i e al. (2017) s a ed ha emo ional in elligence has a nega i e associa ion
wi h u no e in en ions, wi h p e ious esea ch con i ming he exis ence o a nega i e
ela ionship be ween emo ional wo k and he in en ion o lea e he o ganiza ion (La i e al.,
2017). Giao e al. (2020) also con i med he nega i e and signi ican associa ion be ween
emo ional in elligence and u no e in en ions. Uzai and Bhaumik (2023) conduc ed a
s udy in ol ing employees in he banking sec o and ound a nega i e and signi ican asso-
cia ion be ween emo ional in elligence and u no e in en ions. The e o e, he ollowing
hypo hesis is o mula ed:
Hypo hesis 2. Emo ional in elligence is posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed wi h u no e
in en ions.
2.3.2. Emo ional In elligence as a Mode a ing Tool
Emo ional in elligence, as men ioned abo e, is he abili y o indi iduals o con ol
and pe cei e hei emo ions and ac , acco ding o Maye e al. (1997). S udies show ha
emo ional in elligence wo ks as a de ense mechanism, as exempli ied by Peng e al. (2019),
who s a ed ha emo ional in elligence is a e y impo an ac o in people’s li es and can
inc ease hei esilience. As such, emo ional in elligence helps humans p o ec hemsel es
om ex e nal ac o s.
Recen esea ch has shown ha emo ional in elligence can ac as a mode a ing ool,
especially in he wo kplace. Ba ool (2013) concluded ha i is possible o con ol nega i e
si ua ions h ough emo ional in elligence and sel -awa eness, which e e s o an indi id-
ual’s abili y o ecognize and manage hei emo ions o he well-being o o he s and onesel .
He also s a ed ha sel - egula ion is abou con olling wo ds, decisions, s e eo ypes, and
conce n o he alues o o he s. Sel - egula ion is knowing how o con ol onesel , e en in
s ess ul si ua ions (Ba ool,2013).
In he same ein, Dasbo ough’s (2019) esea ch on he mode a ing e ec s o emo ional
in elligence showed ha indi iduals wi h high le els o emo ional in elligence a e mo e
likely o use his mechanism o manage and egula e hei emo ions. In con as , he au ho
s a ed ha indi iduals wi h a lowe le el o emo ional in elligence canno manage and
egula e emo ions easily (Dasbo ough,2019).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 7 o 22
Jo dan e al. (2002) sugges ed ha high emo ional in elligence allows wo ke s o
deal wi h s ess and possible job insecu i ies and imp o es hei managemen o nega i e
eac ions o less pleasan si ua ions).
Finally, Lubi (2004) showed ha knowing how o deal wi h oxic leade ship in o -
ganiza ions signi ican ly impac s one’s ca ee . Indi iduals who can ecognize he ac ions
and a i udes o o he s a e well-equipped o p o ec and help hemsel es. The e o e, he
ollowing hypo hesis is o mula ed:
Hypo hesis 3. Emo ional in elligence mode a es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and
u no e in en ions.
The hypo heses o mula ed in his s udy a e summa ized in Figu e 1:
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 23
s e eo ypes, and conce n o he alues o o he s. Sel - egula ion is knowing how o
con ol onesel , e en in s ess ul si ua ions (Ba ool, 2013).
In he same ein, Dasbo ough’s (2019) esea ch on he mode a ing e ec s o
emo ional in elligence showed ha indi iduals wi h high le els o emo ional in elligence
a e mo e likely o use his mechanism o manage and egula e hei emo ions. In con as ,
he au ho s a ed ha indi iduals wi h a lowe le el o emo ional in elligence canno
manage and egula e emo ions easily (Dasbo ough, 2019).
Jo dan e al. (2002) sugges ed ha high emo ional in elligence allows wo ke s o deal
wi h s ess and possible job insecu i ies and imp o es hei managemen o nega i e
eac ions o less pleasan si ua ions).
Finally, Lubi (2004) showed ha knowing how o deal wi h oxic leade ship in
o ganiza ions signi ican ly impac s one’s ca ee . Indi iduals who can ecognize he
ac ions and a i udes o o he s a e well-equipped o p o ec and help hemsel es.
