Wilczyński, A u ; Koloszycz, Ewa
A icle
Economic esilience in Eu opean dai y a ms: T ends,
de e minan s and challenges
Am i ea u Economic
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
The Bucha es Uni e si y o Economic S udies
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Wilczyński, A u ; Koloszycz, Ewa (2025) : Economic esilience in Eu opean dai y
a ms: T ends, de e minan s and challenges, Am i ea u Economic, ISSN 2247-9104, The Bucha es
Uni e si y o Economic S udies, Bucha es , Vol. 27, Iss. 69, pp. 587-605,
h ps://doi.o g/10.24818/EA/2025/69/587
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Food Ma ke Shi s – Challenges o Food Chain Ac o s
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Vol. 27 • No. 69 • May 2025 587
ECONOMIC RESILIENCE IN EUROPEAN DAIRY FARMS:
TRENDS, DETERMINANTS AND CHALLENGES
A u Wilczyński1 and Ewa Kołoszycz2
1)2) Wes Pome anian Uni e si y o Technology in Szczecin, Poland
Please ci e his a icle as:
Wilczyński, A. and Kołoszycz, E., 2025. Economic
Resilience in Eu opean Dai y Fa ms: T ends,
De e minan s and Challenges. Am i ea u Economic,
27(69), pp. 587-605.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.24818/EA/2025/69/587
A icle His o y
Recei ed: 15 Oc obe 2024
Re ised: 4 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 6 Ma ch 2025
Abs ac
In he ace o inc easing economic challenges and changing ma ke condi ions, a m
esilience is becoming a key issue o ensu e i s de elopmen . The aim o his pape is o
analyse he le el o economic esilience o a ms specialising in dai y a ming in he en
la ges dai y-p oducing coun ies o he Eu opean Union be ween 2004 and 2021. The
esea ch applies a sel -modi ied mul idimensional index o economic esilience, which
includes elemen s such as ulne abili y, in ensi ica ion, biodi e si y, di e si ica ion, and
pe o mance. The esul s show a dec ease in economic esilience in he analysed a m g oups,
ega dless o hei economic size. I was also ound ha a ms wi h a la ge economic size
did no demons a e highe economic esilience compa ed o a ms wi h a smalle size. The
esea ch esul s indica e a downwa d end in he economic esilience index om 2004 o
2021. The key dimensions ha a ec ed his indica o we e in ensi ica ion and di e si ica ion.
This sugges s ha , o inc ease hei esilience, he dai y a ms s udied mus add ess
challenges such as educing inpu use in ensi y, minimising dependence on hi ed labou , and
di e si ying income sou ces.
Keywo ds: measu ing esilience, mul idimensional index, compa a i e analysis, Eu opean
dai y a ms, a m g oups
JEL Classi ica ion: Q12, Q13
Co esponding au ho , A u Wilczyński – e-mail: a u .wilczyns[email p o ec ed]
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in
any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. © 2025 The Au ho (s).
AE
Economic Resilience in Eu opean Dai y Fa ms:
T ends, De e minan s and Challenges
588 Am i ea u Economic
In oduc ion
Ag icul u e, a p ima y economic sec o , elies on na u al esou ces and supplies aw
ma e ials o o he indus ies. Howe e , i aces a con adic ion: while necessa y o mee
g owing ood demand, i also con ibu es o clima e change. This d i es a cons an sea ch o
solu ions ha balance p oduc i i y wi h en i onmen al p o ec ion and sus ainable esou ce
use. (Klein e al., 2014; Scude i e al., 2021; Dhana aju e al., 2022).
In addi ion o en i onmen al condi ions, ag icul u al ac i i y is de e mined by se e al o he
ac o s. Risk ac o s a e o pa icula impo ance, comp ising equen ly ecu ing si ua ions
ha may expose he a m o ha m o loss. In he case o dai y a ms, hese include wea he
condi ions, common plan and animal diseases, es ic ed access o ma ke s, consume
p e e ences, changes in ag icul u al policy, and changes in he labou ma ke (Wol and
Ka szes, 2023). Mo eo e , a ms a e also exposed o he occu ence o shocks. These a e
sudden and unp edic able si ua ions ha de e mine he economic pe o mance o a ms.
The e a e wo ypes o shocks: ex e nal and in e nal. Ex e nal shocks include sudden na u al
haza ds (e.g., d ough s, loods, os s, i es, in ec ious animal diseases), demand and supply
shocks a ec ing p ice luc ua ions, and unexpec ed changes in he poli ical en i onmen . On
he o he hand, in e nal shocks consis o he heal h p oblems o a m owne and wo ke s
(Be choux e al., 2019). Speci ic shocks o dai y a ms include in ec ious animal diseases,
ola ili y o milk and inpu p ices, lack o paymen o sold p oduc s, unexpec ed decline in
milk quali y, and sudden poli ical decisions (e.g., emba go on expo s o milk p oduc s).
Eme ging shocks lead o long- e m s ess, impac ing animal wel a e, low milk p ices, ising
p oduc ion cos s, labou sho ages, ake news (e.g., ega ding he quali y o milk p oduc s,
he en i onmen al impac o milk p oduc ion), milk subs i u es, de e io a ing consume
ela ions, and legal changes in he dai y sec o . (Popp and Nowack, 2020).
Due o he inc easing incidence o shocks and s esses, he concep o a m esilience
(ag icul u al sys em esilience) has eme ged. Meuwissen e al. (2019) de ine a m esilience
as “i s abili y o ensu e he p o ision o he sys em unc ions in he ace o inc easingly
complex and accumula ing economic, social, en i onmen al, and ins i u ional shocks and
s esses, h ough capaci ies o obus ness, adap abili y, and ans o mabili y”. Ou a icle
ocuses on one ype o esilience, namely, he economic esilience. I is de ined
mul idimensionally as esis ance ( he abili y o cope wi h economic shocks), abso p ion ( he
abili y o abso b an economic shock), eco e y ( he abili y o e u n o a p e ious s a e o
economic equilib ium), and eo ien a ion (i p esen , he abili y o make s uc u al changes
and e u n o economic equilib ium a a highe le el han he ini ial s a e) (Ma in, 2011).
The aim o he esea ch was o de e mine he le el o economic esilience o a ms
specialising in dai y a ming (dai y a ms) loca ed in en la ges milk-p oducing coun ies in
he Eu opean Union (EU). The choice o dai y a ms as he subjec o he s udy was mo i a ed
by he ac ha hey a e pa icula ly exposed o shocks and s esses in managing c op and
li es ock p oduc ion. Economic esilience was he subjec o he s udy and was measu ed
using a mul idimensional index. The ime ho izon o he s udy was 18 yea s (2004-2021).
The s udy is di ided in o i e pa s. The i s pa p o ides an analysis o he li e a u e on
a m esilience, ocusing on i s de ini ion and measu emen . The second pa ou lines he
esea ch me hodology, wi h pa icula emphasis on he calcula ion o he economic esilience
index. The hi d pa desc ibes he a m g oups based on p oduc ion and economic indica o s.
The nex sec ion p esen s he esul s, analysing ends in economic esilience o e he
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Vol. 27 • No. 69 • May 2025 589
examined pe iod and he s uc u e o he economic esilience index, which helps iden i y he
challenges aced by a ms. The inal pa discusses he indings in he con ex o p e ious
esea ch and p o ides a summa y o he conclusions.
1. Re iew o he scien i ic li e a u e
1.1. The concep o economic esilience
The e m esilience o igina es om he La in esiliō, meaning o ebound o esis . I was i s
used in he 1940s in psychology, whe e i was s udied how people cope wi h mis o une and
ha dship (Hanisch, 2016). O e ime, he s udy o esilience has become in e disciplina y
(Alexande , 2013) and has eme ged in he con ex o di e en ields (B own, 2014; Quinlan
e al., 2016).