The e o e, he ollowing hypo hesis is o mula ed:
Hypo hesis 3. Emo ional in elligence mode a es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and
u no e in en ions.
The hypo heses o mula ed in his s udy a e summa ized in Figu e 1:
Figu e 1. Resea ch model.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Da a Collec ion P ocedu e
A o al o 202 indi iduals ook pa in his s udy olun a ily. The condi ions o
pa icipa ing in his s udy we e ha hey had o be 18 yea s old o o e and wo k in
o ganiza ions based in Po ugal. A non-p obabilis ic, con enien , and in en ional
snowball sampling p ocess was used (T ochim, 2000). This s udy is quan i a i e and non-
expe imen al since he p edic o a iable ( oxic leade ship) was no manipula ed, and i
has a co ela ional s uc u e since he aim is o s udy whe he he e is a ela ionship
be ween he ollowing a iables: oxic leade ship, u no e in en ions, and emo ional
in elligence. This s udy is also c oss-sec ional (as he da a we e collec ed a a single poin
in ime) and hypo he ical-deduc i e (Re o & Nunes, 1999).
The ques ionnai e was c ea ed online on he Google Fo ms pla o m, and i s link was
sen ia email and LinkedIn. Be o e answe ing he ques ionnai e, he pa icipan s ga e
hei in o med consen i hey decided o pa icipa e in his s udy. The in o med consen
o m gua an eed he con iden iali y o he answe s gi en. A e eading he in o ma ion
p o ided abou in o med consen , hey we e asked o s a e whe he hey ag eed o
pa icipa e in he ques ionnai e. I he pa icipan s answe ed no, hey we e aken o he
end o he ques ionnai e; i hey answe ed yes, hey we e aken o he nex sec ion.
The ques ionnai e included sociodemog aphic ques ions o cha ac e ize he sample,
including age in yea s, gende , senio i y in he o ganiza ion, educa ional quali ica ions,
Figu e 1. Resea ch model.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Da a Collec ion P ocedu e
A o al o 202 indi iduals ook pa in his s udy olun a ily. The condi ions o pa ici-
pa ing in his s udy we e ha hey had o be 18 yea s old o o e and wo k in o ganiza ions
based in Po ugal. A non-p obabilis ic, con enien , and in en ional snowball sampling
p ocess was used (T ochim,2000). This s udy is quan i a i e and non-expe imen al since
he p edic o a iable ( oxic leade ship) was no manipula ed, and i has a co ela ional
s uc u e since he aim is o s udy whe he he e is a ela ionship be ween he ollowing
a iables: oxic leade ship, u no e in en ions, and emo ional in elligence. This s udy is
also c oss-sec ional (as he da a we e collec ed a a single poin in ime) and hypo he ical-
deduc i e (Re o & Nunes,1999).
The ques ionnai e was c ea ed online on he Google Fo ms pla o m, and i s link was
sen ia email and LinkedIn. Be o e answe ing he ques ionnai e, he pa icipan s ga e hei
in o med consen i hey decided o pa icipa e in his s udy. The in o med consen o m
gua an eed he con iden iali y o he answe s gi en. A e eading he in o ma ion p o ided
abou in o med consen , hey we e asked o s a e whe he hey ag eed o pa icipa e in
he ques ionnai e. I he pa icipan s answe ed no, hey we e aken o he end o he
ques ionnai e; i hey answe ed yes, hey we e aken o he nex sec ion.
The ques ionnai e included sociodemog aphic ques ions o cha ac e ize he sample,
including age in yea s, gende , senio i y in he o ganiza ion, educa ional quali ica ions,
ma i al s a us, sec o o ac i i y, and ype o con ac . In addi ion o hese ques ions, he
pa icipan s answe ed h ee scales: oxic leade ship, u no e in en ions, and emo ional
in elligence. The da a we e collec ed be ween Feb ua y and Ma ch 2024.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 8 o 22
3.2. Pa icipan s
The sample in his s udy consis ed o 202 pa icipan s, wi h 58 pa icipan s aged
be ween 18 and 29 (28.7%), 103 aged be ween 30 and 49 (51%), and 41 aged be ween 50 and
67 (39.6%). Mos o he pa icipan s we e emale; speci ically, 122 we e emale (60.4%) and
80 we e male (39.6%). Rega ding hei educa ional quali ica ions, 13 had a basic le el o
educa ion (6.4%), 72 had comple ed seconda y school (35.6%), 83 had a bachelo ’s deg ee
(41.1%), and 34 had a mas e ’s deg ee (16.8%). The e we e no pa icipan s wi h a PhD. The
pa icipan s’ senio i y in he company/o ganiza ion can be classi ied as ollows: less han
1 yea : 28 pa icipan s (13.9%); be ween 1 and 3 yea s: 58 pa icipan s (28.7%); be ween 4
and 6 yea s: 39 pa icipan s (19.3%); be ween 7 and 9 yea s: 15 pa icipan s (7.4%); be ween
10 and 15 yea s: 24 pa icipan s (11.9%); and mo e han 15 yea s: 38 pa icipan s (18.8%).