Resilience can be de ined as he abili y o a sys em o abso b dis u bances and adap ,
main aining i s co e unc ions, s uc u e, iden i y, and egula o y mechanisms (Walke e al.,
2004). In economic sciences, esilience has gained p ominence in analyses o economic
c ises and is unde s ood as he abili y o eco e quickly om a shock (Rose, 2004; Ma in
and Sunley, 2015; Sánchez e al., 2016).
Resilience can be ei he s a ic, ela ed o main aining key unc ions and s abili y, o dynamic,
in ol ing he e ec i e use o esou ces o eco e y, leading o a new s a e o equilib ium
(Fuchs and Thale , 2018; Xie e al., 2018). I is impo an o emphasise ha bo h he speed
and e ec i eness o ac ions aken a e a shock a e c ucial o he sys em’s e u n o s able
g ow h (Fingle on e al., 2015; Mo kūnas e al., 2018). The key capabili ies de e mining
esilience – obus ness, adap abili y, and ans o mabili y – ha e been ex ensi ely discussed
in he wo ks o Meuwissen e al. (2019) and o m he ounda ion o he ope a ionalisa ion
o dai y a m esilience adop ed in his s udy.
In he con ex o ag icul u e and a ms, economic esilience akes on mo e speci ic
cha ac e is ics. Da nho e e al. (2010) desc ibed i as he abili y o a a m o adap i s
p ac ices in esponse o a ious economic shocks and p essu es o ensu e long- e m iabili y.
Béné e al. (2012), in hei de ini ion o economic esilience, combined sho - e m esponses
wi h long- e m planning and s uc u al adap a ion, enabling a ms no only o su i e, bu
also o h i e. Mo e ecen s udies desc ibe economic esilience as he abili y o a ms o
main ain cu en p o i abili y in he ace o pe u ba ions, such as ma ke and p oduc ion isks
and policy changes, and ul ima ely o mo e o a new equilib ium (Tendall e al., 2015; Vigani
and Be y, 2018).
1.2. Measu ing he economic esilience o dai y a ms
The de elopmen o me hods o measu e economic esilience in a ms has p og essed in
pa allel wi h he e olu ion o he esilience concep i sel . Ini ially, he esea ch ocused on
quali a i e me hods, such as case s udies and e hnog aphic esea ch, which allowed an in-
dep h unde s anding o adap i e s a egies and decision-making p ocesses in a ms. Al hough
hese app oaches p o ided aluable insigh s in o he mechanisms h ough which a ms
espond o c ises, hei limi a ion was he di icul y in gene alising indings o a la ge
popula ion (Quinlan e al., 2016).
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Economic Resilience in Eu opean Dai y Fa ms:
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590 Am i ea u Economic
As he need o compa a i e analysis inc eased, esea che s began o de elop quan i a i e
app oaches based on economic indica o s, econome ic models, and mul i-c i e ia assessmen
me hods. Financial indica o s, such as liquidi y, p o i abili y, echnical e iciency, and deb
le els, enable an assessmen o a m esilience based on accoun ing da a and p oduc ion
ou comes (Shadbol e al., 2017). Econome ic models, in u n, allow o he analysis o
ex e nal ac o s a ec ing a m s abili y (C adock-Hen y, 2021).
The speci ic na u e o dai y a ms means ha hei esilience canno be assessed solely on
he basis o con en ional inancial indica o s. Milk p oduc ion is cha ac e ised by a high
in ensi y o esou ce use and sensi i i y o ma ke luc ua ions and egula o y changes.
The e o e, inc easing a en ion has been gi en o addi ional ac o s, such as income
di e si ica ion, eed au onomy, and he abili y o coope a e wi hin ag icul u al knowledge
and inno a ion sys ems (AKIS) (Vigani and Be y, 2018; Tho søe e al., 2020; Kuipe s e al.,
2024).