As o he sec o o ac i i y, 36 o he pa icipan s we e in he public sec o (17.8%), 153 in
he p i a e sec o (75.7%), and 13 in he public–p i a e sec o (6.4%). Finally, when asked
abou hei con ac , 27 answe ed ha hey we e on an unce ain- e m con ac (13.4%), 21
on a ixed- e m con ac (10.4%), 145 on an open-ended con ac (71.8%), and 9 on ano he
ype o con ac (4.5%).
3.3. Da a Analysis P ocedu e
A e he da a we e collec ed, hey we e p ocessed using SPSS S a is ics so wa e,
e sion 29 (IBM Co p., A monk, NY, USA). The me ic quali ies o he ins umen s used
in his s udy we e ini ially es ed. Con i ma o y ac o analyses we e ca ied ou using
AMOS G aphics so wa e, e sion 29 (IBM Co p., A monk, NY, USA) o es he alidi y
o he ins umen s. Con i ma o y ac o analysis was used o assess he quali y o i
o a heo e ical measu emen model o he co ela ional s uc u e obse ed be ween he
mani es a iables (i ems) (Ma ôco,2021). The p ocedu e ollowed a “model gene a ion”
logic (Jö eskog & Sö bom,1993). Six i indices we e combined, as ecommended by Hu
and Ben le (1999): Chi-squa e a io/deg ees o eedom (
χ2
/d ); Tucke –Lewis Index
(TLI); Goodness-o -Fi Index (GFI); Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI); Roo Mean Squa e E o o
App oxima ion (RMSEA); and Roo Mean Squa e Residual (RMSR). The chi-squa e/deg ees
o eedom a io (
χ2
/d ) mus be less han 5. The CFI, GFI, and TLI alues mus equal o
exceed 0.90. The RMSEA alue mus be less han 0.08 (McCallum e al.,1996). The lowe
he alue o he RMSR, he be e he i (Hu & Ben le ,1999). Wi h he da a ob ained om
he con i ma o y ac o analysis, he cons uc eliabili y was calcula ed o each o he
dimensions o he scales and he espec i e con e gen alidi y (by calcula ing he AVE
alue). The cons uc eliabili y alues mus be g ea e han 0.70, and he AVE alue mus
be equal o o g ea e han 0.50 (Fo nell & La cke ,1981). Howe e , acco ding o Hai
e al. (2011), i he eliabili y alue is highe han 0.70, AVE alues o 0.40 o highe a e
accep able. The in e nal consis ency o each o he dimensions o he scales was also es ed
by calcula ing C onbach’s alpha, whose alue should be equal o o g ea e han 0.70 in
o ganiza ional s udies (B yman & C ame ,2003).
The i ems’ sensi i i y was also es ed by calcula ing he measu es o cen al endency
and shape. The i ems mus ha e esponses a all poin s and no asymme y a one o he
ex emes, and hei absolu e alues o asymme y and ku osis mus be less han 2 and 7,
espec i ely (Finney & DiS e ano,2013).