The li e a u e inc easingly ocuses on di e en dimensions o esilience: obus ness
( esis ance o shocks), adap abili y (adjus men capabili ies), and ans o mabili y (po en ial
o s uc u al change) (Meuwissen e al., 2019). Slijpe e al. (2022) p oposed a model o
quan i ying dai y a m esilience, inco po a ing e u n on asse s (ROA), shock magni ude
and dep h, and eco e y ime o assess inancial s abili y. Thei app oach complemen s ea lie
models ha ocused on liquidi y, e iciency, and sol ency me ics in he con ex o a ms’
abili y o espond o shocks (Shadbol e al., 2017).
This s udy adop s a mul i-dimensional Economic Resilience Index (ERI), de eloped by
Vigani and Be y (2018) bu adap ed o he speci ic cha ac e is ics o dai y a ms. I consis s
o i e main dimensions: ulne abili y, in ensi ica ion, biodi e si y, di e si ica ion, and
pe o mance. A key adap a ion in his s udy was he modi ica ion o he biodi e si y
dimension — a he han using he adi ional Simpson’s Di e si y Index (SID) based on
cul i a ed land a ea, we applied a SID based on he alue o plan p oduc ion. This adap a ion
e lec s he c i ical ole o on- a m eed p oduc ion in dai y a ms, o e ing a mo e p ecise
measu emen o he impac o c op s uc u e on a m income s abili y and economic
esilience (Sen e al., 2017; Singh e al., 2023).
Despi e ad ancemen s in esilience measu emen , he e is s ill a lack o comp ehensi e
compa a i e s udies co e ing dai y a ms in di e en Eu opean Union coun ies, ope a ing
unde a ied ins i u ional and economic sys ems (Meuwissen e al., 2019; Tho søe e al.,
2020). Con empo a y s udies p ima ily ocus on economic pe o mance, compe i i eness,
and sus ainabili y o p oduc ion (Pocz a e al., 2020; Pa zonko e al., 2024; Sa ickienė and
Galnai y ė, 2024). These indings indica e ha la ge -scale dai y a ms, wi h highe echnical
e iciency and mo e di e si ied income sou ces, end o exhibi g ea e economic esilience
and g ea e capaci y o adap o ex e nal shocks.
Howe e , he in luence o ag icul u al policy on dai y a m esilience canno be o e looked.
The Common Ag icul u al Policy (CAP), h ough di ec paymen schemes and isk
managemen ins umen s, enhances a m obus ness, bu does no always suppo long- e m
adap a ion and ans o ma ion (Bui enhuis e al., 2020). The e o e, i is c ucial o conside
he ole o s a e policies in de eloping e ec i e esilience moni o ing ools and ad iso y
suppo sys ems, as emphasised by Mo kūnas e al. (2018).
Based on he iden i ied esea ch gaps and p e ious s udies on economic esilience, he
ollowing hypo heses ha e been o mula ed:
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Vol. 27 • No. 69 • May 2025 591
H1: The economic esilience o he analysed g oups o dai y a ms inc eases in he ollowing
yea s o he conduc ed analysis.
H2: Dai y a ms wi h he la ges economic size a e cha ac e ised by highe economic
esilience compa ed o a ms wi h lowe economic size.
H3: The e is a high a iabili y in he s uc u e o he economic esilience index o he s udied
g oups o dai y a ms, based on he economic size c i e ia.
These hypo heses a e de i ed om p io esea ch on economic esilience in ag icul u e and
analyses o a m size e ec s on inancial s abili y. Thei e i ica ion will p o ide in o ma ion
on how he componen s o he Economic Resilience Index and a m size in luence
adap abili y and ans o ma ion capaci y in esponse o ma ke and policy changes.