Nex , we ca ied ou desc ip i e s a is ics on he s udied a iables using S uden ’s -
es s o independen samples. To es he associa ion be ween sociodemog aphic a iables
and he s udied a iables, we used S uden ’s - es s when he independen a iable con-
sis ed o wo g oups and a one-way ANOVA es when he independen a iable consis ed
o mo e han wo g oups. The associa ion be ween he s udied a iables was es ed using
Pea son’s co ela ions. Hypo heses 1 and 2 we e es ed using simple and mul iple linea
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 15 o 22
A coe icien o 0.04 was ob ained, which means ha he model accoun s o 4% o he
a iabili y in u no e in en ions. The model is s a is ically signi ican (F (4, 197) = 2.94;
p= 0.022) (Table 4), and he esul s pa ially suppo his hypo hesis.
Hypo hesis 3 assumed a mode a ing e ec ; so, Hayes (2022) Mac o P ocess 4.2 was
used o es his hypo hesis.
The esul s show ha only he dimensions o emo ion use and emo ion egula ion
mode a e he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions (Table 5). The
esul s pa ially suppo his hypo hesis.
Table 5. Resul s o he mode a ing e ec (H3).
Va iables B SE p95% CI
Toxic leade ship →Tu no e in en ions (R2= 0.37; p< 0.001)
Cons an 2.37 *** 0.07 36.14 *** <0.001 [2.23, 2.50]
Toxic leade ship 0.59 *** 0.06 10.62 *** <0.001 [0.48, 0.70]
Own emo ions 0.01 0.12 0.06 0.956 [−0.21, 0.22]
Toxic leade ship ×own emo ions 0.08 0.10 0.79 0.428 [−0.18, 0.28]
Toxic leade ship →Tu no e in en ions (R2= 0.39; p< 0.001)
Cons an 2.37 *** 0.06 36.66 *** <0.001 [2.25, 2.51]
Toxic leade ship 0.58 *** 0.06 10.61 *** <0.001 [0.47, 0.69]
O he s’ emo ions −0.20 0.11 −1.92 0.056 [−0.41, 0.01]
Toxic leade ship ×o he s’ emo ions 0.17 0.09 1.85 0.065 [−0.01, 0.35]
Toxic leade ship →Tu no e in en ions (R2= 0.40; p< 0.001)
Cons an 2.37 *** 0.06 37.15 *** <0.001 [2.24, 2.50]
Toxic leade ship 0.57 *** 0.05 10.62 *** <0.001 [0.47, 0.68]
Emo ion use −0.22 ** 0.08 −2.67 ** 0.008 [−0.38, −0.06]
Toxic leade ship ×emo ion use 0.15 * 0.07 2.16 * 0.032 [0.01, 0.29]
Toxic leade ship →Tu no e in en ions (R2= 0.39; p< 0.001)
Cons an 2.36 *** 0.06 36.86 *** <0.001 [2.24, 2.49]
Toxic leade ship 0.58 *** 0.05 10.74 *** <0.001 [0.47, 0.69]
Emo ion egula ion 0.02 0.09 0.26 0.793 [−0.14, 0.20]
Toxic leade ship ×Emo ion egula ion 0.22 ** 0.08 2.75 ** 0.006 [0.06, 0.38]
No e. * p< 0.05; ** p< 0.01; and *** p< 0.001.
Rega ding he pe cep ion ha hei leade is oxic, pa icipan s wi h high le els o
emo ional use had highe u no e in en ions han hose wi h low le els o emo ional use
(Figu e 8).
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 23
Figu e 8. In e ac ion be ween oxic leade ship and emo ion use.
Rega ding he pe cep ion ha hei leade is oxic, pa icipan s wi h high le els o
emo ion egula ion had highe u no e in en ions han hose wi h low le els o emo ion
egula ion (Figu e 9).
Figu e 9. In e ac ion be ween oxic leade ship and emo ion egula ion.
5. Discussion
The main objec i e o his esea ch was o unde s and how emo ional in elligence
mode a es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions.
The esul s o Hypo hesis 1 show ha oxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly
associa ed wi h u no e in en ions. The s a is ical analysis shows a s ong associa ion
be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions, demons a ing ha he mo e oxic he
leade ship in o ganiza ions, he g ea e he employee’s in en ion o lea e. This conclusion
aligns wi h a ious s udies, such as Webe g and Fulle ’s (2019) esea ch, which showed
ha oxic leade ship inc eases employees’ u no e in en ions. Mo e ecen s udies ha e
also ound a posi i e and signi ican associa ion be ween oxic leade ship and u no e
in en ions, indica ing ha when people pe cei e oxic beha io s and a i udes in hei
leade s, hey a e mo e likely o lea e he o ganiza ion olun a ily (Ha ab e al., 2022;
Figu e 8. In e ac ion be ween oxic leade ship and emo ion use.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 16 o 22
Rega ding he pe cep ion ha hei leade is oxic, pa icipan s wi h high le els o
emo ion egula ion had highe u no e in en ions han hose wi h low le els o emo ion
egula ion (Figu e 9).