2. Resea ch me hodology
The esea ch co e ed a ms wi h he publicly a ailable Eu opean Fa m Accoun ancy Da a
Ne wo k (FADN) code 45 (Specialis milk). The FADN is a su ey ha collec s accoun ancy
da a each yea om a ound 80,000 a ms loca ed in he EU, ep esen ing app ox. 5 million
a ms. Mic oeconomic da a is collec ed based on a s anda dised me hodology, and he da a
a e ep esen a i e (Eu opean Commission, 2022). The s udy a ea co e ed dai y a ms om
Ge many, F ance, he Ne he lands, Poland, I aly, I eland, Spain, Denma k, Belgium, and
Aus ia. These a e he la ges milk-p oducing coun ies in he EU, collec i ely accoun ing
o abou 84% o he milk p oduc ion in he EU. G oups o a ms we e classi ied in o
economic size classes (ES6 ypology). This classi ica ion is based on he alue o he
S anda d Ou pu (SO) calcula ed by Membe S a es pe hec a e o pe head o li es ock, using
basic da a o a e e ence pe iod o i e successi e yea s (Eu opean Commission, 2015). The
s udy’s ime ho izon co e ed he yea s 2004-2021, and he condi ion o including a coun y
in he analysis was he access o na ional da a o he en i e 18-yea pe iod. The yea 2021 is
he mos ecen o which da a has been collec ed in he FADN da abase o all EU coun ies.
The s udy u ilised he publicly a ailable FADN da abase.
Table no. 1 shows he s udy a ea by a m g oups based on economic size. Only la ge dai y
a ms included all en coun ies in he s udy. In he medium-la ge g oup, se en coun ies had
ull 18-yea da a, while in he e y la ge g oup, only ou did. Ge many and I aly we e p esen
in all h ee g oups.
Table no. 1. The way o compa ing esul s
Medium-la ge dai y a ms
50k EUR ≤ SO < 100k EUR
La ge dai y a ms
100k EUR ≤ SO < 500k EUR
Ve y la ge dai y a ms
SO ≥ 500k EUR
Ge many, F ance, Poland,
I aly, I eland, Spain, Aus ia
Ge many, F ance,
Ne he lands, Poland, I aly,
I eland, Spain, Denma k,
Belgium, Aus ia
Ge many, Ne he lands, I aly,
Denma k
The measu emen o economic esilience (ER) was based on a mul idimensional index
de eloped and alida ed by Vigani and Be y (2018). The index is cons uc ed om i e
dimensions: Vulne abili y (V), In ensi ica ion (I), Biodi e si y (B), Di e si ica ion (D), and
Pe o mance (P). Vigani and Be y (2018) used Simpson’s Di e si y Index (SID), based on
a ma ix o c op ypes and c op a eas o each a m, o measu e he Biodi e si y dimension.
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Economic Resilience in Eu opean Dai y Fa ms:
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In ou s udy, we u ilised he same index (SID), bu based on he ou pu alue o each c op
p oduced. This app oach has been used by Sen e al. (2017), Debasis e al. (2018), Singh e
al. (2023). Table no. 2 p o ides de ails on calcula ing he economic esilience index (ERI).
Table no. 2. Calcula ion me hod o he Economic Resilience Index (ERI) dimensions
Name o he
ERI index
dimension
Desc ip ion o he ERI index dimension
Vulne abili y
(V)
𝑉 =To al liabili ies
To al asse s ×100
A a m ha is ‘o e loaded’ wi h liabili ies should be expec ed o ha e less
inancial capaci y o abso b unexpec ed shocks. The desi able le el o he
indica o is o minimise i (smalle is be e ).
In ensi ica ion
(I)
𝐼 =Seeds+Fe ilise s+C op p o ec ion+Feed+Ene gy+Con ac wo k
To al U ilised Ag icul u al A ea ×100
An inpu - and labou -in ensi e a m has a educed abili y o adap o changing
inancial and p oduc ion condi ions. The desi able le el o he indica o is o
minimise i (smalle is be e ).
Biodi e si y
(B)
Simpson's Di e si y Index (SID)
𝑆𝐼𝐷 =(1−∑ 𝑃𝑖2)×100
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑃𝑖= alue o ou pu o i h c op
To al ou pu
The SID indica o akes alues be ween 0 and 100. A highe alue o he indica o
signi ies a highe biodi e si y. G ea e c op biodi e si y is expec ed o lead o
inc eased a m esilience. I helps p o ec he a m agains bio ic o abio ic
s esses, he eby educing he isk o high a iabili y in p oduc ion alues. The
desi ed le el o he indica o is o maximise i (bigge is be e ).