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 23
Figu e 8. In e ac ion be ween oxic leade ship and emo ion use.
Rega ding he pe cep ion ha hei leade is oxic, pa icipan s wi h high le els o
emo ion egula ion had highe u no e in en ions han hose wi h low le els o emo ion
egula ion (Figu e 9).
Figu e 9. In e ac ion be ween oxic leade ship and emo ion egula ion.
5. Discussion
The main objec i e o his esea ch was o unde s and how emo ional in elligence
mode a es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions.
The esul s o Hypo hesis 1 show ha oxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly
associa ed wi h u no e in en ions. The s a is ical analysis shows a s ong associa ion
be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions, demons a ing ha he mo e oxic he
leade ship in o ganiza ions, he g ea e he employee’s in en ion o lea e. This conclusion
aligns wi h a ious s udies, such as Webe g and Fulle ’s (2019) esea ch, which showed
ha oxic leade ship inc eases employees’ u no e in en ions. Mo e ecen s udies ha e
also ound a posi i e and signi ican associa ion be ween oxic leade ship and u no e
in en ions, indica ing ha when people pe cei e oxic beha io s and a i udes in hei
leade s, hey a e mo e likely o lea e he o ganiza ion olun a ily (Ha ab e al., 2022;
Figu e 9. In e ac ion be ween oxic leade ship and emo ion egula ion.
5. Discussion
The main objec i e o his esea ch was o unde s and how emo ional in elligence
mode a es he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions.
The esul s o Hypo hesis 1 show ha oxic leade ship is posi i ely and signi ican ly
associa ed wi h u no e in en ions. The s a is ical analysis shows a s ong associa ion
be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions, demons a ing ha he mo e oxic he
leade ship in o ganiza ions, he g ea e he employee’s in en ion o lea e. This conclusion
aligns wi h a ious s udies, such as Webe g and Fulle ’s (2019) esea ch, which showed
ha oxic leade ship inc eases employees’ u no e in en ions. Mo e ecen s udies ha e
also ound a posi i e and signi ican associa ion be ween oxic leade ship and u no e
in en ions, indica ing ha when people pe cei e oxic beha io s and a i udes in hei
leade s, hey a e mo e likely o lea e he o ganiza ion olun a ily (Ha ab e al.,2022;
Jan jies & Bo ha,2024;Nonehka an e al.,2023;Nunes & Palma-Mo ei a,2024). The leade s’
beha io s and a i udes o con ol, supp ession, and idicule (Wilson-S a ks,2003) owa ds
hei subo dina es inc ease he la e ’s desi e o look o an o ganiza ion ha will help hem
ad ance in hei ca ee s and acknowledge hei e o s.
The esul s p o ide pa ial suppo o Hypo hesis 2 as only he dimensions o he
pe cep ion o o he s’ emo ions and emo ion use a e nega i ely and signi ican ly associa ed
wi h u no e in en ions. These esul s a e in line wi h he li e a u e; o example, La i
e al. (2017) s a ed ha emo ional in elligence dec eases u no e in en ions, and in a s udy
in ol ing wo ke s in he banking sec o , Uzai and Bhaumik (2023) ound a nega i e and
signi ican associa ion be ween emo ional in elligence and u no e in en ions. Highe
le els o emo ion use ha e a nega i e and signi ican associa ion wi h u no e in en ions
as employees adap be e o unpleasan beha io s and si ua ions, hus educing hei
u no e in en ions (Giao e al.,2020;Khos a i e al.,2020;Riaz e al.,2018).