Di e si ica ion
(D)
𝐷 =
O he
ou pu
To al ou pu ×100
A a m ha di e si ies i s sou ces o income compensa es o low income om
selec ed ag icul u al ac i i ies wi h highe income om o he ac i i ies, hus
s abilising i s income. This has a posi i e impac on he economic esilience o
he a m. The desi ed le el o he indica o is o maximise i (bigge is be e ).
Pe o mance
(P)
𝑃 =To al ou pu
To al Inpu s ×100
Fa ms wi h be e economic esul s can bene i om highe p o i s and g ea e
liquidi y, allowing hem o manage pe iods when un a ou able business
condi ions (e.g., shocks) a ise. The goal is o maximise he indica o (bigge is
be e ).
The calcula ion o he indi idual dimensions o economic esilience (Table no. 2) allows he
syn he ic index (ERIi) o be calcula ed. This is ca ied ou in wo s eps acco ding o he
o mulas below (Vigani and Be y, 2018):
ERi = (-) Vi + (-) Ii + Bi + Di + Pi (1)
ERIi = (ERi-ERmin) / (ERmax-ERmin) (2)
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Vol. 27 • No. 69 • May 2025 593
whe e:
ERi – Economic Resilience;
ERIi – Economic Resilience Index;
ERmin – Minimum alue o he ER in each economic size g oup o a ms;
ERmax – Minimum alue o he ER in each economic size g oup o a ms;
i=1.….n – Means he a ms o he coun y in he ollowing yea o analysis.
The i s s ep o he index calcula ion was o calcula e he ER index acco ding o o mula (1).
Due o he high a iabili y o he alues in hei indi idual dimensions, ollowing he
app oach o Vigani and Be y (2018), hey we e scaled using he na u al loga i hm. The nex
s ep was o con e he esul s o he Vulne abili y (V) and In ensi ica ion (I) dimensions in o
nega i e alues. This ea men is necessa y because posi i e alues o hese dimensions ha e
a nega i e impac on economic esilience. Finally, he ER index was s anda dised using he
min-max me hod, esul ing in an ERI index anging om 0 o 1.
3. Resea ch ma e ial
Table no. 3 p esen s he basic pa ame e s cha ac e ising he dai y a m g oups o di e en
economic sizes. The da a indica es ha as economic size inc eases, he a e age numbe o
dai y cows also g ows. Fo ins ance, Ge man and I alian medium-la ge a ms had a e age
he d sizes o 24.3 and 28.2 cows, while in he e y la ge g oup, he numbe was abou en
imes highe . The e is also conside able a ia ion in milk yield, wi h medium-la ge a ms
ha ing yields abou 15% lowe compa ed o he la ge g oup. The s ocking a e, ep esen ing
he numbe o animals pe hec a e, showed no able di e ences; o example, I alian a ms in
he e y la ge g oup exceeded 5 heads pe hec a e, indica ing a highe le el o in ensi ica ion.