The esul s o his s udy also indica e ha only he dimensions o using and egula ing
emo ions mode a e he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions. The
indings show ha when aced wi h he pe cep ion ha hei leade has oxic beha io s,
employees wi h g ea e and be e use o emo ions and emo ion egula ion ha e highe
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 17 o 22
u no e in en ions, i.e., employees wi h a g ea e abili y o use and egula e hei emo-
ions a e mo e likely o lea e he o ganiza ion in o de o imp o e hei well-being and
p o essional li e by mo ing o o ganiza ions ha p o ide hem wi h hese oppo uni ies
(Uzai & Bhaumik,2023). These esul s a e inconsis en wi h hose epo ed in he li e a u e;
some au ho s claim ha he co ec use and egula ion o emo ions allow employees o
adap quickly o beha io s and si ua ions, hus educing hei u no e in en ions (Giao
e al.,2020;Khos a i e al.,2020;Riaz e al.,2018). These ends may be due o he ac ha
a ound 80% o he pa icipan s we e less han 49 yea s old; pa icipan s aged be ween 18
and 29 ha e he highes u no e in en ions, ollowed by pa icipan s aged be ween 30
and 49. Pa icipan s aged be ween 18 and 29 also ha e lowe emo ion use and egula ion
le els. Ano he ac o ha may con ibu e o hese ends is ha mo e han 60% o he
pa icipan s ha e been wi h he o ganiza ion o up o 6 yea s, and hese pa icipan s
showed he highes u no e in en ions.
I should also be no ed ha he pa icipan s in his s udy ha e a low pe cep ion o
oxic beha io in hei leade , along wi h low u no e in en ions. On he o he hand, hey
ha e high le els o emo ional in elligence, wi h he dimension o sel -emo ions ha ing he
highes a e age and he dimension o emo ion egula ion ha ing he lowes a e age.
Pa icipan s who wo k in he public sec o pe cei e highe le els o oxic beha io
in hei leade s. As o he associa ion be ween academic quali ica ions and he s udied
a iables, pa icipan s wi h a 9 h g ade educa ion pe cei e hei leade as ha ing mo e
oxic beha io s, and hey ha e highe le els o u no e in en ions. Pa icipan s wi h a
12 h g ade educa ion ha e he lowes le els o emo ional in elligence.
5.1. Limi a ions and Fu u e S udies
This s udy had some limi a ions ha should be add essed in u u e s udies.
These limi a ions include he small numbe o pa icipan s and he da a collec ion
p ocedu e using a sel - epo ques ionnai e. Howe e , se e al me hodological and s a is-
ical ecommenda ions we e ollowed o educe he impac o common me hod a iance
(Podsako e al.,2003).
Since he da a in his s udy we e collec ed om a ious o ganiza ions and indi iduals,
u u e s udies should be conduc ed in o ganiza ions ha ha e high a es o u no e
in en ions o de e mine whe he he poo leade ship o hei manage s a ec s he likelihood
o employees lea ing he o ganiza ion.
5.2. Theo e ical and P ac ical Implica ions
The main con ibu ion o his s udy was o con ibu e o he exis ing li e a u e on
he ela ionship be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions and examine whe he
emo ional in elligence mode a es his ela ionship. As men ioned abo e, he esul s o his
s udy p o ide pa ial suppo o ou hypo heses.
Howe e , in his s udy, we also explo e he dimensions o emo ional in elligence.
The e o e, based on his s udy’s esul s, he ollowing ques ions can be asked: (1) Do
employees who pe cei e hei leade as oxic exp ess hei in en ion o lea e only due o
poo leade ship o a e he e o he a iables ha con ibu e o his? (2) Ha e oxic leade s
unde gone leade ship skill ecogni ion h ough ca ee p og ession o ex e nal admission?
(3) Do o ganiza ions ha ecognize ha hei employees in end o lea e in he ace o poo
leade ship ake p e en i e measu es? (4) Is an employee who de elops de ense s a egies
agains oxic leade ship happy and mo i a ed?
In his sense, o ganiza ions need o con ibu e o hei employees’ well-being and
happiness and add ess oxic leade ship. The o ganiza ion needs o ecognize o p omo e
leade s who ha e comple ed ce i ied leade ship cou ses, and be o e hey s a wo king
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 18 o 22
o he o ganiza ion, hey should unde go a ial pe iod wi hou knowing hey a e being
assessed. One s a egy is o c ea e Pe sonal De elopmen Plans (PDPs) based on non-
pa icipan and na u alis ic obse a ion. This obse a ion makes i possible o assess he
subjec s in hei ypical en i onmen and unde s and whe he hey a e compe en o
he job.