Table no. 3. Selec ed indica o s o dai y a ms in he coun ies analysed (mean 2004 -
2021)
Coun y
Dai y
cows
(heads)
Milk
yield
( ons)
Sha e o unpaid
labou inpu in o al
labou inpu (%)
To al ou pu
pe AWU (1000
EUR/AWU)
S ocking
densi y
(LU/ha)
Ou pu /
inpu
a io (%)
Medium-la ge dai y a ms 50k EUR ≤ SO < 100k EUR
Ge many
24.3
6.2
97.5
58.3
1.63
114.1
I eland
39.0
5.2
96.5
63.3
1.72
125.5
Spain
28.3
6.7
96.8
52.4
2.04
135.8
F ance
31.6
5.8
96.4
65.3
1.09
97.9
I aly
28.2
5.0
89.4
57.7
1.89
142.2
Aus ia
21.7
6.7
97.7
46.7
1.18
116.2
Poland
31.7
5.9
93.7
33.5
1.89
141.9
La ge dai y a ms 100k EUR ≤ SO < 500k EUR
Belgium
66.1
7.0
97.6
110.9
2.28
125.5
Denma k
79.2
8.5
70.0
211.8
2.12
98.4
Ge many
65.0
7.4
85.4
123.6
1.96
109.9
I eland
90.3
5.7
79.7
119.0
2.14
127.6
Spain
71.1
7.2
83.5
97.1
2.92
130.5
F ance
65.4
6.9
87.7
104.0
1.50
103.0
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Economic Resilience in Eu opean Dai y Fa ms:
T ends, De e minan s and Challenges
594 Am i ea u Economic
Coun y
Dai y
cows
(heads)
Milk
yield
( ons)
Sha e o unpaid
labou inpu in o al
labou inpu (%)
To al ou pu
pe AWU (1000
EUR/AWU)
S ocking
densi y
(LU/ha)
Ou pu /
inpu
a io (%)
I aly
77.8
6.0
79.7
114.9
3.09
153.6
Ne he lands
75.4
8.0
90.5
158.9
2.34
113.1
Aus ia
44.6
7.5
95.2
76.9
1.58
118.6
Poland
69.0
7.0
68.4
58.7
1.85
137.5
Ve y la ge dai y a ms SO ≥ 500k EUR
Denma k
233.8
9.0
33.2
278.2
2.28
95.3
Ge many
270.9
8.5
17.1
125.5
1.80
94.7
I aly
264.4
7.3
47.2
212.7
5.03
147.4
Ne he lands
201.0
8.3
75.9
269.8
2.67
115.3
Employmen cha ac e is ics e eal ha e y la ge Ge man and Danish a ms had he lowes
sha e o amily labou , a 17.1% and 33.2%, espec i ely, emphasising he ole o hi ed
labou . Labou p oduc i i y pe AWU (Annual Wo k Uni ) inc eased wi h economic size.
Fo example, medium-la ge Polish a ms had a labou p oduc i i y o €33.5k pe AWU,
while e y la ge a ms in Ge many and I aly eached €123.6k and €114.9k pe AWU,
espec i ely. The highes p oduc i i y le els, exceeding €200k pe AWU, we e obse ed in
e y la ge a ms in he Ne he lands and Denma k (€269.8k and €278.2k, espec i ely).
The a io o p oduc ion o inpu s a ies acco ding o he scale and loca ion o he a m. In
I aly, o example, a ms show e y high e iciency, wi h a io alues anging om 142.2%
on a ms in he medium-la ge g oup o 153.6% in he la ge g oup, sugges ing an ex emely
a ou able ela ionship be ween income gene a ed and cos s incu ed. In con as , Danish
a ms ha e an ou pu /inpu a io o less han 100%, indica ing unp o i able p oduc ion.
4. Resul s
The esea ch showed ha in he medium-la ge and la ge a m g oups, he highes a e age
economic esilience index (ERI) calcula ed o he yea s 2004-2021 was achie ed by
Aus ian dai y a ms (Table no. 4). I exceeded he a e age le els o he ERI index in o he
a m g oups by mo e han 0.3 poin s, wi h he a e age ERI index in he medium-la ge a ms
g oup o 0.62 and in he la ge a ms g oup o 0.52. In bo h g oups, he a e age economic
esilience indices o I ish, Spanish, F ench, and Polish a ms we e below he a e age alues.
The dispe sion o he ERI index o e 18 yea s is he key o assessing economic esilience. In
he medium-la ge g oup, I ish and Spanish a ms had he highes dispe sion, while in he
la ge g oup, i was Du ch and I ish a ms. This indica es a high a iabili y in hei abili y o
handle economic shocks, signi ican ly a ec ing hei economic esul s.
Table no. 4. Values and desc ip i e s a is ics o he economic esilience index (ERI)
Medium-la ge dai y a ms 50k EUR ≤ SO < 100k EUR
Pa ame e name
Pa ame e
alue
(2004-2021)
Mean ERI index
0.62
Minimum ERI index
0.32
Maximum ERI index
0.94
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