On he o he hand, o ganiza ions should ca y ou qua e ly eedback in e iews
o de e mine whe he he e a e any sho comings o whe he employees in end o lea e
he o ganiza ion. This way, quick and objec i e ac ion can be aken o iden i y p oblems
associa ed wi h leade s.
Ano he p ac ice is o o e wellness consul a ions, mainly on emo ional in elligence,
o de e mine whe he employees a e emo ionally in elligen in all o some dimensions.
Finally, and o comba oxic leade ship e ec i ely, i o ganiza ions iden i y one o
hese leade s as oxic, coun e measu es, such as asking hem o lea e he company, a e
manda o y o p e en he loss o ha d-wo king and alen ed employees, especially hose
wi h high emo ional in elligence.
6. Conclusions
Emo ional in elligence p o ides be e pe cep ion and a ionaliza ion o emo ions.
The esea ch by Khos a i e al. (2020) showed ha , om an in ape sonal pe spec i e,
emo ional in elligence inc eases p oblem-sol ing and indi idual and collec i e beha io s.
F om an in e pe sonal pe spec i e, Mohammad e al. (2014) show ha employees who
conside hei leade o ha e high emo ional in elligence a e less likely o ha e u no e
in en ions, which is no he case when dealing wi h a leade wi h oxic beha io s. One
way o educing employees’ u no e in en ions is o hi e leade s who ha e high le els
o emo ional in elligence and who do no ha e oxic beha io . When a leade has high
emo ional in elligence, he employees’ needs a e sa is ied, hus educing hei u no e in-
en ions (Majeed & Jamshed,2021). Acco ding o Uzai and Bhaumik (2023), o ganiza ions
should in es in aining and de elopmen p og ams ha ocus on imp o ing emo ional
awa eness, emo ional egula ion, empa hy, and social skills (i.e., he emo ional in elligence
o employees) in o de o educe employees’ u no e in en ions.
This s udy shows ha when employees pe cei e oxic beha io in hei leade , hei
u no e in en ions inc ease, consis en wi h he indings o o he s udies. Acco ding o
Khan e al. (2017), u no e in en ions esul om a ious e en s wi hin a oxic wo k-
place en i onmen .
As o he dimensions o emo ional in elligence, only he pe cep ion o o he s’ emo ions
and he use o one’s own emo ions signi ican ly educe u no e in en ions, consis en wi h
he indings o Khos a i e al. (2020), who showed ha he co ec use o emo ions educes
he in en ion o lea e he o ganiza ion.
Only he media ing e ec o emo ions and emo ion egula ion on he ela ionship
be ween oxic leade ship and u no e in en ions was p o en. Howe e , he ela ionship
was inconsis en wi h he esul s epo ed in he li e a u e since pa icipan s wi h high
le els o emo ion use and emo ion egula ion ha e highe u no e in en ions han hose
wi h low le els o emo ion use and emo ion egula ion when hey pe cei e hei leade
as oxic.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, T.L. and A.S.; me hodology, A.P.-M.; so wa e, A.P.-
M.; alida ion, T.L., A.S. and A.P.-M.; o mal analysis, A.P.-M.; in es iga ion, T.L.; esou ces, T.L.;
da a cu a ion, T.L. and A.P.-M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, T.L. and A.S.; w i ing— e iew
and edi ing, T.L., A.S. and A.P.-M.; isualiza ion, T.L. and A.S.; supe ision, T.L. and A.S.; p ojec
adminis a ion, T.L., A.S. and A.P.-M.; unding acquisi ion, A.P.-M. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed
o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 26 19 o 22
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed o his s udy since
all pa icipan s (be o e answe ing he ques ionnai e) needed o ead he in o med consen po ion
and ag ee o i . This was he only way hey could comple e he ques ionnai e. Pa icipan s we e
in o med abou he pu pose o his s udy and ha hei esponses would emain con iden ial.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in his s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable upon eques om
he co esponding au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable because he pa icipan s’ esponses
a e con iden ial.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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